Table of Contents

Beth L. Virtanen Editor's Introduction iv

Ron Harpelle & Guest Editors' introduction: Developments, Definitions, Michel Beaulieu and Directions in Finnish Language, Literature, and Culture

A.nuMuhonen "lt's a vicious circle": The Roles and Functions of English within Sweden Finnish Youth Radio Programs.

Andy Rosequist The Shamanic Connection: 18 Shared Influences in Norse Mythology and the Kalevala

Irina Novikova From Loyalists to Separatists: 25 Russian Images of the Finns, 1809-1917

Barbara Hong Medieval Finland Depicted in Post-Modem Music: 43 Rautavaara's opera Thomas !

Eric Schaad Topelius's "Rinaldo Rinaldini" as European Cultural Artifact 51 I Birgitta Tamminen High School Students' Attitudes towards Meankieli 62

Book Review Varpu Lindstrom. "I Won't Be a Slave!" Selected Articles on 72 Finnish Canadian Women's Histo,y. Reviewed by Beth L. Virtanen

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The "Cloud" was createdby Michel S. Beaulieu and RonaldN. Harpelle

ii Journal o(Finnislz Studies, Volume 14, Number 2, Winter 20 I 0

f-innish worker outside of Port Arthur, Ontario Finnish Labour Temple, ca. 1930. f-innish Historical Society Collection, Lakehead University Archives.

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'-· Journal o(Finnish Studies. Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 20 I 0

Editor's Introduction As I present this special issue of the Journal of Finnish Studies to its readership, I do so both with significant pride and a bit of sadness. I am proud of the quality of work presented here in this collection of papers entitled Developments, Definitions, and Directions in Finnish Language, Literature, and Culture: A Selection of Papers Presented at Fin11Forum IXin Thunder Bay, Ontario that were originally presented in May 2010 at Lakehead University. Ron Harpelle and Michel Beaulieu have provided us a sampling of selections concerned with Finnish language, literature, and culture which capture some of the emerging work in these broad and interdisciplinary fields. These essays are composed by established scholars, emerging academics, and independent scholars, each of whom brings to bear a unique lens through which we might view these articles. Dr. Harpelle and Dr. Beaulieu's work to bring us this special issue has been generously sponsored by a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada whose support I would like to recognize here as well. I think this issue follows in the tradition of our founding Editor, Professor Borje Vahamaki of the University of Toronto, who set a high standard for the works we publish over fourteen years ago. As Paloheimo Professor at Finlandia University, I have been able to devote my scholarly attentions to ensure that the journal's quality remained at its apex as I personally managed the technical and scholarly editing processes as well as maintaining the subscription records and managing the mailing of each issue. As my time in the Paloheimo Professorship draws to a close, I look to the upcoming editorial team to maintain the standards. Succeeding me as Editor-in-Chief will be Dr. Helena Halmari (Ph.D. from the University of Southern California). Dr. Halmari is Professor of Linguistics and Chair of the Department of English at Sam Houston State University where her research focuses on language contact between Finnish and English, specifically Finnish-English codeswitching. She has also published in other areas of linguistics. She is the author of Government and Codeswitching: Explaining American Finnish (1997) and the co-editor (with Tuija Virtanen) of Persuasion across Genres: A Linguistic Approach (2005). Her articles have appeared in journals such as Linguistics, Applied Linguistics, Journalof Pragniatics, InternationalJournal of Bilingualism, and Issues in Applied Linguistics, as well as in several edited volumes. In addition to her Ph.D., Professor Halmari holds an MA in linguistics (University of Southern California), an MA in English Composition (California State University-San Bernardino), a Masters of Philosophy (FM, University of Tampere), and a Masters of Social Science (YK., University of Tampere). With Professor Helena Halmari at the helm, Professor Hanna Snellman at the University of Jyvaskyla will continue as Co-Editor and Hilary Joy Virtanen, Ph.D. Candidate in the Department of Scandinavian Studies at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, will remain in her post as Assistant Editor. I wish them all the best as they continue to recognize, nurture, and bring to fore the best and most important work in Finnish Studies. Beth L. Virtanen, Ph. D. Paloheimo Professor Editor-in-Chief

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a: Journal o[Fi1111islz Studies. Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 2010

Guest Editors' Introduction: Developments, Definitions, and Dir·ections in Finnish Language, Literature, and Culture

In 1910, thousands of kilometers away spectrum of Finnish Studies. Building on the from their homeland, the nascent Finnish foundation established by the eight previous community in Port Arthur, Ontario, Canada, conferences, the theme of FinnForum IX was completed the construction of what is now the "Finland and the World: Past, Present and Future." largest monument to Finnish immigration to North The organizing committee judged that in the America. The Finnish Labour Temple stands as a century or so since Finns began migrating to North reminder of the history of struggle and of America in large numbers, Finland has evolved continuous interaction between Finland and into a significant actor on the international stage. dispersed communities of Finns across the Whereas Finland once primarily supplied the world Northern Hemisphere. As a means of recognizing with inunigrants looking for opportunity, today the and validating the Finnish diaspora and its impact country boasts a vibrant international economy and on Finland and the rest of the world, Finnforum an unmistakable Finnish presence in virtually every was established. Th.is issue of the Journal of part of the world. The Nokia telephone and its ring Finnish Studies is comprised of articles that were are ubiquitous features of the contemporary world originally presented as papers at Finnforum IX and Finnish forest companies operate in dozens of which was held in May 20 l O in Thunder Bay, countries around the world. Finnish Formula One Ontario. The event marked a milestone in the racers are household names and cultural exports history of the Finnish community in Thunder Bay like modem Finnish design and people everywhere and highlighted the heritage of the Finnish appreciate Aki Kaurismaki's films. Finns and the diaspora. communities they built are no longer the only Since its inception in 1974, FinnForum visible evidence of th.is historic and ongoing has developed into a premier international interaction with the world. For this reason, conference where scholars from several countries FinnForum IX expanded its umbrella to welcome working in a wide variety of disciplines are able to many new faces and new perspectives to this present the results of their research on aspects of celebration of the Finnish fact. Finnish Studies. It is appropriate that FinnForum Finnforum IX was also one of many IX was held in Thunder Bay because a century efforts by the Chair of Finnish Studies Advisory before, ordinary Finnish workers who were among Committee at Lakehead University to engage the first Finns to immigrate to North America in academics, both Canadian and international, and large numbers, pooled their resources to erect the the local community, in conversations regarding a Finnish Labour Temple as a place to meet, enjoy wide range of issues on Finland and the Finnish the arts, debate politics and discuss issues of diaspora. The conference was aimed at exploring concern. Fittingly, the conference provided and aspects of the social and political dynamics of the opportunity for the local community to celebrate historic and ongoing Finnish presence in the world. this important event and to pay tribute to Dr. Varpu This multifaceted theme also served as a platfom1 Lindstrom's many years of tireless service to the for the discussion of the past, present and future of Finnish community in Canada and for the academic Finnish immigrant communities and Finnish community to acknowledge her many contributions heritage outside of Finland. In all, over 70 papers to our knowledge of the role played by Finns in were presented over two days and, as anticipated, Canadian and North America history. the conference generated spirited debates about While every conference organized under issues such as the place of Finnish immigrants in the banner of Finnforum has offered opportunities host societies,. ethnic and cultural identities, social to present research within the realm of Finnish and political cleavages within the Finnish diaspora Studies, the ninth edition marked a new stage in the and the place of Finnish immigration to North evolution of the event. The first series of America. FinnForums focused on immigrant communities in The papers in this volume were selected North America; the second looked at questions because they reflect the diversity of the conference relating to ethnicity and multiculturalism; and the in the area of Finnish language and literature. Anu third the theme broadened the scope of the Muhonen 's contribution explores the use and conference to include the full interdisciplinary functions of English within the Sweden Finnish

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youth radio discourse. She demonstrates that the the performance. Eric Schaad's examination of use of Finnish, Swedish and English, seem to be Topelius's "Rinaldo Rinaldini" establishes it as more or less the everyday linguistic reality to these more than merely a simple children's play, but an young Sweden Finnish youth and proposes that it important European cultural artifact. He illustrates may reflect the multilingual and -cultural late­ how the continental tradition of "robber modem urban society these young speakers live in. romanticism" existed in mid-nineteenth-century Andy Rosequist explores shamanic themes in the Finland, and also how Topelius added his own Kalevala. He traces the scholarly discussion since contribution in his creative appropriation of it. its publication in the early nineteenth century and Finally, Birgitta Tamminen looks at contemporary argues that Sarni influences can be found in both it attitudes of high school students toward their and Norse mythology in general. Irina Novikova's minority language, Meankieli. While Tamminen contribution explores the changing view of begins the study looking at attitudes towards Russians towards Finns during the nineteenth Meankieli, a discourse about the Finnish language century and what were the consequences of this also plays a role as the students themselves change for Russian national policy toward Finland. compare Meankieli to Finnish. Barbara Hong's study of Einojuhani Rautavaara's The organizers of FinnForum IX are opera Thomas, reveals that the importance of this grateful to the Social Sciences and Humanities work by one of Finland's internationally best Research Council of Canada for the grant that known composers is multifaceted. It provides an made it possible to host the conference and to imaginative view into the history of medieval publish this volume, the first of three based on the Finland, various languages and literary styles, as many great papers presented. We hope you enjoy. well as contrasting styles of music. Hong concludes that the opera Thomas 's message of melancholy at Ronald N. Harpelle and Michel S. Beaulieu the doomed early attempt at Finland's independence lingers in the mind and ear long after

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"It's a vicious circle": The Roles and Functions of English in Sweden Finnish Youth Radio Programs Anu Muhonen University of Stockholm Abstract English plays a significant role as a marker of youth identities and a powerful factor underlying the importance of English is that cultural and social practices often displayed via media have become increasingly translocal and global. Such practices involve activities and identities that are no longer exclusively based on local or even national contacts, experiences, or languages. This article investigates the transnational and global functions of language alternation between Finnish and English in Sweden Finnish youth radio programs. Her viewpoint is both interactional and sociolinguistic and she is interested in the (social) meanings and functions of the English language use and instances of language alternation within these programs and conversations. The article also aims to shed some light to the reasons that English language alternations occur in the language use of Sweden Finnish youth.

Keywords: codeswitching, Sweden Finns, radio language varies. Some have a somewhat distant " ... Siis who cares ja mista ..." and occasional relation to them, whereas others can " ... Viela tunti to go... " 1 have a more close and active relationship (Lainio & J11trod11ctio11 Lyyra, 2009; Muhonen, 2010a, 2010b). They also In today's world, English plays a have close ties with their current home country significant role as a marker of youth identities. A Sweden, as well as the more global and powerful factor contributing to the growing international "home" of other culture(s) and importance of English in youth language is the fact language(s). The research question of the present that cultural and social practices often displayed article is: what kinds of functions are served by 2 via media have become increasingly translocal and language alternation between Finnish and English global. They involve and include activities and in Sweden Finnish youth radio programs? My identities that are no longer exclusively based on viewpoint is both interactional and sociolinguistic: local or even national contacts and experiences I am interested in the meanings and functions of (Leppanen, 2007, 2008; Leppanen & Nikula, 2007; English language use and instances of language Muhonen, 2008a, 2008b; Toriseva, 2008.) As alternation within these programs and Rampton ( 1995) states, the young of the conversations. I also aim to shed some light to the postmodern world, in addition to their own cultures reasons that these language alternations occur in and languages, "cross" and use forms and variants the language use of Sweden Finnish youth. My of language and speech from groups to which they research question is particularly interesting when do not belong in the traditional sense of the word. one keeps in mind that neither Finnish nor English Pennycook (2003, p. 514) calls this a fluid way of are majority languages in Sweden. The fact that thinking about language, identity and belonging. these languages each have a somewhat different Instead of maintaining fixed boundaries between status in Sweden is also relevant: Finnish is an languages, young people often employ diverse official and dominated minority language, and linguistic resources to make meanings (Lytra and English is an international, high prestige language. 10rgensen, 2008). The concept /anguaging (see, for My data consists of recordings from example, 10rgensen, 2004) describes well these Sweden Finnish youth and music radio programs. fluid and multilingual communicative practices and The multilingual youth discourse, where different means that young people's practices are situated in different sociolinguistic spaces and are bound with specific communicative purposes. Particularly in 2 Language alternation is the cover term for "all late-modem urban youth groups the simultaneous instances of locally functional usage of two (or use of features from many different sources is more) languages in an interactional episode." No frequent(10rgensen, 2008, p. 161 ). formal constraints are suggested. Alternation may The way the young people of migrant occur between two turns or tum-internally; it may Finnish heritage in Sweden identify themselves be restricted to a well-defined single unit or change with Finland, "Finnislmess" and the Finnish the whole language of interaction; it may occur within a sentence, or between sentences (Auer, I Quotes taken from the research sample. 1984, pp. 7-8). Muhonen: "ft 's a vicious circle"

languages and repertoires3 meet, is particularly 1992; Hirvonen & Lauttamus, 1994; Martin, 1993; viable within the Finnish-speaking Sweden Finnish Virtaranta, 1993a, 1993b). The research on code youth radio context. Thus it is evident that, in the switching and language contact between Finnish discourses, Finnish functions as the matrix and English, especially in the North American language, as the main language of communication context, is comprehensive. Most of the earlier (see Joshi, 1985, p. 191; Myers-Scotton, 1993, p. research concentrates on code switching and on the 4). Yet, other languages and repertoires have also contacts at lexical, syntactic and morphological central roles: English, alongside with Swedish, levels (Kovacs, 200 I; Martin, 1988; Halmari, 1993, plays an important role when Sweden Finnish 1997). As the case is in the current data, in addition adolescents construct different linguistic and social to the use of English as a lingua franca, English (youth) identities, and therefore possesses several occurs mostly at the lexical and phrasal level (see different functions. In addition to Finnish, Swedish for example Martin, 1988, 1989a, 1989b; Pietila, and English, other languages and regional varieties 1983; Virtaranta, Jonsson-Korhola, Martin, & of Finnish are also utilized. My data also includes Kainulainen, 1993; Mannikko, 2004). interviews in Norwegian as well as shorter extracts The research on English in contact with in Italian, Estonian, Latin and Turkish. Sweden Finnish in Finland was popular during the so-called Finnish and Finland Swedish as well as Meankieli anglicism project during the 1980s (sec for are also present. In addition, many regional Finnish example Sajavaara, Lehtonen, Leskinen, dialects are used. Standard Finnish has also Pulkkinen, Rasanen, & Hirvoncn, 1978a, 1978b; different purposes and it functions as a lingua Sajavaara & Lehtonen, 1981 ). English Joan words franca and as a second language. One can argue in Finnish were also investigated (Pulkkinen, 1984; that it would be wrong to refer to Sweden Finnish, Lehtonen & Heikkinen, 1981; Leskinen, 1981 ). used by the young people in the radio programs, as After almost 30 years, the appearance of English a single monolithic language variety. Therefore, the has become a controversial topic of discussion and tenn of repertoire is used for the present research debate in Finland, in which both linguists and context (see also Muhonen, 2004, 2008b, ordinary language users are actively engaged. forthcoming). During recent years, the functions of English in The structure of the present article is the modem Finnish society has also inspired several following: first, I will briefly introduce previous researchers in Finland and is currently the topic for research on the subject, followed by a short comprehensive high quality investigation and theoretical and methodological discussion. Next, research by several researchers (see Leppanen, the data will be introduced. Then I will present the Nikula & K.aanta, 2008). This also includes empirical analysis of the functions of language ongoing research on the functions of English in alternation in the data and five main themes will be Finnish adolescents' language use (see more, for demonstrated: English functions (I) as lingua example, Leppanen, 2007; 2008; Leppanen & franca, (2) as evidence of special music interests, Nikula, 2007; Muhonen, 2008a; Toriseva, 2008.) (3) in discourse-related functions, (4) in English in Swedish media context and in contact intertextuality functions, and (5) in so called with Swedish in Sweden has been investigated by speaker- (participant-) related functions. A for example Chrystal (1988) and Ellegard ( 1989). concluding discussion will also be included in the Sweden Finnish has also been studied end. frommany viewpoints: children's language use and school context (Nesser, 1986; Tuomela, 200 l); Earlier Research on English in Contact with bilingualism and code switching (Boyd, 1987, Finnish, Sweden Finnish Media and Youth 1993; Boyd & Andersson, 1991), language language maintenance (Janulf, 1998) and spoken Sweden The research on contacts between English Finnish (Lainio, 1989). Finnish written media have and Finnish has traditionally been done from the also been investigated recently (see Ehrnebo, viewpoint of Finnish as an immigrant or minority 2007). The language use and situation of the language (Halmari 1993, 1997; Lauttamus, 199 l, Sweden Finnish youth has been investigated (Lainio, 2000; Lainio & Lyyra, 2009; Muhonen, 3 Repertoire refers to speakers' total repertoire of 2005, 2008b). Some research has also been languages and linguistic varieties and can mean the conducted on Sweden Finnish youth media use of different languages, dialects or, for example, (Muhonen, 2004, 2005, 2008b, 2010a, 2010b, speech styles (see Bakhtin, 1988; Auer, 2000, p. forthcoming; Tonnala, 2004; Savolainen, 2008) 169; Gumperz, 1982, p. 155; Muhonen, 2008a, p. Muhonen (2004, 2005, 2008b, 2010a, 2010b) is 169). investigating Sweden Finnish youth language from

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the viewpoint of language alternation, polyphony, In applying Auer's model and theoretical and multilingualism and concentrating on the use framework, I am also engaging myself in the and functions of these multiple voices and conversational analytic way of data analysis. Yet, I repertoires within the Finnish language youth radio will not apply the traditional CA 5 in its full extent, programs in Sweden and in Finland. English as I will mainly pay attention to the parts of the functions as second language expressing, for discussions and data extracts where the English example, group membership, and special skills and language elements and language alternation occur expertise among Finnish speaking youth (sec and are made use of for different purposes. An Muhonen 2008a, 2008b). Language alternation in optimal analysis and interpretation can sometimes connection to expressing in-group humor also has a require knowledge of the whole discourse context, central function (Muhonen 20 I Oa, 20 I Ob). sometimes even of the whole radio program, sometimes even of the surrounding Sweden Finnish Theoretical Standpoint and Methodology society. There are other theoretical and As the main theoretical approach to methodological models, such as Gumperz's (1982) language alternation in the present study a distinction between metaphorical and situational conversation analytic model will be applied (Auer, code switching, as well as, for example, Myers­ 1984, 1988, 1995, 1998). According to this model, Scotton 's (1993) markedness model explaining there are two basic category pairs that provide the social motivations for code switching, both which underlying procedural apparatus for analysing the could well be applied for the current data. Auer's local interpretations of language alternationin their model has also been further discussed and individual contexts. The category pairs are inserts developed (Sebba, 1993; Milroy & Wei, 1995; (transfer) vs. code-switching and participant- vs. Wei, 1998). Yet, a more comprehensive review of discourse-related language alternation. From the the competing theories and models is unfortunately hearer's point of view, the speaker is indicating beyond the scope of the present paper (see also solutions to the following (see Auer, 1984, p. 4; Muhonen, forthcoming). 1988, p. 192): Data Is the language alternation in question My data consists of recordings and connected to a particular conversational transcriptions excerpted from interviews and structure, for example a word, a sentence, discussions in Swedish Radio's (SR) Sweden or a larger unit (insert) or to a particular Finnish youth and music radio programs Klubi point in conversation (code- switching)? Klubben during the summer 2005. Swedish radio (SR) is a non-commercial and independent public Is the language alternation providing cues service radio, which functions to provide high­ for the organization of the ongoing quality programs in Sweden (Sveriges Radio, interaction and contributing to the 2010). SR provides programs that are intended to interactiona/ meaning of the utterances be impartial and accurate, as well as those that (discourse-related) or allributes of the serve as forumsfor free speech. SR broadcasts new speaker (participant-related)? and current affairs in 16 languages, in 4 national and 28 local channels (Sveriges Radio, 2010). The Based on a study of young Italian migrants4 in Finnish language channel is called Sisuradio. SR Germany, Auer's view on language alternation and has a national responsibility to transmit programs functions is particularly applicable for my data for in minority languages in Sweden.6 As Finnish was several reasons: The participants in Auer's ( 1984, 1988) research are, like the Sweden Finnish migrants of this study, young and urban. They also 5 CA (Conversation Analysis) is a research have a free political status, and as members of the tradition that studies for example the social European Community and Nordic countries, they organization of conversation or talk-in-interaction have the right to move and work freely in Finland using detailed transcriptions (see more Sacks, and Sweden (see more for example in Auer, 1988, 1992a, 1992b). pp. 187-190; Muhonen, 2010b, p. 196). 6 Languages in a minority context can be described as regional, lesser-used, non-state, non-hegemonic or for example indigenous (Cormack 2007). In this 4 The tenn migrant is used in order create a neutrnl study the tenn minority language is used to refer to term referring to first and second generation Sweden Finnish. Sweden Finnish is surrounded by Italians (Auer, 1988, p. 188). the majority language Swedish and the definition

3 M11hone11: "It 's a vicious circle" classified as one of Sweden's five official national main language of the interview (in total 14 minority languages in 2000, it has a special minutes). Although I have counted the exact position in SR: it has its own channel, SR P7 program hours, and made a distinction between Sisuradio, which is a round-the-clock channel in different program types and, for example, the Finnish and can be heard on the Internet, in digital languages in which the music is played, I am not radio fom, (DAB) or even through cable television counting the English language alternations within at several locations in Sweden. Sisuradio provides the Finnish dialogues. My approach to the data is news, music, culture, entertainment and sports in qualitative, although references and claims to the Finnish 16 hours a day. (Sveriges Radio, 20 I 0). frequencies of them arc sometimes made. Yet, Klubi Klubben was Sisuradio's youth English language elements are very frequent in the program which broadcast three different programs: data, appearing alongside or instead of Finnish, as Jymyklub(i) was aimed at an audience of young can be seen in the following analysis section. Due people over 20 and included culture, current topics to the large amount of data, I have chosen to and discussions around different life situations of transcribe only those parts of the data and shorter the youth. Staraklub(i) provided youth with a extracts that include language alternation and possibility and target for identification as it was multilingual language use. aimed at young Sweden Finns of high school age, and consisted of interviews about and with other DifferentFunctions of English young Sweden Finns. Hittiklub(i) played Finnish Within Youth Radio Programs music, presented a list of Top Ten hits and Below I will present results from the broadcast interviews on Finnish or Sweden Finnish analyses of the functions that English has within artists. During the summer 2005, Klubi Klubben Sweden Finnish youth radio discourse. I will was broadcast two hours per evening, from 8 pm to demonstrate five different themes in which IO pm, Wednesday through Friday (Blomberg, language alternation occurs and English is used for 2008, personal communication; Tom,iila, 2004, pp. varying purposes. First I will briefly describe the 20-21 ). Klubi Klubben later changed its format and use of English as a lingua franca, and as a means of 7 is today called Finska pinnar • It is still the only communication in international situations. Then I Finnish language youth media in Sweden. will look at the use of English as a marker of My data consists of 24 2-hour radio different identities. Some excerpts demonstrating programs, altogether 48 hours of material. The the discourse-related functions of language different program types include, for example, alternation will be introduced and explained next, reporter(s) live cast radio speech, interviews, followed by the central aspects of intcrtextuality humour programs, reports, (channel and program) within the youth radio discourse. Finally, language advertisements, and last but not least music. Music alternation in connection with the speaker's constitutes altogether 29 hours and 40 minutes of linguistic competence and preference will be my entire body of data. Most of the music played briefly explored. Some of the data examples could on the programs is in Finnish (19 hours 8 minutes), be categorised in alternating ways, and many have English music is also popular (8 hours 51 minutes), overlapping themes. When choosing the data for and also music in Swedish, often by Sweden the present study I have tried to select extracts that Finnish artists, is broadcast (I hour 30 minutes). would also thematically reflect the variety of Being a minority language radio program, most of aspects of the lives, lifestyles, and interests of the interviews take place in Finnish (5 hours, 42 young Sweden Finns. minutes). Completely Swedish interviews also exist (26 minutes) and sometimes English is used as a English as a Lingua Franca One of the most common uses of English includes all the above qualities of languages in in the present data is its use as a lingua franca, in minority context communication between participants that do not 7 Finska pinnar is Swedish and means "Finnish share another common language (see also Berns, sticks." It is a product name for small Swedish 2009; Mauranen, 2003). Several types of use of cookies, which are commonly-and falsely­ English as a lingua franca can be distinguished. bel ievcd to have come to Sweden from Finland. English is, for example, used as a lingua franca in Thus the name of the new youth radio channel has interviews that take place outside Sweden and is an intcrtextual and humorous connotation lo this then spoken by both natives and non-native misunderstanding (sec more about code alternation speakers. Swedes visiting Finland often speak and humor in these youth radio programs in English with Finns, as is the case in the following, Muhoncn, 2010b). where Swedish rock band the Hives pcrfom1cd at

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an outdoor rock festival in Finland. After a music Yet, it is also interesting to note that besides the set, the following was heard: 8 instances in which English is used as a lingua franca, there is seldom any doubt about Finnish not Example I. People that don't know Swedish being the matrix language on the radio channel. Although English (and Swedish) may sometimes 0 I S: ((live music)) NOW NOW NOW(.) be used rather extensively, in the majority of the 02 vi spelade i Finland we played in Finland cases English is used only as a linguistic resource we played in Finland that surfaces by the side of Finnish, which then 03 last year(.) forraaret (.) och vi spelar i always remains as the matrix language. That is also last year and we play in the case in all the data extracts demonstrated in the 04 Finland igenj present article. Finland again 05 ((applause)) ett ar kan inte ta slut (.) a year Music as a Marker of a Special Interest, a Hobby a year cannot end ( ) or an Area ofExpertise 06 cannot end (.) de som inte kan svenska (.) Music genre has been chosen here as an those who don't know Swedish example of a special field of interest and expertise 07 for you people that don't know Swedish (.) where specific language use occurs as a marker of 08 a year is not complete without the Hives in this genre. In the dialogues of the young people on 09 Finland ((applause, drums, music)) the present radio channel, a great deal of English use occurs in connection to some special leisure The lead singer (S) starts in English, with the "now time interests, as well as demonstrating the now now," continues then in Swedish but very linguistic indications of a language use for the shortly changes his language back to English again function of expressing these interests and fields of in "we played in Finland last year" (lines 2-3). expertise. Below some extracts showing the use of This way of speaking continues until a English within the music theme and genre are metalinguistic reference "for you people that don't demonstrated. know Swedish" appears on line 7 and gives The use of English to demonstrate a evidence to the reasons behind the language speaker's knowledge of various music genres and alternation as well as to the use of English: the music interests in general is very common in my speaker assumes that at least part of the audience data. It seems that those who engage themselves does not know Swedish. English functions as a with music also share a specific music-related lingua franca, as a mutual language of lexicon and repertoire. In the following, the communication. Therefore it has a participant reporter is commenting on the music that was related function (Auer, 1984, pp. 34-35) as more previously played at the channel using an English listeners are included in the dialogue by speaking term "flow": English and the listener constellation is widened out. As S mentions and assumes on lines 6-7, the Example 2. Nice flow use of Swedish only may narrow down the participants that really can engage in the current 01 R: [ ... ] se oli Janeja Entinen (.) olipas kiva communication (see also Auer, 1998, p. 8). that was Jane and Entinen what a nice It is worth mentioning, however, that 02 flow siina [ ... ] when English is used in interviews or a program there extract in English appears in my data, a translation or synopsis is seldom given. The fact that "Flow" is a music-related tenn that certainly can translations are not needed provides evidence that have a counterpart also in Finnish. Yet, in order to English is not a foreign language to these young express her interest in music and to demonstrate speakers. The underlying assumption is that her belonging to a group of like-minded people, the everybody understands what is said and everyone speaker chooses the English term in order to relate knows English. English appears to have the status the concept. This participant-related insert serves of a second language (see also Muhonen 2008a). as a marker to identify the speakers as members of a certain kind of international and multilingual 8 See the transcription conventions in the end of community (see also Gumperz, 1982, p. 66). It may this article. The English language elements in the also be "trendy" and "cool" to be able to show off data excerpts are written in bold and are not this ability. To use English to discuss music is not repeated in the translations in the non-numbered always obligatory but somehow it often seems to lines. be the underlying norm. By showing that one

5 Muhonen: "ft 's a vicious circle" knows special music-related terminology in There is one music genre that seems to be, English, one also becomes an expert, a part of the based on my data, a case of its own, if judged by group of similarly minded international peers. This the extensive use of English. The frequency and verbal behavior becomes particularly clear when use of English in the lyrics of and discussions one moves towards more marginal and specialized about rap music is remarkable. Within the genre of music genres and the special lexicon, which these rap, English has a very visible status, which is a inside groups have m their music-related phenomenon that has also has been reported in repertoires. other studies (Levy, 2001; Pennycook, 2003). In In the next data extract, the language addition to the fact that most of the rap music alternation showing this group membership and played on the channel is in English, there is a great expertise is taken to a more advanced linguistic deal of language alternation even within the music level for example when compared with the produced in Finnish, the so-called Suomi-rap previous example (2) about the term "flow." The (Finnish rap). In Finland there is a strong trend and understanding and interpreting the music-genre­ interest in making (national) rap music both in specific language and lexical choices the speaker is standard Finnish and in different regional Finnish making, requires a somewhat deeper level of dialects and even in Sarni and in Finnish Sign musical knowledge: Language. Yet, Finnish rap music is characterized by extensive use of English. An example of the rap Example 3. Marginal cult music genre is found in the following data extract where the reporter starts speaking while music is still 01 R: [ ... ] yhtye kuvailee musiikkiaan niin playing in the background: the band describes its music both 02 sanoilla chart orientated Example 4. From the neighborhood with words as 03 kuin marginal cult [ ... ] 01 R: [((music in the background)) as well as 02 [naa:in hienosti suomirappia (.) Roihuvuori sooo great Finnish rap Roihuvuori When reporter (R) cites the band's description of 03 (.)YES(.) straight from the hood(.)[ ... ] the music, she uses two music related terms: "chart orientated" (line 2) and "marginal cult" (line 3), in English is used both in the interjection "yes" and in describing the music styles. The words and terms the language alternation "straight from the hood," themselves are not difficult to understand. Anyone on line three, where "hood" refers to the English can tell that "marginal cult" means that something word "neighborhood," a place which is defined by called cult music is in a marginal position, meaning the geographical origin of the rap music subgroup that it is less common(ly known). Yet, the language in question. This use of "hood" is naturally related alternation and tenns used might go beyond the to the wider concept of international rap music and understanding of a person who is not familiar with subgroups, imitating, for example, the hoods of the music genre, and also presents a challenge to a New York. Maybe there are different listener who is not an expert of music-related neighborhoods, so-called "hoods," in the larger discourse: It is by no means clear to everybody cities also in Finland, but certainly not quite to the what is meant by "cult" music and especially, if it same extent and global "street cred" meaning as in is marginal. the original North American rap-and sometimes The use of English in extracts like the one perhaps even gang-neighborhood cultures. Yet, the above is to create social meanings. The linguistic language-alternated elements, for example the choices of the speaker and the fact that s/he elects "hoods" and utterances on and references to it, are the multilingual repertoire instead of keeping to the shared by all members of the international rap matrix language Finnish, send certain social music genre, regardless of physical location. messages. The choice of language indicates the Therefore they also function as a marker of the speaker as a certain kind of person, for example, an global lingua franca associated and used by the adolescent who knows how to speak about music. members of this world wide speech group. At the same time a claim to group identification is The specific language use, as well as the made. The languaging here also aims to identify language alternation and utterance "straight from with Anglo-American music world(s) and the hood" within the music, functions as a marker culture(s) as well as with the international youth of special interest and of membership in the inside and music (sub) culture (see also Leppanen, 2008; group. It has an identity function. As Levy (2001, Muhonen, 2008a; Toriseva, 2008). p. 134) mentions, hip-hop music constitutes "a

6 Journalo(Fi1111ish Studies. Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 2010

global urban subculture that has entered people's 03 host for the evening@[ ... ] ({applause)) lives and become a universal practice among youth the world over." The situation among rap This is followed by applause from the audience. musicians is no different: specific lexical choices, The above prelude, an introduction to the coming as the use of"hood" in the present excerpt and their program, differs from the reporter's speech that use in the musical context identify the speaker with follows it, not only by the language alternation to the wider, transnational and global rap music genre English, but also in the voice quality. It is uttered and context. From local, predominantly black with a higher voice level and with a somewhat communities in the hoods of New York, rap music over-articulated and slower pitch. The emphasis, has become a worldwide transnational practice marking the opening of the show, is made therefore involving also (youth) identities and global urban also at the paralinguistic level. subcultures and environments. When hearing this introduction to the so­ Some functions of language alternations called "hitticlub's late night show" on the Sweden as a marker of music interest and group Finnish youth radio channel, one cannot avoid identification were demonstrated above. The fact making an immediate connection to some well­ 9 that I have only chosen excerpts on music does not known American talk show programs • Due to the mean that it is the only field of expertise that is similarity of the program opening, it is obvious that displayed by such specific language use in the the purpose and one function of this English present data. Yet, as music constitutes such a large language program opening are also to make this and central proportion of the programs, it becomes connection explicit. The almost imitative opening natural that it represents a central place also in the of the program creates a certain recognizable analysis. A great deal of discussions on the channel atmosphere and gives the following radio program deal with music, as the data excerpts also a well-known talk show frame: demonstrate. As mentioned in the beginning of the present paper, the data excerpts also aim at giving Framing refers to any kind of system of glimpses of other special interests and themes of linguistic choices that can get associated the Sweden Finnish youth life: television programs, with prototypical instances of scenes. snowboarding, films, arts, shopping, hanging out Scenes therefore are any kind of coherent with friends, eating out and travelling, among other sequences of human beliefs, actions or topics are also present. The scope of the special experiences. (Fillmore, 2006, p. 373 [1982, interests where language alternation is made use of p. 111]) is hopefully illustrated by looking at the other data extracts in the following sections. One can argue The function of the language-alternated opening that the activities which Sweden Finnish sequence, the discourse-related code switching (see adolescents engage in are no different from those Auer, 1995, p. 118; 1998, p. 9) and the English of any other young people in the modem Western language program opening is to create a certain world. atmosphere by the use of a familiar and international talk show frame that is typical for Functions within Discourse these kind of programs. Using both the format and Radio programs aim at entertauung the the original language of English builds a more audience, and English is often used to reinforce powerful connection and connotation to the talk that. Sometimes, for purposes of entertainment, shows' original context, and emphasises the English is used to connect and give reference to coherence within this media genre. At the same popular and well-known (international and very time the Sweden Finnish media context is made often North American) media contexts. The more international and less national. The function following data excerpt is taken from the very within the program, the opening a new radio beginning of a Sweden Finnish youth radio show, program and the evening spent listening to it, which is called late Night Club, as can be seen by becomes more effective, powerfuland international line (I). With a live jazz-inspired music band with the use of English. In this excerpt, language playing in the background, the host of the evening alternation functions also as a marker of discourse­ is introduced in line 3: related code switching, as the different activities are marked with different languages (Auer, 1984, Example 5. Late night club presents pp. 5, 18-19, 26; 1995, pp. 118-120). At the same

0 I R: @Ladies and gentlemen (.) hitticlubs (.) 9 Such as Late Show with David Letterman or The 02 late night club proudly presents (.) the Tonight Show with Jay Leno.

7 M11ho11en: "/t 's a vicious circle"

time there is also an imaginary change of the the present radio speech, it has a discourse-related participant constellation (see more Auer, 1984, pp. function(Auer, 1984, p. 24; 1998, p. 7; 2000, pp. 18-19, 23; 2000, p. 175; Gumperz, 1982, pp. 76- 175-176). Several discourse-related functions of 77): the English-speaking host of the imaginary the English usage are skillfully combined in the talk show and the ordinary Finnish speaking radio cohesive link between the repetition of "God loves reporter are obviously meant to be different rain" on line five. First of all, R is making an persons, which becomes clear to the audience intertextual link to the music that was played and directly when the reporter at the radio studio begins heard earlier in the same program. By repeating the his ordinary radio speech. The difference is almost language-altered utterance, originally the name of humorous; and therefore creates the entertaining the music piece, the speaker is also creating a effect that was also discussed in the beginning of textual coherence within the radio speech sample. the analysis of this particular data extract. Important to note is that the intertextual link "God The next data extract is from the loves rain" on line five is no longer referred to as a beginning of another radio monologue in the title of the music piece, although taken from the studio. The reporter starts (line 1) with naming the original context, but an utterance, a citation, with Finnish band "Cashmire Cashmire siinii" (that the textual coherence to its origins. Thirdly, by was) and thereafter the music "ja (and) God Loves repeating it, the speaker is also hoping for a non­ Rain" and then continues (lines 1-4) with rainy day as well as making an indirect reference to commenting on the weather forecast by saying that the assumption that the weather conditions may be it is going lo rain tomorrow and that this in higher hands. A fourth intertextual reference information has also been confirmed in the news: appears also when she mentions that the rain has also been discussed on the news, as we hear on Example 6. God loves rain lines 3 and 4. The language-alternated textual link refers therefore both to the reporter's utterance on 01 R: Cashmire Cashmire siina ja God Loves line one and two, as well as to the original context that was and and to the music and lyrics heard, as well as to the 02 Rain ovat muuten luvanneet sadetta origins of the rain. The speaker is skillfully It's by the way supposed to rain creating textual and thematic coherence at several 03 huomiseksi >niin< ja tatahan ne just levels within the radio speech and a broader tomorrow yes and this also was context (see Auer, 1984, p. 24; 1998, p. 7). 04 tossa uutises- uutisissakin sanottiin Language alternation can also be J just told on the new- news discussed from the viewpoint of polyphony. 05 toivotaan vain(.) etta God loves rain Behind the concept of polyphony lies the let's just hope that assumption that verbal utterances seldom exist 06 sen verran etta pitelee(.) ne sateet without a connection and reference to some other that much that he keeps the rains language use contexts. This applies very well in the 07 (.) siella ittellensa [ ... ] present data, within the radio dialogue, where most there to himself of the material is based on something that has happened or been said somewhere else, sometime From line five onwards, the fooling changes as the before. Radio speech always echoes other reporter moves from citing the news into discourses. Polyphony is here understood as a expressing her personal opinion with "toivotaan verbal act where the speaker is citing something or vaan etta God loves rain sen verran etta pitelee ne referring to somebody else in his or her speech. sateet siella ittellensa" (let's just hope that God Other persons or verbal discourses and situations loves rain that much that s/he keeps the rains to therefore become part of the radio speech on the himself], on lines 5-7. The subordinate clause on Sweden Finnish radio programs and its channel. line three begins with the Finnish subordinate Also the aspect of polyphony is present here: by conjunction "etta" but continues then in English citing the lyrics, the original context of the "God loves rain" and then again in the matrix utterance is referenced, and the speaker no longer language Finnish. speaks only as her own person, but reflects also the Here the English language alternation and voice of the music artist. its repetition functions evidently as a marker of [n the last data extract under the topic textual coherence within the ongoing radio discourse functions, a group of young women are dialogue and links together several utterances and discussing their money spending habits, and what contexts of language use within the single radio they would like to buy should they suddenly program. As a marker of textual coherence within receive some extra cash to spend. The discussion is

8

I. Journal ofFinnish Studies. Volume 14, Number 2. Winter 2010

taking place somewhere in the city center of over and it is time to talk about something else. Stockholm. The conversationhas been going on for This interpretation is supported by W2' s utterance quite a while, and has now led into a discussion "okay anyways" on line ten, which clearly signals about eating and shopping for clothes. The moving from one topic to another which then also discussion continues with W1 and W2' s discussion happens when the young women continue about WI 's statement "I don't like to· buy clothes discussing another mutually interesting topic, that anymore" (lines 1-2) and the laughingly uttered of the use of self-tanningspray. reasons "because I get fat and have to go up in size for it" (lines 4 and 5). Intertextuality Radio programs also aim to give Example 7. Vicious circle information to its audience. Many of the uses of English consist of language constituents referring 01 Wl: eee- tai ku ma en oikein tykkaa (.) ostaa to some other context or discussion where English or because I do not really like to buy is often used (see also the discussion about 02 vaatteitaenaa (.) polyphony earlier). A single utterance where clothes any more language alternation occurs can be connected to 03 W2: enaa (.) ootsa ostellu niin paljon vai more than one discourse and communicational anymore have you bought so many or situation. Language alternation often has a 04 Wl: no eiku ma lihon aina ni- pit(h)aa vaan connection to something that has been said, heard, not because I get fat always so- have to or read before, or to a previous discussion, 05 no(h)usta niissa ko(h)issa- koossa interview, listener feedback, or, forexample, to the get up in those size- sizes music that is or has been played on the radio 06 W2: nii(h)nkusa sy(h)ot ku sa tykldiatruuasta channel. It is common that the reporters repeat, yes because you eat cause you like food cite, or otherwise refer to these language elements 07 WI: niin ju(h)st [(h) (h) (h) (h) it's a vicious in their radio speech. In the present paper this is exactly called intertextuality. 10 08 circle Within the radio programs, 09 [(h) (h) (h) (h) (h) (h) intertextuality means that many language 10 W2: okay (.) anyways= alternations, for example comments and topics expressed in English, have a connection to some Line six follows W2's laughing comment "niin ku other contexts. Single utterances can relate to sa syot, ku sa tykkaat ruuasta" (yes because you eat several language use contexts (Auer, 1984, p. 31). because you like food) which is followed by WI's A recurring feature is a passage where the reporters affmnative reply"niin just" ( exactly) on line seven look up and cite information in English from the and followed by a code-alternated statement in Internet. When citing and reading from Internet English: "It's a vicious circle." After that, the pages in English, the speakers often also present whole group laughs aloud. The food related topic this information in the original language. In the then ends with W2's reply "okay anyways." first example, R is surfing the Internet for Language alternations often function as information about a Finnish heavy metal band side comments or inserts (Auer, 1995). The (lines 1-2): language alternation "It's a vicious circle" serves several discourse related functions. It is a final Example 8. Last updated comment, an almost ironic statement to the fact that there is nothing to be done about the fact that if 01 R: [ ...] muttaensin vahan aania bandilta joka one likes to eat, one might gain weight At the but first some music fromband that same time it has a function in organizing the 02 on tiimmoinensuomalainen hevibandi (.) discourse by closing the discussion and the topic. is this kind of Finnish heavy metal band Language can be altered in situations where two languages and two different activities and actions 10 The term intertextuality originally relates to for meet and where the activity changes. This is called example literature research and means the shaping mode shift (Auer, 1995, p. 118). Language of texts' meanings by other texts. It can refer to an alternation can indicate the end of a certain topic of author's borrowing and transforming of a prior text discussion, and the beginning of a new topic or an or to a reader's referencing of one text in reading activity. (Auer, 1984, pp. 18-24; 1995, pp. 118, another (see Tammi, 1992). I apply the same idea 120). With the use of English on lines seven and to the spoken language because basically the eight, WI marks clearly that the discussion topic is procedures and phenomena are the same.

9 Muhonen: "It's a vicious circle"

ja naitten mukaan tan- naitten (.) websiten legitimate. When the short quotation is finished, and according to thi- their website she goes back to the matrix language Finnish, and 04 mukaan uusi cp Fire Within onjuuri continues in the ordinary radio speech style on line new has just been six "nain lukee" (this is found). 05 paastetty mutta en tieda koska (.) The use of English has several functions released but I don't know when because in this excerpt. It marks the difference between the 06 siina lukee etta viimeksi updated Ehhh citation, the warning text at the top of the it says that last snowboard, and the normal radio speech. It also 07 viime kesakuuna viidestoista [ ... ] gives a direct reference to the information given, last June the 15th and relates also to the fact that snowboarding can be dangerous, which has been the fear of R uttered As R reads the infonnation from the Internet, earlier in the same discussion. By quoting the facts simultaneously translating most of it into Finnish, in English, the speaker is also proving that her fear she also gives parts of it to the audience in English. and anxiety are legitimate and well-grounded. On line three, she explicitly mentions "naitten When R moves from the citation to her ordinary websiten mukaan" (according to their website). radio speech on line six, a new contextualization Citing and giving parts of the information directly takes place: when citation ends, the language also in the original language, in English, the speaker changes, which reflects an interesting discourse­ provides the information with authority: because related function as the language change marks the the information is taken and directly cited from the new speaker constellation (Auer, 1984, pp. 18, 29; webpage, it should be accurate. Again on line six, 1995, pp. 118, 120). Again, neither a translation the reporter cites the lexeme "updated" in English.· nor a synopsis in Finnish is given. It is assumed In this radio monologue, both English and Finnish that the listener can understand English, and is appear fluently together and no linguistic evidence therefore also part of the young multilingual and reference of the usage of English elements is Sweden Finnish speech community. needed or given. The English voice, the direct Io the next extract, the speaker is making citations fromthe Internet pages, bring along a new a reference and showing her expertise and voice, a new outside "character" that is giving knowledge of the world of films: additional information, and whose "opinion" is therefore made use of in the present program. Example I 0. Galaxy far away When moving from her radio speech into giving information from the Internet pages, the language 01 R: [ ... ] koko juttu sitten alkoi also changes at times. it all started a long time ago The next excerpt, read by a Sweden 02 in a galaxy far far away(.) vuonna Finnish reporter, is a direct quote taken from the in top corner of a rented snowboard, as the reader 03 yheksantoista seitkyt seitsemiinja [ ... ] later states on line 8: nineteen seventy seven and

Example 9. Snowboarding is hazardous She starts a topic by quoting a line from one of the films in the Star Wars trilogy. The citation "kauan 01 R: warning(.) snowboarding is very sitten" (a long time ago) starts in Finnish and 02 hazardous and it's not recommended for continues then in English "in a galaxy far, far 03 the weak(.) while snowboardinginjuries away." By using this, the speaker is coloring her 04 may occur on every part of your body (.) own speech with a citation as well as making an 05 minors are recommended to be supervised intertextual link to well-known Star Wars lines. 06 by an adult (2 sec) niiin lukee This intertextuality gives a discourse related this is found function and makes a textual coherence between 07 sopivan luotettavasti the present speech context as well as to the film the in a conveniently trusting note reporter is commenting on and further discusses 08 mun vuokralumilaudan yhdessa karjessa (.) later on in the program. on the top cornedof my rented snowboard 09 [ ...] Participant-Related Functions Although different languages and By quoting and reading aloud the original text in its repertoires are used innovatively for a variety of original context, the speaker is giving the different purposes and functions within the radio information as it is, and at the same time proving it discussions, one should not forget a language

JO I L Journal o(Finnish Studies. Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 2010 alternation that is more or less evident in a minority language alternation (Auer, 1984, p. 26). The use language or a second language context, as in of other languages may depend even on the Sweden Finnish youth radio: there are instances speaker's momentary lack of language skills. Also, within Finnish discussion or interviews, where "semmosen, " (like that) in line six, indicates the words and expressions of English (and/or Swedish) speaker's hesitation and functions as evidence for are used in situations where the participants simply the participant-related functionof word search. lack these language elements in their Finnish. As a conclusion it is interesting to note These gaps in linguistic knowledge become evident that within the multilingual repertoire and when the dialogue cannot proceed in Finnish polylingual language use of Sweden Finnish without problems. Sweden is the home country of speakers, the discourse context and topic of these young people, and it is mostly Swedish that is discussions affects the language use. One could used for the purpose of filling in the linguistic gaps. assume that a Sweden Finnish speaker would, in an Yet, there are also situations, such as the one ordinary case, seek help from Swedish, not below, where instead of a Finnish term or word, the English. Yet, in the spur of the moment while corresponding English expression is used: discussing the international art exhibition, and probably because W is used to reading and Example 11. Retribution speaking about art in English, the use of English is triggered. The linguistic evidence further supports 01 W: [ ...] mutta tama kuva nayttaa jotain the interpretation of this as participant-related but this picture shows some language alternation. 02 semmosta symboli- symbol symboliikkaa kind of symbol- symbol- symbolism Conclusion 03 siina hommassa >etta pahuus ei saa olla (.) It has been shown above that the young in it that evilness cannot be population of Sweden Finnish speakers do make 04 ja etta pahuus saa myoskin< (.) tammonen use of different languages and linguistic repertoires and that evilness gets also this kind of rather innovatively, although there is very little 05 pahuus mita X on tehnyt niin et se saa previous research-based informationon the subject. evilness what X has done so that it gets All the data excerpts chosen for the present article 06 myos sernmosen< (.) retribution (.) reflect this phenomenon and the young Sweden like that Finn's multilingual language knowledge and their 07 mita se on suomeksi polylingual repertoire(s). According to J0rgensen what is it in Finnish (2008, p. 161), multilingualism means that 08 R: paha saa palkkansa ainakin (h) (h) language users have knowledge of several separate evil gets what evil deserves languages, whereas polylingualism is characterized 09 W: niin (.) han haluaa symbolisesti nayttaa et- by language use where several different sets of yes he will symbolocally show tha- features fromthe different"languages," are used in 10 paha saa palkkansa [ ...] language users' linguistic production. These that evil gets what it deserves features are not used randomly and particularly late-modem urban youth groups are simultaneously In the above situation, W, who works at an art and frequently using features from many different gallery in Stockholm, is being interviewed. The sources (J0rgensen, 2008, p. 161; see also touring international art exhibition that R is visiting Muhonen, 2008a). presents artwork from China. Both the interviewer The main purpose of this article is to and the interviewee know Finnish and Swedish. examine the functions of English language Nevertheless, W suddenly faces difficulties in alternations in the data. Because of its use as a finding a right word in Finnish, while telling about lingua franca and as a tool of identity work of the the international exhibition on lines 4--6. She then global and international youth, English is a new searches for the word in English: "et se saa myos source for language alternation (see Muhonen, semmosen retribution mikii se on suomeksi, " where 2008a). With the term language alternational both the language alternated element "retribution" lingua fiw1ca I refer to the use of English as a and the speaker's explicit question "mikii se on resource ex1st111g alongside other national suomeksi" (what is it in Finnish) indicate a languages, such as Finnish or Swedish. English is participant-related function for the language no longer used as a foreign language but has a alternation. Making a direct reference to the fact more or less similar user status to a second that one has difficulties remembering something in language (Leppanen, 2007, 2008; Muhonen, another language is proof of a participant-related 2008a). English plays a significant part in the

11 Muho11en: "It's a vicious circle"

language repertoires of the Sweden Finnish youth The same seems to apply to all the groups radio channel and has many different purposes involved: to the producers, the people who work at within my data. Alongside Fi1rnish, it functions as a the radio, the interviewees and the radio audience. means of constructing one as a particular kind of As Leppanen (2007) mentions, a speaker can, with young person, with particular multilingual and - the use of English, construct his/herself as a person cultural allegiances, values and lifestyles often that belongs to a certain lifestyle and the group related, for example, to North American popular co1rnected to it. To use a certain set of ways of music and films. Different youth identities are speaking and certain (poly)linguistic features (see reflected on several levels of English use, such as also J0rgensen, 2008) can be a conscious choice. in expressing the textual coherence, intertextuality The extensive use of English can play a part in and, for example, special interests such as belonging to a group and therefore mark group snowboarding and music. identity and function as a marker of this identity The following text was written in the (Blommaert, 1992; Auer, 1999, p. 318; Leppanen Internet pages of the SR Sisuradio's youth channel & Nikula, 2007). Leppanen and Nikula (2007) Klubi Klubben at the time the recordings for my point out that media has a central role in spreading study were made (Sisuradio, 2010.): English into the everyday use of the speakers of Finnish. The Sweden Fi1rnish youth radio, being We speak mostly in Finnish but we also the only Finnish speaking minority media in write in Swedish, you can also write in Sweden, is an especially important language English. institution because it simultaneously both reflects and fom1s the language use of its consumers and The quote shows quite explicitly that although listeners. Radio also reflects and connects to the Klubi Klubben is a Finnish language radio channel, different opinions and conventions of life. It has an a polylingual language use is accepted and even important function in presenting ideas and perhaps encouraged. This frames the unofficial language even in the survival of the surrounding speech policy of the minority radio channel's youth community and the Finnish speaking Sweden programs. Based on the empirical linguistic Finnish radio public. material, real life language use seems to prove this In the present article, I have tried to show statement true. In the minority language context, and explain the use and functions of English within one can show evidence of extreme linguistic Sweden Finnish youth radio discourse. One should, creativity and fluent polylingualism, as well as however, not forget that although this article only sudden lexical gaps in the matrix language. takes a look at the use of English within the The young people working on the radio Sweden Finnish data, there are also other languages produce programs aimed at their peers. The and repertoires present. Especially strong and polylingual language use and multilingual visible is the use of Swedish. Yet, the use of repertoires are shared and mutually understood and Finnish, Swedish and English, seem to be more or accepted, and function as a marker of and a symbol less the everyday linguistic reality of these young for this young community of Sweden Finnish Sweden Finnish polylingual language users. They speakers. They share a certain common word not are also part of the speech communities of these only at the linguistic level, as demonstrated in this languages, at least when it comes to Swedish and article, but certainly also on a deeper cultural and Finnish. However, the aspects of crossing (see societal level. What connects these young people is Rampton, 1995) and the use of fom1s and variants youth, media, a shared world, and several special of languages and speech styles from groups to leisure time interests that are typical to the younger which the Sweden Finnish young people do not (late-modern and often urban) generation. At the immediately belong is also very much present in basis of all this, there is also a common Finnish the data. The young speakers make use of several heritage and with it, the shared Finnish language. other linguistic repertoires with which these Naturally, there are many identities in speakers are perhaps in a Jess immediate contact. play, and today's late-modern young people cannot This characterises the polylingual linguistic reality be placed and stereotyped as belonging to only one of Sweden Finnish youth. It also reflects the single group; they can naturally belong to several. multilingual and -cultural late-modem urban Based on the present analysis one can conclude that society these young speakers live in. the Sweden Finnish youth radio context and dialogue reOect a group of language users who have a multilingual language competence and knowledge and who in practice arc polylingual.

12 Journal o(Finnish Studies. Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 2010

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Humaniora 14. Oulu, Finland: Oulun context. Ph.D dissertation, University of yliopiston englannin kielen Jaitos ja Stockholm. pohjoismaisten kielten laitos, Oulun Myers-Scotton, C. ( 1993). Duelling languages: yliopiston monistus- ja k:uvakesk:us. Grammatical stnicture in codeswitching. Martin, M. (1993). Muoto-opin seikkoja. In P. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Virtaranta, H. Jonsson-Korhola, M. Mannikko, H. M. (2004). "Ma oon BUSY BUSY Martin, & M. Kainulainen (Eds.), LADY, YOU KNOW... ": Koodinvaihdon Amerikansuomi (pp. 97-10 I). Tietolipas rakenteet ja funktiot jalkipolvien 125. Helsinki: SKS. amerikansuomessa. MA thesis, University Mauranen, A. (2003). The corpus of English as of Jyvaskylii. lingua franca in academic settings Tesol Nesser, A. ( 1986). "Se oli kwja kiiya koulusa ": Quarterly 37(3), 513-527. Bruket av inre och yttre lokalkasus i Milroy, L & Wei, L. (1995). A social network sverigejinska skolbar11s sprak. Acta approach to code-switching. In L. Milroy Universitatis Upsaliensis, Studia Uralica & P. Muysken (Eds.), One speaker, two et Altaica Upsaliensia 16. Uppsala. la11guages: Cross-disciplina,y Pennycook, A. (2003). Global Englishes, Rip perspectives on code-switching (pp. 136- Slyme, and performativity. Journal of 157). Cambridge: Cambridge University Sociolinguistics 7(4), 513-533. Press. Pietila, P. (1983). Communication strategies in the Muhonen, A. (2004). Englanti-osa interlanguage of Finnish immigrants in the suomenkielisten nuorten identiteettiii. United States. Licentiate Thesis, Kieliviesti 2, 6-10. Department of English, University of Muhonen, A. (2005). Du far garna skriva aven pa Joensuu. Svenska eller pa engelska. Vi forstar! Pulkkinen, P. (1984). Lokarista sponsoriin: Englanti ruotsinsuomalaisessa Englantilaisperiiisiii lainoja suomen nuorisomediassa: tutkimuksen taustaa. In kielessii. Helsinki: Kustannusosakeyhtio 0. Haurinen & H. Sulkala (Eds.), Otava. Tutkielmia viihemmistokielistii Jiiiimereltii Rampton, B. (1995). Crossing: Language and Liivinrantaan, Viihemmistokielten ethnicity among adolescents. London: tutkimus- ja koulutusverkoston raportti IV Longman. (pp. 29-51). Acta Universatis Ouluensis, Sacks, H. (1992a & 1992b ). Lectures on B Humaniora 66. Oulu, Finland: Oulun conversation (Vols. L-2), G. Jefferson Yliopisto. (Ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Muhonen, A. (2008a). Sheikataan lika a Polaroid Sajavaara, K., Lehtonen, J., Leskinen, H., picture: Englannin tehtiivista Pulkkinen, P ., Rasanen, A. & Hirvonen, nuorisoradiojuonnoissa. In S. Leppanen, T. (1978a). The Anglicism Project: T. Nikula, & L. Kaanta (Eds.), Ko/mas Background and methods. Reports from kotimainen: Liihikuvia englannin kielen the Department of English, Occasional kiiytostii Suomessa (pp. 169-202). Papers No 2. Jyvaskyla, Finland: Tietolipas 224. Helsinki: SKS. University of Jyviiskyla. Muhonen, A (2008b). Ruotsinsuomalaisen nuoren Sajavaara, K., Lehtonen, J., Leskinen, H., kielellisesta repertoaarista. Kieliviesti 3, Pulkkinen, P., Rasanen, A. & Hirvonen, 15-17. T. ( 1978b). Influence of English on Muhonen, A. (20 I Oa). Korvi, turpa ja peitetty modern English: Preliminary report on patteri, ruotsinsuomalaisten omaa research program. In K. Sajavaara, J. huumoria. Kieliviesti 3, 7-10. Lehtonen, & R. Markkanen, (Eds.), Muhonen, A. (2010b). "Mike Tyson syo korvia": Further contrastive papers, reports from tva eller flera sprak som markorer for the Department of English (pp. 31-51). humor. In A. Bengtsson & V. Hancock Jyvaskyla, Finland: University of (Eds.), Humour in language: Textual and Jyviiskyla. linguistic aspects (pp. 192-218). Sajavaara, K. & Lehtonen, J. (1981). Anglismit Stockholm Studies in Modern Philology, nykysuomessa. Virittiijii 85, 289-306. New Series 15. Stockholm: USAB. Savolainen, M. (2008). Monikielisyydesta Muhonen, A. (forthcoming). Finnish, Finglish, vahemmistokieliviestin SR Sisuradion Swenglish or English? Code switching, nuoriso-ohjelrnissa. MA thesis, University multilingualism and polyphony within the of Jyvaskyla. Finnish and Sweden Finnish youth radio Sebba, M. (1993). London Jamaican: Language systems i11 interaction. London: Longman.

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i' Sisuradio. (20 I0). Sveriges Radio Website. Virtaranta, P. ( 1993a). Sanalainojen aihcpiireistii. Retrieved from In P. Virtaranta, H. Jonsson-Korhola, M. http://sverigesradio.se/sisuradio/ Martin, & M. Kainulainen (Eds.), Swedish Radio: Radio for eve,yone. (20 I0). Amerikansuomi (pp. 74-83). Tietolipas Sveriges Radio Website. (Online 125. Helsinki: SKS. publication]. Retrieved from Virtaranta, P. (1993b). Sitaattilainoja, fraaseja, http://sverigesradio.se/diverse/appdata/isid sanontoja. In P. Virtaranta, H. Jonsson­ or/files/2438/5291.pdf Korhola, M. Martin, & M. Kainulainen Tammi, P. (1992). Ker/ova teksti, esseita (Eds.), Amerikansuomi (pp. 84-89). narratologiasta. Helsinki: Gaudeamus. Tietolipas 125. Helsinki: SKS. Toriseva, M. (2008). "Svits bs flippi niiista tuplista, Virtaranta, P., Jonsson-Korhola, H., Martin, M., & kelaa": Suomen ja englannin kielen Kainulainen, M. (Eds.). ( 1993). vaihtelun tehtiivistii skeittiteksteissa. In S. Amerikansuomi, Tietolipas 125. Helsinki: Leppanen, T. Nikula & L. Kiiiintii, (Eds.), SKS. Ko/mas kotimainen: LiihiJa,via englannin Wei, L. (1998). The "why'' and "how" questions in kielen kiiytostii Suomessa (pp. 275-298). the analysis of conversational code Tietolipas 224. Helsinki: SKS. switching. In P. Auer (Ed.), Code­ Tuomela, V. (200 I). Tvlisprlikig utveckling i switching in conversation, language, skollildern: En jiimforelse av sverigefinska interaction and identity (pp. 156-176). e/ever i Ire undervisningsmodeller. Centre London and New York: Routledge. for research on bilingualism. Edsbruk, Sweden: A.kademitryck AB. Tonnalii, M. (2004). Radio-ohjelmien toimittaminen nuorille viihemmistokielellii SR Sisuradion Klubi-nuortenohjelmat. Unpublished student paper, Diakonia­ ammattikorkeakoulu, Turku.

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Transcription Conventions te[xtl ] [ text)2 overlapping utterances text!= =text2 latching utterances (0.7) a pause, timed in tenths of a second (.) a pause shorter than I second ((applause)) transcriber's comments (b) (h) laugh tokens CAPITAL loud speech Stress strong stress on the syllable @text@ altered tone of voice, usually when quoting someone slow speech >fast< fastspeech Ehli in-breath, the number of h's indicating the length i rising intonation cutoffs­ cutoffword or sentence te(h)xt laughing production of an utterance Roseguist: Shamanic Connection

The Shamanic Connection: Shared Influences in Norse Mythology and the Kalevala Andy Rosequist Independent Scholar Abstract There are several connections between the Norse and Finnish mythological traditions, which are revealed by a combination of historical research and textual analysis. This paper traces the shamanic themes common to both traditions: Viiiniimoinen and Odin as shamans, the shamanic journey, supernatural information sources, especially the reawakened dead, and lhe bear cult.

The northern shores of the Baltic Sea are the underworld" (Eliade, 1964, p. S). The shaman home to two poetic oral traditions: the Norse myths undertakes a perilous spiritual journey alone, on of the Vikings and the folk poetry of Finland. The behalf of the tribe. Prose and Poetic Eddas, collections from thirteenth Several parallel themes in Norse century Iceland, are the most accessible sources of mythology and the Kalevala are related to these the Norse myths. The Finnish folk poetry is most shamanic influences. Both Odin and Viiiniimoinen widely available in the Kalevala, a poetic epic have magical abilities that are strongly co1mected composed in the nineteenth century. At first glance, to the shamanic magic of the indigenous people of there would seem to be little connecting the poems Scandinavia. These characters exemplify the of the Old Norse oral tradition with the poetry of shamanic journey, often traveling to other worlds the Kalevala. Linguistically, there is a solid barrier to retrieve information or negotiate with the beings between the cultures: the Finnish language comes found there. Both of them depend on shamanic from a completely different language family sources for their magic. An important task of the (Finno-Ugric) than Old Norse, which-like shaman is gathering wisdom. Accordingly, the English-is part of lhe Indo-European language pursuit of wisdom and knowledge is highly family. If, as Georges Dumezil argues, myths regarded in both mythologies, to a much greater develop only along the same path as language, extent than it is in surrounding European myth. A there is very little room for interaction between final aspect of shamanic culture surviving in these these traditions (Dumezil, 1973). myths is the symbolism of the bear, a figure of However, a deeper reading and importance in the Kalevala that also holds power in examination of these two oral traditions actually the Norse worldview. reveals a number of similarities between the Norse The shamanic themes in the Kalevala myths and the Kalevala. The most prominent have been the subject of scholarly discussion since connection between the Norse myths and the its publication in the early nineteenth century. Kalevala is the shamanic magic exhibited by their Anna-Leena Siikala, a Finnish scholar of the protagonists. This influence comes from the Kalevala, traces this debate to M. A. Castren, a shamans of the Sarni people, who are indigenous to contemporary of Elias Lonnrot. Castren analyzed Scandinavia and the western edge of European and discussed the Finnish folk poems themselves, Russia. They had extended contact with both the rather than in the context of the Kalevala. In an Norse and Finnish oral traditions, allowing the essay written in 1853, he explained that "the influence of shamanism to spread throughout Finnish epic poems describing Antero Vipunen and Scandinavia. As Juha Pentikiiinen explains, "the the visit to Tuonela ... [were] accounts of a origins of the Finnish tradition of sages [shamans] shamanistic journey to the underworld" (Siikala, lie in northern Eurasian shamanism," i.e. the 2002, p. 19). In the Kalevala, these particular indigenous Sarni (Pentikiiinen, 1999, p. 178). shamanic journeys are undertaken by The shaman is a particular kind of Viiiniimoinen, and serve as knowledge- and magic­ magician and healer associated with tribal cultures. gathering expeditions. This figure functions as the intermediary between A large portion of the shaman's ritual the tribe and the spirit world. The shaman role involved journeys to the other world-the negotiates with the inhabitants of the various spirit domain of spirits and of the dead-where the worlds, including the sky-based realms of higher shaman would contact and negotiate with these beings such as gods and the underworld abodes of beings. Viiiniimoinen and Odin each use magic to the dead. This negotiation is achieved "in a trance extract information from the dead, and even travel during which [the shaman's] soul is believed to into the underworld to do so. Tracing the shamanic leave his body and ascend to the sky or descend to journey as represented in the Norse myths and the

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Kalevala reveals the extent of the similarities of Pohjola is only mildly otherworldly-as compared shamanic magic in each of U1ese traditions. to the ghostly underworld ofTuonela-but it is still otherworldly. The Shaman's Horse Pohjola is parallel to Joutunheim, the No ordinary fonn of transportation will home of the Giants (Kuusi, Bosley, & Branch, allow the shaman to embark on these supernatural 1977, p. 527). Joutunheim is still on the same plane journeys. In the shamanic rituals of the Siberian as Midgard, just as Pohjola is with Kalevala, but tribes, the shaman's drum is a major part of many both are the home of the Other. Journeying this far rituals. Decorated with rough maps of the requires special conveyances or the completion of cosmology and 0U1er symbols used to guide the challenges. Later in the Kalevala, when spirit journey, the drum is used to invoke and Lemminkiiinen travels to Pohjola, he faces a control the trance that allows U1e shaman to travel number of deadly supernatural adversaries in the spirit world. The shamans of various tribes (Chapter 26). have differing understandings of the symbolism of The Kalevala does not show Viiiniimoinen U1eir drums. For at least one tribe, the drum is riding his horse directly to Tuonela; however, other interpreted as a horse: "Using the drumstick as a poems do give that ability to his horse. Siikala whip, the shaman is thought to 'ride' his horse to references the symbolism of the tietiijii 's helper the other world" (Siikala, 2002, p. 44). We can animal-in many cases a horse-which facilitates 3 follow this thread, the shaman's horse, in both the the shaman's travels. These horses sometimes Norse myths and the Kalevala. In each, the come from Hiisi, the Demon, but elsewhere, "the shaman's horse is a supernatural steed capable of horse's owner is said to be Viiiniimoinen, the feats impossible for any ordinary horse. These prototype of the tietiijii traveling to the other horses are magical tools which allow the shaman to world" (Siikala, 2002, p. 234).4 In one of the folk travel to the underworld and produce magic. poems related to the Kalevala, a smith sets out to Early in the Kalevala, in chapter six, get a bride from Tuonela, the land of the dead. To Viiiniimoinen travels to Pohjola, riding a "stallion do this, "He took a steed of straw,/ Took a sleigh of straw I a horse of pea stalks" (Bosley, 1989, p. of fibers,/ [he] Went to fetch Tuoni's daughter, / 61). While Bosley's translation invokes a the bride from the underworld" (quoted and particularly peculiar image, Kirby (1907, p. 61) translated in Siikala, 2002, p. 150). As well as and Friberg (1989, p. 74) both interpret this phrase allowing journeys to the otherworld of Pohjola, the as merely "straw-colored" horse. 1 But, this is still stallion of straw enables the shamanic journey to no ordinary horse. After running across the heaths the underworld. of Kalevala (swampy terrain being difficult The shamanic horse makes several passage for a horse), the sage proceeds to ride out appearances in the Norse myths as well. To begin upon the open ocean "without a hoof getting wet'' with, the great ash Yggdrasil literally connects (Bosley, 1989, p. 61). Though he is riding his Midgard with the other worlds, and the tree itself shamanic horse, Viiiniimoinen appears to be only can be considered Odin's horse. Hilda Davidson traveling from one land to another, rather than explains, "Yggr was one of the many names of between worlds. However, once he reaches Odin, and the usual interpretation [of Yggdrasil] is Pohjola, he finds himself in very unfamiliar 'Horse ofYggr,' since Odin in a sense rode the tree territory. Viiiniimoinen exclaims, "all the trees here when he hung upon it" (Davidson, 1988, p. 170). bite/ all the fir sprigs beat/ .. ./ only the wind do I Yggdrasil is doubly linked back to the shaman's know / and the sun have [I] seen before/ in these drum; it is both Odin's shamanic horse and the foreign lands" (Bosley, 1989, p. 75). The sage is center of the cosmology. Siberian shamans often accustomed to a strong connection to nature, thus decorated their drums with depictions of the world 2 making this disconnection all the more jarring. tree (Siikala, 2002). To further link the tree to the shaman's magic, the direct result of Odin's 1 The straw horse resembles the 0/kipukki, a straw "riding" upon the tree was his acquisition of runic goat that is a traditional Finnish Christmas magic. In Havamal, Odin proclaims that he "hung ornament. This tradition is also present in Norway on a windy tree I nine long nights/ .. ./ I took up the and Sweden, as the Julebukk, where it is sometimes 3 described as a descendant of Thor's chariot-pulling A tietiijii is a shaman in the Finnish tradition, goats (Eriksson, 2002, p. 2). similar to the Sarni noaidi (Pentikiiinen, 1999, p. 2 As demonstrated in chapter 41 of the Kalevala, 183). where all the animals come to hear Viiiniimoinen's 4 Hiisi is translated as Demon or Devil by Bosley, music. (1989).

19 Rosequist: Shamanic Connection

runes, screaming I took them, I then I fell back capable of bearing their rider to the underworld from there" (Larrington, 1996, p. 34). These runes abode of the dead. give him many magical capabilities, among them the ability to speak with the dead and learn their Vi:iiniimoinen's Ship secrets, especially those that have been hanged. However, there are other shamanic Yggdrasil is a ritual shamanic horse that allows its journeys undertaken that do not rely on the horse­ rider, Odin, to gain magical powers, including the or at least do not emphasize the horse's role in the ability to speak to the dead and interact with spirits. journey. Two of Viiiniimoinen's major shamanic Odin has a second shamanic horse-this journeys, those based on the rune poems M. A. one is less symbolic and more horse. Sleipnir is an Castren analyzed, take place in chapters 16 and 17 eight-legged horse; this archetype "is the shamanic of the Kalevala. The story begins with horse par excellence; it is found among the Viiiniimoinen building a boat. However, as a Siberians, as well as elsewhere ... always in shaman, his methods of construction are a little connection with the shaman's ecstatic experience" different: he is "building the boat with wisdom / (Eliade, 1964, p. 380). In Baldrs Draurnar, the making the craft with singing" (Bosley, 1989, p. poetic prediction of the death of Baldur, Sleipnir's 190). Clearly, this is not going to be any ordinary ability to carry the shaman into the underworld is boat. Viiiniimoinen runs into a snag: "he needed crucial. After Baldur tells his father of his tlrree words / for putting on the handrails / for portentous dreams, Odin rides for Niflheim: "Up raising the prow/ rounding offthe stern" (Bosley, rose Odin, the sacrifice for men, / and on Sleipnir I 989, p. 190). Without these words, he cannot he laid a saddle; / down he rode to Mist-hell" finish the boat, and thus he begins a shamanic (Larrington, 1996, p. 243). Once he reaches journey to findthe magical knowledge necessary to Niflheim, Odin reanimates a dead seeress, complete his boat (his horse is not mentioned). His presumably using the runes he learned while first destination is Tuonela, the underworld abode "riding" Yggdrasil. She tells him of the impending of the dead. Viiiniimoinen confronts the gatekeeper death of his son. Odin's two shamanic horses have and eventually charms his way in, but is unable to thus enabled him to cross the boundary into the findthe three words he needs. Instead, he must flee underworld. There, Odin, as a shaman, interacts froma denizen of Tuonela who attempts to capture with the dead to acquire knowledge for the benefit the sage with a net. of the world above. After Viiiniimoinen's unsuccessful Gathering knowledge is one of the two journey to Tuonela, he decides to pursue a different spirit-world tasks performed by the shaman; the source for the magic words to finish his boat: the other is negotiating with the dead on behalf of the long dead shaman Antero Vipunen. This is another living. Sleipnir travels into the underworld a different type of journey into the land of the dead, second time in the story of Baldur's death, this as the shaman will literally enter the body of the time at the behest of Frigg. Odin lends his horse to dead. Vipunen is a giant who has become part of Hermod, who will "ride the road to Hel" and offer the landscape, his body now covered in trees.

the queen0 of the dead a ransom for Baldur. For nine Viiiniimoinen awakens the giant "from sleep" nights, Hermod "rode dales so deep and dark that (Bosley, 1989, p. 201) by cutting down these trees, he saw nothing, until he reached the river Gjoll and and the giant swallows the sage.5 Once inside, rode over its bridge" (Young, 1954, pp. 82-83). Viiiniimoinen "made himself into a smith/ became Once in Hel's domain, Hennod negotiates with the a blacksmith" (Bosley, 1989, p. 202). Inside queen of the dead, though the bargain they make is Vipunen, Viiiniimoinen harasses the giant, ultimately foiled by Loki. swinging a blacksmith's hammer around, until the The shamanic vehicle, in the form of the giant agrees to give the sage the three words he shamanic horse, is an important component of the asks for. Viiiniimoinen's exploitation of Antero magic present in both the Norse myths and the Vipunen is parallel with several of Odin's Kalevala. Odin's relationship with Yggdrasil is knowledge sources, as he too learns from both directly parallel to the relationship between a giants and the dead. shaman and his drum: both are magical tools There is no story detailing how Odin which, when symbolically understood as horses, learned spells from a giant, but it is referred to in enable the shaman to journey to other worlds and produce magic. Odin's actual horse, Sleipnir, and 5 Bosley points out the Judeo-Christian parallel in Viiiniimoinen's urmamed straw stallion are both the Antero Vipunen story (Jonah and the whale) magical steeds used by shamanic characters in the but asserts that this story had origins in folk course of their journeys, and both horses are antiquity (Bosley, 1989, p. 671).

20

I Journalo(Finnish Studies. Volume 14. Number 2

Havamal, where the god lists the sources of his U1e boat. Pentikiiinen goes on to detail the parallels wisdom. Of note is his explanation of the "Nine between the Vipunen cycle and a Sarni legend of a mighty spells I learnt from the famous son / of boy who seeks two "Saami sorcerers, 'Akmeeli' or Bolthor, Bestla's father'' (Larrington, 1996, p. 34). 'Torajainen,' long slept in their graves" to find Bestla was Odin's mother, thus the son of her words "to construct a boat" (Pentikiiinen, 1999, pp. father is his maternal uncle. Bolthor is also a giant, 187-188). Both Odin and Viiiniimoinen have thus and so Odin learned spells from a dead giant, much used their shamanic abilities to awaken dead the way Viiiniimoinen learned from the giant­ magicians in order to gain magical knowledge. shaman Antero Vipunen. It is not clear whether The shamanic interactions with the dead Odin learned from Bolthor's son before or after the as examined above have involved the shamans giant died, but the god certainly had the capability visiting the world of U1e dead and temporarily of doing it either way. reviving them in pursuit of knowledge. In addition, As for the boat Viiiniimoinen was a more permanent form of resurrection appears in building, it was clearly important to him, as he similar forms in both mythologies. In the Prose expended a great deal of effort to build it. Edda, Thor demonstrates the ability lo restore life Unsurprisingly, boats are important in the Norse to his goats. After Thor slaughters, cooks, and eats myths as well, as the Vikings' seafaring was well his goats, he is able to resurrect them. He does this known. The ship Naglfar, built of the fingernails of by collecting the goat's bones, placing them in the dead men, will carry the giants at Ragnarok. skin, and waving his hammer over the remains Skidbladnir, Frey's magical ship, is both so large (Young, 1954, p. 70). In the Kalevala, a somewhat that it can carry all the lEsir and still small enough similar resurrection occurs after Lemminkiiinen is to fold up and fit in a pocket when not in use. killed. His moU1er collects the fragments of his Notably, in the Saga of the Ynglings, a work by body, in order to conduct a ritual that will bring Snorri Sturluson, Snorri assigns the ship to Odin him back to life. Interestingly, as part of this ritual, instead. As Lindow explains, "Snorri seems to have Lemminkiiinen's mother invokes Tuuri. According imagined Skidbladnir here as part of Odin's to Bosley, the "Finnish Tuuri is the Norse god of6 shamanic attributes," having listed it along with his thunder," Thor (Bosley, 1989, p. 671). shape-changing abilities (Lindow, 2001, p. 271). In Lemminkiiinen's mother tells a bee to fly "to the seafaring cultures of the Norse and the Finns, it Thor's new cabin" to fetch a magical ointment that should be of no surprise that a ship can function as will help her to resurrect her son (Bosley, 1989, p. a shamanic vehicle just as well as a horse can. 180). Grimm's analysis of these two resurrections points out a simple parallel: in each case, the body Talking to the Dead must be collected and arranged before the spell can So far, we have examined the shamanic be performed (Grimm, 1883, p. 185). However, travel methods of Odin and Viiiniimoinen, this is true of similar magic across many especially when their journeys involve gathering mythological traditions, reaching as far back as the information from the dead. A closer examination of Egyptian myths of Isis and Osiris. Thus, this type the destination of these journeys is merited, in of magic would seem to be too widespread to allow particular how the shamans interact with the dead, us to draw any conclusions. However, the inclusion and which dead they choose to talk to. Not just any of "Thor's cabin" in the resurrection process hints dead person will do; they must have some notable at a shamanic connection. While this could be magical quality. Voluspa is a prophecy given by a interpreted as simply a way of referring to an seeress to the "Father of the Slain," i.e. Odin exotic locale, a more tantalizing explanation is that (Larrington, 1996, p. 4). As Larrington argues, the 6 seeress's repetition of "do you understand yet, or Some scholars treat Ukko as an analogue of Thor, what more?" indicates that the prophecy is being as they both are sky gods with associations with the compelled out of her. And, judging by Odin's weather. However, the Ukko of the Kalevela is a actions in Baldrs Draumar, it is entirely possible much more powerful creator deity (Pentikiiinen, U1at this is a dead prophetess awakened by Odin. 1999, pp. 159-160), while Thor is a simpler Similarly, Pentikiiinen cites scholars who "have character with straightfonvard motivation (Lindow, argued that Antero Vipunen is the depiction of a 200 I, p. 287). While some of this difference in shaman who died after remaining in a trance too their power can be explained by Lonnrot's long; for some reason his soul was unable to return changes, the story-roles of these two deities arc to his body" (Pentikiiinen, 1999, p. 187). He significantly different, opening up the potential for obviously had magic knowledge, as he is able to Tuuri to be a Thor analogue instead. Additionally, tell Viiiniimoinen the words he needs to complete Tuuri could easily be a transliteration of Parr

21 Rosequist: Shamanic Connection

Thor's magic specifically was a necessary In Vaftlzrudnismal, Odin holds a wisdom component of the resurrection. The shaman-in contest with a giant named Vafthrudnir. The god this case Lemminkiiinen's mother-sent an uses this contest to quiz the giant, gaining more emissary (the bee) to the spiritual home of Thor, knowledge in the process. Odin opens the poem by where that emissary negotiates with the spirit to declaring, "I intend to journey / to visit draw upon its magical power, Thor's demonstrated Vafthrudnir;/ I've a great curiosity to contend in ability to revive the dead. Th.is would indicate that ancient matters / with that all-wise giant" the Norse tradition was a valid source of shamanic (Larrington, 1996, p. 40). Frigg, Odin's wife, power even for the tietiija. proceeds to discourage him, but he still proceeds Of course, the most important resurrection on his journey. This wisdom contest is remarkably in Norse mythology is that of Baldur, which is parallel with the contest between Joukahainen and destined to take place after Ragnarok, as part of the Viiiniimoinen in chapter three of the Kalevala. At rebuilding of the world. The closest parallel that the beginning of that contest, Joukahainen, can be found in the Kalevala is Viiinamoinen's "insisted that he was going / To those huts of promise of his own future return. In chapter SO, as Viiinolii,/ To contend with Viiiniimoinen" (Friberg, the sage leaves Kalevala's shores, he declares, 1988, p. 54) . Joukahainen 's fathertries to dissuade "Just let the time pass ... and again I'll be needed/ him from going, but he too is unsuccessful. The Looked for and longed for/ to fix a new Sampo" questions posed by the shamans are similar as well. (Bosley, 1989, pp. 662-663). He too, will return. Odin demands that the giant tell him "from where The Christian parallel is often cited by scholars the earth came or the sky above" (Lanington, who analyze both of these stories. It seems more 1996, p. 43). Viiiniimoinen asks young Joukahainen likely that the Christian religious influence is to "Tell me of deep Origins /of eternal things" responsible here, so this is less important to our (Bosley, 1989, p. 27). These questions continue for examination of the shamanic connection. many stanzas, with Odin and Viiinamoinen coming out victorious in their respective contests. Pursuit of Wisdom These contests are ultimately about Both the Norse myths and the Kalevala shamanic prowess. Kuusi et al. explain, "The emphasize the value of wisdom and knowledge. interpretation of the poem as a duel between two This is again connected to the indigenous shamanic rival shamans (who would also have been rival influence, as the shaman is the repository of much tribal leaders) seems the most appropriate" (Kuusi, of the mystical wisdom of the tribe. Viiinamoinen Bosley, & Branch, 1977, p. 525). Though these and Odin demonstrate repeatedly that they have scholars are writing about the contest between extensive collections of wisdom, as well as a strong Joukahainen and Viiiniimoinen, their conclusion is drive to collect more. In both traditions, the equally valid for the contest between Odin and shamanistic wisdom of the wise man is highly Vafthrudnir. In that context, Odin would be the valued. shamanic leader of the i'Esirand Vafthrudnir would One of Odin's main pursuits is the be the shaman of the giants. collection of wisdom. This is primarily revealed in The above wisdom contests were Havamal, the "Sayings of the High One," a poem concerned with the origin of the cosmos, as well as which is simply a collection of Odinic wisdom, more earthly phenomena. Looking to the Finnish apparently stitched together from several source shamanic tradition can help to understand the poems. Odin is not content with his current amount significance of this prominence. In that tradition, of knowledge; he "continues to seek out wisdom in "it was believed that a person would have power the mythological present" (Lindow, 200 I, p. 250), over an animal, a disease, or another person or as in the three poems Vaftlzrudnismal ("Sayings of phenomenon if its origin was chanted in a charm" Vafthrudnir''), Voluspa ("The Seeress's (Pentikiiinen, 1999, p. 177). Viiiniimoinen Prophecy''), and Baldrs Draumar ("Balder's demonstrates this power in chapters 8 and 9 of the Dream"). In each of these, he seeks out and Kalevala, when he heals himself of a sword­ encounters a magical being, either a giant or a inflicted wound using a charm containing a prophetess, whom he interrogates in order to learn retelling of the origin of iron and of blood. Other more infom1ation. Sometimes he seeks magical characters in the Kalevala are able to use this spells or infom,ation directly relevant to a crisis power as well, such as the brew master in chapter faced by the i'Esir. But his main goal is more 20, who recites the origip of beer while brewing infonnation about the forthcoming doom of the drinks for the wedding feast. gods, Ragnarok. Another shamanic information gathering technique involved helper spirits, primarily in the

22 Journal o(Fin11ish Studies. Volume 14. Number 2 fonn of totemic animals. There are examples of the warrior's transfonnation into a bear "belongs to an use animal spirits to gather infornrntion in both ideology that extends far beyond the sphere of traditions. Odin has two ravens, Hugin and Munin, shamanism. Its roots [are] found in the hunting whose names mean Thought and Memory. These rites of the paleo-Siberian peoples" (Eliade, I 964, ravens are "symbols of the mind of the seer or p. 385). These rites exist in the Kalevala, where shaman, sent out over vast distances" (Davidson, they developed along a different path. 1964, p. 147). They are "two helping spirits in the Viiiniimoinen's connection with bears shape of birds" (Eliade, 1964, p. 381 ). In the comes through his mastery of the hunt. Eliade Kalevala, Lemminkiiinen's mother uses shamanic explains that the shamanic '"Bear ceremonialism' helper animals to retrieve information, as part of a is indubitably connected with the magic and resurrection spell. She sends a bee to many exotic mythology of the hunt" (Eliade, 1964, p. 459). In locales, including, as discussed above, Thor's chapter 46, Viiiniimoinen leads the people of Cabin. Kalevala on a hunt for a brown bear. This hunt is a Wisdom and knowledge forn1 the basis of complicated spiritual matter, as "the bear was the the power of Viiiniimoinen and Odin, who go to animal held in greatest respect in ancient Finnish great lengths to acquire more of it. These two society. The killing and eating of the animal was shamans fiercely defend their position as "wisest." accompanied by complicated, often dramatized Each of these traditions "consistently values and ritual intended to protect the hunters and their reveres wisdom as the highest virtue" (Rubulis, families from the bear's avenging spirit" (Kuusi, 1970, p. 7). Though Rubulis was writing about the Bosley, & Branch, 1977, p. 546). Pentikiiinen Kalevala, his analysis applies to Norse myths as explains how part of this ritual involves the village well. It is because of the shamanic influences that presenting a bride or bridegroom to the bear. wisdom is so important to these traditions. Further, the villager invites the bear to a feast, where he will be the honored guest. For example, Brown Bears and Hunting "old Viiiniim6inen/ had the Beast's coat taken off/ The shamanic parallels discussed above put it up in the shed loft" (Bosley, 1989, p. 604). derive from a common source that predates both Here the poem is alluding to the skinning of the the Norse myths and the Kalevala. The next bear, just before the meat is cooked, but also to the connection is a result of both shamanic influences proper treatment of an important guest. This whole and the geographical proximity of the two ritual serves to develop a dual symbolism of the traditions. The brown bear is venerated in the bear; it is "both the guardian of the lives of its Kalevala and connected with Odin. It has a range animal kin and the primordial father of the tribe or that extends over much of northern Eurasia, clan which worshipped it as their totem" including the Scandinavian Peninsula. The Norse (Pentikiiinen, 1999, p. 169). Thus, it is both given peoples had as much access to this animal as the the respect due to an honored clan member and Finnish did, so it should come as no surprise that it challenged and killedby the hunter. holds importance in both mythologies. In fact, the There is a common shamanic root for the brown bear is the national animal of Finland. bear motifs in both Finnish and Norse mythology. Further, no large mammals (including neither the In this shamanic symbolism, the bear was bear nor the wolf) are found in Iceland, so the understood as a protective figure. In the Norse stories in Iceland concerning those animals-like myths, this is demonstrated chiefly by the berserks, most of the Norse myths-must come from the who channeled the bear's fury for battle. In the mainland. Both bodies of work demonstrate that Finnish myths, the bear is seen as a protector of the the bear was an animal of symbolic significance, tribe and must be respected. In both cases, the line intricately connected with shamanic hunting between human and animal is blurred, with the rituals. Norse warriors adopting animal characteristics and Odin presides over the berserks, bear­ the Firmish ritual giving anthropomorphic shirted warriors whose battle-rage terrified the characteristics to the bear. enemies of the Vikings. These warriors would go into battle wearing nothing but a bearskin, as a Conclusion form of channeling the primeval rage belonging to The shamanic themes in the Norse myths that animal. Further showing a connection between and the Kalevala are intricate and pervasive. The the bear and the warrior are "several episodes in two bodies of work contain many shamanic the sagas where a young man in Norway has to episodes, ranging from shamanic journeys and prove his strength and courage by tackling a bear negotiations to contests between rival shamans. In single-handed" (Davidson, 1988, p. 79). The all of these episodes, the shamans conduct

23 Rosequist: Shamanic Connection themselves in remarkably similar fashions. I would Friberg, E. ( 1988). The Kalevala: Epic of the speculate that this resemblance comes from the Finnish people. (E. Lonnrot, Compiler) common source of Sami shamanism. The extent of Keuruu, Finland: Otava. this shamanic influence is unique to the Finnish Grimm, J. ( 1883). Teutonic mythology. (J. S. and Norse myths, forfew other mythologies had as Stallybrass, Trans.) New York: Dover. much access to the Sami shamans. It is their Kirby, W. F. (1907). Kalevala: The land of the shamanic techniques that define the magic of Odin heroes. (E. Lonnrot, Compiler). London: and Viiiniimoinen. Athlone. Kuusi, M., Bosley, K., & Branch, M. (1977). Acknowledgments Finnish folk poetry-Epic: An anthology in Special thanks to Robert Meagher and Finnish and English. Helsinki: Finnish Alan Hodder, my thesis advisors at Hampshire Literature Society. College in Amherst, MA. Larrington, C. (1996). The poetic Edda. Oxford: Oxford University Press. References Lindow, J. (2001). Norse mythology: A guide to the Bosley, K. ( 1989). The Kalevala: An epic poem gods, heroes, rituals, and beliefs. Oxford: after oral tradition. (E. Lonnrot, Oxford University Press. Compiler). Oxford: Oxford University Pentikiiinen, J. Y. ( 1999). Kalevala mythology Press. (Expanded Edition). (R. Poom, Trans.) Davidson, H. E. (1964). Gods and myths of Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Northern Europe. London: Penguin. Rubulis, A. (1970). Baltic literature: A survey of Davidson, H. E. (1988). Myths and symbols in Finnish, Estonian, Latvian, and pagan Europe: Early Scandinavian and Lithuanian literatures. Notre Dame, IN: Celtic religions. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University of Notre Dame Press. University Press. Siikala, A.-L. (2002). Mythic images and Dumezil, G. (1973). Gods of the ancient northmen shamanism: A perspective on Kalevala E. Haugen (Ed.). Berkeley: University of poehy. Helsinki: Suomalainen California Press. Tiedeakaternia. Eliade, M. (1964). Shamanism: Archaic techniques Sturluson, S. (1954). The prose Edda: Tales from of ecstasy. (W. R. Trask, Trans.) New Norse mythology. (J. I. Young, Trans.) York: Bollingen. Berkeley: University of CaliforniaPress. Eriksson, S. A. (2002). Christmas traditions and performance rituals: A look at Christmas celebrations in a Nordic context. Applied Theatre Researcher 3, Article 6.

24 Journal o{Finnisl, Studies. Volume 14. Number 2. Winier 2010

From Loyalists to Separatists: Russian Images of the Finns, 1809-1917 Irina Novikova Saint Petersburg State University, Russia Abstract: The article examines Russian images of Finland and the Finns during the 19th and early 20th centuries and argues that these images were related to the political sympathies of Russian observers. While in the 19th century, writers, poets, academics, ethnographers, and tourists created the prevailing stereotypes, during the early 20111 century their place was taken by conservative nationalists. Unlike nineteenth-century humanist intellectuals, the conservative nationalists politicized the image of Finns, depicting them "separatists," "terrorists," and "parricides." Such images justified Nicholas !I's new assimilatory policies towards the Grand Duchy of Finland.

Key words: Russian Empire, Grand Duchy of Finland, Russian images of the Finns and Finland, Russian imperial policy towards the Grand Duchy of Finland.

From Finland's incorporation into the Several factors can be distinguished that Russian Empire in 1809, the Russian ruling elite determined the Russian vision of Finns. The first regarded the Finns as among the empire's most was the evidence of eyewitnesses, or those who law-abiding and loyal subjects. This view persisted proported to be such. Second, Finns living and across the reigns of very different tsars, from "the working in Russia, especially in St. Petersburg, intellectual on the throne" Alexander I to "the greatly contributed to the fonnation of their etlmic crowned drummer" and "gendarme of Europe" image. The Russian capital was "a mirror of the Nicholas I, "the tsar-liberator" Alexander II and multinational Empire" where Finns accounted for "the counter-reformer" Alexander III. In fact, it 0.9% (1910) and 2.6% (1881) of the total was only during the reign of Nicholas II that the population (Engman, 1983; Giese, 2005, pp. 359- ruling Russians began to view Finns negatively, 360; Kappeler, 1992, p. 264; Musaev, 2007, pp. suspecting them of separatist sentiments. This 11-82). In 1881 there were fewer Finns in St. paper seeks to explain why this image had been Petersburg (24,374) than in Helsinki, but more than changing during the century and what the in Finland's second largest city, Abo (Turku, consequences of this change were for Russian 21,500), and Petersburg was sometimes joking I y national policy towards Finland. Our analysis is called Finland's second city (Engman, 1983, p. influenced by German historian Wolfram Wette, 165) .. Finnish seasonal workers and peasants who who noted that people's images about others may, temporarily came to the capital made up a large under certain circumstances, have great political part of the population and these workers did not impacts even if these images were mere phantoms assimilate. In 1908, the majority of Russia's 20,248 with little resemblance to reality: "Their power is Finns still lived in St. Petersburg (Svedenia, 1910, built on sheer belief in them rather than on their p. 5), but memoirs suggest that there were many capacity to reflect reality" (Wette, 1998, p. 226). more living in the capital than officially recorded. It is difficult to determine how the The Russian writer A. Bakhtiarov noted in the perception of a people, in our case, of the Finns, 1880s that St. Petersburg had a "peculiar face": formed in the Russian mind. While representations of "Others" are determined by objective factors Ky.11.a Bbl 3.D.eCh HH 83fJU!HeTe, BCIO.ll.Y such as geographical proximity, intensity of BCTpenne yrpIOMOro "naCblHKa intercultural relations and political liberty, in the npHpo.11.1,1"-qyxoHu,a... TleTep6ypr- 3TO final analysis, representations of "Others" are He TO,

25 Novikova: From Lovalists to Separatists

Figure 1: Nyland's Finns. Source: P. P. Semenov, (Ed.). Zhivopisnaia Rossia. Severo-zapadnie okraini Rossii. Velikoe kniazhestvo Finliandskoe. [Picturesque Russia. Northwest Borderlands of Russia. The Grand Duchy of Finland], (p. 68). St. Petersburg: tipografiaM.O. Volfa, 1882.

This was probably because Estonians, Ingrians, and 186-187). Finnish citizens Vice-Admiral Arvid other Finno-Ugric people living in the northwest Adolf Etolen and Admiral Johan Hampus were all classified as Finnie (the Russians often Furuhelm held the post of Governor-General of used the word "chiuhonzi" for all Finno-Ugric Russian America (Alaska) in the 1830s-l 850s. nationalities). Noteworthy, prior to Russian government sale of By occupation, the Finns constituted 44% Alaska to the U.S. in 1867, the last governor­ of the capital's jewellers, some of whom worked general of Russian America was also Finnish for the well-known Faberge firm, 61 % of the citizen Viiino Hendrikson (Musaev, 2007, pp. 44- capital's chimney sweeps and a large proportion of 45, 48). The native Finn General Alexander F. its cab drivers (Juhneva, 1984, p. 173). Finnish Rediger became head of the Ministry of War in girls worked as cooks and housemaids for the 1905-1909, giving him the highest rank in the wealthy. Significantly, a high percentage of Finns armed forces of the Russian Empire. Admiral were skilled and educated. While 27 out of 10,000 Theodor Kristian Avellan, bornin the Finnish town Finns had a university education, the corresponding Loviisa, was at the head of the General Navy Staff figure for Russians was only 0.4 (Svedenia, 1910, in 1896 and in 1903-1905 he led the Navy ministry p. 7). It is noteworthy that some Finns devoted (Musaev, 2007, pp. 48-50; Engman, 2008, pp. much of their mature life to service in the Imperial 187-188). Approximately LOO Finns were educated Anny and Navy and rose to high naval and military at the prestigious Corps of Pages (Screen, 1976, pp. ranks. During the period of Finnish autonomy 137, 139), including General Carl Gustav Emil (1809-1917), more than 3,300 Finnish citizens Mannerheim who eventually rose to become the served in the Imperial Army and the Navy, more leader of independent Finland after loyally serving than 300 Finns became generals (32 full generals, the Russian tsar for 30 years. 78 lieutenant generals), IO Finns were admirals, 16 The Russian ruling elite, officials and vice-admirals, 41 rear-admirals (Screen, 1976, pp. intelligentsia also formed opinions of the Finns 287-290; Musaev, 2007, p. 48; Engman, 2008, pp. during their summer holidays in Finland where

26 Journal o(Finnish Studies. Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 2010

from 1891, all Russian subjects, except Jews, could of the Finns. Russian poets and writers like buy and own real estate. The summer house in Alexander Pushkin, Evgeny Baratynsky, Leonid Finland was the place where Russian and Finnish Adreyev, and Alexander Kuprin also contributed to styles of life converged. Thus, Sergey D. Sazonov, the making of the Russian view of the Finns. The the Minister of Foreign Affairs (1909-1916), the Russian mass media also had a hand in replicating famous painter Ilya Repin, and the family of Peter the Finnish image that suited the political views Semenov-Tian-Shansky, the outstanding scholar, promoted by given newspapers and the values explorer, and member of the State Council, all authors held dear. On the whole, perceptions of the liked to spend summer holidays in Finland and Finns were unsettled and multifaceted. Yet, we will contributed greatly to forming the Russian image next try to distinguish several ideal, typical images.

Figure 2: Salmon Fishing Near a Cascade. Source: P. P. Semenov (Ed.), Zhivopisnaia Rossia. Severo-zapadnie okraini Rossii. Velikoe kniazhestvo Finliandskoe. [Picturesque Russia. Northwest Borderlands of Russia. The Grand Duchy ofFinland], (p. 53). St. Petersburg: Tipografia M.O. Volfa, 1882.

The Romantic Image of the Finn as "Nature's he became. Landscapes became more picturesque MiserableStepson " and he became more romantic-minded. Gagarin The first Russian publication about sensed the Finns' predilection to music and poetry Finland was Count Pavel Gagarin's Thirteen Days, and was amazed to find in every village, in the or Finland (1809); which, according to the well­ midst of swamps, its own folk artist. He noted the known Finnish historian Matti Klinge, created the people's hospitality, love of their neighbors, and notion of Finland in Russia (2005, p. 41). kind-heartedness. He strongly believed that the Gagarin's notes are romantic in nature, written in Finns had abhorred Swedish rule and sympathized the style of correspondence to his lady-love, Cora, with Russians (Gagarin, 1809, pp. 12-13, 51-52; about his impressions of the newly conquered land. Naumenko, 2009, pp. 169-200). Accordingly, n Gagarin's first impressions of Filand were Gagarin devoted attention to Alexander I's visit in gloomy: "a wild country" with withered birch March 1809, when the tsar promised before the trees, rather distressing fir trees and a landscape Finnish Diet to respect the Grand Duchy's religion, like a vast graveyard. Yet the deeper the author fundamental laws, and privileges as specified in the ventured into the country, the merrier and happier

27 Novikova: From Loyalists to Separatists

Swedish constitution of 1772 and the State Act of 379). Although he had never been to Finland, 1789 (Akti, 1903, p. I 0). Finnish motifs abound in his works. On the one For several years after Gagarin's book, no hand, he portrayed Finland as an exotic part of other special editions devoted to Finland appeared. Russia, and on the other hand, as a foreign land Information about the Finns in the first decades of where inhabitants had their own peculiar nature, the 19th century was sparse. It is common morals, customs and culture. Pushkin's essentially knowledge that the less information we have about romantic perception of Finland appeared most a certain locale, the more fabulous its image looks vividly in his poem "Ruslan i Liudmila" [Ruslan in the public view. In the first decades of the 19th and Liudmila], written in 1817-1820 (Pushkin, century, Finland was referred to as a poor, meager 1950b, pp. 7-102; O'Bell, 1985, pp. 139-155). country inhabited by sorcerers. As the Russian Russian society began to "discover" scientist Yakov Grot pointed out in 1840, "the very Finland in the l 830s-l 840s, when a Finnish word 'Finn' used to be synonymous with sorcerer" steamship company started a route from Petersburg (Grot, 1840, p. 24). to Helsinki via Revel (Tallinn) and the first tourist One of the most persistent ethnic resorts were set up in Finland. Russians now took stereotypes of the Finn established during those to spending their holidays in Finland and making decades was that of "nature's miserable stepson" observations about Finns as honest, sluggish, (pechal'nii pasinok prirodi)-a phrase that Pushkin prudent, diligent, thrifty, and patient to the point of used in his poem "Mednii vsadnik" [Bronze obstinacy (Bulgarin, 1839; Dal, 1846, pp. 1-16; Horseman], written in 1833 (Pushkin, 1950a, p. Grot, 1847; Polansky, 1872, pp. 766-802).

Figure 3: Finnishfamily after lunch on Sunday. Source: P. P. Semenov (Ed.). Zhivopisnaia Rossia. Severo­ zapadnie okraini Rossii. Velikoe kniazhestvo Finliandskoe. [Picturesque Russia. Northwest Borderlands of Russia. The Grand Duchy of Finland], Volume 2, (p. 73). St. Petersburg: Tipografia M. 0. Volfa, 1882.

In all, from 1845 to 1917, there were only [Finnish Messenger], published by Fyodor K. three special Russian periodicals dealing with the Dershau, who sought to popularize infomrntion culture and politics of the Grand Duchy of Finland about the history and culture of Scandinavia in (Yakovlev, 2005, p. 253). The first journal devoted general. In 1848 the periodical changed its name to to Finland appeared in 1845, Finskii vestnik Severnoe Obozrenie [Northern Survey] which was

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published continuously until 1850. Authors wrote miserable lot in history. Although Finns were the about Finns with genuine admiration. They first to explore and conquer their wild territory, the promulgated a favorable image of the Finn as an powerful Slavs later drove them into the remote intrepid explorer of vast uninhabited spaces; an and severe North (Dershau, 1845, pp. 21-94). As eternal but sad laborer living in a country with a Finskii vestnik 's editor wrote:

The tsar gave Finland more freedom and Eaea JTl,f IICTOpHH HapO.llOB npe.llCTaBHT privileges than had the Swedish king and with XOTb OJlHO nner.rn, BblCTpa.naewee Russia's victory over Napoleon in 1812, many no.no6110 cjJHHHaM, npoee.nwKM Finns felt an affinity for the powerful empire to HeCKOJlbKO CTOJ1en1H B TaKoi-i rn)!(KOH which they had been recently annexed. 6opb6e C QJH3HlleCKOIO npHpO)lOIO! Cne.llbl Vice-president of the Russian Academy of 3TOH BeKOBOII, MO)!(eT 6b1Tb .na)!(e Sciences and the founder of the chair in Russian TblCH'-leneTHeH 6opb6b1 3ane

OflbITHOCTb H .nap 11a6mo.ue1-1HJI. German language, history and tsar, had ample opportunity to observe their loyalty geography (Semenov-Tian-Shansky's collection, p. and devotion during the war. In his memoirs, 13). prominent Russian statesman Sergey Witte (1849- Thanks to intellect11als like Grot, Russians 1915), who was in close relations with the came to regard the Finns as the empire's most loyal Emperor, related that the Tsar commented to him subjects. Count A. Benkendorf, escorti11g Nicholas as follows:

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l 1 Journal o{Finnish Studies. Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 2010

M11- e �rn1-uu11-1.ucKa11 KOHCT1nyu1151 He no however, his presence at meetings was not irywe. 51. He .uonymy ee .uanhHei1wero obligatory. Finland's administrative language was pacw�rpemui, HO TO, <(TO .uaHO Swedish, and because Russian governor-generals m-tJUIH)lHH MOl.fMH rrpe.uKaMH, )lJlH MeHI! were not proficient in th.is tongue, they sometimes TaK )Ke o6H3aTeJlbHO, KaK enH 6bl 3TO ll learned about the senate's proceedings from caM JlaJI. vi He3br6JleMOCTb ynpaaneHH.ll newspapers. HHJlHHJlHH Ha oco6blX OCHOBamrnx Alexander I demanded that inforn1ation rro.uTBep)!(.UeHa MOHM CJlOBOM rrpH about Finnish affairs should reach him directly, acTynnemrn Ha npecTOJl. [Finland's through the State-Secretariat of the Grand Duchy constitution does not please me. I will not headed by a State Secretary, and not through the pennit its further expansion. But I am just 1111UlStries. Russia, as the pre-revolutionary as bound to uphold that which my historian Mikhail Borodkin noted, "preferred to predecessors have granted to Finland as if look at Finnish affairs through Finnish glasses for a I granted it myself. And in ascending the whole century" (Borodkin, 1909, p. I 0). throne I confirmed by my word the For a long time the imperial government inviolability of Finland's special was rather indifferent to Finnish · internal autonomous status.] (Witte, 1960, p. 258) development and its first governors-generals held their office in the Grand Duchy in tandem with Alexander Ill personally sympathized with the other high posts. Thus, Governor-General Finns and believed in their monarchism and Zakrevsky from 1828 was also the Minister of loyalty, and so the policies of Russification carried Internal Affairs, and A. S. Menshikov from 183 l out in Poland and the Baltics were not extended to was also a head of the Naval Ministry and actually Finland. lived in Petersburg only paying occasional visits to In short, the Finns established a "good, Helsinki. Under such circumstances, the scope of conservative reputation" at the court long before the Grand Duchy's autonomy was broad. they gave any grounds for changing that Russia did not interfere in the impression (Jussila, 1979, pp. 28-29). administration of the Grand Duchy although it still followed 18th century Swedish practices of Finland as "the Isle of WesternCivilization" in tbe Sea of governance and many of its laws were archaic. The Russian Absolutism, the Finns as the Most Democratic People: The Russian Liberal View Finns had separate citizenship status apart from Finland was more than just a wonderful their Russian status and had open access to all high vacation resort for the Russians: the Grand Duchy governmental offices in the Empire while Russians also attracted Russians because of its special did not have equal rights with Finns in Finland. autonomous status within the Empire. Tsarist Orthodox teachers could not teach history, the policies towards the country were largely practice of Russian doctors was restricted, Russian determined by military and strategic troops were not stationed in the Grand Duchy, and considerations, and, in particular, its importance to Finns were exempt from military service. Since the security of the capital. Alexander I knew that if 1878 Finns could serve in a small Finnish regular he was to control Finland peacefully, he had to army that symbolized the Grand Duchy's special give it more rights and privileges than it had status within the empire. Finland had its own postal enjoyed under Swedish rule. He established a and customs system, and its currency, the Finnish limited division of powers in its administration by mark, which was based on the gold standard­ giving it its own legislature, the Diet, and before it was introduced to the rest of the empire. constitutionally limiting his power in the Duchy. The reforms of the 1860s-1870s, in addition, made Without the Diet's consent, the Russian emperor, Finland into an independent economic unit. They as Grand Duke of Finland, could not pass laws and also contributed to formation of a Finnish nation, impose taxes there. And, although the Diet as they promoted the Finnish language, a language convened under Russian rule only in 1863, the long of most people, counterbalancing the Swedish lapse in its sitting was not a breach of Finnish law, language, which was the language of the higher which allowed the monarch to both convene and class in the Grand Duchy. Contemporary Finnish historians admit end its sittings. Finland had its own executive power, the Imperial Finnish Senate, responsible for that without the imperial policy, the language internal affairs and independent from Petersburg. parity act and other measures toward nation­ Nominally, the chairman of the Senate was a building would not have happened so quickly Russian representative, a governor-general; (Kouri, 2005, pp. 345-347). On the whole, by the end of the 191h century, the tsar as Grand Duke was

31 Novikova: From Loyalists to Separatists r the common head of state for Finland and Russia. Grand Duchy's autonomous rights. Mass non­ Finland and Russia had a common foreign and violent protests, "flower campaigns" at Alexander military policy but within the Grand Duchy the tsar II's monument in Helsinki, and a boycott of new was a constitutional monarch. Finland served as laws introduced by Nicholas II testified to the "the European facade of Russia" and showed the Finns remarkable organizational talents (Tiander, European public that a small nation could be 1917, pp. 28-29). grateful for belonging to the Russian Empire Liberals also hailed the development of (Krusius-Ahrenberg, 1959, p. 273). parliamentarianism in Finland .. During the 1905 Russian travellers and authorities visiting Revolution, Nicholas agreed to refom1 the Finnish Finland wondered why a country so poor in natural Parliament and electoral system and the old four­ resources was markedly more prosperous than chamber Diet became Europe's first unicameral Russia. The answer lay in the peculiarities of the parliament elected by equal, universal suffrage, Finnish character and Finland's political autonomy. including women. As one contemporary noted, "It When comparing the Finnish and Russian orders, was highly ironical that this most reactionary tourists and authorities noted the positive role of government, the Russian autocracy, had to put up Finnish officials and the administration in the with the most liberal constitution of the epoch" country's prosperity. Thus, Lieutenant-General (Tiander, 1934, p. 30). Russian liberals kept track Nicholas Kaulbars, who frequently visited Finland, of the 1907 general election campaign. The in the course of his duties noted that Finnish newspaper Niva enthusiastically noted that tiny officials looked upon their jobs as a natural duty to Finland had found the "ideal formula" of elections be done in the interests of the country. The Finnish that "staunch supporters of parliamentarism" had government had always catered for its people by wanted. Russians were astonished both by the building roads, developing education, and Finnish aspiration for equality and by the political introducing technology into public life. Kaulbars involvement of Finnish women, who won four was particularly impressed by how the government seats in parliament (Niva, 1907, p. 205). The well­ attempted to bring telephones into every Finnish known Russian writer Alexander Kuprin wrote: household, irrespective of its wealth and social position (Kaulbars, 1900, pp. 81-82, 121-122). cf>HHJUIH.lllUI noHCTHHe .neMOKpaTlf'-IHa. Clearly the Finns also tended to keep up with ,ZJ;eMOKpaTlf'-IHa BOBCe He TeM, CfTO B HeH technological progress and this also contributed to npH Bb16opax B ceHM no6emurn COUHaJl­ their development. Russian authors marvelled at .neMOKpaThl, a nOTOMY, 'ITO ee .neTH Finland's clean streets, its people's respect for the C0CTaBJ1ll10T O.ll11H UeJlbHblH, 3.llOpOBblH, law and then reflected upon their own situation pa6ornll{Hw Hapo.n, a 11e KaK B PocclfH - within Russia (Polonsky, 1872, pp. 766-802; HeCKOJlbKO KJlaCCOB, H3 KOTOpblX BblC[lJHH Semenov, 1882, pp. 119-128). When referring to HOCHT Ha ce6e ca�fblH YTOH'IeHl-fblH ueeT respect for the law, one Russian author bitterly eeponeHCKOH nomrpOBKH, a HH3illHH remarked that in Russia nobody respected any laws ee.neT)!1mJUIH.lllUI HMeeT npeBOCXO.llHblH unlike Russia where there are several a.nMITTrHCTPaTIIBHblH COCTaB, 'lTO H 0 classes of which the upper has the most B3llTKax TaM HHKor.na H cnyxy He 6r,1110, a refined European colouring while the 11apo.n coeeplOeHHO .noeepneT 'IHHOBIHIKY, lower live like cavemen.] (Kuprin, 1975, [Finland boasts a superb bureaucracy, p. 61) bribery is unheard of, and the people have absolute trust in their officials]. During the years of reaction after the 1905 (Polonsky, 1872, p. 789) Revolution, Russian liberals Sergey Witte, Maksim Kovalevsky, Boris Nolde, and Sergey Korf At the turn of the 19th century Russian advocated autonomous rights for Finland (Nolde, liberals admired the Finnish tactic of so-called 1911, p. 467-553; Witte, 1960, pp. 252-287; "passive resistance." For instance, it took only ten Kovalevsky, 1912, pp. 428-4-41; Korf, 1917, pp. days for organizers to get 524,931 Finns to sign a 197-233). So did, in particular, the newspaper petition to Nicholas II begging him to maintain the Rech [Speech], the organ of the Constitutional-

32 Journal o{Finnisl, Studies. Volume I 4. Number 2. Winter2010

Democratic Party, as well as the journals Vestnik "A Criminal Coun/ly, " "The Powder-Barre/, ·· Evropy [Messenger of Europe] and RusskayaMys/' "The Den ofRevolutionaries, " and "The Base for [Russian Thought]. Speaking about political views Terrorists": The Russian Nationalist View of Russian liberals on Finland's autonomy, it In academic literature the rise of Russian should be noted that their majority supported so­ nationalism is generally associated with the Great called imperial liberalism that took for granted the Reforms (Thaden, 1964, p. 7; Hosking, 200 I, pp. preservation of "one and indivisible" Russia based 299-300; Dolbilov, 2005, pp. 135-136; Maiorova, on the dissemination of liberal and democratic 2005, pp. 501-509). The collapse of old patterns values: juridical equality for all citizens, freedom and values, belated industrialization and Western­ of the individual, development of type modernization and a steady polarization parliamentarianism and a constitutional state. In eroded the traditional links between the rulers and this connection, Kovalevsky, who was close to the the ruled. Nationalism was an ideology that Kadets, championed in the press "the conciliation promised to resurrect a semblance of unity by of the two principles-that of equality and that of filling the yawning gap between the educated elite respect of cultural peculiarities of the Finnish and the masses with national myths. By people" (Kovalevsky, 1912, pp. 428--441 ) .. manipulating the values of an idealized the past During the First World War, the Kadets with the help of the state, mass media, and argued for cultural, not territorial, autonomy, and education, nationalists sought to retrieve a sense of for local self-governance (Shelokhaev, 1998, pp. predictability and stability in a changing world 355-366). This idea was widely disseminated, for (Anderson, 1991 ). While writers, poets, and example, by the Vestnik Evropy in the wake of the journalists contributed to Russian nation-building, February Revolution. For instance, Grigory Landau state officials and right-wing intellectuals relied on wrote that Russia could not be painlessly broken the centralizing power of the state in their attempt apart, otherwise, instead of one nation and one to span a bridge between the educated elite and the nationalism for all minorities, there would emerge rest of the population. a menagerie of small nationalisms hunting down Russian nationalist discourse began with one another. Every national entity has one nation Slavophiles like the Aksakov brothers, Nikolas constituting the majority and some minorities who Danilevsky and Fiedor Dostoevsky, and the word suffer inequality. Since the national elite gives "nationalism" became current in Russian priority to nation-building, to the detriment of journalism during the 1880s (Sergeev, 2004, p. 11). important social and political problems, minorities Academics today distinguish between so called and socially unprotected categories of the "public nationalism" and "official imperial population are bound to suffer. Landau argued that patriotism" (Weeks, 2001, pp. 410-432; Maiorova, only a united Russia could implement democratic 2005, pp. 502-504). As Maiorova points out, reforms (Landau, 1917, pp. 548-569). "Russian public nationalism decried the absence of The Kadets opposed a federal a powerful sense of national identity that would restructuring of the Russian empire: " ...they were make it possible to 'return' the Westernized the most sensitive critics of federalism, whose Russian Empire to its national soil and discredit writings were more directly political and legal in the regime's dynastic universalism and their focus" (Hagen, 2005, p. 43). Landau allowed cosmopolitanism" (Maiorova, 2005, p. 504). for the possibility of a federal Russia only if it was During the Great Reforms, Mikhail modelled on American federalism, that is, he Katkov, editor of Moskovskie Vedomosti [Moscow regarded territorial, rather than ethnic, division as News] propounded public nationalism. He believed the basic principle of state structure. Nevertheless, that if Russia was to remain a great power, it had to a small number of liberals and socialists did forma strong democratic consciousness much like advocate federalism for Russia. One of them, an imperial Germany and that a shared devotion to the Associate Professor at Petersburg University, Karl tsar could create and sustain that kind of political Tiander, published a leaflet in 1917 that urged the nationalism even among the tsarist Russia's diverse Constituent Assembly to draft a Finnish tribes and nationalities (Hosking, 200 l, pp. 299, Constitution based on mutual compromise. Tiander 333-334). Katkov also admired Britain, which did not separate Finland from Russia. He thought it appeared to him as a dominant nation that did not was very important to have the division of power encroach on the identities of other peoples. He between Russia and Finland legally defined and hoped that Alexander H's reforms would bring secured by law (Tiander, 1917, p. 78). Russia similar political cohesion while preserving the empire's diverse minorities. The Russians, as the builders of the empire, had the right to

33 Novikova: From Lovalists to Separatists dominate it and impose their system on non­ separatism" temporarily disappeared from Russians (Hosking, 2001, p. 334 ). For Katkov, like discourse (Thaden, 1981, p. 32). most other nationalists, ethnicity was not important Katkov had to wait for Alexander III to in itself and was subject to higher religious and accede the throne before his ideas could thrive, and dynastic values. Katkov considered autocracy as a in the 1880s "tl1e Finnish question" became current sacral notion. He wrote: in the press. At issue was the legal status of the Grand Duchy. Some Finnish politicians, supported PyccKHH caMonep)l(eu Mm1opMaJTbl-!OCTl!MH, case, backed Finnish Senator Leo Mechelin, who He H)'>KJ:(al!Ch HH B KaKOM ycrnae, regarded Finland as a "special state" connected norrpaBJTl!Th BCl!K)'IO Hecrrpaae.ummocrh 11 with Russia by personal union (Mechelin, 1888; rrpeceKaTb BCl!KOe 3JTO, - He TOJlbKO Clticherin, 1894, Vol. I, p. 183; Vol. 3, p. 275; MO>KeT, Ho nepen EoroM o6l!3aH. Kovalevsky, 1910, pp. 7-24; Kolmogorov, 1917, p. [A Russian autocrat may, uninhibited by 4). On the other hand, Russian nationalists argued any formalities and requiring no statutes, Finland was an ordinary province with privileges redress any injustice and stop any granted by kind-hearted tsars. Katkov, for example, wrong,-in fact, not only can he do it, he criticized the Russian Liberals: is so obliged by God.] (Vremev, 1910) ToJTKOBaTb O KaKOH-TO «rrepcoHaJTbHOH As paraphrased by Geoffrey Hosking, Katkov's ymrn Me)l(Jly PocCHeA H KeCTBO, HJTH organism out of disparate ethnic material by rpy6r,rA o6MaH. (p[{HJTJ!HJ:(HJ! 3aaoeaa1-1HaH projecting the supreme personal authority of the pyccK�[M opy)!HHJTl!H.Il.HJ! JTH!llb no MHJTOCTH terrible impact it could have on other non-Russian PoccHi-lcKoro MMnepaTopa, KOTopbtH eo regions. He connected Finnish autonomy with BCl!KOe BpeMl! MO)lKe BOBCe ynpa3.UHHTb empire: "Even the worst of enemies could not HX. devise a more pernicious fate for Russia than the [Speaking about a personal union bet\veen spread of the example of Finland. There is nothing Russia and Finland is either political more repulsive to the political attitude of the ignorance or a gross delusion ... Finland Russian people than federalism, the mere thought conquered by the Russian army is not of which is enough to make me sick," wrote simply united with Russia but forms an Katkov (1863, p. 4). Curiously, in the 1860s-1870s inalienable part of the Russian Empire; Finland was rarely criticized in Russia.. The and the Russian Emperor is crowned but Russian academic school of constitutional law still once, in the Moscow Kremlin. Finland harboured partisans of decentralization and self­ enjoys its privileges only by the grace of govemance, who believed the autonomy of Finland the Russian Emperor, who can, according to be natural. The famous Russian lawyer Boris to his whim, choose either to expand Chicherin regarded Finland as a "special state" them, or curtail them, or revoke them which "though not incorporated into Russia is outright.] (Katkov, 1885, p. 2) united with it under the same sceptre" (Chicherin, 1894, Vol. l, p. 183). Preservation of national Such argumentation was elaborated by "one of the independence, he maintained, was a pledge of implacable enemies of Finnish autonomy" (Suni, loyalty of the Finns towards the Empire. Chicherin 1982, p. 57), tl1e Russian historian, writer, and frequently cited the Finnish example to illustrate steward of the household of Caesar Ordin. His the wisdom of the tsarist policy (Chicherin, 1894, huge two-volume study was nominated for a prize Vol. I, p. 183; Vol. 3, p. 275). Consequently, the from the Imperial Academy of Sciences and was government obliged Katkov to desist and "Finnish very popular in Russian nationalist circles because

34 Journal o(Finnish Studies. Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 20 I 0 it confirmed their image of how out of place Finnish example. Some Russian nationalists Finland was in the "united and indivisible" Russia wondered: (Ordin, 1889). Nationalists claimed that Ordin had opened their eyes to the genuine statement of tho ecm1 3a «rocyJlapcTBOM Russian power in Finland. According to the HHJUIHJlCKHM» HapOlUlTCll KHll)KeCTBa Russian nationalist author S. Smirnova: 3CTOHCKOe H JlHBOHCKOe, «KpyneBCTBO» noJlbCKOe, «reniaHCTBO» YKpaHHCKOe C ...OH (K. Op1u,11-1) coJ}lan o6pa3 Pocc1rn, oco6blMM MOHeTaMH, TaMO}l(Hl!.MM, r}le POCCHll npe)lCTaBHJlaCb e11ry B Bll}le 1101.fTaMH H �JHHaHCaMH? . . . B KaKOM 6apcKoro JlOMa co MHO)l(eCTBOM KOMHaT, nOJlO)l(eHHH 6yJleT TOrJla o6opOHa POCCHH rJle see npHHallJle)l(ano xoJllmry, 1-10 Ha OT s1-1ew1-1ero spara?. napallHOM nom,eJ.ue, Ha caMO!'.t· BH.UHOM [What if after a Finnish state come MecTe, pacnOJlO)l(HJlCll co CBOHM CKap6oM Estonian and Livonian Grand Duchies, a qy)l(OH •1enoseK. Kingdom of Poland, [and] a Ukrainian [ ... He (Ordin) depicted Russia as a huge Helman state with their own coins, manor house with a great number of customs houses, post offices and rooms where everything belongs to one fmances?... What will happen then to the owner, but right at the front door, in the defence of Russia against the foreign most conspicuous place, there was a man enemy?] (Kamensky, 1908, p. 62) sitting, kit and caboodle.] (Srnimova, 1908,p. 4) But although they reasoned that the Finnish case was a question of life and death for Imperial That was what Finland looked like at the end of the Russia, in actual fact they can be seen as having 19th century-an alien in the "one-and-indivisible" overreacted (Kamensky, 1908, p. 62). Russia. Russian nationalists produced all kinds of The Russian attitude toward Finnish publications and "studies" about the Grand Duchy autonomy changed radically under Nicholas II who of Finland. They called Finland "a province of the tried to integrate the Grand Duchy into the imperial Empire" and a "Russian borderland" (okraina administrative system. Finnish historians initially Rossii), and introduced the term "borderland described this imperial encroachment on policy" (ola·ainnaia politika) to refer to what until autonomous rights as "oppression" and divided it then had been termed "Russian national policy in into two periods: 1899-1905 and 1908-1917. Later Finland." Russian rightists labelled the Finns' they used the term "Russification" for the above struggle to preserve their autonomy as "criminal mentioned Russian policy in Finland, now some separatism" (Vladimorov,1908, pp. 15-16, 23) and historians use the term "unification" regarding the loyal Finns, in Russian nationalist view, changed period of the end of the 19th and early 201h centuries into "impudent in their separatism, non-Russians (Kaikkonen, 1985, p. 43). We prefer to use for (inorodtsi)" (Rumiantsev, 1907, p. 1). Finland's case the term "unification." The question It should be pointed out that the ruling of what caused this policy shift is still Russians largely excluded the majority of the controversial, but Russian conservative Grand Duchy's populations from their fears, nationalism, the influence of which on Nicholas II believing separatists were to stand for the Finland­ was profound, was perhaps the most important Swedish elite, who were suspected of treacherous factor (Luntinen, 1984, p. 81; Polvinen, 1997, pp. intentions. Bad relations between Russia and 31-36). Essentially, the Russo-Finnish conflict was Sweden added credence to rightist claims. Sweden, a clash of two new nationalisms-one state­ for their part, feared a "Russian threat" to building in nature and the other "autonomist" in Scandinavia. Petersburg feared a military alliance nature. The Finns were not demanding an between Gennany and Sweden and Russian extension of their autonomous rights, as the General Staff regarded Sweden as Russia's Russian rightists argued. They were only defending potential enemy in the Baltic in case of European what they already enjoyed. war (Materiali, 1909, p. 6). As a consequence of Additionally, Nicholas Tl's Finnish policy these anxieties, imperial leadership increasingly was conditioned by unfavorable military, strategic, distrusted the Swedish ethnic elite in Finland. A geopolitical, and economic factors, including the new Finnish policy of Russian ruling elite appeared imminent European war (Novikova, 2002, pp. 38- as a kind of traditional policy "divide and rule"­ 45), which made him particularly fearful that his setting the f-inns against the Swedes to dominate other non-Russian subjects might follow the both. The situation was akin to that of the Baltic

35 Novikova: From Lova/ists to Separatists r provinces where the imperial power upheld the liberated Russia from the Poles; and Russians won local population against the German upper class battles only thanks to luck or bribery (Finskii then suspected of treason in the case of a Russo­ pisatel', 1910, p. 6; Alekseev, p. 1 ). Russians in German war. The effect was the same in both Finland, claimed the nationalists, were worse off cases: the old elite (in the Baltic provinces, the than Jews and Gypsies (Smirnova, 1908, p. 16). Baltic Germans, in Finland, the Swedes) turned Earlier Russian admiration of Finnish openly hostile towards the autocracy. local administration disappeared with the The new imperial policy towards Finland appointment of Governor-General Bobrikov whom was connected with Governor-General Nikolas I. the nationalists considered as Bobrikov ( 1898-1904 ). His activity reflected both ruling elite and Russian nationalist prejudices. npeKpaCHbl H pyccKHH l(eJTOBeK, Most Finnish people falsely thought that Nicholas o6na.naBWHH rpoMa.UHblM YMOM, II had a poor view about Bobrikov's nocTaBHJT CBOCH 3a.na4ei,i oxpaHl!Tb "experiments." However, his correspondence with pyccKHe HHTepeCbl, c.ueJlaTb pyccKoro Bobrikov reveals that the governor-general's tteJlOBeKa B HHJl.SIH.UUeB 3acTaBHTb npaBHJlbHO only regretted that the policy against Finnish CMOTPeTb Ha CBOH OTHOWeHHll C Pocc11eit autonomy started so late. Nicholas II also promised [ ...a wonderful Russian person, endowed to promote the propaganda of Bobrikov's policies with great wit and talent..., who set (Nicholas II, 1899, p. l ). lt is hard to say to which himself the task to protect Russian degree the Emperor kept his promises, but the interests, to make the Russian the master ruling elite did not object to this new nationalist in Finland and force the Finns to have the propaganda, in any case, as compared with the proper view of Russia.] (Vladimorov, position of Alexander II toward Katkov's 1908, p. 15) propaganda. The Russian nationalist image of Finnish Bobrikov was assassinated by young Finland­ society spread in newspapers like Novoye vremya Swedish E. Schauman in May 1904, and as that [New Time], Rossiia [Russia], and Okrainy Rossi was followed by more assassinations and attempts [Russia's Borderlands] was not romantic. on the lives of senior officials, nationalists began Nationalists turned "wonderful Finland" into "the labelling all Fi..tms terrorists or terrorist pasture of loafers and parasites" and "paradise for sympathizers (Vladimorov, 1905, p. 7; officials" (Finskii pisatel', l 910, p. 6; Alekseev, Rumiantsev, 1907, p. 9). For instance, Russian 1910, p. I, Ushkuinik, 1910, p. 4). For instance, the nationalist S. Vladimirov named Bobrikov's newspaper Rossiia wrote that the Finns traded the assassination as "the first Finnish anned attack elderly, children and the disabled at auctions and against Russia" (Vladimorov, 1908, p. 16). further questioned Finns' morality, accusing them During the 1905 Revolution, conservative of drunkenness, dissolution and criminality (Liudi­ journalists depicted Finland as "a barrel of gun­ tovar, 1910, p.4). The leading Finnish newspaper powder and a den of revolutionaries" (Kamensky, Helsingin Sanomat ironically noted that the 1908; Ushkuinik, 1910, p. 4). Russian ministries, Russian nationalist press depended on Finnish meanwhile, collected the publications of the most police reports (Suomi, 1910, pp. 9-10). It is radical Finnish revolutionaries and terrorists, noteworthy that the Russian right-wing press translated them and published them as supplements largely referred to the left-wing radical and social­ to newspapers. One such tract was a brochure by a democratic Finnish press (including such radical leader of the Finnish party of "active newspapers as Tyomies [The Working Man] and resistance" Konni Zilliacus, where, in his attempt Kansan Tahto [The Will of the People]) that to make terrorists into national heroes and criticized Finnish capitalist society (Suomi, 1910, popularize terror, he ennobled violence as a pp. 9-10). Russian nationalists branded Finnish method of struggle while exaggerating its scale schools as "breeders of hostile ideas" and within Finland (Zilliacus, 1913). The purpose of condemned school textbooks for writing things these translations was to show Russian society that like: "Russia was a neighbouring state;" that during "even the most law-abiding and peaceful Finish the Time of Troubles I the Swedes and Finns had citizens harbour terrorists" (Zilliacus, 1913, p. 6).

1 The Time of Troubles was a period of political lvanovich of the Rurik Dynasty in 1598 and the upheaval between the death of the last Tsar Feodor establishment of the Romanov Dynasty in 1613.

36 Journal o(Finnish Studies, Volume 14, Number 2, Winter 2010

Significantly this particular brochure Finland, Mikhail Borodkin, drew an allegorical appeared on the eve of the debate at the Ministry of picture of the future the Russian empire as young Justice over a bill to extend imperial political crime men standing hand in hand under one raincoat in legislation to Finnish territory. In another such the pouring rain in front of the colossal monument brochure the Finnish revolutionary, I. Mustonen to Peter the Great in St. Petersburg. His message wrote about secret Finnish military organizations, was that Russia enveloped various nationalities, revolutionary expropnatlons of banks and including the Finns, and his men, standing hand in assistance to Russian revolutionaries. Copies were hand under the one raincoat "in good fraternal distributed as a free supplement to the right-wing accord," aspired "to devote themselves to the newspaper Okraini Rossii; the editors of which constructive work of the common state" (Borodkin, used it to give credibility to their claim that 1915, p.6). "revolutionaries and separatists have formed a For others, the "new nationalists," whom single, highly explosive ball that endangers the Liberals branded "zoological," like Mikhail state" (Mustonen, 1909, p. 40). Menshikov from Novoye Vremya, ethnos was a In his speech in May 1908 to the Russian biological organism and race, blood, and breed Parliament, the Duma, Prime Minister Petr detennined nationality. From this perspective, all Stolypin called Finland a "terrorist base" and foreigners, including the Finns, were Russia's demanded the Grand Duchy's administrative enemies. He believed that Russification was the integration into the empire to facilitate combating sovereign remedy for Russia's ills and dreamed revolution and terror. In 1910, again in the State about an Empire of Russians which, in his view, Duma, Stolypin emphasized that Russia's friendly would be "a living reign of the Russian tribe, an attitude to Finland had borne no fruit. Their. granted indefatiguable overpowering of non-Russian rights had done nothing to endear the Finns toward elements, [where] an incessant submission of Russians, and supposedly during the Revolution nations alien to us [the Russians] would occur ... "ships loaded with weapons [were] headed for the till final victory over the peril, when all non­ Finnish coast," "acts of violence against Russia Russian elements have been turned to Russians" were being freely plotted," and illegal armed units, (Menshikov, 1910). Menshikov suggested that the Finnish Red Guard and the "Voima" [Force], borderlands that could not be russified should be were formed (Stolypin, 1910, pp. 1-2). The Prime abandoned. However, his ideas enjoyed brief Minister, who actually did not really know what currency and a small following, was happening in Finland, took his information In assessing the impact of the nationalist from the right-wing nationalist press. Nonetheless, image of Finns on the Russian public, it should be his speech had serious implications as on May 17, noted that educated Russians never accepted such 1910, the Duma adopted a law providing for the discourse and actively debated it while the peasants transfer of all important legislation in the Grand were indifferent to the "Finnish question." Duchy to the central Russian authorities (Teystre, Nevertheless, the government made good use of 1972, pp. 94-96). This law served as the legal basis nationalist propaganda to justify its new policy forthe abolition of Finnish autonomy. towards Finland. The links between Russian right­ During The First World War the rightist wing adherents and the Russian government were press attached another label, that of "parricide," to especially strong at the time of Prime Minister Petr the Finns. This was related to the fact that over Stolypin (1906-1911), whose brother Alexander 1890 Finnish volunteers had joined the German was a contributor to the extreme right, nationalist army as the 27lh Royal Prussian Jager Battalion to newspaper Novoye Vremya [New Time]. fight the Russians (Lackman, 2000; Novikova, 2002, pp. 89-123). But although the right-wing "The Red Rear of the Russian Revolution": The newspapers Novoye Vremya [New Time] and the Russian Revol11tio11aries' View Russian military command in Finland demanded Russian revolutionaries sympathized with repressive measures against the Grand Duchy Finland, calling it a "small, constitutional cornerof (Novikova, 2002, p. 124-134), the imperial the Russian state" (Kollontay, 1906, p. 3). They government did nothing and suspended the condemned the government for abrogating the abolition of Finnish autonomy until "better times." Grand Duchy's autonomy and exploited this factin Russian nationalists differed in their their propaganda. For instance, Alexandra visions of future Russo-Finnish relations. The Kollontay, who often visited Finland, compared majority thought in terms of "united and tsarist policy towards Finland to British policy indivisible" Russia which disregarded ethnicity. towards the Transvaal during the Boer War (1899- Thus, the author of Russia's first history of 1902). Both powers, she claimed, used "brute force

37 Novikova: From lovalists to Separatists

and unjustified cruelty," and "trampled upon the Boris Savinkov, visited the famous Finnish artist freedom of minorities." The only difference Eero Jiimefelt. Some Russian terrorist groups between British and the Russian policy, in her which had sought to assassinate Prime Minister view, was that the British were conquering Stolypin, also found shelter in Finland.. Leo Transvaal "with fire and sword" while Russia was Trotsky and Vladimir Lenin fled to the Grand conquering Finland with "red tape." Despite her Duchy to find asylum in the "Vaasa" cottage in the striking juxtaposition of "the flooding of blood" in small village of Kuokkala. In 1907 a Bolshevik the fom1er case and the "shedding of tears" in the laboratory for manufacturing explosives was latter, Russian policy in Finland, according to discovered several kilometers from Kuokkala. Kollontay, was worse than British policy in South Finland was also significant as the original meeting Africa" (Kollontay, 1906, p. 5). [n her opinion, place of Lenin and Joseph Stalin, as well as its use Russian autocracy was the worst enemy of non­ as a base for a special Russian committee that Russians in the empire, the Russians and the Finns provided assistance topolitical refugees and money shared the same interests, and the Russian and to revolutionaries (Musaev, 2004, p. 285). Finnish Social Democrats had to unite their efforts Perhaps the positive image of the Finns if Finland was to be free"(Kollontay, 1906, p. 8). that the Bolsheviks had formed before 1917 During the First Russian Revolution predisposed Lenin to recognize Finnish ( 1905-1907), radicals regarded Finland as the "red independence in 1917. Members of the Finnish rear" of the Russian revolution-an apt delegation that had lodged a petition with the characterization as the Grand Duchy was indeed Soviet of People's Commissars, later admitted that the base for Russian revolutionaries. There they the promptness with which the Soviet goverrunent found refuge from the okhrana (secret police), held took its decision surprised them (Idman, 1953, p. their conferences, published illegal literature, 208). There are many explanations for why tbe stored weapons, and conducted various kinds of Bolsheviks acceded to Finnish independence; some illegal activities in relative safety (Musaev, 2004, considered it only temporary in light of the pp. 282-290). Numerous memoirs by Russian and imminent world revolution. In Grigory Zinoviev's Finnish revolutionaries testify that revolutionary graphic words, Finnish territory was "the Russian organizations in Finland generally functioned with Revolution's window on Europe" (Ketola, 1989, the connivance of local authorities. Finnish pp. 49, 57). Contemporary Finnish historians, authorities even went so far as to assist however, agree that Bolshevik leaders were revolutionaries and warn them of impending genuinely grateful to the Finns for their assistance danger (Mustonen, 1909; Smirnov, 1933). This and consequently thought Finland had "earned its paradox stemmed from the fact that Russian right of independence" (Kallenautio, 1985, pp. 22- legislation was not applicable in Finland, so 23). Finnish authorities could regard the attempts of the imperial police to arrest and prosecute Russian Conclusion revolutionary groups as interference in the internal Russian images of Finland and the Finns affairs of the Grand Duchy. were conditioned by the economic, political and Of the various Finnish political cultural relations between the two peoples and the organizations opposed to tsarism that offered political predilections of those who created such considerable assistance to revolutionaries, the most images. Contrasts between the 19th and 20th century fervent was the party of "active resistance" (so Russian images of Finns were related to the 111 called the Activists), founded in 1904. They interests of their creators. While in the 19 century, resembled the Russian Party of Socialist writers, poets, scientists, ethnographers, and 1 Revolutionaries in that they assassinated Russian tourists determined that image, in the early 20t1 11 officials, procured weapons, and dreamed of an century their place was taken by conservative armed revolt in collaboration with their Russian nationalists and the ruling elite. Their image of I' counterparts. The Activists provided active support Finns, unlike that of the intellectuals, was I to Russian revolutionaries, supplying them with politicized. They saw Finns as "separatists," finances, weapons, illegal literature and "terrorists," and "parricides"-images that justified transportation (Kujala,1987, p. 92; 1988, p. 4). Nicholas Il's policy of unification and Many Russians involved in the 1905 centralization. Revolution fled to Finland afterwards. The terrorist Unfortunately, the "Bobrikov period" and wing of the Socialist Revolutionary Party headed tl1e "Stolypin Reaction" cast such a shadow on the by the notorious Yevno Azef had one of its last decade of Finland's development within the headquarters in Finland, where Azef, together with Russian Empire that it erased from historical

38 Journal o(Finnish Studies. Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 2010

consciousness the previous century of fruitful Finskii pisatel' o nashih chinovnikah-liberalah cooperation under tsarist rule. During the Soviet [ editorial]. ( 1910, January 31 ). Rossiia, p. period, the perception of the Russian Empire as a 6. "prison for peoples" dominated historical research Giese, 0. (2005). Palmyra des Nordens: St. on both sides of the border. It seems that it is now Petersburg: Eine nordosteuropiiische time to investigate the positive aspects of earlier Metropole? In Jahrb11cher far Geschichte Russo-Finnish coexistence. Osteuropas 53(3), 359-360. Grot, Y. ( 1840). 0 finnah i ih narodnoy poesii. ln References Sovremennik 19, 5-101. Grot, Y (1847). Pereezdi po Finliandii. Putevie Akti, otnosiazl,iesia k politicheskomu po/ozheniu zapiski Yakova Grota. St. Petersburg: tip. Finliandii. (1903). St. Petersburg: Gos. P. Krasheninnikova i K. Tipographia. Hagen, M. (2005). lstoria Rossii kak istoria Alekseev, A (1910, May 12). Shkoli v FinJiandii. imperii: Perspektivi federalistskogo Rossiia, p. I. podhoda. 1n Rossiiskaia imperia v Anderson, B. ( 1991). Imagined communities: zan1bez/111oj istoriografii (pp. 18-47). Reflections on the origin and spread of Moscow: Novoe izdatel'svo. nationalism. London: Verso. Hosking, G. (200 I). Russia and the Russians. A Azarova, N. I. (Ed.). (2000). Portfel' grafa A.H. Histo,y from Rus to the Russian Benkendorfa: Memuari shefa Federation. London: Allen Lane. zhandarmov. In Nikolai I: Muzh. Otez. Idman, K. G. (1953). Maamme itseniiistymisen Imperator (p. 346). Moscow: Slovo. vuosilta. Muistelmia. Helsinki: WSOY. Bakhtiarov, A A (1994). Briukho Peterburga. Juhneva, N. V. (1984). Etnicheskij sos/av i Leningrad: RIA Fert. etnosozial 'naia struktura nase/enia Borodkin, M. (1909). Itogi stoletiia. Har'kov: Peterburga. Vtoraia polovina XIX - Mimiy trud. naclzalo XXveka. Leningrad: Nauka. Borodkin, M. (1915). Po shab/onam i trafaretam. Jussila, 0. (1979). Nationalismi ja val!ankumous 0 f..rritike barona S. A. Korfa. Helsingfors: veniiliiis-suomalaisissa suhteissa 1899- Finliandskaia gazeta. 1914. Helsinki: Suomen Historiallinen Boulding, K. (1959). The image. Ann Arbor: Seura. University of Michigan Press. Jussila, 0., Hentilii, S, Nevakivi, J. (1998). Bulgarin, F. (1839). Letniaia progulka po Politicheskaia istoria Finliandii. (T. Finliandii i Shvetsii v 1838 g. St. Androsova, Trans.). Moscow: Yes' mir. Petersburg: Tipografia ekspedizii Kaikkonen, 0. (1985). Aspekte zur Erforschung zagotovlenia gos. bumag. der deutsch-finnischen Beziehungen Chicherin, B. (1894, Vol. l; 1898, Vol. 3). Kurs 1871-1914. In Zur Nordeuropa- gosudarstvennoy nauki. Moscow: I. N. Forschung (pp 40-51 ). Greifswald, Kushnerev i K. Gennany: Greifswald Universitiit. Dal (Lugansky), V. I. (1846). Chiuhontsi v Pitere. Kallenautio, J. ( 1985). Suomi katsoo eteensii: In Finskii Vestnik 8, 1-16. Itseniiisen Suomen ulkopolitiikka, 1917 - Dershau, F. K. (Ed.). (1845). Sever evropeyskoy 1965. Helsinki: WSOY. Rossii. In Finskiivestnik 4, 21-94. Kamensky, N. (I 908). Sovremennoe polozhenie Dolbilov, M. (2005). Polonofobia i politika Finliandii s tochki zrenia oboroni rusifikatsii v Severo-Zapadnom krae gosudarstva. St. Petersburg: Tip. Glav. imperii v 1860e godi. In L. Gudkov (Ed.). Upr. Udelov. Obraz vraga (pp. 127-174). Moscow: Kappeler, A. (1992). Russ/and als Vielvo!kerreich: OGI. Entstel111ng, Geschiclzte, Zerfa/1. Munich: Engman, M. (1983). St. Petersburg och Finland. Verlag C. H. Beck. Migration och injluens. 1702-1917. Katkov, M. ( 1863, Sept. I 0). In Moskovskie Helsingfors: Societas Scientiarum Vedomosti� Fennica. Katkov, M. N. (1885, October 17). 0 Finliandii. Engman, M. (2008). Finliandzi v Peterburge. St. Moskovskie Vedomosti, pp. 2-3. Petersburg: Evropeyskiy Dom. Kaulbars, N. ( 1900). Kratkoe obozrenie Ve/ikogo Gagarin, P. ( 1809). Trinadzat' dnej, iii Fin/iandia. Kniazhestva Finliandskogo. St. Moscow: Tip. P. Beketova. Petersburg: Voennaia tiporgafia.

39 Novikova: From Lovalists to Separatists

Ketola, E. ( 1989). Die Annerkennung der Materiali o podgotovke Petrogradskogo voennogo finnischen Unabhandigkeit durch Sowjet­ okruga k voyne so Shvetsiej. (1909). F. Russland im Jahre 1918. Jaltrbiicher fiir 2000. Glavuoe upravlenie General'nogo Gesc/1ichte Osteuropas 37, 46-64. shtaba [Headquarters of General Staff]. Klinge, M. (2005). Imperskaia Finliandia. St. Op. 1. D. 3284. Moscow: Russian State Petersburg: Kolo. War-Historical Archive .. Kolmogorov, A. ( 1917). Finliandia. Kak borolas' i Mechelin, L. (1888). Konstitutsia Finliandii (K. kak boretsia Finliandia za svoiu svobodu. Ordin, Trans.). St. Petersburg: Tip. I. N. Moscow: Zadruga. Skorohodova. Kollontay, A. M. ( 1906). Finliandia i sozialism. Menshikov, M. 0. ( 1910, March 16). St. Petersburg: M. Malikh. Nezarstvennii imperialism. In Pis 'ma k Korf, S. (1917, Sept.-Dec.) Nazional'nosti i blizhnim. Moscow: Isdanie M. 0. gosudarstvo. In Vestnik Evropy, pp. I 97- Menshikova. 233. Musaev, V. I. (2004). Velikoe kniazhestvo Kouri, E. (2005). Die politisch-administrative Finliandskoe i russkie revoliutsioneri. In Rolle der fitmische Sprache im Baryslmikov V. (Ed.), Sankt-Peterburg i Schwedischen und Russischen Reich. strani Severnoy Evropi (pp. 282-290). St. Jiihrbiicher far Geschic/zte Osteuropas Petersburg: RHGA. 53(3), 338-348. Musaev, V. I. (2007). Rossia i Finliandia: Kovalevsky, M. (Ed.). ( 1910). Sbornik mnenij Migratsionnie kontakti i polozhenie russkih professorov gosudarstvennogo diaspor (konez XIX v.-1930-e gg). St. prava o prirode otnoshenij Rossii k Petersburg: isd. Politehnicheskogo Finliandii. St. Petersburg: universiteta. Gosudarstvennaia tipografia. Mustonen, I. A (1909). Razoblachenie tayn. Kovalevsky, M. (1912). Ravnopravie v Finliandii. Vsaimnie otnoshenia revoliuzionerov i VestnikEvropi 2, 428-441. sozialistov v Finliandii. St. Petersburg: Krusius-Ahrenberg, L. (1959). Finnischer Gosudarstvennaia tipografia. Separatismus und Russischer Naumenko, V. G. (2009). Kniaz' Pavel lmperialismus im vorigen Jahrhundert. Gavrilovich Gagarin ego kniga Historische Zeitschrift 187(2), 249-289. "Trinadzat' dney" iii Finliandia. Kujala, A. (1987). Veniijan Literaturovedchesf...'i.y Zhurnal 25, I 69- sosialistivallankumouksellinen puolue ja 200. Suomen aktivismin synty. Historia/linen Nicholas II to Bobrikov, N. I. (1899, March 26). F Aikakauskirja 2, 83-97. 691. Op. 1. D. 9. St. Petersburg: Russian Kujala, A (1988). Japanin, Englannin ja Ruotsin State Historical Archive. yhteydet Suomen perustuslailliseen Niva. (1907). p. 13. oppositioon Venajiin-Japanin sodan Nolde, B. (1911 ). Ocherki Russkogo aikana. Historiallinen Aikakauskirja 1, 3- gosudarstvennogo prava. St. Petersburg: 24. Pravda. Kuprin, A. I. (1975). Nenmozhko Finliaudii. In Novikova, I. N. (2002). "Finskaia karta" v Sobranie sochinenij. Vol. 5. Moscow: nemetskom pasianse: Germania i Khudozhestvennaia Literatura. problema nezavisimosti Finliandii v godi Lackman, M. (2000). Suomen vai Saksan puolesta? Pe,voj mirovoj voyni. St. Petersburg: St. Helsinki: Otava. Petersburg University Press. Landau, G. (1917). Edinaia Rossia. Vestnik Evropi O'Bell, L. (1985). Young Pushkin: Ruslan and 4, 548-569. Liudmila in its lyric context. Russian Liudi-tovar [editorial]. (1910, May 25). Rossiia, p. Review 44(2), 139-155. 4. Ordin, K. F. (1889). Pokorenie Finliandii... V 2-h Luntinen, P. (l 984). Veniiliiisten sotasuunnitelmat chastiah. St. Petersburg: Tip. I. N. Suomen separatismia vastaan. Tampere, Skorohodova. Finland: Historiatieteen laitoksen Paasi, A. (1995). Territories, boundaries and julkaisuja. consciousness. The changing geographies Maiorova, 0. (2005). War and peace: The trope of of the Finnish-Russian border. Chichester, war in Russian nationalist discourse UK: Jolm Wiley. during the Polish uprising of 1863. Parppei, K. (20 I 0, June). Pagans of darkness, cruel Krilika, 6(3), 501-509. Lutherans: images of religious 'others' in

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the historical accounts concerning the 174-198). Bloomington and Indianapolis: Russian Orthodox Valaam monastery. In Indiana University Press. Scandinavian Journal of History 35, I 35- Sunderland, W. (2005). Russkie prevrazhaiutsia v 155. iakutov? "Obinorodchivanie" i problemi Polonsky, L. (1872). Neskol'ko dney v Finliandii. russkoj naziolnal'noy identichnosti na Vestnik Evropi 4, 766-802. Severe Sibiri, 1870-1914." In Rossiiskaia Polvinen, T. (1997). Derzhava i o/...Taina. (G. imperia v zarubezhnoj istoriografii (pp. Muravin, Trans.). St. Petersburg: 119-227). Moscow: Novoe izdatel'svo. Evropeyskiy Dom. Suni, L. ( 1982). Samoderzhavie i obzhestvenno­ Pushkin, A. S. (1950a). Mednii vsadnik. In politicheskoe razvitie Finliandii v 80-90-e Pushkin, A. S. Polnoe sobranie gg. XIX v. Leningrad: Nauka. sochinenii, Volume IV (pp. 375-396). Suomi Veniijiin lehdistii [editorial]. (1910, March, Moscow and Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo 19). In Helsingin Sanomat, pp. 9-10. Akademii nauk SSSR. Svedenia ob urozhenzah Finliandii, prozhivaiuzhih Pushkin, A. S. (1950b). Ruslan i Liudmila. In v prochih chastiah imperii i sostoiazhih na Pushkin, A. S. Polnoe sobranie imperskoj sluzhbe. ( 1910). St. Petersburg: sochinenii, (pp. 7-102). Moscow; Gosudarstrannaia tipografia. Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii nauk Teystre, U. V. (1972). Vopros ob SSSR. obzhegosudarstvennom zakonodatel'stve i Rumiantsev, A. (1907). Finliandia voonizhaetsia! nastuplenie tsarisma na finliandskuiu St. Petersburg: Tipografia A. S. Suvorina. avtonomiu v 1907-1910 gg. Skandinavskii Screen, J. E. 0. (1976). Entry of the Finnish Sbornik17, 94-107. officers into the Russian military service. Thaden, E. ( 1964). Conservative nationalism in London: University of London. nineteenth centwy Russia. Seattle: Semenov, P. P. (Ed.). (1882). Zhivopisnaia Rossia, University of Washington Press. Vol 2. St. Petersburg: Tipografia M. 0. Thaden, E. (Ed.). (1981). Russification in the Baltic Volfa. Provinces and Finland, 1855-1914. Semenov-Tian-Shansky, V. P. (n.d.). Iz semeinih Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. vospominanii. [Manuscript]. Valerii Tiander, K. (1917). Finliandia i Rossia. Petrograd: Petrovich Semenov-Tian' -Shanskii Zadroga. Papers. Manuscript Box 2. New York: Tiander, K. (1934). Das Erwachen Osteuropas. Bakhmeteff Archive, Columbia Die Nationalitiitenbewegung in Russ/and University Library. und der Weltkrieg. Vienna & Leipzig Sergeev, S. M. (Ed.). (2004). Natsia i imperia v [publisher unknown]. russkoj mysli nachala XXveka .. Moscow: Ushkuinik [pseudonym]. (1910, May 4). "Narodnie PRENSA. sobrania" v Finliandii. Rossia, p. 4. Shelokhaev, V. V. (1998). Razdabotka kadetami Viskochkov, L. B. (2003). "Ostav'te finnov v nazional'nogo voprosa v godi pervoj pokoe": lmperator Nilokaj I i Velikoe mirovoj voyni. In Pervaia mirovaia kniazhestvo Finliandskoe. In V. voyna. Prolog XX veka (pp. 355-366). Baryshnikov (Ed.), Sankt-Peterburg i Moscow: Nauka. strani Severnoj Evropi (pp. 62-73). St. Srnirnov, V. M. (1933). Iz revoliutsionnoy istorii Petersburg: RHGI. Finliandii 1905, 1917, 1918. Leningrad: Vladimorov, S. (1905). Revoliutsia v Finliandii pri Loiz, tiporgafiaim. Volodarskogo. [vane Obolenskom. St. Petersburg: Smirnova, S. (1908). Ugnetennaia strana. Zametki Gosudarstvennaia tipografia. o Finliandii. St. Petersburg: Tipografia A. Vladimorov, S. (1908). Chlo delaetsia u nas v S. Suvorina. Finliandii? Moscow: Tipografia Stolypin, P. Rech' Predsedatelia Soveta Ministrov. obzhestva rasprostranenia poleznoy knigi. (1910, May 22). In Rossia, pp. 1-2. Vremev, B. (1910, Apr. 23). Liberal-kholopi. In Sunderland, W. (1998). An empire of peasants. Rossia, p. 4 Empire-building, interethnic interaction, Weeks, T. (2001). Official and popular and ethnic stereotyping in the rural world nationalism: Imperial Russia, 1863-1912. of the Russian Empire, 1800-18 50s. In J .. In U. Hirschhausen & J. Leonard (Eds.). Burbank & D. L. Ransel (Eds). Imperial Nationalismen in Europa: West- und Russia. New histories for the empire (pp. Osteuropa im Vergleich, (pp. 410-432). Gottingen: Wallstein.

41 I ' Novikova: From Loyalists to Separatists

'i Wette, W. (1998, Vol. l). Obrazi Rossii u nemzev Yakovlev, 0. A. (2005). Periodicheskie izdania o v XX veke. In B. Tupolev (Ed.). Rossia i Finliandii v Sankt-Peterburge {1845- Germania. (Vol. l, pp. 226-243). 1910). In Sankt-Peterburg strani Moscow: Nauka. Severnoy Evropi (pp. 247-25 3). St. Witte, S. {1960). Vospominania. Vol. 3. Moscow: Petersburg: RHGI. Sozegiz. Zilliacus, K. {1913). Istoria odnogo pokushenia. St. Petersburg: Gosudarstvennaia tipografia.

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42 Journal o(Finnish Studies: Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 2010

Medieval Finland Depicted in Post-Modern Music: Rautavaara's Opera Thomas Barbara Hong Western Michigan University Abstract Einojuhani Rautavaara (b. 1928) is one of Finland's best known composers. His 1985 opera Thomas is particularly interesting for an imaginative view into the history of Finland, and for its synthesis of various languages, literary styles, and contrasting styles of music often used simultaneously. Thomas is the story of a medieval bishop of Finland, originally English, who failed at a crusade against the Novgorods of early Russia. He dreams of taking control of an independent Finland for himself, but through his own moral failings loses his religious calling. In the opera, we see the conflict of the Church with paganism, as well as the historical background of the Baltic area with several warring trade, political, and religious factions. Bishop Thomas is a sometimes crude and greedy man, but also as a man with a vision of an independent country, a vision that came centuries too soon to be realized.

Einojuhani Rautavaara, still actively to imitate the neo-classical composers Stravinsky, working in his eighties, is one of Finland's Prokofiev, and Shostakovich, as can be heard in his internationally best known composers. Though First Symphony (1956/1988). After completing his praised for his symphonies, chamber music, and studies at both the Helsinki Sibelius Academy and vocal works, his ten operas are masterpieces of the University of Helsinki in 1953, he did further both music and drama. His 1985 opera Thomas is work at Juilliard and the Tanglewood Summer particularly interesting on many levels, those of an Institute in America, and then went on to twelve­ imaginative view into the history of Finland, tone studies in Gemrnny and Switzerland. various languages and literary styles, as well as Experimenting with the strict!( regimented contrasting styles of music. The unusual constructs of serialism in the 1960s, he soon found combination of these becomes a valid means of that he needed more expressive possibilities. A free expression in this work which depicts the clash of tonal style followed in the 1970s with many cultures and religions. Thomas is the story of an references to traditional triads and lyrical melodies, early medieval bishop of Finland, originally an a style sometimes called neoromanticism. 2 A English Dominican friar, who mounted a crusade variety of other techniques at the same period made against the Novgorods of early Russia. In the his works dramatically different from one another. process, he dreams of taking control of an His Vigils (1971-1972/1996) was a large choral independent Finland for himself and loses his own work using the austere musical style of the religious calling. In the opera, we see the conflicts Orthodox Church; his Third Symphony (1959- of the medieval Roman Catholic church with the 1961) gives homage to Bruckner, a late Romantic mystical paganism of the Finnish wilderness, as composer; his Cantus Arcticus (1972) includes well as the historical background of the Baltic area recorded Arctic bird song; his opera Abduction of at that time: the weak Swedish monarchy, the the Sampo (1974/1982) on the Kalevala tale, growing power of the merchants of Gotland, the electronically distorts the spoken voice of the witch long-reaching military might of the papacy, the Louhi in a truly terrifying way. Other techniques political suspicions of the Novgorods and, in short, include spoken choir works, aleatoric or chance everyone's drive to acquire more territory and elements, where the composer gives the perfonner power. Bishop Thomas emerges here, m or conductor sections for random order or free Rautavaara's view, as a sometimes crude and rhythm; bits of jazz, or quotes of well-known greedy man, but also as a man with a vision of tunes. By the end of the 1970s, a free use of combining his spiritual world with that of the twelve-tone rows began to reappear in his works. mystical Finns in an independent country, a vision that comes centuries too soon to be realized. 1 Modificata for orchestra, (1957), a first effort at Rautavaara 's Biography and Style Development this style; Praevariata (1957),later withdrawn, with As a composer, Rautavaara, bornin 1928, not only a twelve tone row, but a row of irregular went through several style periods in finding his rhythmic figures, becoming what Rautavaara own way. His earliest works in the 1950s play with considered a set of variations with decisions made Finnish folk music, such as his Pelimannit rre-compositionally (Rautavaara, 1989, p. 195). [Fiddlers] suite for piano based on actual Ma,jatta matala neili [Marjatta, the Lowly eighteenth century Finnish fiddle tunes, and go on Maiden] (1975), a children's opera based on a Kalevala tale.

43 I Hong: Medieval Finland Depicted in Postmodern Music

In 1985, his opera Thomas combined Dominican Thomas get to Finland in 1220 A.D. many of his previously explored techniques in a from England so soon after the founding of the mixture of styles and techniques called for by the Dominican order in 1216? Why is there so much clash of characters and situations. This type of anti-Swedish rhetoric in the opera libretto after musical eclecticism is termed postmodernism, what would have been less than a hundred years of meaning a rejection of the often dry, strict rules of Swedish conquest or rule? Was Swedish control atonality and serialism in favor of using many of that widespread and hated already? Was this real or the styles of the past and present oftenjuxtaposed. influenced by Rautavaara's knowledge of the next Each of Rautavaara's compositions since that time 600 odd years of Swedish domination? Where were has called for its own innovations, often widely the Swedish officials to allow a churchman so 3 varying from work to work. much military power? Other questions came from my limited knowledge of medieval history: where The Histo,y of Bishop Thomas 's Era in Finland did the Vikings go, by then? Was the Hanseatic The opera Thomas is a work of art, of the League a strong influence yet? imagination, but is also based on a historical person To answer my questions, a quick review and event. We may well ask how much of the story of history was needed. The Vikings of Sweden is actual history and how much is invented? The Elourished on the Gulf of Finland between Sweden known facts about Bishop Thomas are few. The and Russia from the gth to I I o, centuries, and raided historical Thomas served as Bishop of Turku from the coastal settlements of Finland so often that the about 1220 to 1245, a period of about 25 years. inl1abitants mostly retreated to the interior for Called Thomas Anglicus, he was an English-born safety (Jutikkala & Pirinen, 1974, pp. 12-16). By Dominican with ties to both the Sorbonne in Paris the time of the 131h century Bishop Thomas, they and the Papal Court in Rome, and had previously were gone. Those Swedish traders who settled in 1 been a Canon in Uppsala (Wuorinen, 1965, p. 37). Russia, dating from the 8 " century, eventually He instigated or was part of a crusade against the became mixed with the Slavs and converted to the Novgorods of Russia, is known to have been Eastern Orthodox faith in the 10th century involved in the mutilation and killing of a man and (Jutikkala & Pirinen, 1974, p. 18). By the early 13th the forging of a papal document, resigned as century, there was no longer any cultural or Bishop after the failed crusade, and retired to a religious connection with Sweden, which had monastery on the island of Gotland, dying in 1248 converted to Roman Catholicism from the 800s to (Oppern1ann, 1937, pp. 206-212).4 Rautavaara 11OOs. In fact, hostilities between the two had keeps this outline and adds imaginative and begun by the early thirteenth century (Jutikkala & interpretive details. Pirinen, 1974,p.18). The paucity of historical information led The early Christian church in Norway and me to a number of questions: how did the Sweden had many connections with English missionaries and even appointed English bishops, a 3 An excellent summary in English ofRautavaara's bishop being necessary to consecrate churches and musical style and its evolution may be found in an churchyards, and also to ordain priests. The article by musicologist and composer Mikko English representatives of the Pope were likely Heinio, "A Portrait of the Artist at a Certain more acceptable than those from other European Moment," (1988); The Finnish Music Information countries, particularly the appointees of the Centre also has a wealth of information on powerful archbishop of Hamburg and Bremen, Rautavaara online (See "Composers and Artists," because of their independence of Baltic politics n.d.). (Sawyer, 1993, p. 111). That Thomas was a 4 According to C. J. A. Oppermann (1937), "In a Dominican shows that he was probably a student in letter from Thomas, Feb. 12, 1245, Bishop Thomas Paris at the time of the founding of that preaching requested the Pope to be allowed to resign his post, order, 1216, and an enthusiastic participant. as he was filled with remorse because he had In Sweden, between 1150 and 1250, there caused to be mutilated a certain man who died were many rivalries between contenders wanting to from the effect,and had also falsified certain papal be elected to the throne, murders of kings, letters. The Pope appointed the Archbishop of violence, and a loose federation of provinces, all of Uppsala and the Dominican Prior in Denmark to which had a say in the election of the king receive his resignation and also see that he was (Wuorinen, 1963, p. 32). In 1157, a contender for suitably provided for, and the old bishop passed his the throne, Erik, led an expedition to Finland, along last years in a Dominican monastery in Gotland" with the English-born Bishop Henry. Legend has it (p.212). that the purpose was to Christianize the Finns.

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Upon being murdered by an enraged Finnish In Finland, during the time of Bishop peasant, Henry became the martyred Patron Saint Thomas, settlements largely fell into three regions, of Finland. Some fifty years later, in 1209, the the southwest Finland Proper, the central Tavastia Pope authorized the Danish Bishop of Lund to or Harne, and the eastern Karelia, which usually establish Finnish bishoprics (Jutikkala & Pirinen, allied itself with the Novgorods. Bishop Thomas 1974, p. 24), asserting his right lo do so over that used armed forces to attach the Harne area to his of the King of Sweden. 5 By 1216, the King of sphere of influence, and the Harne people, in tum, Sweden obtained from the Pope the right lo Litle of often raided Karelia (Lavery, 2006, p. 27). In lands conquered by his predecessors and placed the 1227, Duke Alexander Jaroslav, known as Finnish bishoprics under the Archbishop of Alexander Nevski, enforced baptisms in the Uppsala. Four years later, about 1220, Bishop Orthodox faith among the Karelians, hoping to Thomas arrived from Uppsala. By that Lime, the bind them closer lo Novgorod, and then attacked Swedes had settled on the western and Harne. A 1228 counterattack by the Harne on southwestern coasts of Finland. But Sweden Karelia followed. In 1229 the Pope gave his maintained no officials or troops there. A loosely blessings to a crusade against Novgorod making connected province, Finland was mostly left alone Finland a papal protectorate. The Gennan Knights by the weak Swedish monarchy. The Church, with of the Sword were summoned by him to help. its claims to authority over many lay matters such Alexander Nevski defeated the combined forces of as crimes, heresy, and schools, effectively ruled Swedes, Finns, and others in the eventual attack in Finland for several decades. 6 This state of affairs the summer of 1240, and that of the late arriving evidently suited Bishop Thomas. The Swedish Germans in the famous battle on a frozen lake in monarchy meant little to him, and, with his 1242 (Jutikkala & Pirinen, 1974, pp. 12-26). connections to the Sorbonne Dominicans and directly to the Pope, his subordinate position tied to Rautavaara 's Additions to the Historical Cast of the Archbishop of Uppsala also mattered little. The Characters Pope was too far away to interfere with Thomas, The opera Thomas was commissioned by barely knew Finland's location, but could be relied the Joensuu Song Festival and its artistic director, upon for help against threats to the Church, baritone Jorrna Hynninen, to celebrate the 150th wherever it might be. By the time of Bishop anniversary in 1985 of the publication of the Thomas, hostilities had already begun in the Baltic Kalevala. ln discussing what kind of opera and area over various trade, political, and religious characters would be suitable, Rautavaara got many interests between the Swedes, the wealthy ideas from Hynninen. Bishop Thomas versus the merchants of the island of Gotland offthe coast of Kalavala-era paganism was suggested. Hynninen Sweden, the Danes, the Germanic Knights of the took the lead role of Thomas and recommended Sword who ruled over Estonia and Livonia, the three fine bass singers in his teaching studio. The German city merchants who organized themselves trio suggestion eventually became a tenor, a high into the Hanseatic League about 1250, and the bass, and a low bass, playing the roles of Kalevala­ Russians at Novgorod, who were themselves under era pagan priests or Magi (Rautavaara, 1989, p. attack from the Tartars. (Wuorinen, 1963, pp. 30- 321). Other characters were added: the leader of 36). the German Knights of the Sword, a merchant from Gotland, two servant friars, and a female spirit, the 1 5 According to Sawyer, during the 12 1, century Finnish Maiden. The mute Finnish Maiden there was a controversy in many countries between represents the mystical pagan religion, the people the royalty and the Church over which had the of Finland, and perhaps the conscience of Thomas, power to appoint bishops, and which had authority since it is not clear whether she is meant to be real over the other. The most famous example of this is or part of a dream as Thomas lay dying. The idea the conflict between Henry IT of England and his for her came from an unfinished operatic sketch of Archbishop Thomas a Becket, who was murdered Rautavaara's, The Golden Girl. The high voiced in his cathedral (1993, p. 114). birdsong of the Maiden was designed for 6 Of this period, Wuorinen says, "Until about the Rautavaara's wife, soprano Sini Rautavaara middle of the 1200s the Church in Finland was (Rautavaara, 1989, p. 317). ln addition, a chorus largely independent of the feeble monarchy. The serves as a connecting device, at various times earliest fom1s of administration grew out of its becoming narrators, as interpreters of thoughts, as a undertakings and purposes and appear to have choir of monks, as the Finnish people, and as represented the only real 'government' well into participants in pagan rituals. the 141h century." (1963, p. 39)

45 Hong: Medieval Finland Depicted in Postmodern Music

Rautavaara 's Story singing the sound of morning into the night, hoping Rautavaara 's story has a three-part for an independent Finland well before it was structure: it opens with Bishop Thomas on his possible. deathbed in a Gotland monastery remembering the events of his life, moves in a flashback back to the Multiple Languages and Word Styles in preparation for and the actual crusade, and then Rautavaara 's Libretto returns to the dying man. In the Prologue, Thomas The Fitmish language libretto, written by recalls being Bishop in Turku, his childhood in Rautavaara himself, includes bits of Latin, England, the accusations against him for causing Chaucerian English, wordless birdsong, and echoes the mutilation and death ofa man, and his dream of of the Kalevala style of verse using repetition and an independent Finland under his rule, tied loosely alliteration. All of these appear successively, and at to Rome, rather than to Sweden. Act One turns times layered together. The chorus sets the scene back to the crusade against Novgorod. It opens and mood of pagan Finland right at the beginning with the Finnish people praising Bishop Thomas with their song using the structure of the Kalevala for leading the crusade. In a second scene with his verses, saying: two friars, Thomas crudely discusses how he will use outside forces to gain his personal goal of Time is at the beginning, time is the end's power. Eventually alone, Thomas sees a statue of begiru1ing, the Virgin Mary change into a mute Maiden who the begitming is at the end oftime, the end sings like a bird. She represents a guiding spirit, a is in the beginning. combination of the Virgin Mary, the Marjatta of Rise, seeing king, blind Soma! the Kalevala, and the forces of nature, as well as the people of Finland. She, with her birdsong, and In Finnish we can easily hear the repetition of the chorus of Finnish people, speak with what words, the alliteration of the words beginning with Thomas and the others call incomprehensible the same letter sound, and parallel pairing ofverse. speech. Evidently, foreigners have been complaining about the difficulties of learning the Aika on alussa, aika on lopun alussa Finnish language for centuries! How an English alku aikojen lopussa, loppu ajan aikaessa bishop who speaks English, French, and Latin nouse nakeva kunigas, sokea jumala managed to build a functioning church in Swedish­ Soma! and Finnish-speaking Finland is another problem. In a pagan ritual resembling the Roman Catholic Soma, not to be confused with the Finnish May Communion rite, Thomas accepts an intoxicating Day homebrew sima, made from fermented lemon, drink from the three shamanistic Magi, sugar, and yeast, is the name of both an ancient representing the magic of Kalevala-style paganism. intoxicating drink and the god rnvoked. Rautavaara Thomas then experiences an unprecedented took the ideas oftime without beginnrng or ending, emotional connection with the natural world, and as well as the intoxicating drink, Soma, from with the pain and laughter of the conunon people. ancient Hindu writings, rather than Finnish It's a revelation to him as a teacher of a faith that legends, to extend the idea of mysticism far back . . . now seems dogmatic and intellectual. In Act Two, mto ant1qmty. 7 all the characters plus the Maiden go offto battle. More memorable of the Kalevala style With the fight going poorly, many want to retreat. verses is Thomas's song, the words appearing three Bishop Thomas produces a papal document times in the opera, twice in the Prologue, and again ensuring everyone's salvation, but the merchant at the very end, though never to the same melody. from Gotland questions it as a forgery. Asking his This symbolically sums up all the action, and tells servants to take the man away and give him a rest us that the vision of an independent Finland came for his eyes, Thomas is shocked by the resulting too early: blinding and death. In Act Three, Thomas escapes "Suddenly sang the bird, the bird sang in the death in the mass slaughter of his forces when the darkness. Maiden rescues him. She is called away into the In the dark it erred. It erred like a man forest by the Magi. Thomas awakes from his dream-like flashback, now again on his deathbed in 7 Rautavaara likely was influenced by a folklorist, Gotland, hearing again the accusations, the voices Castren Bregenh0j, who wrote a 1983 paper of the Maiden and shamans, and the English connecting these Vedic ideas with the Finnish children of his childhood. He questions it all, Sampo era, trying to show ancient linking themes saying he sang like an erring bird in the darkness, in folklore (See Rautavaara, 1989, p. 318).

46 Journal o(Finnish Studies: Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 20 I 0

and sang the sounds of morninginto the night, Thomas sings his melancholy Finnish song about across the evening and beyond time." the bird singing in the darkness, all eventually layered together. The end of the opera has Bishop In Finnish, we can again hear the alliteration, Thomas joining in with these pagan elements, parallelism of paired verses, and repetition of accepting in prayer that his purpose throughout all material. these events may have been to bring the vision of an independent Finland that reconciles his Akkiiilauloi lintu, lintu lauloi pimeiissii, intellectual Christianity and the mystical and pimeiissii se erehtyi, se erehtyi kuin ihminen emotional elements of the Finnish people and their ja lauloi aamun iiiinetyohon, iltaa pitkin, ajan paganism. taakse (S. Rautavaara, 1986, pp. 12, 15, 55). Musical eclecticism One of the early scenes is in a monastery In Thomas, the characters and their and calls forLatin. A Gregorian chant is sung by a interactions called for competing musical styles, male chorus. "Ecce sacerdos magnus" is an actual sometimes layered together. Rautavaara has antiphon, a response, taken from the Office Hours explained his musical decisions in this opera in of the Roman Catholic Church, the daily prayers of several sources, all of which rely on the reader's the monasteries, this one particularly for the prior knowledge of types of scales, chords, and vespers of a Bishop confessor. The words translate twelve-tone serialism, and also the usual rules to: "Behold the great priest, who in his days, associated with them (Rautavaara, 1989, pp. 318- pleased God" (Bruhn, 2003, p. 133 ftnt). The use of 320; see also Rautavaara, 1985). He chose a simple past tense is ironic, since we learn in the course of five-tone pentatonic scale as the basis for ritual the drama that Thomas failed miserably to please music for the chorus of the pagan Finns. A God. In Act One, Thomas tells his two friars in a pentatonic scale represents antiquity, and can be crude way how he intends to exploit other forces found in some of the oldest known folk music, not involved in the crusade. The two friarsanswer with only from the Orient but in other locales. Playing short comments. One speaks in Latin and the other only on the black keys of the piano gives you this sings the same comment simultaneously in Finnish, sound. The chorus, adapting to its various for the benefit of the Finnish audience. For functional roles, changes its musical style to suit example, one says "Coeca cupiditas," and the other the circumstances. At times they are monks singing says "Sokea ahneus," both meaning "blind greed." chant in the irregular pulses and narrow winding In the Prologue, memories of Thomas's childhood melodic range of Gregorian chant. Later they are evoked by a children's chorus singing in old become a cathedral choir, singing in normal English: "Com Thomas! Com pley mid us!" He tonality with imitative entrances in a quasi hears his mother calling, "Thomas, com horn, hit is Renaissance Latin motet style. Using twentieth sone derk," with some electronic distortion to give century choral techniques, they at times whisper it an echo of great distance. The mystical Finnish the curses of the people or add successive Maiden is mute, but sings in bird-like calls and expanding layers of voices to create big static blurs trills, symbolizing nature. of sound with many clashing pitches, sometimes At times these languages are layered. In called "field technique." The English children and the opening Prologue, the Gregorian chant begins the mother sing in a very simple folksong style in by itself and soon retreats into the background. We common tonal context with predictable rhythms. hear the chant, the Old English of the children's For the three Magi, Rautavaara based their chorus, the mother's voice calling Thomas in from music on an octotonic scale, one of eight notes, play, and, finally, added to all those, the two friars which alternates whole and half steps. Not only did singing simultaneously in Latin and Finnish, "Why he choose his melodies for the Magi from this hast thou forsaken us?" A similar layering of synunetrical scale, he associated their music with languages happens at the end of the opera. The minor mode tonal chords that symmetrically chorus condemns the Bishop in Latin, while, in alternate several different tonal centers, but do not Finnish, the Knight Gobyn, the Gotland merchant, settle in any one key. They sing very slowly. This and the two friarsjoin in accusations and Thomas, associates them with timelessness, calmness, and also in Fi1rnish, mourns all the defeat and with a lack of music's usual tension and resolution. destruction. Following that group, the Magi and the To connect the three Magi with the pagan chorus, now representing the Finnish people, sing wilderness, Rautavaara announced their arrival on in Kalevala style verses, the English children stage with a recording of howling wolves or return, the Maiden has birdsong vocalization, and hunting horns.

47 r i Hong: Medieval Finland Depicted in Postmodern Music

The Maiden has a wordless melodic line, struggle against. 8 Similarly, Rautavaara has said in unspecifiedtime values. The composer wrote the that an interest in the basic small unit of musical pitches he wanted the perfonner to sing, but left the material has been central to all of his composing timing indefinite, only indicating a general idea. work, since it allows the music to grow freely, The orchestra, at the same time, has simple organically. He compares his choice of notes and repetitive patterns in unspecified timing, relying on intervals in his serial twelve-tone row to a genetic the conductor to tell them when the Maiden is done code which nature unfolds in relationship to and the regular beat resumes. In music terms, this environmental factors (Rautavaara, 1985, p. 48). is called aleatory or chance teclmique, because the The musical results often grow seemingly as results will never twice be the same. The maiden's unpredictably as plants, ending far afield from his entrances are preceded by recorded sounds of birds original concept. twittering. Her melody is also based on a What complicates an understanding of symmetrical scale, related to but more complicated Rautavaara's use of tone rows, but also redeems than that of the Magi. In all of these groups using a them for the listener, is Rautavaara's preference for scale of some sort, we can usually hear a reference keeping his strict use of the rows to the orchestral to a tonal center, or key, in a sustained long bass accompaniment and allowing the singer to have an note underneath the higher melodic activity. expressive vocal line that is freely related to, but From the symmetrical scale of the Magi, not controlled by, the underlying tone row. He also Rautavaara described how he noticed the often deliberately arranges tonal relationships in possibility of altering some notes and making a 12- his twelve-tone rows, allowing for the sweet tone series (1989, p. 320). This is a way of hannony of thirds and occasional chords, and often organizing music pitches that uses all the twelve moves by thirds to another triad in his notes of the chromatic scale, meaning all the piano accompaniment, unrelated to any key, mitigating keys between C in one octave and the next higher the lack of common practice tonality. Rautavaara C, in such a way that there is no repetition of any has also said that a composer needs to compromise note, nor, usually, any implied connection to tonal between a rigid mathematical approach and a music. The usual rules require this pattern to be chaotic emotional one, sometimes breaking the 9 followed exactly in all the melodies, and arranged taboos of the various musical systems. A musical in numerical order up and down for the analyst, even one with great experience in accompaniment. A different row of twelve notes, twentieth century musical techniques, wanting to derived from the original by moving the last six account for the purpose of each note in this opera notes up or down a half step, is designated for each would have a hard time, because of the freedom of the characters of the Knight, of the merchant, given to each teclmique. The average listener of and also for Bishop Thomas and his friars. tllis twelve-tone music may well hear a certain kind Rautavaara explained this alteration process from of melodic color associated with each character, the synunetrical scale of the Magi as one of without being able to identify tl1e means being evolving relationships (1989, p. 320). The rhythms used. He can probably more easily hear the for these characters using twelve-tone rows are rhythmic changes, the rapid narration of the Knight r tightly controlled and indicated. The Knight, the and the merchant and the longer, more ly ical, merchant, and the two friars sing narrative words contemplations of Bishop Thomas. There is no that advance the story, usually in an animated quick rhythm. Thomas tends to reflect on the 8 r "The more constraints one imposes, the more one meanings of everything, and sings more ly ically, frees one's self, and the arbitrariness of the and slowly. constraint serves only to obtain precision of Another writer has pointed out that much execution" (Stravinsky, 1947, p. 68). of the melodic material of both the pagan group, 9 Rautavaara says of this: "Naturally, the linking using scales, and the Christian group, based on together of various (and to many people serial rows, contains similar small intervals, contradictory) systems must of necessity come to predominantly small half steps, whole steps, and break the taboos of each system. But then it must thirds, making them blend easily when they are be noted that what is at issue in Thomas is used together (Bruhn, 2003, p. 137). Can the specifically the fusing of different "disciplines," or average listener hear these differences between different cultures. That this takes place on the level scales and rows? Probably not. Why compose like of tl1e tonal material can be regarded as symbolic this? Stravinsky once claimed that he composed of this fusion. Furthermore, it is my belief that all best when he set himself some limitation to artistic taboos are evidence of short-sightedness (in time and place) and often of racism" ( 1985, p. 53).

48 Journal o(Finnish Studies: Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 2010 need to count from notes one lo twelve endlessly in of reconciling the contrasts into a unifying whole, order to appreciate the music, though we can pointing toward the vision of Thomas for a Finland recognize on an intellectual level that the technique that unites the best of bot11 Christianity and the is there. paganism of the wilderness. Ultimately, it is the What happens when the events of the story and tl1e vividness of tl1e action that is raised opera make these different musical systems happen to new heights by the underlying music. at the same time? Giving all of them some intervals To be the successful writer of a play in common helps, or anchoring them to some requires a good knowledge of how to build a story common bass pitch, which can serve as a towards a climax and its resolution, and also ilie temporary key center. Other aspects help to understanding of theatrical conventions, scenes distinguish them one from another. In the time­ changes, and the limits of stage activity. To be tl1e honored manner of Mozart's operatic comedy composer of a symphony or a large vocal work ensembles, each character has his own personality requires a completely different set of skills. That in his type of melody, the speed of his music, his Rautavaara is able to do both well, and provide actions on stage, even the language or style of much for the patrons of each art to ponder with words or lack of words that he sings. 10 More than awe is most impressive. The opera Thomas 's identifying their individuality, it is the synthesis of message of melancholy at t11e doomed early all these musical styles, now including tonal music, attempt at Finland's independence lingers in the the ancient five-tone scale, modal church music, mind and ear long after the perforn1ance. odd symmetrical twentieth century scales, plus twelve-tone rows, as well as the distinct multiple References languages, that is the remarkable feature of this Apel, W. (1961). Polyphony. In Harvard opera. In the sixteenth century, Renaissance dictionary of music. Cambridge, MA: composers arranged multiple simultaneous Harvard University Press. melodies in polyphony, each line with its own Bruhn, S. (2003). The other Bishop Thomas: A melody and words that all fit together to make northern missionary. In Saints in the beautiful sonorities. 11 So, in the twentieth century, limelight: Representations of the religious Rautavaara managed to meld a wide variety of quest on the post-1945 stage (pp. 127- musical systems, each with its own set of rules, and 140). Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press. convince us that it is dramatically and musically Composers and Artists: Einojuhani Rautavaara. both necessary and exactly right. (n.d.) Finnish music information centre. Culture, religion, languages, literary Retrieved from styles, recordings fromnature, old and new www.fimic.fi/fimic/rau tavaara+eino juhani musical techniques are all presented individually Heinio, M. (1988). Focus on ilie composer and then combine harmoniously in this opera. The Einojuhani Rautavaara: A portrait of the combination of techniques, its post-modernism, artist at a certain moment. Finnish Music serves the dramatic functionat the end of the opera Quarterly 88(2), 3-14. Jutikkala, E. & Pirinen, K. (1974). A history of 10 "What sets these [Mozart's] ensembles apart Finland. (P. Sjoblom, Trans.). Rev. ed. from conventional finales is the masterful part­ New York: Praeger Publishers. writing .... each character, singing different words Lavery, Jason. (2006). The history of Finland. to different music, preserves his individuality. Here Santa Barbara, CA: ABC- Mozart created a device that accomplishes Clio/Greenwood Press. something impossible to achieve in spoken drama: Oppermann, C. J. A. (1937). The English the simultaneous expression of different sentiments missionaries in Sweden and Finland. by characters involved in a dramatically complex London: Macmillan. situation" (Pauly, 1965, p. 182). Pauly, R. G. (1965). Music in the classic period. 11 A standard definition of polyphony is "music Prentice-Hall History of Music Series. written as a combination of several simultaneous Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, voices (parts) of a more or less pronounced 1965. individuality" (Apel, 1961, p. 593). One key word Rautavaara, E. (1989). Omakuva. Porvoo: WSOY. here is "individuality," meaning that each melodic Rautavaara, E. ( 1985). Thomas: Analysis of the line can capably be sung alone and sound good, tone material (An experiment in and the simultaneous combination of these synthesis). Finnish Musical Quarterly melodies does not require any adjustment one to 1985(112), 47-53. another.

49 Hong: Medieval Finland Depicted in Postmodern Music

Rautavaara, S. (1986). Liner notes for Thomas. Stravinsky, I. (1947). Poetics of music. [Compact disc]. Joensuu, Finland: Ondine Cambridge, MA: Harvard University ODE 704-2. Press. Sawyer, B. (1993). Medieval Scandinavia: From Wuorinen, J. H. ( 1965). A history of Finland. New conversion to Reformation, circa 800- York: Columbia University Press. 1500. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

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50 Journal o(Finnish Studies. Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 2010

Topelius's "Rinaldo Rinaldini" as European Cultural Artifact Eric Schaad Independent Scholar Abstract Two German works-C. A. Yulpius's Rinaldo Rinaldini and Friedrich Schiller's Die Riiuber-represent a literary and cultural tradition which spread throughout Europe and influenced generations of readers and writers. Zacharias Topelius taps into this European tradition explicitly in his short play entitled "Rinaldo Rinaldini." In portraying schoolboys acting out the adventures of robber captain Rinaldo Rinaldini, Topelius ingests the robber romanticism tradition while at the same lime using it to creative and didactic effect. His work is both a European cultural artifact in its reflection of the tradition but also in his manipulation of tradition. In this, it also joins the long tradition of adaptations of robber novels.

As a man well read in the Scandinavian additional 70 new editions and reprints (Dainat, and European literature of his time, Zacharias 1996, p. 43). The craze quickly spread beyond (Zachris) Topelius (1818-1898) also travelled Germany, propelled in part by the novel Rinaldo extensively in Europe. His travels-and more Rinaldini, written by the brother-in-law of importantly, his travel accounts-have even Germany's most accomplished writer, Johann prompted Maija Lehtonen to call Topelius one of Wolfgang von Goethe. The name of Christian Finland's most European writers. 1 Nowhere is this August Vulpius ( 1762-1827) soon became more apparent than in his short, three-act children's secondary to his authorship of Rinaldo Rinaldini, play called "Rinaldo Rinaldini," a work drawing on long viewed as the prototype of the German robber a widespread current of nineteenth-century novels and as the fountainhead of a popular genre European culture which had erupted late in the (Dainat, 1996, p. 4). His Rinaldo Rinaldini eighteenth century and which was still active as achieved international success, perhaps on a Topelius composed his work in the 1850s. In a different literary plane and ultimately less enduring playful reflection of both the reception and actual than Goethe's works, but, during the first half of content of Christian August Yulpius's popular the 1800s, every bit as widespread. Appearing first robber novel Rinaldo Rinaldini (1799), Topelius in 1799, with a second edition appearing the same creates a tale relevant and meaningful to both year, Rinaldo Rinaldini, der Riiuber-Hauptmann adults and children. In adopting the name of the [Rinaldo Rinaldini, captain of banditti] was quickly German novel for his tale "Rinaldo Rinaldini," translated into English (1800) and French (1800 Topelius not only invokes the particular novel but and 1801), and then into other European languages, an entire tradition called Gennan robber including Dutch, Italian, Spanish, Russian, Polish, romanticism. This tradition was a European and Hungarian (Simanowski, 1998, p. 334). Danish phenomenon, and Topelius's utilization of it in his and Swedish were among the first translations­ 2 short play illustrates the currency of the traditionin Danish in 1800 and Swedish in 1801. (The first mid-nineteenth-century Finland as well as Finnish translation appears to have been much 3 Topelius's own creative appropriation of the later, toward the end of the I 800s.) In addition to tradition. After a brief summary of the relevant cultural background, our attention will tum to 2 Topelius's play and to bis creative use of this The Danish translation, first published as cultural material. anonymous, was entitled Reverkaptainen Rinaldo Rinaldini, En romantisk Historie fra vort Cultural Background Aarlrnndrede (Rahbek, 1800-1802). The Swedish Robber novels began sprouting up in translation was also published with an anonymous Germany in the 1790s and continued to be a author and entitled Rofwar-anforaren Rinaldo powerful cultural and literary phenomenon until Rinaldini. En romantisk historia fran det forjlutna the 1850s, with approximately 320 robber novels arhundradet, i tre delar el/er femton hocker published during this time-not including an (Lindh, 1801-1802). A copy is located at the National Library of Sweden, according to the Regina database. Tarkiainen also cites 1801-1802 1 "Vor allem zeugen die Reisebriefe davon, daf3 as the date of the Swedish translation. 3 Topelius einer unserer europiiischsten Schriftsteller The earliest evidence of a Fi1rnish translation of ist" [The travel letters prove above all that Topelius Rinaldo Rinaldini occurs in the U.S. in 1896: is one of Finland's most European authors] Roswopiiiillikko Rinaldo Rinaldini. Romantillinen (translation mine), (Lehtonen, 1998, p. 186). kertomus. Ku11dennentoista wuosisadan lopulta.

51 �; �. ,:, Schaad: Tope/ius's "Rinaldo Rinaldini" ·\J;lt ··-:

its numerous translations, Rinaldo Rinaldini 71 ). Such imitators actually caused performances spawned many subsequent editions as well as of Die Riiuber to be canceled in Germa°l-and adaptations, spin-offs, and imitations following its elsewhere (Biener, 1974, pp. 45-46). Like 4 ;; original publication (Dainat, 1996, p. 66). Rinaldo Rinaldini, Die Riiuber spread to nearly I Topelius's play, written nearly sixty years everyEuropean countryin pure or adapted versions later, can be viewed as one of these spin-offs and (see Arnold, 1905). The play was translated into as tapping into this popular tradition. Topelius had, Swedish by 1799 and into Danish by 1832.7 incidentally, travelled throughout Germany in the Both Schiller's Die Riiuber and Vulpius's summer of 1856, shortly before writing his play Rinaldo Rinaldini were well known in Scandinavia drawing on the German title. 5 This play, "Rinaldo and in Finland. Robber novels were certainly Rinaldini eller Rofvarbandet" [Rinaldo Rinaldini or prevalent in Sweden before 1850; and numerous \ the robber band] was first published in 1858 in the robber plays and operas were performed in 111 magazine Eos and was later published as part of Helsinki, both in Swedish and in German theaters r: Topelius's well-known collection of children's (Tarkiainen, 1943, pp. 247-249).8 Topelius himself \I \I! stories, Liisningfor barn [Stories for Children] in is known to have had an interest in robber novels i: 1865 (Tarkiainen, 1943, p. 250). In addition to as a child and viewed robber-related performances, sharing its title, Topelius's play reflects many of mentioning several in his diaries in the 1830s the well-established themes of the German novel {Tarkiainen, 1943, p. 250).9

: I and ofthe tradition which it represents. Topelius's Topelius's play, though drawing on the I i choice in title really does strive to be general robber romanticism tradition, relies most 'i.: representative-to invoke not only Vulpius's novel but to evoke a type of fiction, a whole tradition of 6 The play was censored and banned in Italy, for noble outlaws and robber-oriented stories. instance (Lukoschik, 2004, p. 57). In addition to Rinaldo Rina/dini, Topelius 7 The Swedish translation appeared as also explicitly invokes another pillar in this Rofvarbandet: Sorgespel i fem akter af Friedrich tradition of German robber romanticism-not a Schiller {1799). The Danish translation (Reverne: novel but the fa mous first play of Friedrich et Skuespil i fem Acter) appeared in a six-volume Schiller. Associated with the Sturm und Drang collection of Schiller's works, translated by movement in German literature, Schiller's Die Frederik Schaldemose and published by Martinske Riiuber [The Robbers] was published in 1781 and Bogtrykkerie in 1832. The earliest Finnish version 1: first performed in 1782. Though not invoked as IJ I have found in the National Bibliography of :• part ofTopelius's title, the dramatic formand also Finland is Rosvot: murheniiytelmii viidessii 11 themes ofTopelius's play clearly recall the famous 1· niiytoksessii(1879). Germanpoet and playwright, whose works were as 8 For example, Alessandro Strade/la and Fra internationally popular and even more influential Diavolo appeared in Helsinki in 1852-1853; an (and ultimately, more enduring) than Rinaldo adaptation of Schiller's Die Riiuber by A. F. was an immediate sensation, Rina/dini. Die Riiuber Brostrom in three acts called Rofvarbandets stunning theater-goers and causing some to stomp upplosning appeared in 1852 and 1854 (at a their feet, scream, sob-and even faint (Simons, minimum); and Fredrique Eleonore Baptiste 1981, p. 71). Young men in Germany took provided a stage adaptation of Rinaldo Rinaldini inspiration from the freedom-loving robber Karl (Tarkiainen, 1943, p. 250). Viktor Rydberg's i Moor, gathering in bands (Biener, 1974, p. 45) and, youthful works of the 1850s contain elements of in some cases, mimicking the murders, robbing, robber romanticism, as does, more explicitly, Karl and burning in Schiller's drama (Kopf, 1978, p. i! August Nicander's Rofvarbandet i Tusculum (1835) (Tarkiainen, 1943, p. 248). (Found in the Fennica database of The National 9 For instance: Fra Diavolo el/er Den ryktbare Bibliographyof Finland.) 4 Rofvare-Anforaren i de Abbruziska Bergen, Ein Many German titles began to phonetically mimic Tag aus dem Leben des Banditen Alessandro thetitle of Rinaldo Rinaldini throughthe 1820s and Massaroni ( a melodrama by Planche), Die I 1830s: Rolando Rolandini (1825), Sa/lo Sal/ini Erscheinung in Schloss Fiumare (a three-act play (1828); Concino Concini (1831), Rocco Roccini­ by Philippi Bonafonti whose full title was Rinaldo ·\\l'j to name just a few (Dainat, 1996, p. 29; Plaul, und Serafine oder die Erscheinung in den Ruinen l 1983, p. 242). and 5 des Schlosses Fiumare), Rofvarkulan i ,\!l Topelius took a trip centered on Germany but Calabrien (also known as Den ryktbara ,;. including other nearby European countries from rofvaranjoraren Barbarossa uti Kalabriens ;}' {i May to August 1856 (Lehtonen, 1998, p. 178). skogar) (Tarkiainen, I 943, pp. 249-250). �t �ti.�t 52 k I,\i �j i -�t:;;_., Journal o(Finnish Studies. Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 2010 heavily on the two specific works of Die Riiuber Tidningar about a current criminal named Kahle and Rinaldo Rinaldini, works that reflect a Gemrnn opens by describing the robber as "En ny origin but an international and especially European Rinaldini'' [a new Rinaldini] (pp. 3-4). In a story significance. Topelius uses Schiller elsewhere in called "Joulun Aatto" [Christmas Eve] published in his work (Rancken, 1968, p. 333) and exhibited Suometar in 1864, Rinaldo Rinaldini is mentioned interest in the German Gothic novel, or as one of many old robber novels on the shelf of 13 Schauerroman, influenced by, among others, the main character (p. 3). All of these references Walter Scott and Friedrich Schiller (Lehtonen, confim1 a general knowledge of Rinaldo Rinaldini 1995, p. 9). Announcements for Schiller's Die in Finland in the mid-l 800s. Riiuber, usually under the title Carl von Moor el/er Rofwarbandet, were conunon in Helsinki and Abo Narrative Elements of Robber Romanticism in 10 in the 181Os, 1820s, and 1830s. In addition to "Rinaldo Rinaldini" mentioning performances of Schiller's Die Riiuber Topelius knew Rinaldo Rinaldini, Die in Finnish in 1837 and in Swedish in the 1840s and Riiuber, and many other robber-related works. Like 1850s, Topelius saw the play in the spring of Topelius's title, "Rinaldo Rinaldini," which 1858-the same year he published his "Rinaldo immediately conjures up an entire tradition, the 11 Rinaldini" (Tarkiai.nen, 1943, p. 249). names Topelius selects forhis characters reinforce Rinaldo Rinaldini was similarly well­ that cultural and literary context. 14 The basic plot known in Finland and in the milieu ofTopelius. A of the play consists of schoolboys taking a short Swedish translation of Rinaldo Rinaldini was excursion living out the adventures of robbers that offered for sale in Abo as early as 180 l (Abo they have read about in books. (A parallel and Tidningar, 180 l, p. 4). Performances featuring eventually intersecting plot line features schoolgirls Rinaldo Rinaldini appeared as early as the 1830s in who assume the role of gypsies rather than Finland-as one Abo newspaper attests­ robbers.) In assuming the role as robbers, the boys announcing a play called Scene,· ur Rinaldo also assume new names of famous robbers, both Rinaldini [Scenes from Rinaldo Rinaldini] (Abo literary and historical. Robert Friman, fittingly Underrattelser, 1833, p. 5). Numerous references named "Fri"-man (or, "free"-man) to reflect the are made to Rinaldo Rinaldini, the novel, and to common theme of freedom in robber novels, Rinaldo Rinaldini, the noble robber, in Finnish assumes the identity of Rinaldo Rinaldini because newspapers (mostly Swedish-language, but some he brought the book to school about the famous Finnish-language as well) of the 1850s and 1860s. literary robber. Carl Kronfelt becomes Carl Moor, In an ironic and humorous complaint against the the name of Schiller's robber captain; and Joe coming of the railway, an 1851 article in Borg& Forsberg assigns himself the name Svarta Jonas, or Tidning laments the loss of highwaymen and Black Jonas, a known accomplice of the famous robbers, such as the great Rinaldo Rinaldini, with German robber Schinderhannes around 1800. 15 12 the advent of the railway. An 1855 article in Abo en Rinaldo Rinaldini" [One shall henceforth be 1° For example, "Carl von Moor eller Banditeme" able to roam throughout Spain and Italy in all is mentioned in Abo Al/manna Tidning (1816, p. possible directions without coming across even the 4); "Carl v. Moor eller Rofwarbandet af Schiller" most insignificant shadow of a Rinaldo Rinaldini,] in Abo Tidningar (1822, p. 3); "Carl von Moor (translation mine), (Jemvager, 1851, p. 3). 13 eller Rofwarbandet" in Fin/ands Al/manna Tidning A similar reference in another story is also found (1824, p. 8); and "Carl von Moor eller Rofware in Helsing/ors Dagblad ("Klas Borgelins," 1862, p. bandet afSchiller" in Helsing/ors Tidningar (1830, 4). p. 4). All newspapers referenced are available at 14 Referencesto Rinaldo Rinaldini the novel (either the National Library of Finland: Digital Collection the real version by Vulpius or the version referred . to Topelius play, a relatively short work, will be in 11 The Finnish version of Die Riiube,· was entitled quotation marks ("Rinaldo R.inaldini"). Rinaldo Carl von Moor (September 1837). Swedish Rinaldini is also a character in both works (Rinaldo versions were performed by Fr. Delandin in 1843 Rinaldini and "Rinaldo Rinaldini"). and Stjemstrom and Andersson in the 1850s 15 Black Jonas, or Der Schwarze Jonas, was the (Tarkiainen, 1943, p. 249). alias of Christian Reinhold, who, near the end of 12 "Man skall hadanefter kunna genomstrofva the 1700s was a famous robber and who joined Spanien och ltalien i alla mojliga rigtningar, utan Johannes Buckler (alias Schinderhannes) around att raka ut for ens den aldraobetydligaste skugga af 1800. Ignaz Ferdinand Arnold portrays a

53 I'i!,,; Schaad: Topelius 's "Rinaldo Rinaldini" I

'Iij ;\ Other boys assume similar names drawing on the renaming assumes importance when Fors berg I robber tradition: Mazarino, referring to the Italian (alias Black Jonas) makes his claim to be captain of brigand Alessandro Massaroni; 16 Gonzalov, a their (imaginary) robber band, partly on the basis noble robber mentioned alongside Rinaldini and of his ideas for renaming the boys.20 Similarly, I 17 Mazarino in the 1840s; and Lassemaja, or Lasse­ Schiller's robber Spiegelberg, in conflict with Karl Maja, a famous Swedish thief.18 Moor to be captain, also attempts to assert his ilI' This ritual of renaming or assigning fitness for leadership of the band by reminding the = I .! names not only evokes the robber romanticism robbers of his ideas: "und wer diesen Gedanken :i I tradition but lies at the thematic core of Topelius's entsponnen, sagt, muB das nicht ein erleuchteter ;II play. One of the central themes-if not the central politischer Kopf sein?" (Schiller, 1958, 1.2; p. 513) '.j: theme-is role playing. In robber novels and plays ("and the man who thought up the idea, tell me, where outlaws must disguise themselves or assume mustn't he have a brilliant, political head?" different aliases in order to escape detection in [Schiller, 1979, p. 47]). One often sees such

.,,1· society, role-playing represents not only an parallelism in "Rinaldo Rinaldini" between the I' important plot element but can rise to thematic fictional literary models and the boys who are :f importance, as in Rinaldo Rinaldini, where mimicking those models-but also bringing them i !I Rinaldini uses disguise flamboyantly and to life. constantly changes his name or introduces himself One of the interesting aspects of role­ with various names and titles.19 In Topelius's play playing in Topelius's "Rinaldo Rinaldini" is the ambiguity suggested by such scenes as Forsberg's completely fictious version of the robber in Der (alias Black Jonas's) attempt to become captain of schwarze Jonas. Kapuziner-Riiuber-Mordbrenne. the imaginary band of robbers. All the boys have Ein Blutgemiilde aus der furchtbaren decided to play a role-to pretend to be robbers­ Genossenschafl des berilchtigten Schinderhannes and once this happens (in Act 1, scene 1 ), rarely is (1805), which, among other exaggerations, this fiction dispelled. Given this underlying fiction, portrays him as a cannibal who eats his murdered the uncertainly emerges about whether this entire victims. scene is real-whether Forsberg the schoolboy 16 Topelius records viewing a play with a bandit really wants to be captain or whether he is simply :� playing a role, such as the role of Spiegelberg. This Mazaroni (Der Bandit Mazarom1 in his diary entry ? ' for Sunday, October 27, 1833. See Topelius, 1918, theme of role-playing runs throughout Topelius's t. f.- 143 and also Tarkiainen, 1943, p. 250. "Rinaldo Rinaldini." 7 Central to both the plot and the thematic I "Gonzalov" is mentioned alongside "Rinaldo !· Rinaldini" in Helsing/ors Tidningar ("Den Farliga" core of the play is the pseudo-criminalization of t 1845, p. 2; "Romanen och romanwunnen," 1845, reading Rinaldo Rinaldini. The play opens with the p. I) in the context of robber stories and noble boys neglecting their studies and instead reading ll from a book about the noble robber Rinaldo l'!1 bandits. ii 18 According to Wikipedia (2010), "Lars Larsson Rinaldini. The stark contrast between the romantic ,. \I Molin, alias Lasse-Maja (October 5, 1785-June 4, novel and their geometry lesson-an orderly, exact i� I• 1845), wasa notorious Swedish criminal who used science-lays the foundation for the conflict that ll!1 arises when the teacher returns. As if I/ to disguise himself in women's clothing, which ., gave him the female sounding nickname Lasse­ foreshadowing the coming criminalization, Maja; Lasse is the common version of his own Forsberg's first words to his teacher-who walks liil in on a scuffle among the boys-assert his male name Lars, and Maja was a common version I of the female name Maria. His nickname was a innocence: "jag ar oskyldig, "jag ar oskyldig" way of describing his ambiguous gender as well as (Topelius, 1906, p. 71) ("I'm innocent'' [Topelius, I·: the method he used in his criminal career." 20 :1.I 'l Interestingly, in the English translation of "Men det var jag, gossar, som gaf er 1 I Topelius's "Rinaldo Rinaldini," (ca. 1908) instead namn ....Darfor horde jag vara er kapten" •1 li'" of using the reference to a local criminal (Lasse­ (Topelius, 1906, p. 81) ["But it was I who gave you I !!, Maja) the translator invents an Italian name all your names, boys... and therefore I ought to be ("Sissilino") to echo thatof theItalian Rinaldini. your captain''] (Topelius, n.d., p. 119). Unless ;!! 19 I :.·; For instance, "Er ...kam unter dem Namen Graf otherwise noted, English translations are from ., ! )_:1-j I;r. � I Mandochini" (p. 108) [He came under the name published sources (listed in the References). In 11�1 •I:! ���! 1 I i ! Count Mandochini]; "Baron Tegnano ist mein some cases, especially in the Foss translation of �I Name" (p. 300) [Baron Tegnano is my name] Topelius, translations are not necessarily exact or �·•.'.�1 •1 (translations mine). literal. �l \:I �l 1:·1Ii,:11: 54 � ,.,·.: !·. ' . � I'� Journal o(Finnish Studies. Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 2010 n.d., p. 110]). The teacher discovers that the boys type-and upon which the boys then recreate their were reading another book instead of their own impetus to crime. In the pages of their book, geometry lesson, but even before he knows the Rinaldini laments his persecution by the world: "vi nature of the book, the teacher criminalizes the aro forfoljda af varlden" (Topelius, 1906, p. 69) boys' bringing it, describing it as "smuggling."21 ("we are persecuted by the world" [Topelius, n.d., The real punishment, however, occurs when he p. I 09]). Using Rinaldini's words as their model finds out the book is not just a deviation from their after their punishment from the teacher, Forsberg lessons but romantic fiction about Rinaldo utters them almost verbatim: "vi aro forfoljda af Rinaldini. The punishment-that they must stay in miinskligheten" (Topelius, 1906, p. 74) ("we are 22 school "arrest" and miss the May Festival - persecuted by the world" [Topelius, n.d., p. 113]). elicits what in robber narratives mark the "impetus This perceived persecution serves as the impetus to to crin1e." crime--0r at least the imaginary launch of a robber An impetus to crime implies an external career. Forsberg, with fiery and romantic rhetoric, force, event, or person which serves to launch the incites his fellow schoolboys to revenge and robber protagonist into crime, such as a villainous or pursuits: oppressive act or person. The impetus to crime in Schiller's Die Riiuber occurs when Karl Moor's Ha, tappre riddare, vi maste hamna oss pa brother Franz forces an estrangement of his father dessa vilddjur, som kalla sig manniskor ... through deceit, effectively severing his ties to Hvad sager jag? Manniskor? Nej, bodlar society. Karl's utterance reflects the force of his aro de, tyranner i manniskohamn! Vi brother's deceit to drive him to become a robber: maste draga ut till de Apenniniska Bergen ... (Topelius, 1906, p. 74) Ich habe keinen Yater mehr, ich babe keine Liebe mehr, und Blut und Tod soil Ah, valiant knights, we must revenge mich vergessen lehren, dal3 mir jemals ourselves upon these wild beasts who call etwas teuer war!. ... es bleibt dabei, ich bin themselves men. What do I say? Men? euer Hauptmann! (Schiller, 1958, 1.2, p. No, executioners they are, tyrants. We 515) must depart to the Apennines ... (Topelius, n.d., p. 113) (I have no father now, I have no love now, and blood and death shall teach me to His condemnation of their "enemies" and call for forget that ever I held anything dear! ...- retreat into the Apennines-the Italian hideout of it is agreed, I shall be your captain! the robber Rinaldini-though exaggerated in its [Schiller, 1979, p. 49]) actual content, recalls in detail the vehemence and indictment found in Karl Moor's cursing of the Impetus to crime plays a large role in many other establishment or society in general-"Menschen­ robber novels that belong to the type, though not so Menschen! falsche, heuchlerische Krokodilbrut" 23 in Vulpius's novel. However, impetus to crime is (Schiller, 1958, 1.2; p. 514) ("Men, men! False prominent in the version of Rinaldo Rinaldini that breed of hypocrites and crocodiles!" [Schiller, 1979, p. 47])-and his resolution to become leader the schoolboys are reading-not necessarily reflective of the actual Vulpius novel but of the of their band after his impetus to crime: "Ja, bei dem tausendarmigen Tod! das wollen wir, das mi.issen wir!. .. - Rauber und Morder! - So wahr 21 "hvad var det for en bok du smugglade bakom meine Seele lebt, ich bin euer Hauptmann!" banken?" (Topelius, 1906, p. 72) ("what book was (Schiller, 1958, 1.2; p. 515) ("Yes, by the thousand that you smuggled into your desk?" [Topelius, n.d., arms of death! we shall, we must!. ..Robbers and p. 111]). murderers! As sure as my soul breathes, I am your 22 "Hela klassen gar i arrest" (Topelius, 1906, p. captain!" [Schiller, 1979, p. 49]). 73) ("You will all go into arrest" [Topelius, n.d., p. The structure of Topelius's "Rinaldo 112]). Rinaldini" after this impetus to crime is vaguely 23 An impetus to crime is not developed in reminiscent of the begirming of Schiller's Die Vulpius's Rinaldo Rinaldini. We learn very little Rii11ber after Karl Moor's decision to become a about his motives to become a robber, being told robber (in Act I, scene 2). We do not meet Karl only briefly and after the fact that Rinaldini was in again until several scenes later (in Act 3, scene 2) need of money and also stabbed his superior officer when we find him transfonned and in the midst of while in the military. robber life. Similarly, in Topelius's play, an

55 Schaad: Topelius 's "Rinaldo Rinaldini"

impetus in the first scene is followed by a Auch empfehle ich euch Schonung der significant break-a scene with a completely Weiber, Kinder und Greise. Als Manner different cast of characters (the schoolgirls). When laf3t uns auftreten und gebt eurem we return to the schoolboys, they too are Handwerk so viel Edles, als es ihm zu transformed, having assumed new names and fully geben moglich ist. (Topelius, 1906, p. playing new roles in the midst of their pseudo­ 483)24 robber life (in Act 2). A core element of robber novels and plays (I advise you also to be considerate to is the concept of the noble robber-combined with women, children, and old-timers. As men, its corollaries, the contrastive characters of the bad let us act in such a way as to give our robber and the ignoble citizen. Like Vulpius's work as much nobleness as it is possible Rinaldini, who often displays good manners and to give it. [my translation]) courtesy as well as heroic rescues and interventions, Topelius's Rinaldini (or Friman), Forsberg (alias Black Jonas), ironically, 1, while reminding the girls that they are captives, rejects these ideas. As the boy who had been the 1' still offers to escort them home fortheir protection: most vocally excited about the book, he takes his role to the extreme, embodying the conunon figure Korn, rofvare, sa folja vi zigenerskoma. in robber stories of U1e bad robber, who serves as a Det skall ingen saga om oss, alt vi liinmat contrast to the noble robber. Traits of the typical raska zigenerskor utan beskydd. noble robber-respect for law, sympathy for the (Topelius, 1906, p. 95) weak, moderation, and aversion to unnecessary bloodshed-contrast with those of the bad robber, (Come, my robbers, let us escort the whose villainy can be dishonest, unscrupulous, gypsy maids to their homes. Let it not be immorally opportunistic, and sadistic. Forsberg said that we left brave gypsy girls without (alias Black Jonas) does not reflect the depravity of protection. [Topelius, n.d., p. 134]) Schiller's bad robbers, Schweitzer and Schufterle, who brag about the heinous deeds they commit­ Except for the bad robber of the group, the the ransacking of a church, the killing of women band espouses the highest principles, which Friman and children, and the act of throwing a baby onto a (alias Rinaldini) reiterates after condemning fire (Act 2, scene 3)-but he does strongly Forsberg (alias Black Jonas) and kicking him out resemble Spiegelberg in Schiller's Die Riiuber in of the band for violating these principles: "vi iiro his vocalness to obliterate all laws and rule with miinsklighetens befriare. Vi maste forsvara de violence, along with his aspirations to be captain: oskyldiga. Vi maste fora krig mot allt oriitt i viirlden" (Topelius, 1906, p. 83) ("we are the Vi tala inga lagar. Vi gora hvad vi defenders of humanity. We must protect the behaga .... den som sager nagot annal an helpless, and fight against every wrong in the jag, den far sig pa ryggen. (Topelius, world" [Topelius, n.d., p. 122]). These noble 1906, p. 80) ideals, ironically, were well articulated early on by Forsberg himself as he read from his Rinaldo (We tolerate no laws. We do as we Rinaldini book. In the book, Rinaldini describes his please ... .if anyone has a different opinion band in terms of the Robin Hood type who steals from mine he shall be clubbed. [Topelius, from the rich and gives to the poor, embracing the n.d., p. 119]) highest ideal of righting the wrongs of the world: "Vi fa bara plundra de rika, som rofvat sin rikedom In his overzealous execution of robber activities, af de fattiga. Och sa dela vi med oss at de fattiga, Forsberg (alias Black Jonas) resembles Spiegelberg och sa stiilla vi allt igen pa riitt bar l varlden" and other bad robbers in Karl Moor's band. When (Topelius, 1906, p. 70) ("We must rob only the he robs the beggar boy, he asserts that "En rofvare rich, who have plundered the poor, then we will tar hvad han far" (Topelius, 1906, p. 82) ("A share our plunder with the poor, and in that way we robber takes what he can get" [Topelius, n.d., p. will put things to rights in the world" [Topelius, 121]) as he empties out the boy's bag. He n.d., p. I 09]). Vulpius's Rinaldini also states exclaims: "Jag ar en rofvare, och jag gor lwad jag explicitly his desire to endow his inherently viii" (Topelius, 1906, p. 83) ("I am a robber. .. and I ignoble profession as robber with some semblance of nobility: 24 This passage is found in an alternative edition of Rinaldo Rinaldini. See Vulpius, n.d. [ 1941].

56 I Jji Journal o(Fin11ish Studies. Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 2010 do as I please" [Topelius, n.d., p. 121 ]). In actually threaten to stop being robbers. Bostrom (alias robbing the beggar boy, Forsberg (alias Black Mazarino) says, "da viii jag inte vara rofvare" Jonas) breaks the code of the noble robber. His (Topelius, 1906, p. 82) ("Then I will not be a words-"Nej, se sadama usla brodkanter! Tacks robber any longer" [Topelius, n.d., p. 121 ]), du bjuda sadan rattmat at hederliga rofvare?" followed by Kronfelt (alias Carl Moor), who (Topelius, 1906, p. 82) ("Look at the miserable echoes the sentiments: "viii jag inte mera tjiina i bread crusts! Is that food to offer decent robbers?" bandet" (Topelius, 1906, p. 83) ("I will withdraw [Topelius, n.d., p. 121])-echo those of the bad from the band" [Topelius, n.d., p. 121)). In the end, robbers in Rinaldo Rinaldini, who similarly however, the boys remain true to their parts, with torment their victim with complaints and demands nothing in their language indicating that they are for more: "Geh zum Teufel mit deinem Paar not real robbers. They do not use the words "play" Lumpenpfennigen! Schaffmehr!" (Vulpius, 1974, or "game" to describe their acting out as robbers­ p. 49) ("Go to the devil with your paltry pence. perhaps realizing that, in actually assaulting the Give us more" [Yulpius, 1824, p. 25]). beggar boy, they have in fact crossed that line When robbers break the code of the band between fiction and reality. Even more noteworthy in Rinaldo Rinaldini, they receive immediate is the reaction of the beggar boy, who seems punishment, as when six of Rinaldini's men unfazed by the incident, giving no indication tliat attempt to rob the old Donato and Rinaldini what has transpired or the band before him is a intercedes to condemn the act: "Wer war der fiction. Friman (alias Rinaldo Rinaldini) shines in Schurke, der die erste Hand an diesen kraftlosen this moment as noble robber, contrasting starkly Greis legte?" (1974, p. 51) ("Which is the villain with the bad robber Forsberg (alias Black Jonas). that first laid hands on this feebleold man?" [1824, Like the "real," literary Rinaldini, who offers p. 26]). Friman (alias Rinaldini), acting as the money to an old man (Donato)-"Ich mochte gem noble robber captain, expresses similar anger as he eine gute Handlung ausiiben. Nimm diese Borse" finds that his band has broken the noble robber (Schiller, 1958, Book 1; p. 27) ("Pemlit me to do a code: "Hvero af mitt folk vagar plundra en good action. Take this purse" [Schiller, 1974, p. tiggargosse?" (Topelius, 1906, p. 83) ("Who of my 15])-Topelius's Rinaldini (or Friman), as robber people has ventured to rob a beggar?" [Topelius, captain, sends the beggar boy on his way with a n.d., p. 121]). Rinaldini punishes the violator on silver penny: "Var inte ledsen nu. Har har du en the spot with a gunshot to the arm: "Ohne ein Wort silfverpenning" (Topelius, 1906, p. 83) ("Be not zu sprechen, schof3 Rinaldo" (Vulpius, 1974, Book distressed. Here is a small silver coin" [Topelius, l; pp. 51-52) ("Without another word, Rinaldo n.d., p. 122]). Again, the beggar boy accepts the instantly fired at him" (Vulpius, 1824, p. 26). This performance at face value, thartking Friman (alias robber (Paolo) escapes with his life, but other Rinaldini) and actually calling him "nadiga herr violators are not so fortunate. Punishment in rofvare" (Topelius, 1906, p. 83) ("dear Mr. Topelius's play is not nearly as harsh, but Forsberg Robber'' [Topelius, n.d., p. 122]). (alias Black Jonas) receives unanimous criticism Just as Forsberg (alias Black Jonas) by the fellow schoolboy robbers and eventually is representing the bad robber provides a contrast to kicked out of the band by Friman (alias Rinaldini): illuminate the noble robber, so too does the ignoble citizen figure. The contrast between a noble robber For den har gangen ma du fa nad, men jag and an ignoble citizen, who commits immoral or viii inte mera ha dig i bandet. Gif strax evil acts without legal consequences as a free tillbaka at gossen hvad du tagit ifran citizen, is poignant in its ability to high.light honom, och packa dig sedan din viig. corruption and moral or legal contradictions in (1906, p. 83) individuals and also in a society. Franz Moor, a non-robber, is the clear villain in Schiller's Die (I will spare your life this time, but you Ri:iuber, exceeding the robber Karl Moor in his must no longer remain in my band. vices. Similar ignoble citizens, or villains, are Return to tl1e boy the plundered articles, found in Rinaldo Rinaldini as well. Topelius's and get you gone as fast as you can! [n.d., schoolboy robbers, conscious that they need an p. 122]) opponent in order to carry out their noble goal of fighting "against every wrong in the world" The incident receives enough (Topelius, n.d., p. 122), target a farmer who beats condemnation to almost disrupt the entire his horse. For the boys, he represents the apparatus of role-playing and the imaginary archetypal ignoble c1ttzen. They call him "en existence as robbers when some of the boys tyrann" (Topelius, 1906, p. 84) ("a tyrant"

57 Schaad: Topelius's "Rinaldo Rinaldini"

(Topelius, n.d., p. 122]) and a "nedrigt" (Topelius, Deflation ofthe Heroic Robber Model 1906, p. 84) ("mean and wicked" [Topelius,25 nd., p. 123 ]) man who must be punished. The boys rob In adopting the robber theme and him of his turnips and kidnap him, leading him invoking the genre of robber romanticism, "blindfolded and hands tied behind him" (Topelius, Topelius's play levels a critique at the genre, n.d., p. 124) ("bar en nasduk knuten for ogonen och sometimes subtly, sometimes not so subtly. During handerna bakbundna" [Topelius, 1906, p. 85]). the early 1800s in Europe, robber novels and plays Even in his protests-in which he highlights his enjoyed tremendous popularity while receiving a role as honorable citizen ("byalderman" [Topelius, proportional amount of disdain from many of the 1906, p. 85]; "village councilman" [Topelius, n.d., literary elite. For example, in the poem "Den p. 124])-the farmer is portrayed negatively. He is Vereinigten Staaten" (1827), Vulpius's brother-in­ portrayed as a simple tyrant, hurling verbal abuses law, Goethe, slights the robber stories of his day: so incessantly upon the boys that even the constable, later, must silence him: "Hall er mun, Benutzt die Gegenwartmit Gliick! kara far" (Topelius, 1906, p. 97) ("Hold your Und wenn nun eure Kinder dichten, peace, my good man" [Topelius, n.d., p. 135]). Bewahre sie ein gut Geschick The scene with the tyrant farmer, the Vor Ritter-, Rauber- und ignoble citizen, provides a dramaticopportunity for Gespenstergeschichten the noble robbers to fulfill their calling. They (Goethe, 1948, p. 333) rescue the mistreated horse and punish the villain. Friman (alias Rinaldini) speaks eloquently­ (Use the present with good fortune! indeed, nobly-in first telling the fanner he was And if your children begin to author, rightly punished for beating his horse and then May a kindly fate guard them from mercifully releasing him, while at the same time writing old knight tales, robber novels, insisting that the horse be given its freedom: and ghost stories) (translation mine)

Du har blifvit straffadmed ratta, for att du The schoolboys' teacher reflects this disdain in his slog din hast som en tyrann. Men nu ar du direct condemnation of Rinaldo Rinaldini: tillfangatagen och afvapnad; du kan "Lattingar och oduglingar bli ni; sadant lar man sig ga.... Carl Moor, led fangen till vagen och af romaner'' {Topelius, 1906, p. 73) ("Idlers and atergif honom hans karra,men hasten later good-for-nothings that's what you will become du Iopa. (Topelius,1906, p. 86) from reading such books as this" [Topelius, n.d., p. 112]). From the very beginning of the play, the (You have been justly punished for deviancy of that type of fiction is alluded to. The beating your horselike a tyrant. You have play opens with a narrative of "den tappre Rinaldo been captured and disarmed. Now you Rinaldini" (Topelius, 1906, p. 69) ("the brave may go .... Carl Moor, lead the captive Rinaldo Rinaldini" [Topelius, n.d., p. 108]), but I back to the highway. Give him back his Rinaldini's words are constantly being interrupted cart, but let the horse go. [Topelius, n.d., by the noise of studying from the boys. This pp. 124-125]) interruption of the romantic by the mundane 11; , reflects the general drowning out of romanticism I·ii Although Friman (alias Rinaldini) is playing a role by realism. Even when Rinaldini finally is able to here of the noble robber, his words and all the speak (through Forsberg) and the boys begin role­ I action are generating real consequences-this is playing as robbers, their role functions to slowly actually happening. The two main encounters of deflate the very genre which they have conjured the schoolboys as robbers, one recognizes, are both up. driven by high ideals: Forsberg (alias Black Jonas) The two main encounters of the is punished and cast out as a "bad robber," and the schoolboys are seeped in the mock heroic. farmer is punished as a tyrant but granted mercy Compared to the villainy in Rinaldo Rinaldini or ::i· and then released. Die Riiuber, the beating of a horse, though a .l

genuine offense to the young boys, approaches the ;.;, ·i 25 mundane. This mundane villainy also occurs in the II Kronfelt (alias Carl Moor) says "Det arnedrigt. Ii Han maste straffas som en forbrytare mot verbal abuses which the farmer heaps upon the jl: manskligheten" (Topelius, 1906, p. 84) ("Mean and boys. The farmer's insults seem especially deflated 111:; wicked ....He must be punished" [Topelius, n.d., p. compared to the curses that the priest heaps upon Karl Moor and his band in Die Riiuber: "ihr ...,. 123]). � -..1�"' ;: 58 ri.;� ;£i�: Journal o(Finnish Studies. Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 2010

Diebe-ihr Mordbrenner-ihr Schelmen-giftige Their role-playing completely defines their Otterbrut" (Schiller, 1958, 2.3; p. 550) ("You language and their behavior, blurring the lines thieves-you murderous incendiaries-you between role-playing and reality. The illusion is scoundrels-poisonous brood of vipers" [Schiller, not dispelled until near the end when the 1974, p. 87]). The farmer's insults, in contrast, are schoolgirls, growing tired of playing gypsies and comic in their content as well as their incessant playing captive to the robbers, begin uttering the hyperbole, recurring over and over, almost real names of the boys. The boys, however, stay in uncontrollably, in sequences during Act 2 and character, insisting on discipline and, true to their again in Act 3. The farmer simply yells at the boys game, even threatening to shoot their captives with a string of absurd insults, such as: ""Edra (though eventually some boys join the girls in their palstemackor, edra morotter, edra fiskmasar, edra plea to go home). tallkottar, edra goktutingar, edra blindbromsar, The play ends with a lengthy edra krabbsaltare, edra konterfeyn.... " (Topelius, reconciliation as the boys give themselves up to the 1906, p. 97) ("You parsnips, you carrots, you constable. Reflecting the heavy moralizing for seagulls, you pine cones, you cuckoo-tooters, you which Topelius is often known,26 the scene does blind gadflies, you pickled crabs, you phoneys .... " provide some interesting reflection on robber [translation mine]). In addition to the mundane romanticism and Topelius·s use of this cultural villainy of the farmer, we see deflation of the currency in his work. His story-featuring young heroic in the schoolboys' robbing the farmer not of schoolboys (and girls) takes the romantic Rinaldo silver or gold but of his turnips. The grandiose, Rinaldini and diffuses its anti-social, rebellious hyperbolic reaction ofthe boys to their victory over aspects (and omits its melancholy undertones) and this farmer and their modest booty also help to stresses the morality ofobeying the law at all times deflate the heroic robber model. Finally, near the and the importance of oath and loyalty. In a last, end of the play when the constable confronts them, ceremonial gesture of giving up his robber scepter, he makes the humiliating and trivializing threat of Friman (alias Rinaldo) summarizes their "heroic squirting them with water from a fire truck to force deeds" and speaks of their glory for posterity. This them out of their robber's cave-not exactly a gesture symbolizes the noble outlaw morphing into heroic mode ofattack. a dutiful citizen and is accompanied by the heavily The crime of beating a horse recalls the didactic tone and lengthy, direct preaching of the story by Heinrich von Kleist (yet another German constable. The end shows an eradication of all the author) about a law-abiding merchant turned ambiguity and contradiction inherent in the concept robber after, among other things, his horse is of the noble robber. Topelius, in smoothing out mistreated. While no evidence has been found moral complexities, essentially conveys the linking Topelius's "Rinaldo Rinaldini" (or any of message that these robber stories are only fit as his work) to KJeist's novelle "Michael Kohlhaas" stories, not to be played out in reality. But it is (1808/1982), the parallels are interesting not only clear that they can function as tales ofmorality, for in their similar subject matter-robbers and a the boys have clearly learned noble traits-such as mistreated horse-but also in their common loyalty-fromthe Rinaldo Rinaldini story. program of deflating the kind of heroic paradigm Despite the heavy-handedness of the found in popular robber stories. Kleist did this approach at the end, the play remains an already in 1808, when "Michael Kohlhaas" entertaining work and an interesting text as a appeared, portraying in the first half of his story a European cultural artifact. Its plot and themes draw noble robber engaged in a grand fight for justice. on three-quarters of a century of European literary But in the second halfofthe work, Kleist turns this and cultural tradition while at the same time paradigm on its head and, through the disclosure of reflecting the singular outlook and style of its various details in the story, presents a deflatedview author. Vulpius's Rinaldo Rinaldini and Schiller's of his opponents and of his entire campaign for Die Riiuber are clearly present, and the work justice. \Vhether purposely or coincidentally, reflects the general model of robber romanticism. Topelius's text creates an intertextual bond with But this reflection is not a simple recasting of a K1eist's entire narrative through his simple cultural phenomenon but also an ironic one, which adventure of schoolboys robbing a farmer who deflates the heroic robber model while also mistreated his horse. employing it in creative ways. In this, Topelius's One reason Topelius's deflation of the robber romanticism genre is so effective lies in the 26 Schoolfielddubs Topelius "the Finnish Victorian steadiness with which the schoolboys remain in par excel/ance" for his "incessant moralizing" character throughout Act 2 and Act 3 in the play. (1990, pp. 622-623).

59 Schaad: Topelius 's "Rinaldo Rinaldini"

"Rinaldo Rinaldini" not only draws on the Lehtonen, M. ( 1995). Den topelianska European cultural tradition but also becomes part varldsbildens morka sida: Topelius och of it. Perhaps he even propelled it forward. Some skrackromantiken. In H. Solstrand- have suggested Topelius's little play influenced Pipping (Ed.), Historiska och Kivi's Seitsemiin Veljestiiin its portrayal of a band /itteraturhistoriska studier 70 (pp. 7-27). of boys playing outlaw from society, committing Helsingfors: Svenska Litteratursallskapet. petty theft and receiving moral counsel from a Lehtonen, M. (1998). Topelius untenvegs in 27 local authority (Tarkiainen, 1943, p. 256). Europa. Jahrbuch far Finnisch-Deutsche Whether this is the case or not, Topelius's "Rinaldo literaturbezielrn11gen30, 178-187. Rinaldini" remains much more than a simple Lindh, J. P. (Trans.). (1801-1802). Rofwar­ children's play. anforaren Rinaldo Rinaldini. £11 romantisk historia frcin det forjlutna References arhundradet, i tre delar el/er femton Arnold, R. F. ( 1905). Die Rauber im Ausland. bocker. Stockholm [publisher unknown]. Euphorion 12, 638-641. Lukoschik, R. U. (2004). Friedrich Schiller in Biener, M. E. (1974). Die Dritische Reaktion au/ Jtalie11 (1785-1861): Ei11e Schil/ers Dramen zu lebzeiten des Autors. quel/engeschichtliche studie. Berlin: (Doctoral dissertation). Ludwig- Duncker & Humblot. Maximilians-Universitat, Munich. Plaul, H. (1983). Illustrierte Gesclzichte der Cologne, Germany: Kohlinger Trivialliteratur. Hildesheim, Germany: Dissertationsdruck. Olms. Dainat, H. (1996). Abaellino, Rinaldini und Rahbek, M. (Trans.). (1800-1802). Rnverkaptainen Konsorten: Zur Geschichte der Rinaldo Rina/dini: En romantisk historie Riiuberromane in Deutsch/and. fra vort aarhzmdrede. Copenhagen Tiibingen, Germany: Niemeyer. [publisher unknown]. Den farliga natten i loftet. (1845, January 18). Rancken, G. E. (1968). Zaclzris Topeliuksen Helsing(ors Tidningar, p. 2. kuvakielesta ja faabeleista: Sananmies Fin/ands Allmiinna Tidning. (1824, July 3). P. 8. runokuvien viidakossa ja faabelien Goethe, J. W. von. (1948). Den Vereinigten tarhassa. Tampere, Finland: Tampereen Staaten. In E. Trunz, (Ed.), Werke, Vol. I. yliopisto. Hamburg, Germany: Wegner. Romanen och Romanwurmen. (1845, September Helsing(ors Tidningar. (1830, March 3). P. 4. 17). Helsing(ors Tidningar, p. 1. Jemvagar och aldrig annat an Jemvagar! (1851, Schiller, F. (1958). Die Riiuber. Gedichte!Dramen November 15). Borga Tidning, p. 3. /. In G. Fricke & H. G. Gopfert (Eds.), JOl\lun aatto. (1864, November 24). Suometar, p. Siimtliche Werke (Vol l, pp. 491-618). 3. Munich: Hanser. Klas Borgelins sjelfbiografi. (1862, February 24). Schiller, F. (1979). The robbers. lo The robbers Helsing(orsDagblad, p. 4. and Wallenstein (F. J. Lamport, Trans.), Kleist, H. von. ( 1982). Michael Kohlhaas. (pp. 21-160), London: Penguin. Stuttgart: Reclam. Originally published Schoolfield, G. C. (1990). Topelius, Zacharias 1808. (Zachris). In V. Zuck (Ed.), Dictionary of Kopf, G. (1978). Friedrich Schiller: Der Scandinavian literature (pp. 620-623). Verbrecher aus Verlorener Ehre: New York: Greenwood Press. Geschichtlichkeit, Erziihlstrategie und Simanowski, R. (1998). Die Verwaltung des "republikanische Freiheit" des lesers. Abenteuers: Massenkultur um 1800 am Analysen zur deutschen Sprache und Beispiel Christian August Vulpius. Literatur. Munich: Oldenbourg. Gottingen. Germany: Vandenhoeck & Lasse-Maja. (2010). In Wikipedia, the online Ruprecht. encyclopedia. Retrieved from Simons, J. D. (1981). Friedrich Schiller. Boston: http:!/en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Lasse-Maja Twayne. Tarkiainen, V. (1943). Aleksis Kivi ja rosvoromantiikka: Seka joitakin 27 Both feature a typical robber romantic theme of personallisiii piirteita Canziossa. In R. cooking out by the campfire-in both cases (the Koskimies, A. Anttila & S. Haltsonen seven brothers and the schoolboys playing robbers) (Eds.), J111,/aki1ja J. V. Lehtosen they roast the turnips they have stolen. tiiyttiiessii 60 vuotta: 8.Xll. /943 (pp. 247-

60 Journal o(Finnish Studies, Volume 14. Number 2, Winter 2010

280}. K.irjallisuudentutkijain Seuran Vulpius, C. A. (n.d., ca. 1941 ). Rinaldo Rinaldini. Vuosikirja VII. Helsinki: SKS. Berlin: Otto Schaffer. Topelius, z. (1906). Rinaldo Rinaldini eller Vulpius, C. A. (1974). Rinaldo Rinaldini der Rofvarbandet. Samlade Skrifter. Vol. 2: Riiube,· Hauptmann. (Vols 1-3). Liisning for barn (pp. 68-103), Hildesheim: Olms. Originally published Helsingfors: G. W. Edlunds. 1799. Topelius, Z. (n.d., ca. 1908). Stories for children. Abo Al/manna Tidning. ( 1816, September 28). P. 4. Vol. 8. (C. W. Foss, Trans.). Rock Island, Abo Tidningar. (1801, October 14). P. 4. IL.: Augustana Book Concern. Originally Abo Tidningar. (1822, September 7). P. 3. published 1858. Hwarjehanda. (1855, May 31). Abo Tidningar, pp. Topelius, Z. (1918). Dagbocker. P. Nyberg (Ed.). 3-4. Vol. 1. Stockholm: Bonniers. Abo Underriittelser. ( 1833, October 16). P. 5. Vulpius, C. A. (1824). The history of Rinaldo Rinaldini, captain of banditti. (I. Hinkley, Trans.). (Vols 1-2). Boston: Baker.

61 • <

Tamminen: High School Students' Attitudes

High School Students' Attitudes towards Meankieli Birgi.tta Tamminen Oulu University Abstract The current study intends to present high school students' opinions of and attitudes towards the minority language ofMeankieli in the Swedish Tome Valley (Tomedalen). The redrawing of the national border between Finland and Sweden in 1809, with all of its long-lasting consequences, will be briefly discussed. The method used in this study adopts a qualitative approach in order to find out young peoples' attitudes towards their minority language. Some high school students reported on their attitudes by writing essays and filling in I! background questionnaires. The preliminary results of data analysis differentiate between positive and negative attitudes, further dividing both of those categories into four subcategories. The high school students' attitudes i and opinions were found to underline the importance of the need for the standardization of this minority language, but also of its relationship with the Finnish language spoken in the area. The lack of peers speaking I Meankieli was another important factor for these students. The results indicate that a larger study investigating the reasons behind the attitudes would be welcome. Better knowledge in this study area would probably be of serviceto theyoung people who choose to stay on in the Tome Valley, giving them morereasons for continuing 1\1Iii to use their own language and strengthening their positive attitudes towards it. t Keywords: attitudes toward language use, minority language, Meankieli, Sweden, Tomedalen, Matarenki. 11l Introduction between positive and negative attitudes, further In this article I will present part of my dividing both of those categories into four thesis research on Swedish Tome Valley high subcategories. I will conclude by discussing the school students' attitudes towards their minority most important findings about the high school language, Meankieli. With this particular study I students' positive and negative attitudes as well as want to discover whether or not the granting of suggesting further r�search. official status to Meankieli as a minority language in year 2000 has had any discernible impact on A Brie/Historical Background: The Tome Valley students' attitudes towards it. Are attitudes more The language situation in the Tome positive or rather negative? Although my intention Valley before the 19th century was that both is to first and foremost present attitudes towards Swedish and Finnish (and Sarni in some places) Meankieli, the Finnish language also plays a role were used. Sweden then lost Finland to Russia in here. The students themselves compare Meankieli the war of 1808-1809, but before this Finland had to Finnish, but it is also important to discuss both been a part of the Swedish kingdom for over 600 Meankieli and Finnish given the history behind the years. Therefore the Finnish language had, for development ofMeankieli. example, been used as a language of instruction in I interviewed the informants for this study the first elementary schools in the Tome Valley a total of four times between 2004 and 2006. All of with the veryfirst one being established in 1854 in the informants were at the time students at the local Haparanda (Winsa, 1998, p. 17). high school in Overtomea (known as Matarenki in Since the French revolution of 1789, I Meankieli). Matarenki is situated in the Swedish however, there had been a movement throughout Tome Valley "in the county of Norrbotten along Europe that proclaimed the idea of having "one the Swedish side of the Tome River, which forms a state-one language" (Hansegard, 1990, p. 19). part of the border between Sweden and Finland" Towards the end of the 19th century this idea also (Winsa, 1998, p. 19). This topic is of particular grew stronger in Sweden and voices of concern interest to me since I myself grew up in Overtomea about the Finnish-speaking people of the Tome using two languages (Swedish and Finnish), with Valley were raised. Since Finland was now part of Meankieli in close proximity. Russia, but still with their Finnish language intact, The method used in this study adopts a the Swedish government felt that the people on the qualitative approach in order to find out young Swedish side of the Tome Valley could be a peoples' attitudes towards and opinions of their potential threat to Sweden; the threat being the minority language. Some high school students Finnish language that both the Russian (Finnish) reported on their attitudes by writing essays and and the Swedish sides of the Tome Valley shared filling in background questionnaires. The (Jaakkola, 1973, p. 40f.; Elenius, 2007, p. 63f.). preliminary results of the data analysis differentiate

I' 62 I 11 i'! \ Journal o(Finnisl, Studies, Volume 14. Number 2. Wi11ter 2010

Steps to ensure the safety of Sweden had to be help keep long-established minority languages taken. alive" (Regeringskansliet, 20 I 0). The new One measurement towards the language law of the I st of July 2009 further Swedification of the Finnish-speaking strengthens the rights of all of the Swedish Tomedalians was to establish elementary schools minority languages (Sprakradet, 20 I 0). that were subsidized by the Swedish government. language Attitudes This meant that the language of instruction would Language planning and language policies now be Swedish instead ofFirmish and the children are of vital importance when considering attitudes of the Tome Valley would gradually lose their first towards a language, with these attitudes {whether language (i.e. Finnish), since it was forbidden to positive or negative) also including the group of speak it in school. When students spoke Finnish in people that actually speaks the language in school, they would most typically receive some question. According to Tollefson,"the commonly­ fonn of corporal punislunent (Wingstedt, 1998, p. accepted definition of language planning is that it 62f.; Winsa, 1998,p. 16f.). refers to all conscious efforts to affect the structure In 1919 a special Royal Commission was or function of language varieties" (1991, p. 16). appointed to investigate whether there was a need Language policy, in return,is usually defined as to use the Finnish language as a language of language planning conducted by governments instruction in the Tome Valley. The Commission (Wingstedt,1998, p. 4). Thereforewe can conclude did not find that such a need existed (Winsa, 1998, that how a government or a society looks upon p. 17). Yet, in 1955 it was still possible to choose matters as language rights is of the utmost Finnish as a voluntary extracurricular subject in importance. gymnasiums (high schools) in the region (Winsa, Hyltenstam (1999, p. I 30f.) claims that 1998, p. 18). attitudes towards Meiinkieli have, within the It would take another twenty years before Meiinkieli-speaking community itself, always been reform of the Swedish home language was carried divided to some extent. On one hand, those who out. This reform meant that children with a home have negative attitudes towards Meiinkieli do not language other than ·Swedish would be able to perceive it as a language worth preserving. On the choose to attend lessons in the home language, e.g. other hand, those who have positive attitudes Finnish. ln practice this would amount to some 1-2 towards Meiinkieli feel strongly about the issues of hours of lessons per week (Winsa,1998, p. 18). standardization and preservation of the language. During the 200 years that Finland and (Hyltenstam, 1999, p. 130) Winsa (2007, p. 79) Sweden have been separated, the Finnish language claims that Swedish language laws in more recent in the Tome Valley has grown into a distinctive years (2000 and 2009) have given the minority language of its own and has been given the name language-speaking people a stronger and more Meiinkieli {TomedalenFinnish was also used prior positive position. However, it seems difficult to to the 1980s). The Swedish Tomedalians' entirely change attitudes towards their own Association was established in 1981 and ever since minority language. There is a history of low self has worked towards gaining official recognition of esteem and of persistent governmental language both the Meiinkieli language and the Meiinkieli­ oppression in the Tome Valley, which today can speaking people of the Tome Valley by the still be seen in the negative attitudes towards Swedish government (Svenska Tomedalingars Meiinkieli from part of the Swedish-speaking Riksforbund, n.d.). At the same time both the community as well as some of the Meiinkieli­ Associaton as well as individuals, such as Swedish speakers themselves. author Bengt Pohjanen and Swedish researchers Debate about whether Meiinkieli is a Erling Wande and Birger Winsa, have been language as such or merely a vernacular was promoting a positive attitude towards Meiinkieli especially strong during the 1980s and 1990s at a and the minority that speaks it. It seems that the time when the Swedish Tornedalians' Association attitude issue is not yet resolved within the (STR-T) and also private individuals were working minority itself either (Hyltenstam, 1999, p. l 14f.). hard in order for Meiinkieli to reach the status of a ln 2000 both Meiinkieli and Finnish, minority language (Hyltenstam, 1999, p. 132f.). together with Romany Chib, Sarni and Yiddish, Swedish researcher Hansegard ( 1988, p. 306), for received official status as minority languages in example, claimed that all Firmish varieties spoken Sweden (Regeringskansliet, 20 I 0). According to in Sweden are vernaculars. The lack of a the government,"the aim of the policy is to protect standardized fonn for Meiinkieli is a problem that the minorities, promote their participation in affects views concerning its status as a language community affairs and public decision-making and even today.

63 Tamminen: High School Students' Attitudes

It is not only the lack of a standardized The Informants forn1 for Meiinkieli that lies behind the negative I interviewed two groups of high school attitudes towards it. People who have negative students in Matarenki, Sweden for the first time in attitudes towards Meiinkieli usually state that it is the fall of2004 with a total of four such encounters only a mixture of Finnish with some Swedish over a two-year period. In all, 40 informants loanwoards, and therefore not a language at all, but reported on their attitudes in essays on three rather a vernacular. Winsa ( 1998, p. l 9f.) explains different occasions and on three different topics: that the vocabulary of Meiinkieli is "a mixture of l .) Vaci iir tvasprakighet (for dig)? [What several Finnish varieties and other languages." East, is bilingualism? (to you)] West and North Finnish varieties are all 2.) Kulture/1 identitet-beskriv represented in the Meiinkieli vocabulary, as well as Torneda/en och en tornedaling. [Cultural loanwords from Sarni, Norwegian and Swedish identity-describe the Tome Valley and a languages (Winsa, 1998, p. 19; Hyltenstam, 2007, Tornedalian.] p. 263ff.). 3.) Meiinkieli. Var.for el/er var.for inte? There is a language law that protects the [Meiinkieli. Why or why not?] language rights for Meii.nkieli, but there is no one single standardized form for Meiinkieli in use. If These informants have also filled in background there were to be one standardized form to write in, questionnaires. The material gathered from the last but still many varieties to speak in, it would (third) essay has been of particular interest and perhaps result in people adopting more positive value when writing this article, since my main goal attitudes towards Meankieli. The Swedish has been to find out how young people perceive Tomedalians' Association's (STR-T) Meiinkieli; are their attitudes mainly positive or recommendation for a standardized form of negative? (For different methods on gathering Meiinkieli is that all varieties of the language are material for investigating language attitudes, see allowed and accepted as such (Winsa, personal Garrett, Coupland, & Williams, 2003, p. 39ff., p. communication, November 18, 20 l 0). This Slff.) recommendation, while tolerable, is neither All 40 of the informants have never been practical nor functional. present in all fourof the encounters. In this article I Hyltenstam ( 1999, p. 131) states that the will only present the results of those informants name changing from (Tornedalen) Finnish into who have both filled in the questionnaire and taken Meiinkieli [Our Language] has somewhat part in writing all of the three essays, a total of 30 transformed the attitudes of the minority language­ students. The first two tables consist of speakers into more positive ones. One of the questionnaire answers to open-ended questions, reasons behind the name changing was to whilst the third table consists of questionnaire distinguish Meiinkieli from Standard Finnish answers to multiple-choice questions. Amongst the (Winsa, 1998, p. 20). Furthermore Winsa (1998) informants there are students represented who states that an even more important reason behind speak either Finnish or Meiinkieliand students who the name Meankieli was to stress the speakers' new cannot speak either Finnish or Meiinkieli. collective identity. Today the name Meiinkieli is synonymous with the language itself.

Table 1. Skills in Finnish or Meankieli (n=30)

Finnish Meiinkieli Neither Both

Speaks the language 4 8 3 Speaks a little 7 Speaks some 3 Comprehends, but does not speak 4 Speaks both, but mixes them l

In the background questio1maires as many claim to have Finnish as their second language, not as 26 out of 30 infonnants have declared Swedish Meiinkieli. When the informants are asked if they as their mother tongue, the rest of them (four) speak Finnish or Meiinkieli, four of them claim to claim that they are bilingual. All of the bilinguals speak Finnish and seven claim to speak Finnish a

64 Journal o(Finnish Studies. Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 2010

little [litet]. Eight of them say that they speak that the students who speak some refer to both neither language. Three claim to have some languages, whilst those who claim to speak a little [nagorlunda] knowledge of both languages and yet refer only to the Finnish language. Four informants another three have answered the question only by claim to comprehend either one or both languages. "yes," not specifying which language they mean. However, according to their own data they are not Therefore I can only assume that these informants active users of the languages. Only one informant speak both languages. The distinction between a claims to speak both languages, but says she mixes little and some in this table ismade mainly because them. The informant does not state clearly what she of word choices made by the infonnants in the means by mixing (on what level: vocabulary, background questionnaires. My interpretation of grammar or other?). No one claims to speak only the words is that those students who speak some Meiinkieli. However, the ones who have reported are somewhat more skilled than those who only that they speak/comprehend Finnish can also be speak a little. This is also backed by the finding said to speak or at least comprehend Meiinkieli.

Table 2. Choice of language: Finnish/Meiinkieli (n=30)

Finnish Meiinkieli Both

26 3

The informants were also asked which language Valley). However, three informants chose they would choose, if they mastered both Finnish Meiinkieliand one of them gives this comment: and Meankieli, and which they would select if forcedto choose between them. As many as 26 say It depends. Living here on the border with that they would choose Finnish. Often they give Finland I would choose Meiinkieli [ ... ), extra comments on this question with phrases such then more people would understand the as "Finnish, since Finnish is a (real) language." language and it's also an easier language. Phrases such as this indicate the fact that most students still do not consider Meiinkieli as a These students clearly make a distinction between language, but rather as a local variant of the Meii.nkieli as a language of its own and as a dialect Standard Finnish language. The Swedish of Finnish. They also appreciate the fact that loanwords in Meiinkieli constitute one reason for Meiinkieli would be a unifying factor for all the informants to treat Meiinkieli as a vernacular Tornedalians, both Swedish and Finnish. rather than a language. Many comments were The last of the 20 questions in the given stating that Meiinkieli is not a real language, background questionnaire pertain to language used only a mixture of Finnish with Swedish loanwords in the home with parents. I asked the informants to incorporated. differentiate which language(s) they speak with Others comment on the fact, that their Meankieli is only spoken and understood on the parents. Twenty-one of them claim to speak only border bet\veen Finland and Sweden (the Tome

Table 3. Choice of language used with parents (n=30)

Only Mostly Swedish, Equally Swedish Mostly Finnish, Only Finnish Other Swedish some Finnish and Finnish some Swedish

Mother 21 8 Father 20 7

Swedish with their mothers and almost as many speak Swedish with their fathers. The language (20) claim to speak only Swedish with their fathers. mix is more diverse with students having, for The students speaking only Swedish with their example, a Finnish mother and a Swedish father, mothers are not all the same as those who only although no direct research regarding family

65 Tamminen: Higlz Sc/zoo! Students' Altitudes background (such as nationality or first language of Positive Attitudes towardsMeiinkieli parents) was conducted. The 30 students picked for this study have Eight infomrnnts speak mostly Swedish written all three essays mentioned above and also but also some Finnish with their mothers, and filled in background questionnaires. The topics of seven informants report on using the same the essays concern issues of bilingualism, identity languages with their fathers. An interesting aspect or attitude. For this article I have chosen to analyze here is that one infonnant, who earlier claimed to the content from the third essay that the infonnants speak neither Finnish nor Meiinkieli, now says that wrote and where they could freely discuss their he speaks mostly Swedish with his parents but also own attitudes towards and opinions of Meiin.kieli. I some Finnish. One reason for this differentiating have also earlier on reported on some of these answer could be that the informant does not results (cf. Tamminen, 2006, p. 83ff.). appreciate his own language skills, hence he claims Here I will present the positive factors that to only speak one language (Swedish). Or else he were of particular interest and which I would like belongs to the group of people who use Swedish in to highlight further. I will also differentiate them every other domain except at home (cf. e.g. Winsa, according to my own division into four 1998, p. 23) and does not count the home domain subcategories. I have chosen excerpted words and language as a "use of language." phrases from the material, and this will be further Along with the informants mentioned categorized into those four subcategories. above, there are another four informants: one who In the third essay, (Meiinkieli: Why or wlzy claims to speak equally as much Swedish and not?), the answers varied a great deal. In the tables Finnish with his father, one who speaks mostly below you can find the four subcategories for Finnish but also some Swedish with his father and positive factors (pro Meiinkieli), and also examples one speaks only Finnish with his father. The last of words and/or phrases (n=34 excerpts) of the informant speaks equally as much Swedish and attitudes and opinions expressed in the essays that Meiinkieli with his mother (marked in the table as were written in Swedish and here in the excerpts Otlzer). translated into English.

Table 4. Factors for Meankieli (n=34)

Tome Valley Importance of the Meiinkieli Other(s) (the area) minority language vs. Finnish

Total 16 3 7 8

The first category has to do with the geograplzic 5.) " ... ell maste all kunna i var kommun ... " area in question. The Tome Valley is considered to [A must to master it in our municipality.] be a strong argument for anyone living in that area to speak or learn Meiinkieli. Here are some The high school students clearly feel that excerpted comments from the essays concerning Meiinkieli is part of the geographical area as well this matter: as the cultural heritage and also that it belongs to the identity of being a Tomedalian. I.) " ...ell slags s/...yddssprak = hemligt och The following examples concern the respektingivande, som bara en riktig second category: the importance of the minority tornedaling kan." (some sort of protective language itself. The outlook here is that the language = secret and respectful that only students have considered what sort of prestige the a real Tomedalian can speak.] language itself (Meiinkieli) has since it has been 2.) " ... a,· en def av var kulturlzistoria... " (It's declared an officialminority language. part of our cultural heritage.] 3.) " ... en Jorde/ i Tornedalen." (An 6.) "viktigt att bevara eget minoritellsprak." advantage to master it in the Tome (lt's important to preserve our own Valley.] minority language.] 4.) " 'al/a' pratar det i Tornedalen." [Everyone speaks it in the Tome Valley.]

66 Journal o{Finnish Studies. Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 2010

7.) "minoritetssprak ska man kanske forsoka Of all the subcategories the importance of the bevara." [One should try whenever minority language elicited the fewest responses. possible to preserve minority languages.] According to the results here, we can rely 8.) "sager ja till bevarande av sprak, men on the fact that just because a language is officially be/Jover det inte sja/v." [I'm positive acknowledged as a minority language, it does not towards preserving the minority language, give these young people reason enough to preserve but personally I don't need it.] it solely based on that. Furthermore, what we find is that although the students feel it to be more or Studying these comments, we can clearly see that less important to preserve a minority language, the students are not certain of what Meiinkieli they don't feel that it's important to maintain it by really means to them or what a minority language using it themselves. How, then, can we preserve means on a more mundane level. Even though this Meiinkieli, if we don't have people to maintain it? category is portrayed as a positive one, I feel that The last two categories are quite even some phrases in the excerpts denote a slightly when it comes to numbers of excerpts. The third negative tone in their meaning: whenever possible category, Meankieli vs. Finnish, contains seven and don't need it are such phrases. The students comments and the last category, Other(s), contains seem to think that preserving a minority language eight comments. Firstly there are some excerpts is something that happens, without any effort and that explain what the informants considered when that language preservation is an issue for others to comparing usage of Meiinkieli to Finnish. The concern themselves with. They are not even sure of intention in this category is to enhance the positive why "we" should be preserving minority languages. features of Meiinkieli.

9.) "/attare att forsta (an standardfinska}, 15.) "bra for gam/a som inte /art sig enge/ska kan gissa ord." [H's easier to understand i skolan. " [Meiinkieli is good for old Meiinkieli (than Standard Finnish), one people who haven't learned English in can just guess the words.] school.] I 0.) "forenar oss med Finland." [Meiinkieli 16.) "bra som turistattraktion." [Meiinkieli unites us with Finland.] would be a good tourist attraction.] 11.) "forenklar granssamarbetet, men inte 17.) "vore bra alt kunna meankieli el/er finska nodvandigt alt kunna i resten av Finland eftersom man maste lasa ca 100 poang el/er Sverige." [Meiinkieli simplifies cross­ sprak. " [It would be useful to learn border co-operation, but is not necessary to Meiinkieli or Finnish since we have to speak/master elsewhere in Finland or study at least 100 points' worth of Sweden.] languages.] (For further information on the 12.) "folk slipper Iara sig det finska spraket." Swedish school system, see Skolverket, [No one has to learn how to speak the 2009). Finnish language (if they can speak Meiinkieli).] In certain comments, such as number 17, languages are portrayed as being of common benefit. Both According to the comments in this category, the Meiinkieli and Finnish are seen as useful languages, students find that Meiinkieli is more important to just like German, English or French. Since the learn than Finnish, since it's easier to understand students have to study at least two languages in and because the necessity of it on the border is school (cf. Skolverket, 2009), then why not a greater. Finnish is portrayed as a difficult language, language that feels closer to home? Yet anotl1er one that they would not have to learn if they comment (15) states that even old people need one mastered Meiinkieli. (foreign) language to express themselves in, and The comments in the last category are since they (usually) do not have a good command more diverse. They do not have a single unifying of the English language, that "foreign" language factor, hence the title Other(s). All excerpts refer to could well be Meiinkieli. And someone also points Meiinkieli, except forthe last one ( 17) which refers out that Meiinkieli would be a great tourist to both Meiinkieliand Finnish. attraction. This I could agree on, if only I knew what the infonnant really meant with the comment 13.) "skulle vara kul all liira sig." [Meiinkieli (16). How would it be possible to "sell" a language, would be funto learn.] or to market it as a tourist attraction? 14.) "skadar inte alt Iara sig det." [It wouldn't hurt to learn the language (Meiinkieli).]

67 Tamminen: High School Students' Attitudes

Negative Allitudes towards Meiinkieli could choose between Meiinkieli and Finnish, what The following conunents concerning would be their choice? The answers were divided Meiinkieli (and/or Finnish) are ofa negative quality. into three even groups: Finnish vs. Meiinkieli, Compared to the positive ones (above 34 excerpts}, Usejiilness (of the language) and Aesthetics the negative comments are almost even in number: (pertaining to the name of a language, and also to 33 to be exact. l have also divided the negative what a language sounds like). The fourth group comments into four subcategories (see Table 5 Other(s) only garnered two comments. Some of below). these comments might belong to more than one In the essays the students wrote, amongst group, but to ease interpretation, I have placed other things, about why they think that it would not every comment in only one mam group. be necessary lo speak/learn Meiinkieli and, if they

Table 5. Factors Against Mciinkicli (n=33)

Finnish vs. Meiinkieli Usefulness Aesthetics Other(s)

IO 10 11 2

The results can be read from the table below. As in looks like it has both positive as well as negative the case of positive example excerpts, I have aspects to it. For those students who wish to stay chosen words and phrases concerning negative on in the region, Meiinkieli is a good choice, but aspects from the material, which have been forthose who seek themselves elsewhere, learning translated from Swedish into English. The first Finnish would be ofgreater use. category consists of IO comments and below can The second category concerns the be found a few examples, followed by my own usefulness of Meiinkieli: do the students feel that interpretations. In this category the students explain they can put their Meiinkieli-language skills to how the Finnish language affects Meiiokieli good use? The following conunents shed some according to their opinions. light on the matter.

18.) "standardfinska sjiilvklarl, man kommer 22.) "sa fa ta/ar det, ingen nytta." [There are liingre med det." [Standard Finnish of so fewwho speak Meiinkieli, it's ofno use.] course, you can get by more easily with it.] 23.) "kommer all forsvinna." [(Meiink.ieli) will 19.) "finnarna kan inte forsta oss bara genom vanish.] finska iindelser." [The Finns cannot 24.) "inga ungdomar talar det." [Young understand us simply by putting Finnish people do not speak Meiinkieli.] suffixes on Swedish words.] 25.) "det finns viktigare sprak/iimnen all Iara 20.) "riksfinska iir mer viirt." [(Standard) szg. [There are more important Finnish has more worth (as a language).] languages/subjects to learn than Meiinkieli.] 21.) "prioriterar 'riktig' finska, da kan man forsta bade meiinkieli saml standardfinska Seen from the perspective of young ta/are." [I prioritize real Finnish, then it's people, one strong factor for not learning/speaking easier to understand both Standard Finnish Meiinkieli is that their peers do not speak it and Meii.nkieli-speakers.] (example 24). It is understandable that if one's peers do not speak a language, there is greatly It seems that the students think of Finnish as being reduced social impetus to learn it. Meiinkieli is the stronger language choice because Finnish is often synonymous with "old folks"' language, and used in a larger area {Finland and parts ofSweden). so students conclude that the language will be Meiiokieli is considered to be more tied to the extinct in the not so distant future. Therefore there geograpl1ic area of the Tome Valley, and therefore are no valid reasons to study a language that no one not the best choice if one would want to is going to need. Most of the conunents in this conununicale with more people than those who live category were similar to example 25, i.e. there are in the area. If we compare this negative factor-the more important languages or other (school) geographic area-with the similar positive one, it subjects to learn and Meiinkieli is not considered

68 Journal o(Finnislr Studies. Volume 14. Number 2. Winter 2010

an "important" language (or subject in school). 30.) "orkar inte hjiilpa till au bevara det These sorts of comments come mostly from genom alt liira sig det." [I don't have the students who stated that they were going to leave energy lo learn the language (Meiinkieli)in their homes in Matarenki and go to study order to preserve it.] elsewhere (in only Swedish-speaking areas). 31.) "viii inte Ira det som skoliimne." [I don't Therefore they do not see the value in learning to want Meiinkieli as a(n obligatory) school speak Meiinkieli or even to put the language to use, subject.] even if they happen to master it. The third category, Aestlretics, has a somewhat Even if the first of these two examples has mismatched name, but it pertains to the fact that been labelled as "negative," it is not my impression the students comment on the image and the "look" that this is the complete truth. The student is not of Meiinkieli. necessarily against Meiinkieli, but cannot muster up the effort it takes to try and learn it. In order to 26.) "ingel specie/It vackerl sprak." [Not a preserve and maintain any language, one has to use particularly beautiful language. J it actively (Winsa, 1998, p. 20 f.). This requires a 27.) "later oseriost." [Doesn't have street positive attitude as well as an effort, hence the cred.J negative labelling of this particular comment. The 28.) "namnel pa Sprake/ iirfe/, /a/er som ell last comment (31) is common amongst young skiiml." [The name (Meiinkieli = "Our people if they feel forced to do something against language") doesn't sound right, sounds like their own will, but here the negative attitude a joke.] towards something that is compulsory might also 29.) "ettfjantigl namn." [A sissy name.] be combined with a negative attitude towards the language itself. Compare this with the situation for These comments above show quite clearly why the the Swedish language in Finland (Alvarez, 2005). students have such negative feelings towards Meiinkieli, and the image that the language is Discussion portraying for them. Mostly it has to do with the The high school students portrayed in my name Meiinkieli itself, as they do not think that this study have both positive as well as negative Finnish name for a minority language spoken in attitudes towards and opinions of Meiinkieli. On Sweden is an accurate one. Some commented on one hand they do comprehend that it is of utmost the fact that they do live in Sweden and that they importance to speak/learn and maintain a minority are Swedes, even if the minority language is of language, but on the other hand they fail to see the Finnish origin. However, I did not ask the importance of maintenance under the current informants directly about whether they perceive circumstances pertaining to the status of the Meiinkielias a language or a vernacular; thereforeI language. Therefore I cannot conclude that cannot draw any direct conclusions about their Meiinkieli having received official status as a opinions of Meiinkieli being ofFinnish origin. minority language has had any major impact on the Image and peer opinions are important to positive attitudes of these high school students. A young people everywhere. If young people were to standardization of the language would probably learn the minority language, maybe a good way to have a more positive effect, since the students feel entice them into learning it would be to change the that it is difficult to learn a language that has no set name. The informants themselves did not give rules of standards or rather has no single set of name changing as an option, but the discussion in rules, but many. their essays came close to the idea. Give the name The name of the language, Meiinkieli, is an in1age that the young ones can relate to. Or does one of the factors mentioned that seem to affect the the name, Meiinkieli, hold such stability that it status of the minority language (compared with would not be meaningful to try and change it Finnish or even Swedish). Meiinkieli (the name) is (Hyltenstam, 1999, p. 131)? Also, perhaps when conceived to belong to Finland and not to portray these students grow up, they will feel differently the fact that they live in Sweden and are Swedish about the name and the images they currently citizens. They claim not to have negative attitudes associate with it, won't be such a big issue. towards Finland or the Finnish language, but they The last category, Other{s), only contains do think that the name of their own minority two comments, so I include them both as excerpted language should in some way reflect their identity examples below. of being Swedes, despite the fact that Meiinkieli is not of the same language origin as Swedish. Another factor is peer opinions. The students

69 Tamminen: High School Students' Attitudes cannot master the language well enough to use it Retrieved from freely with their peers. They also consider http://www.nytimes.com/2005/l 2/25/worl Meankieli to be "old folks"' language and therefore d/europe/25iht-finland.html?_r= 1 not interesting enough for themselves to pursue. Elenius, L. (2007). Statlig minoritetspolitik i I do not think that by making Meankieli Sverige. In E. Westergren & H. Ahl (Eds.), an obligatory subject, students will maintain it by Mer iin ett sprak: En antologi om putting the language into active use. Compulsory jlersprakigheten i norra Sverige (pp. 56- subjects are not what students want, even though 75). Stockholm: Norstedts Akademiska that is what the whole school system is built upon. Forlag. I would suggest that the schools in the Tome Garrett, P., Coupland, N. and Williams, A. (2003). Valley (who have children that want to learn the Investigating language attitudes: Social language) either create an integrated model where meanings of dialect, ethnicity and both Finnish and Meankieli are taught, or that performance. Cardiff: University of Wales pupils could choose which language (if any) they Press. would like to learn. The integrated model requires Hansegard, N.-E. (1988). Spraken i det positive attitudes from all involved: school staff, norrbottensfinska omradet. Arbetsrapport parents, pupils, as well as the whole community. It 3. Lararutbildningarna. Lulea, Sweden: also requires that at least the language teachers Hogskolan i Lulea. have sufficient skills in both Finnish as well as in Hansegard, N.-E. (1990). Den norrbottenfinska Meankieli. sprakfragan: En aterblick pa It would also have been interesting to find halvsprakighetsdebatten. Uppsala out how many of these students plan to stay on in Multiethnic Papers 19. Uppsala, Sweden: the area. They are still young, of course, and their Centrefor Multiethnic Research. plans might change many times yet. The closest Hyltenstam, K. (1999). Begreppen sprak och University is in Lulea (about 95 miles/ 150 dialekt-om meankielis utveckling till kilometers south of Matarenki), so if they want to eget sprak. In K. Hyltenstam (Ed.), educate themselves further, they have to move Sveriges sju inhemska sprak: Ett elsewhere. Maybe it would have served a better minoritetsperspektiv (pp. 98-137). Lund, purpose to ask them whether they would consider Sweden: Studentlitteratur. coming back after having graduated? And if so, Hyltenstam, K. (2007). Begreppen sprak och would this have an effect on their choice of dialekt och meankielis status som eget language, i.e. would they continue to use Meankieli sprak. In E. Westergren & H. Ahl (Eds.), or would they choose to speak only Swedish? Mer iin ett sprak: En antologi om These questions would be interesting to pursue in jlersprlzkigheten i norra Sverige (pp. 237- another study. 282). Stockholm: Norstedts Akademiska If the purpose was to enhance theattitudes Forlag. towards Meankieli amongst students, then some of Jaakkola, M. (1973). Sprakgriinsen: En studie i the factors mentioned above should be taken into tvasprakighetens sociologi. Stockholm: account. It would be of great value to let the Aldus/Bonniers. students see how Meankieli could be used in the Regeringskansliet. (2010). National minorities. The community so that they feel that it is a language Swedish government's human rights worth learning and speaking, not just an "old folks' website. Retrieved from language" waiting for extinction. http://www.humanrights.gov .se/extra/pod/ The results indicate that a larger study ?module_instance =2&action=pod_show& investigating the reasons behind the attitudes id=55 would be welcome. A better knowledge in this Skolverket. (2009, February 23). What is upper study area would probably serve the young people secondary school? Retrieved from who choose to stay on in the Tome Valley, giving http://www.skolverket.se/sb/d/2669 them more reasons for continuing to use their own Sprakradet. (2010). Sprakvard. Sprakpolitik och language and strengthening their positive attitudes spraklager. Umea Universitet, /nstitutet towards it. forSprak och Folkminnen. Retrieved from http://www.sprakradet.se/spr%,C3%A5kp References olitik Svenska Tomedalingars Riksforbund. (n.d.). Alvarez, L. (2005, Dec 25). In Finland, a battle of Lumipallo laaksosta. Retrieved from the tongues. The New York Times.

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http://www.str-t.com/om­ Historical and contempora,y perspectives. forbundet/historik-3-20/ Stockholm: Centre for Research on Tamminen, B. (2006). Matarenkilaisten Bilingualism, Stockholm University. lukiolaisten mielipiteita ja asenteita Winsa, B. (1998). Language attitudes and social meankieltii kohtaan. In H.-K. Holmi & H. identity: Oppression and revival of a Sulkala (Eds.), Tutkielmia minority language in Sweden. Canberra: vi:ihemmistokielistii Ji:iiimereltii Applied Linguistic Association of Liivinrantaan: Vi:ihemmistokielten Australia. Paper No 17. tutkimus- ja koulutusverkoston raportti VJ Winsa, 8. (2007). Tomedalingama: En spriiklig (pp. 83-91 ). Oulu, Finland: Studia minoritet. In E. Westergren & H. Ahl Humaniora Ouluensia 2. (Eds.), Mer iin ell sprak: En antologi om Tollefson, J. W. (1991). Planning language, jlersprakigheten i norra Sverige (pp. 76- planning inequality. London & New York: 93). Stockholm: Norstedts Akademiska Longman. Forlag. Wingstedt, M. ( 1998). Language ideologies and minority language policies in Sweden:

71 Journalo(Finnish Studies. Volume 14, Number 2, Winter 2010

Book Review Varpu Lindstrom. "/ Won't Be a Slave!" Selected articles on Finnish Canadian women's history. 2010. Beaverton, ON, Canada: Aspasia Books. ii + 152 pp., illustrations, notes, pictures, bibliography.

At long last, we have a collection of immigrant life. It is based on her dissertation Varpu Lindstrom's pioneering articles in Finnish­ research which also yielded Defiant Sisters: A Canadian women's history in one place. These Social History of the Finnish Immigrant Women in articles bring together her most important and Canada, 1890-1930. The article within this award-winning work and most influential research collection reminds us of the relatively high wage into one publication. They span the range of her and consequent status within immigrant circles considerable career, from her early work on Finnish domestics enjoyed. It also examines how Finnish-Canadian settlements in Ontario and the status and wage of the Finnish domestic in British Columbia to her latest research into the Canada-in spite of the hard work which Finnish issues of Finnish-Canadian immigrants in Russian women were already accustomed to--created an Karelia. Taken together, these articles provide influx of single women into the community, broad insight into Lindstrom's contributions to allowing for a relatively balanced gender ratio and history and women's studies research in Canada. also allowed forimmigrant women to move out of From an international perspective, these articles domestic service and into other occupations as they provide a lens through which to view the struggles, became available. contributions, and controversies of Finnish In "The Radicalization of Finnish Fann immigrant women in Canada as evidence of the Women in Northwestern Ontario," Lindstrom issues of migration and integration into the larger utilizes ethnographic interviews with Taini Davis, global community. daughter of Kirsti Pitkanen, to tell of the hardships Lindstrom's opening article in this and opportunities for social and political collection, "Utopia for Women? The Sointula development forwomen in early twentieth century Experiment, 1901-1905," provides perspective on rural Ontario. The isolation, workload, and limited women's roles in Matti Kurikka and A. B. time available forsocial outlet are examined as part Makala's Sointula Colony in British Columbia in. and parcel of the women's radicalization in which In it she examines the nature of women's roles in these were both constraints on and motivation for the commune, including the important issues of radicalization. Finnish Canadian woman and girls equal rights, social security, and freedom from were active within the immigrant farms child care, as well as the freedomof women within communitiesin the Young Communist League, the the commune to control their own bodies in terms Socialist Party of Canada, and other radical of sexual relations, the openness of discussions organizations. According to Lindstrom and her within the commune regarding sexual intercourse, informant, international education opportunities and the freedom of individuals-including women were sought in the Soviet Union for the and men-to engage or not to engage in sexual development of radicalization of Davis, as a young relations with any individual of his or her choosing woman, partly in response of the isolation and lack and to initiate or terminate those relations at will. of opportunity for growth within the party felt by Lindstrom's examination of the rights and roles Davis's mother who, in tum, sought to create of her within the context of the commune is set as the daughter a dedicated socialist. Privation of farm culminating factor in the eventual disintegration of life figured highly in the radicalism of women and the commune. youth in Kivikoski, especially in response to the In the award-winning "I Won't Be a social problems concomitant with poverty and Slave! Finnish Domestics in Canada," Lindstrom social isolation. As the second generation found examines the crucial role that domestic service more opportunities for social and economic played in attracting women to and subsequently development in the mainstream and with the blocks shielding them from the harshest privations of to upward mobility in Canadian society that . �·

72 Journal o(Finnish Studies, Volume 14, Number 2, Winter 2010

radicalization brought to young people, many popular media were manipulated to enhance moved away from socialist tenets and toward a support for Finland during the time of the Winter mainstream political bent, albeit with a strong War. In themedia, Lindstrom notes, admiration for social conscience developed through participation tiny Finland as it stood up to the giant Russia was in socially conscious upbringing. The article posits splashed across mainstream Canadian media. Early the radicalization of women as a founding feature on, Finland, recognizing the need to be able to of their later involvement in political life "beyond recruit international support, "provided the North one's own community or even country" (p. 96). American press with photos designed to depict a In the next article, "F innish Women's nation of civilized, healthy, athletic and beautiful Experience in Northern Ontario Lumber Camps, people" (p. 126). The Finnish community in 1920-1939," Lindstrom discusses the prospects for Canada, regardless of religious or social work for Finnish women who, like their male background, seized the opportunity to use this counterparts, arrived alone and found much favorable media attention to solicit support for autonomy in selecting work. From working-class Finland's war effort. Finnish and Finnish Canadian backgrounds and experienced in hard work, the women were depicted as fair-haired, traditional, universally literate Finnish immigrant women beautiful, emancipated, and womanly while found work in lumber camps in northern Ontario _ simultaneously servingas soldiers and fundraisers, 1: via the newspapers written in the Finnish without much thought for the contradictions among communities. Once in the camps, Finnish women these representations. The folk costume was strove to maintain propriety and needed "physical wielded as a symbol of the Finnish women's health, good strength, and self confidence" to be traditional values and strength, notwithstanding the able to survive in the primitive conditions of the fact that the costumes were worn only on rare camps (p. 102). Finnish immigrant women, ceremonial occasions within Finland.Other images according to Lindstrom, "expected to work hard included that of sturdy women factory workers. As and to be in ·charge of their own reputation" and the war progressed, images of women working in thus managed to do well in employ in the camps (p. heavy industry-while maintaining their 102). They attended to thecleanliness and provided femininity-also became staples in the Canadian good food in large quantities for the men in the media as well as theeducated emancipated Finnish camps. While themajority of Finnish women chose woman who "received the right to vote eleven not to work in thecamps, thosewho did were well years before their Canadian sisters" (p. 137). compensated and able to save money as a result of Women in the Lotta Svard organization with its the favorable pay in the camps. Social isolation and uniformed soldiers were used to portray Finnish lack of health care for both families and women women as daring and brave soldiers fighting next who worked at the camps is noted as limitation of to their men in contradiction to the reality of the such employment, but social benefits included the organization which served as a "political auxiliary effects of unionization and political activism on organization for conservative Finnish women." (p. women's class-consciousness. Overall, Lindstrom 140). Women were even depicted as fiercesolders, finds that Finnish women raised living standards serving together in a "fully mobilized army of and social life in the camps and also supported women," in an article Lindstrom observes as men's socialist and union activities that enhanced "bizarre" (p. 141). These diverse images ofFinnish overall conditions in the camps. Finnish women, women were put to use in a fundraising effort into according to Lindstrom, served as pioneers and which the images of idealized Finnish-Canadian opened up the camps of northern Ontario to work women were also added. Lindstrom closes the by strongand healthy women. article by notingthat the media portrayalofFinnish In the final article of the collection, women "fit with exotic-but not too exotic­ "Propaganda and Identity Construction: Media notions of 'white goddesses," and in this manner Representation in Canada of Finnish and Finnish­ makes productive use of "a normally marginal Canadian Women in the Winter War, 1939-1940," group of immigrant women in Canada" (p. 146). Lindstrom examines how images of women in the Thus, Lindstrom leads us through the cycle of

73 Journal o{Finnish Studies, Volume 14, Number 2, Winter 2010 production of a fleeting image of Finnish femininity as it is used to in Canada to promote exotic images of Finnish women in the mainstream support of Finland in its war effort, but also as a Canadian press as aspects of propaganda designed precursor to the publicity campaigns used to recruit to produce a particular consciousness in the Canadian women into the war industry and later dominant society. As a collection, these essays into the armed forces. draw together some of the most important and Individually, these articles provide insight ground-breaking works to date from this award­ into the historyof women in Canada in the various winningscholar and researcher. occupations they undertook. They also provide us a window into the workings and the importance of Beth L. Virtancn the activism and political consciousness of Finnish Finlandia University Canadian women in their multiple endeavors, from farming, to communal living, to employment as maids and domestics and camp cooks. Lindstrom also reminds us of the uses of the racialized and

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