Cover Photo courtesy of Prime Photography Dane Rawlins entering the Odyssey Arena at the Northern Ireland International Horse Show for the Dressage to music display [email protected]

i Conference Proceedings ISES Dublin 2008 International Society for Equitation Science 4th International Conference

www.equitationscience.com

ii School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4 – Ireland

ISES Dublin 2008 International Society for Equitation Science 4th International Conference

August 1st – 4th 2008 RDS, Ballsbridge, Dublin 4.

Conference Proceedings

Editors: Jack Murphy, Karen Hennessy, Patrick Wall, Pat Hanly

iii

iv Contents CONTENTS 1 CREDITS 6 ISES DUBLIN 2008 7 LOCAL ORGANISING COMMITTEE 7 SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE 7 ISES COUNCIL MEMBERS 7 WEBSITE COORDINATORS 7

ORGANISING SECRETARIATT 7 WELCOME 8 MEMO FROM PRESIDENT, RDS 9 TIMETABLE – DAY 1 10 TIMETABLE – DAY 2 13 TIMETABLE – DAY 3 16 DAY 1 18 The horse-human dyad: Practise PERFECT to PERFECT practice 19 Eric Smiley 19 An investigation into personality correlates of elite and amateur riders and their horses 20 Inga A Wolframm1,2, Dominic Micklewright2 20 Horse sense: social status of horses (Equus caballus) affects their likelihood of copying other horses’ behaviour 21 Konstanze Krueger, Juergen Heinze 21 Visual memory and rider experience in a show-jumping context 22 Carol Hall1, Charlotte Liley1, Jack Murphy2, David Crundall3 22 The use of vignette methodology to maintain engagement by respondents, in a Delphi study exploring the perception and heightening the awareness of equine welfare 23 Joe Collins, Alison Hanlon, Simon J. More, Patrick Wall, Vivienne Duggan 23 Evaluating learning theory in horses and donkeys when presented with a novel task 24 Camie Heleski, Amy McLean, Laura Bauson 24 Rider asymmetry within equitation: Preliminary observations 25 Debbie Symes, Robert Ellis 25 Changes in heart rate during road transport of horses for one, 3.5 and 8 hours 26 Christiane Wehnert1, Alice Schmidt1, Jörg Aurich2, Jürgen Müller1, Christine Aurich1,2 26 The additive effect of stress and genotype on learning systems; implications for equine training 27 SD McBride 27 Horse Sport Ireland Coaching Programme 28 Alison Corbally 28 The use of training aids (gadgets) within equitation: Meritorious or detrimental? 29 Jack Murphy1, Andrew McLean2, Paul McGreevy3, Fiona Sheridan4, Pat Hanly4 29 Para Equestrian: extraordinary people, special horses and unequivocal equitation 30 Eilish Byrne1, Niall Quirke1, Jack Murphy2 30 SMART: Sensitivity Models for Animals in Response to Training 31 PD. McGreevy1, AN. McLean2, K Keay3, PC. Thomson1 31 Estimating actual and minimum trajectories of the performance horse when jumping fences of given dimensions 32 Robert L Wood 32 Stretching regime effects on stride length and range of motion in equine trot 33 Rose, N. S., Northrop, A. J., Brigden, C. V., Martin, J. H. 33 Weighted boots alter the jump stride kinematics in the performance horse 34 Jack Murphy 34

1 DAY 2 35 The horse-human dyad: Does physical training of horses have to be attritional and can we ever resolve performance and welfare? 36 David J Marlin 36 Stimulus' perception in horses: Using Heart Rate (HR) as an appropriate indicator 37 Paolo Baragli, Chiara Mariti, Francesco De Giorgio, Claudio Sighieri 37 Changes in heart rate during the initial training period of three-year-old warmblood sport horse stallions 38 Alice Schmidt1, Stefanie Neuhauser2, Jörg Aurich2, Jürgen Müller1, Christine Aurich1,2 38 Horse owners’ experiences of (horses) going barefoot 39 Emma Creighton, Kiran Jones 39 Exercise during training affects racing performance in Thoroughbreds 40 Kristien L P Verheyen1, Joanna S Price2, James L N Wood3 40 The effect of two different training methods on the behaviour, heart rate and performance of horses 41 Kathalijne Visser1, Lotte Rijksen2, Andrea Ellis3, Kees Van Reenen1, Machteld Van Dierendonck4 41 Preliminary investigations of horses' (Equus caballus) responses to bitted and bitless bridles during foundation training 42 Jessica S Quick1, Amanda K Warren-Smith2 42 Colour vision in the horse 43 Roth, L.S.V1., Balkenius, A2., Kelber, A1 43 The effects of goal-setting on self-efficacy and performance in the showjumping rider 44 Pepijn Ott1,2, Mari Zetterqvist Blokhuis2, Inga A Wolframm1 44 Effects on behaviour and rein tension in horses ridden with/without martingales and rein inserts 45 N.L. Smith1, C.R. Heleski1, P.D. McGreevy2, L. Kaiser3, N. Bello4, H.M. Clayton3 45 The effects of a treeless and treed saddle on stride length, neck length and shoulder range of motion in the horse 46 Brigden, C. V., Burton, K. J., Northrop, A. J. 46 The horse-human dyad: Improving rider stability and biomechanics through coaching with sensory- specific-language 47 Mary Wanless 47 Overcoming hidden pain in the ridden horse: Predictable patterns of myofascial dysfunction in the equine body 48 Dianne Y Jenkins 48 Movement and reflex responses of the horse’s neck, withers and back 49 Mary Bromiley 49 Horse communication: A practical demonstration 50 Kateřina Santarová 50 Horsemanship: Conventional, Natural and Equitation Science 51 Deborah Goodwin1, Paul McGreevy2, Natalie Waran3, Andrew McLean4 51 What is Ethical Horse Training? 52 Natalie Waran 52 Vendor and purchaser expectations: Differential market segment requirements for sport horses 53 Karen Hennessy1, Katherine Quinn2, Mary Lambkin3, Jack Murphy2 53 Habituation and object generalisation in horses 54 Janne Winther Christensen1, Tatjana Zharkikh2, Jan Ladewig3 54 Building a scale of behavioural indicators of stress in domestic horses 55 Tamsin Hughes, Emma Creighton, Rob Coleman 55 An investigation of the health and welfare of horses transported long distances for slaughter in the European Union 56 David J Marlin1, Keith Meldrum2, Peter Kettlewell3, Tim Parkin4, Mark Kennedy5, Jo White2, Caroline Heard2, James Wood6 56 DAY 3 57 The horse-human dyad: Can we align horse training and handling activities with the equid ethogram? 58 Paul McGreevy1, Francis Burton2 , Andrew McLean3 58 Breeding value estimation in Hungarian Sport Horse populations 59

2 János Posta, István Komlósi, Sándor Mihók 59 The prevalence of ridden behaviour problems in the UK leisure horse population and associated risk factors 60 Jo Hockenhull, Emma Creighton 60 Comparison of the effects of positive and negative reinforcement during training on the human- equine relationship 61 Carol Sankey, Marie-Annick Richard-Yris, Martine Hausberger 61 Human/horse relationship quality: Similar equine perception of humans reflected in different situations 62 C. Fureix, P. Jego, M. Hausberger 62 Investigating horse-human interactions 63 Linda J Keeling, Lovisa Lanneborn, Liv Jonare 63 Can a simple problem-solving task be used to assess Learned Helplessness in horses? 64 Hayley Randle 64 Equine Chronobiology – An emerging scientific field with implications for health and performance in the horse 65 Barbara A. Murphy 65 Equine influenza epidemics in immunologically naïve and partially immune horse populations 66 Ann Cullinane, Michelle Quinlivan, Maura Nelly, Sarah Gildea, Pamela Lyons 66 Completion and treatment rates in modern endurance racing 67 David J Marlin1, John McEwen2, Frits Sluyter3 67 Can we improve short-term memory in the horse? 68 Jack Murphy 68 POSTER SECTION 69 Initial acceptance of novel flavours in diets offered to stabled horses 70 Elaine Hart1, Deborah Goodwin1, Pat Harris2 70 Does the provision of creep feed post-weaning affect the development of oral stereotypies in foals (Equus caballus)? 71 T. Parnell, D. Goodwin 71 Husbandry factors and the incidence of stereotypy in Irish Racehorses 72 Noelle Carroll, Sean Arkins 72 Are there ‘optimal timeframes’ for handling the foal (Equus caballus)? 73 Figueiredo, I¹; Costa, H²; Meireles J¹, Rosa, I¹. 73 An investigation into personality traits of elite, amateur and non-riders 74 Inga A Wolframm1,2, Dominic Micklewright2 74 Anxiety and self-confidence among elite and non-elite equestrian riders 75 Inga A Wolframm1,2, Dominic Micklewright2 75 An investigation into personality traits of equestrian riders, grooms and managers of equine businesses 76 Inga A Wolframm1,2, Dominic Micklewright2 76 Behavioural repertoires of Irish thoroughbred (TB) yearling horses 77 Jack Murphy 77 The extent of abnormal behaviours observed in a cohort of Irish thoroughbred (TB) weanling- yearling horses 78 Jack Murphy 78 The incidence of stereotypy in Irish thoroughbred (TB) horses sold at auction 79 Jack Murphy 79 A preliminary investigation into the effectiveness of different halter types used on horses 80 Belinda J. McDonald, Amanda K. Warren-Smith 80 Keeping riding horses in groups – a descriptive study on the common procedure of separating a horse from the group for riding or training purposes 81 Grete Helen Meisfjord Jørgensen1, Kjersti Elisabeth Fremstad1, Cecilie Marie Mejdell2, Knut Egil Bøe1 81 Effects of diet on learning and responsive behaviour of young foals 82 Becky C Hothersall1, Christine J Nicol1, Ailison Kelland2, Patricia A Harris3 82 Using a treadmill to normalize different physiological parameters in the Spanish Pure Bred Horse 83 María Dolores Rubio, Estrella I. Agüera, Rafael Santisteban, Pura Tovar, Rafael Vivo, Fernando Arroyo, Begoña M. Escribano 83

3 Relationship between stifle-hock-fetlock angulation in free-jumping and jumping capacity of horses 84 Sándor Jónás1, István Komlósi2, János Posta2, Sándor Mihók2 84 Balance performance in showjumping versus dressage riders 85 Victoria Leisk, Jenni Johnson 85 The effectiveness of equine assisted activities on positive and negative behaviours of children with learning disabilities 86 Olga J M Braat, Inga A Wolframm 86 Can standardised behaviour tests predict suitability for use in horses? 87 Rachel Flentje, Emma Creighton 87 Goal-related educational staircase in show jumping 88 Morgan, K., Pettersson, A-C., Berggren, E., Zetterqvist Blokhuis, M. 88 Relationship between rider’s aerobic fitness and heart rate during a show jumping course 89 Rachel S McCarthy, Jenni Johnson 89 Behavioural reactions of horses ridden by beginner riders 90 Michela Minero, Serena De Moliner, Elisabetta Canali 90 Equestrian Coaching: An action research approach to equitation teaching and learning 91 Lisa Beard 91 Preferences of riders for selected dimensions of horses’ traits – preliminary results 92 Aleksandra Górecka1, Michał H Chruszczewski2, Zbigniew Jaworski3, Małgorzata Golonka4, Magdalena Pieszka5, Bogusława Długosz5, Marta Walczak1 92 Consequences of fluctuations in density and group composition on social behaviour of group housed horses 93 Marc Pierard 93 Information wanted: where do horse owners seek advice about issues affecting their horses? 94 Jo Hockenhull, Emma Creighton 94 The influence of filler pole layout on jumping technique of horses 95 Albert Bracun, Carol A Hall, Andrea D Ellis 95 The effects of gender on learning ability in the horse 96 E.L. Blundell, A.J. Northrop, J.H. Martin 96 Weight of the reins technique is most appropriate for both horse and rider in equitation 97 Nelly Valère1, Francis Desbrosse2 97 Changing attitudes towards horses’ defensive aggression body language communication 98 Anneliese Durant, Emma Creighton 98 Communicating research findings on behavioural enrichment of stables 99 Helen Messer, Emma Creighton 99 Investigating training surfaces as a risk factor for injury in UK dressage horses 100 Hannah Snart1, Tim Parkin2, Rachel Murray3 100 The role of alternative forages in satisfying both physiological and psychological demands of domesticated equidae 101 Catherine E Hale1, Andrew J Hemmings2 101 The effects of prior handling experiences on the stress responses of semi-feral foals presented at auction 102 C.E. Hale1, G. Laycock1, A. J. Hemmings2 102 Fulfilling the educational aims of the International Society for Equitation Science (ISES) 103 Hayley Randle, Lorna Button 103 Association of facial hair whorl direction and motor laterality during grazing in the domestic horse (Equus caballus) 104 Hayley Randle1, Liz Francis2, Paul McGreevy3 104 Factors affecting prices of Thoroughbred (TB) foals in the Irish market 105 Julia Luehr, Sean Arkins 105 Analysis of peri-parturient and postnatal behaviours in TB mares and foals on Irish Farms 106 Soraya Morscher, Sean Arkins 106 A comparison of coarse and pelleted compound feed for horses 107 B. Younge, G. O’Neill, S. Arkins 107 Detection of emotionality in horses during physical activity 108 F Jansen1, J Van der Krogt1, K Van Loon1, V Avezzù2, M Guarino2, S Quanten1, D Berckmans1 108 Factors influencing gastric ulceration in Irish racehorses 109 Niamh K. Morrissey1, Maureen Prendergast1, Christopher R. Bellenger2 109

4 The contribution of craniosacral therapy to the rehabilitation of problem horses 110 Mike Harrison1, Johanna Macarthur2, Alison Wakelin2 110 Point-to-Point Racing in Ireland – A Critical Review 2000-2007 111 Carol Quish, Sean Arkins 111 The effect of forage nonstructural carbohydrate on glycemic response 112 Lindsay A Perry1, Bridget A Younge1, Catherine S Ballard2 112 Merits of an automated system in determining and implementing optimal feeding schedules for the stabled horse 113 J.P. Monahan1, Jack Murphy2 113 An Evaluation of a Trickle Feeding System for Horses 114 Siobhan Hardman1, JP Monahan2, Bridget Younge1 114 Are there advantages to a cantilevered saddle over traditional English and western type saddles? 115 Martin Ryan1, Jack Murphy2 115 Horse trials: Fence design and cross-country falls 116 Emma Ponsonby, Karen Hennessy 116 Equestrian participation: A case study of the Irish Sport Horse Industry 117 Karen Hennessy1, Katherine Quinn2 117 The changing nature of Sport horse ownership: A case study of the Irish Sport Horse Industry 118 Karen Hennessy1, Katherine Quinn2 118 A comparison of Linear versus Traditional Scoring Models for assessment of conformation traits in Irish Draught Horses 119 Elaine Breen, Sean Arkins 119 Conformation traits of Irish Draught (ID) horses: changes over time 120 Elaine Breen, Sean Arkins 120 NOTES 121

5 Credits

The ISES Dublin 2008 Local Organising Committee and the Scientific Committee of the International Society for Equitation Science gratefully acknowledge and sincerely thank the following entities for their generous assistance in ensuring the success of ISES Dublin 2008. • School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin (UCD) ~ http://www.ucd.ie/agfoodvet/index.html • Royal Dublin Society (RDS) ~ http://www.rds.ie • RED MILLS ~ http://www.redmills.ie/ • Irish Sport Horse ~ http://www.irishsporthorse.com • Horse Sport Ireland (HSI) ~ http://www.horsesportireland.ie/ • Irish Army Equitation School ~ http://www.military.ie/army/specialists/equit/index.htm • World Horse Welfare (WHW) ~ http://www.worldhorsewelfare.org/ • Fáilte Ireland, ~ http://www.failteireland.ie/ • IRCSET ~ http://www.ircset.ie/

© School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, (UCD) ~ http://www.ucd.ie/agfoodvet/index.html

6 ISES Dublin 2008

Local Organising Committee Jack Murphy, Karen Hennessy, Patrick Wall, Joe Collins, Pat Hanly, Fiona Sheridan, Anne Murphy, Emma Murphy, Elke Hartmann

Scientific Committee Deborah Goodwin, Jack Murphy, Andrew McLean, Camie Heleski, Hayley Randle, Patrick Wall, Natalie Waran, Paul McGreevy

ISES Council Members Deborah Goodwin, Andrew McLean, Natalie Waran, Hayley Randle, Machteld van Dierendonck, Elke Hartmann, Lisa Beard, Kathalijne Visser- Riedstra, Amanda Warren-Smith, Jack Murphy

Website coordinators Elke Hartmann, Jack Murphy

Organising Secretariat Dr Jack Murphy School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine University College Dublin Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland. Tel: 00353 87 2843070 Email: [email protected]

7 Welcome

Dear Delegates

As Chair of the Local Organising Committee, it gives me great pleasure to welcome you to Ireland for ISES Dublin 2008. This annual meeting of the International Society for Equitation Science is both timely and appropriate as the horse holds a special place in the social and economic fabric of Irish culture and Ireland is (per capita) presently the most densely equine populated country in Europe.

The theme for ISES Dublin 2008 is 'The Horse-human dyad: How can we improve our understanding of equine training, performance and welfare simultaneously'. I believe that this theme is extremely appropriate in view of ever-increasing demands for athleticism and performance within equestrian sports and equine production systems.

I look forward to the presentations of the latest research in the field of equitation science. I also look forward to lively debate given the anticipated full attendance at the conference. This gathering of equitation scientists, industry leaders and policy makers will provide an opportunity to exchange experiences and ideas and to help plot a course for the future of equitation science within the global equine community.

I would like to thank all those people sincerely, who have contributed in any way to the organisation of this much anticipated meeting. We have an exciting scientific programme and I am very confident that the meeting arrangements and social programme will ensure a successful and enjoyable ISES Dublin 2008.

Céad Míle Fáilte – One Hundred Thousand Welcomes.

Dr Jack Murphy

Chair, Local Organising Committee, ISES Dublin 2008

8 Memo from President, RDS

Dear ISES Dublin 2008 delegates

The RDS is pleased to welcome delegates to the 4th International Equitation Science Conference.

Founded in 1731, the Society has always interested itself in equine matters. In 1744, the RDS offered a ‘premium’ for the importation of stallions with the clear aim to improve the quality of the Irish horse.

The need for continued improvement has always been a central theme in our work at the RDS. The first Horse Show, held in 1868, had showing classes, which included ‘thoroughbred sires’, hunters, brood mares, weight carrying cobs and roadsters, ‘officer’s chargers’ and ‘agricultural stallions’ (the forerunner of the Irish draught stallion).

To-day, our equitation programme aims to support the Irish Sport Horse breeder and producer with unique opportunity to showcase the best Irish bred horses, and by developing a market place for such horses, and setting equitation standards and rewarding improvements in equine breeding and performance.

I hope that the ISES Dublin 2008 conference will be fruitful with far reaching scientific developments in an area, which clearly links the aims of the International Society for Equitation Science with ours in the RDS.

Dr Tony Scott President, RDS

9 Timetable – Day 1

Friday 1st August 19.00 Welcome Reception Registration – Members Club RDS

Saturday 2nd August

07.45 Registration, loading PowerPoint Presentations and Poster set-ups

08.25 Welcome to ISES Dublin 2008 Introductory remarks & general housekeeping issues Chair, ISES Dublin 2008 LOC: Dr Jack Murphy President RDS: Dr Tony Scott RDS Show Director: Mr Pat Hanly

Plenary 1 Chair: Mr Damian McDonald 08.45 Eric Smiley: The horse-human dyad: Practise PERFECT to PERFECT practice

Oral 1 Chair: Dr Debbie Goodwin 09.35 Inga A Wolframm, Dominic Micklewright: An investigation into personality correlates of elite and amateur riders and their horses

09.55 Konstanze Krueger, Juergen Heinze: Horse sense: social status of horses (Equus caballus) affects their likelihood of copying other horses’ behaviour

10.15 Carol Hall, Charlotte Liley, Jack Murphy, David Crundall: Visual memory and rider experience in a show-jumping context

10.35 Joe Collins, Alison Hanlon, Simon J. More, Patrick Wall, Vivienne Duggan: The use of vignette methodology to maintain engagement by respondents, in a Delphi study exploring the perception and heightening the awareness of equine welfare

10.55 Coffee break and poster viewing Facilitator: Joe Collins

10

Oral 2 Chair: Prof Natalie Waran 11.30 Camie Heleski, Amy McLean, Laura Bauson: Evaluating learning theory in horses and donkeys when presented with a novel task

11.50 Debbie Symes, Robert Ellis: Rider asymmetry within equitation: Preliminary observations

12.10 Christiane Wehnert, Alice Schmidt, Jörg Aurich, Jürgen Müller, Christine Aurich: Changes in heart rate during road transport of horses for one, 3.5 and 8 hours

12.30 Sebastian D McBride: The additive effect of stress and genotype on learning systems; implications for equine training

13.00 Lunch break

Practical Session 1

14.10 Co-Chairs: Dr Andrew McLean & Karen Hennessy Introduction to Practical Session Lt. Col. Gerry O Gorman and the Irish Army Equitation School

Alison Corbally: Horse Sport Ireland Coaching Programme

Jack Murphy, Andrew McLean, Paul McGreevy, Fiona Sheridan, Pat Hanly: The use of training aids (gadgets) within equitation: Meritorious or detrimental?

Eilish Byrne, Niall Quirke, Jack Murphy: Para Equestrian: extraordinary people, special horses and unequivocal equitation

16.00 Coffee break and poster viewing Facilitator: Elke Hartmann

Oral 3 Chair: Dr Hayley Randle 16.40 PD. McGreevy, AN. McLean, K Keay, PC. Thomson: SMART: Sensitivity Models for Animals in Response to Training

11

17.00 Robert L Wood: Estimating actual and minimum trajectories of the performance horse when jumping fences of given dimensions

17.20 Rose, N. S., Northrop, A. J., Brigden, C. V., Martin, J. H: Stretching regime effects on stride length and range of motion in equine trot

17.40 Jack Murphy: Weighted boots alter the jump stride kinematics in the performance horse

ISES Dublin 2008 Dinner 19.30 Venue: O’ Connell’s Restaurant, Bewley’s Ballsbridge

12 Timetable – Day 2

Sunday 3rd August

07.50 Registration, loading PowerPoint Presentations

08.15 Welcome to ISES Dublin 2008 (day 2) Introductory remarks & general housekeeping issues Chair: Dr Jack Murphy

Plenary 2 Chair: Prof Patrick Wall 08.25 David J Marlin: The horse-human dyad: Does physical training of horses have to be attritional and can we ever resolve performance and welfare?

Oral 4 Chair: Dr Camie Heleski 09.00 Paolo Baragli, Chiara Mariti, Francesco De Giorgio, Claudio Sighieri: Stimulus' perception in horses: Using Heart Rate (HR) as an appropriate indicator

09.20 Alice Schmidt, Stefanie Neuhauser, Jörg Aurich, Jürgen Müller, Christine Aurich: Changes in heart rate during the initial training period of three-year-old warmblood sport horse stallions

09.40 Emma Creighton and Kiran Jones: Horse owners’ experiences of (horses) going barefoot

10.00 Kristien L P Verheyen, Joanna S Price, James L N Wood: Exercise during training affects racing performance in Thoroughbreds

10.20 Kathalijne Visser, Lotte Rijksen, Andrea Ellis, Kees Van Reenen, Machteld Van Dierendonck: The effect of two different training methods on the behaviour, heart rate and performance of horses

10.40 Coffee break and poster viewing Facilitator: Lisa Beard

13

Oral 5 Chair: Dr Carol Hall 11.20 Jessica S Quick, Amanda K Warren-Smith: Preliminary investigations of horses' (Equus caballus) responses to bitted and bitless bridles during foundation training

11.40 Roth, L.S.V., Balkenius, A., Kelber, A: Colour vision in the horse

12.00 Pepijn Ott, Mari Zetterqvist Blokhuis, Inga A Wolframm: The effects of goal-setting on self-efficacy and performance in the showjumping rider

12.20 N.L. Smith, C.R. Heleski, P.D. McGreevy, L. Kaiser, N. Bello, H.M. Clayton: Effects on behaviour and rein tension in horses ridden with/without martingales and rein inserts

12.40 Brigden, C. V., Burton, K. J., Northrop, A. J: The effects of a treeless and treed saddle on stride length, neck length and shoulder range of motion in the horse

13.00 Lunch break

14.10 Practical Session 2 Co-Chairs: Dr Andrew McLean & Karen Hennessy

Mary Wanless: The horse-human dyad: Improving rider stability and biomechanics through coaching with sensory-specific-language

Dianne Y Jenkins: Overcoming hidden pain in the ridden horse: Predictable patterns of myofascial dysfunction in the equine body

Mary Bromily: Movement and reflex responses of the horses neck, withers and back

Kateřina Santarová: Horse communication: A practical demonstration

15.40 Coffee break

14

16.00 Discussion Forum

Chair: Prof Frank Ödberg Deborah Goodwin, Paul McGreevy, Natalie Waran, Andrew McLean: Horsemanship: Conventional, Natural and Equitation Science

Natalie Waran: What is Ethical Horse Training?

Oral 6 Chair: Dr Amanda Warren-Smith 17.00 Karen Hennessy, Katherine Quinn, Mary Lambkin, Jack Murphy: Vendor and purchaser expectations: Differential market segment requirements for sport horses

17.20 Janne Winther Christensen, Tatjana Zharkikh, Jan Ladewig: Habituation and object generalisation in horses

17.40 Tamsin Hughes, Emma Creighton, Rob Coleman: Building a scale of behavioural indicators of stress in domestic horses

18.00 David J Marlin, Keith Meldrum, Peter Kettlewell, Tim Parkin, Mark Kennedy, Jo White, Caroline Heard, James Wood: An investigation of the health and welfare of horses transported long distances for slaughter in the European Union

15 Timetable – Day 3

Monday 4th August

07.50 Registration, loading PowerPoint Presentations

08.10 Welcome to ISES Dublin 2008 (day 3) Introductory remarks Chair: Dr Jack Murphy

Plenary 3 Chair: Dr Kathalijne Visser-Riedstra 08.20 Paul McGreevy, Francis Burton, Andrew McLean: The horse- human dyad: Can we align horse training and handling activities with the equid ethogram?

Oral 7 Dr Machteld van Dierendonck 09.00 János Posta, István Komlósi, Sándor Mihók: Breeding value estimation in Hungarian Sport Horse populations

09.20 Jo Hockenhull, Emma Creighton: The prevalence of ridden behaviour problems in the UK leisure horse population and associated risk factors

09.40 Carol Sankey, Marie-Annick Richard-Yris, Martine Hausberger: Comparison of the effects of positive and negative reinforcement during training on the human-equine relationship

10.00 C. Fureix, P. Jego, M. Hausberger: Human/horse relationship quality: Similar equine perception of humans reflected in different situations

10.20 Linda J Keeling, Lovisa Lanneborn, Liv Jonare: Investigating horse-human interactions

16

10.40 Coffee break and Final Poster viewing

Oral 8 Chair: Prof Jan Ladewig 11.10 Hayley Randle: Can a simple problem-solving task be used to assess Learned Helplessness in horses?

11.30 Barbara A. Murphy: Equine Chronobiology – An emerging scientific field with implications for health and performance in the horse

11.50 Ann Cullinane, Michelle Quinlivan, Maura Nelly, Sarah Gildea, Pamela Lyons: Epidemics of equine influenza in immunologically naïve and partially immune horse populations

12.10 David J Marlin, John McEwen, Frits Sluyter: The horse-human dyad: Welfare in endurance racing

12.30 Jack Murphy: Can we improve short-term memory in the horse?

12.55 ISES AGM Chair: Dr Debbie Goodwin

14.15 Close of ISES Dublin 2008

17

Day 1

www.equitationscience.com

18

The horse-human dyad: Practise PERFECT to PERFECT practice

Eric Smiley

Fir Tree Farm, Black's Lane, Ballynahinch, Co. Down, Northern Ireland. BT24 8UT

Every generation says “it wasn't like this in my day", which of course is true. Times change and the world moves on. Sport changed irrevocably when the press was full of those haunting pictures of the disgraced athlete Ben Johnson, who having won the ultimate – Olympic Gold – then plummeted to the bottom of the world order. All because he had to win at all costs. Sport was never going to recover and is still trying to deal with the fall-out of people taking short cuts. Equestrianism is no different. However, the short cuts in equestrianism are not just drugs and the result is not disgrace – but it can be terminal. The ‘making’ of a horse has always taken time and nothing has changed because, unlike the modern world, the horse has not changed. He is still much the same as he has been for thousands of years. Even with selective breeding he has not gone faster or higher. His way of learning has not changed, yet we place increased expectation on his abilities. We assume ‘intelligence’ beyond capabilities and blame him when he fails to live up to expectations. He is without doubt a generous animal who, given half a chance, tries to please. The question is – does the riding and training today allow that chance? The riders are, of course, a product of today – always in a hurry. Training is readily available but too eager to pamper to ‘sound bite’. It sounds good but lacks substance or validity. It takes time and expertise to produce riders and horses that are capable of going cross-country safely. It takes time to ensure that a skill learnt by both horse and rider becomes a habit that is secure even under the challenge of competition pressure. Pressure normally produces an instinctive response – it is the function of good training to ensure that this instinctive response is the correct reaction. We should aim to practise PERFECT in order to PERFECT practice. Short-term methods fall apart when put under pressure. The horse’s method of learning is ‘conditioned reflex’. This conditioning requires a thoughtful regime that relates all activities of the horse- human dyad to the ultimate way the horse behaves and performs. Isolated and inconstant practise will produce an erratic and inconsistent performance. The sport of Eventing is the ultimate test of Equestrianism, combining the grace and finesse of Dressage, the accuracy and athleticism of Show Jumping and the courage and endurance of Cross-Country. Eventing and the other equestrian sports present an exciting future and we, as custodians, must ensure that they fulfil their promise on merit and not just at all costs. We must always avoid short cuts and we must always be fair to the horse.

19

An investigation into personality correlates of elite and amateur riders and their horses

Inga A Wolframm1,2, Dominic Micklewright2

1University of Applied Science, Van Hall Larenstein (Wageningen UR), Postbus 411 6700 AK Wageningen, NL 2University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK

The compatibility of horse-rider relationships is considered an important factor in effective performance. The purpose of this study was to identify compatibility patterns between the personality traits of riders and their horses. Thirty-one riders (8 elite and 23 amateur) completed the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (rider personality) and a 15-item equine personality questionnaire (horse personality). Equine personality questionnaire responses were analysed using principal component analysis with varimax rotation to determine the primary components of horse personality. Two equine personality components were found, labelled dependability and cleverness that accounted for 22.6% and 19.2% of the variance in horse personality. The compatibility of horse-rider personality was investigated by correlating horse dependability and cleverness against the various rider NEO PI-R scores using Pearson’s product-moment correlations. There was a positive correlation between elite rider gregariousness and horse cleverness (r=.74, p<.05). Horse dependability was found to be negatively correlated with the amateur rider trait of ideas (r=-.5, p<.05) and positively correlated with rider compliance (r=.42, p<.05). Horse cleverness was found to be positively correlated with the amateur rider trait of depression (r=.69, p<.001) and negatively correlated with rider assertiveness (r=-.52, p<.05) and positive emotions (r=-.58, p<.01). Results suggest that riders consider equine temperament to be largely determined by aspects relating to dependability and cleverness. A strong relationship was found between extroversion in elite riders and clever, spirited horses that may reflect the higher degree of technical skills and demands required at this level. Less assertive and more emotionally expressive amateur riders were associated with reliable but less intelligent traits in horses. The findings indicate differences between the relationships elite and amateur riders have with their horses.

20

Horse sense: social status of horses (Equus caballus) affects their likelihood of copying other horses’ behaviour

Konstanze Krueger, Juergen Heinze

University of Regensburg, Department Biology 1, Zoology, Universitätsstraße 31, 93053 Regensburg, Germany

Animals that live in stable social groups need to gather information on their own relative position in the groups’ social hierarchy. They achieve this by directly threatening or challenging others, or in a less costly manner, by observing interactions among others. Such indirect inference of dominance relationships has previously been reported in primates, rats, birds, and fish. The objective of this study was to investigate if horses were capable of similar social cognition. Using a specific ‘following behaviour’ that horses can learn to show towards humans in a riding arena, we investigated whether bystander horses adjust their response to an experimenter according to the observed interaction and their own dominance relationship with the horse whose reaction to the experimenter they had observed. Potential influences of different age, sex, size, duration of residency in the social group, duration of the chasing time of demonstrators, and previous experience of bystanders in ‘‘round pen training’’ on the following behaviour of bystanders were investigated, using Generalized Estimating Equations (GEEs), but there were no significant associations between these valuables (all p>0.05). The change in the behaviour of bystander horses was investigated using a Wilcoxon rank sum test and a Fisher’s exact test for comparing the probability of following grades of bystanders matching those of demonstrator horses in tests 1, 3, and 4. Horses copied the following behaviour towards an experimenter after watching a dominant horse following (Fisher’s exact test: N=12, p=0.003 and Wilcoxon rank sum test: N=9, W=3.5, p=0.001), but did not follow after observing a subordinate horse (Fisher’s exact test: N=14, P=0.210) or a horse from another social group doing so (Fisher’s exact test: N=8, p=0.460). Therefore, the following behaviour, which horses show towards an experimenter, appears to be affected by the demonstrator horses` behaviour and social status relative to the observer.

21

Visual memory and rider experience in a show-jumping context

Carol Hall1, Charlotte Liley1, Jack Murphy2, David Crundall3

1School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Brackenhurst Campus, Southwell, Nottinghamshire, NG25 0QF, UK 2School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, UCD, Dublin, Ireland 3Accident Research Unit, School of Psychology, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK

Experience within sport develops the skill of visual attention. While attempting to jump fences optimally, showjumping riders should direct attention towards the point that determines clearance of the obstacle – typically the highest central point. Subsequent recall of visual information will depend upon this focus of attention. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of reported riding experience on the recall of visual information relating to showjumping fences. We identified two points of focus (F1 & F2) in a series of 22 photographs of showjumping fences. F1 was the relevant point of focus when riding towards the fence while F2 was an irrelevant alternative. We constructed a multiple-choice slide for each of the 22 photographs, which displayed four comparable sections, one of which was from the original photograph (F1s from 11 photographs and F2s from the other 11 photographs). Students (n = 40) with varying levels of horse riding experience participated in the study. They formed one of four groups following completion of a questionnaire: non-riders, novice riders, intermediate riders and advanced riders. The task was to identify the section that had appeared in the original slide (A, B, C or D). The photographs were shown to the participants for four seconds then the multiple-choice slide was displayed for ten seconds. F1s were recalled significantly more often than F2s (p<0.001). Riding experience did not affect overall recall but there was a significant interaction between experience group and relevance (p<0.05). Only the intermediate and advanced riders recalled the F1s significantly better than the F2s (p<0.05 and p<0.001 respectively). Recall of F1s was significantly correlated with reported riding experience (p<0.05). Training in visual attention techniques (both on and off the horse) would improve ridden performance and could reduce the number of accidents associated with lack of experience and/or rider error.

22

The use of vignette methodology to maintain engagement by respondents, in a Delphi study exploring the perception and heightening the awareness of equine welfare

Joe Collins, Alison Hanlon, Simon J. More, Patrick Wall, Vivienne Duggan

UCD Veterinary Sciences Centre, School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland

The iterative Delphi method allows invited respondents to communicate their opinions anonymously, and refine their stance between rounds. Maintaining the participation of key personnel within stakeholder groups is critical: to achieve goals of gathering informed views, heightening awareness, disseminating information effectively and formulating workable policy initiatives. A three round web-based Policy Delphi, with inter-round feedback, was constructed to study the perception of equine welfare in Ireland. In Round One, 44 respondents from industry, government and charity sectors were presented with 29 vignettes (narratives illustrating potential horse welfare issues) for grading on a nine point Likert scale for “Acceptability” (0 = maximal to 8 = minimal) and ‘Frequency of occurance’ (0 = never to 8 = commonly). Vignettes were grouped for analysis into three categories, based on the Five Freedoms: ‘Essential basic needs’(6), ‘Physical insult’ (14) and ‘Psychological injury’ (9). Respondents’ grade scores were analysed for 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles. Twenty-six vignettes showed close agreement (50th percentile between 6 and 8) for (un)acceptability. Percentiles for vignettes depicting forward facing transport, stallions with 450 covers in a 5- month period and the cosmetic enhancement of show ponies were 0.25, 2.5, 5.75; 1, 3, 7; and 1, 3, 6 respectively. ‘Frequency of occurance’ percentiles were used to compile a list of situations where equine welfare might most likely be compromised. These were presented in Round Two, for grading as before. Percentile analysis of Round Two grades yielded a ranking of the agreed perceived most significant issues: behaviour at unregulated/unlicenced gatherings (5, 6.5, 8 for sales; 4, 6, 7 for races) and during the disposal of horses (3, 5, 6 for slaughter facilites; 2.25, 4, 6 for dealers; 2, 3.5, 6 for transport overseas). These were illustrated by vignettes in Round Three for detailed exploration of the desireability and feasibility of improving standards. All respondents completed all rounds.

(Supported by a WHW Fellowship)

23

Evaluating learning theory in horses and donkeys when presented with a novel task

Camie Heleski, Amy McLean, Laura Bauson

Department of Animal Science, 1250 Anthony Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, US

There are approximately 55 million horses and 44 million donkeys worldwide, yet few studies have examined learning behaviour in donkeys, or compared learning across Equidae. Anecdotal observations suggest that handlers frequently resort to harsh treatment to get animals to cross novel surfaces. We recently evaluated learning theory when adding positive reinforcement (PR) to negative reinforcement (NR) in horses (n=34) and donkeys (n=36). The NR strategy was employed where the halter and lead were pulled and pressure was released when the subjects stepped forward. PR followed the same procedure, but the subjects were given grain for each step forward (NR + PR). However, during a pre-trial with 10 donkeys, none of the subjects responded to PR. Subsequently, PR was altered to luring (L); i.e. food was held in front of the donkey to entice it. The donkey received food whenever it stepped forward. Horses were assigned to NR or NR + PR. Donkeys were assigned to NR or NR + L. Subjects were observed for 10 min and if they did not cross, were categorized as failures. The results were: 65% crossed in NR (horse), 78% in NR (donkey); 82% in NR + PR (horse) and 72% in NR + L (donkey) (n.s.d. between treatments – horses (p=0.07); n.s.d. between treatments – donkeys (p=0.66); n.s.d. between NR only – horses to donkeys (p=0.11); PR and L were not identical treatments, thus we could not make that comparison. Time to make the first crossing, and total time to achieve calmness did not differ significantly between horses and donkeys (p=0.75 and 0.87). In animals that crossed, time to second crossing was significantly faster than first crossing (p=0.05 horses; p=0.04 donkeys). This study provides evidence that alternatives to harsh treatment exist for getting most horses and donkeys to cross novel surfaces, and those alternatives typically take less than 10 min.

24

Rider asymmetry within equitation: Preliminary observations

Debbie Symes, Robert Ellis

University Campus Suffolk, Ipswich, Suffolk, United Kingdom

Although there are anecdotal reports of rider asymmetry within equitation, there are few data available as to the extent of this unevenness among riders. Anatomical and/or functional asymmetry in the rider may lead to poor performance in the horse and/or injury to horses and riders. The objective of this study was to examine anatomical and functional asymmetry among a group of amateur equestrians. The methods included video analysis to measure rider axial rotation (AR) and shoulder angle displacement (SAD). We used a PALM meter to measure riders’ leg length inequality (LLI), a known contributor to functional and anatomical asymmetry, to assess any correlation between LLI, and AR and SAD. The riders (n=17) were females, aged 16-50 years, who each rode their own horse in walk, sitting trot, and left and right canter. Skin markers highlighted each horse’s cranio-caudal line and we placed additional skin markers on the superior aspect of the riders’ shoulders. Riders were videoed by two cameras simultaneously, (1) overhead capturing the transverse view and (2) capturing the lateral view in the sagittal plane. SVHS video analysis facilitated measurement of the angle of the riders’ shoulders relative to the horses’ cranio-caudal line at each limb impact for a complete stride cycle in each gait. The riders’ right shoulder showed greater range of movement (ROM) than the left shoulder in all gaits except right canter and all riders exhibited left AR in all gaits. All riders had some degree of LLI, each one with shorter right legs. However, there was no association between the degree of LLI and the degree of AR or ROM. The method described here is a straightforward technique that permits easy assessment of rider asymmetry. It could be incorporated into equitation easily and lead to improved coaching/training techniques, and performance and welfare benefits for the horse.

25

Changes in heart rate during road transport of horses for one, 3.5 and 8 hours

Christiane Wehnert1, Alice Schmidt1, Jörg Aurich2, Jürgen Müller1, Christine Aurich1,2

1Graf Lehndorff Institute, Brandenburg State Stud, 16845 Neustadt (Dosse), Germany 2Section for Reproduction, University of Veterinary Science, 1210 Vienna, Austria

Equestrian competitions lead to increased cortisol release. The competition itself but also a new environment or transport to events can be considered as stressors. In this study, warmblood sport horses (4-16 years, 4 mares, 2 stallions, 18 geldings) were transported by road for one (t1), 3.5 (t3.5) and 8 hours (t8), (n=8 per group). Heart rate (HR) is an indicator of stress and correlates with cortisol release. HR was recorded with a mobile recording system (f810i, Polar, Kempele, Finland), fixed to a girth around the thorax of the horse and was monitored the day before transport, during transport and 12 hours thereafter. In addition, cortisol concentrations were determined. Basal HR before transport did not differ between groups (45±2 (SEM) beats/min). During the first 30 min of transport HR increased significantly (84±6, p<0.001, Kruskal-Wallis-H-test) but did not differ between groups. During the remaining transport time, HR was 61±6 beats/min (p<0.001 vs. first 30 min). When HR was analysed for the last 30 min of transport, values for groups t1 and t8 were significantly (p<0.05) higher than in group t3.5. In group t1, this period was still close to the beginning of transport. Horses of group t3.5 had adapted to transport, while the prolonged transport in group t8 again was a stressor. HR decreased to baseline values within less than 30 min after transport and did not differ between groups (30-60 min after transport: 44±3). Based on HR variation, horses adapt well to transport after an initial increase in HR. Transport over medium distances is not stressful and without negative impact on the performance of the horse. If horses are transported for 8 hours, HR increases again during transport but recovery occurs rapidly and did not differ from horses transported for shorter periods.

(Supported by Stiftung Forschung für das Pferd)

26

The additive effect of stress and genotype on learning systems; implications for equine training

SD McBride

Royal Agricultural College, Stroud Road, Cirencester, GL7 6JS, United Kingdom

Stress, in the context of genotype, affects functioning of the basal ganglia region of the brain in a range of species including the horse. The behavioural side effects of these physiological changes include the manifestation of stereotypic behaviour and alterations in learning behaviour. This paper outlines work-to-date on physiological and behavioural data associated with the aforementioned phenotype and discusses the implications that these data might have for the training of horses. The striatum is a pivotal structure within the basal ganglia that filters and relays information to and from cortical structures. Considered critical to the processes of motivation, action selection and learning it is anatomically and functionally heterogenous with respect to the various stages of instrumental task learning. The ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens) is crucial for the initial stamping in of associations between stimulus and response during instrumental conditioning (Pavlovian learning). The dorso-medial striatum (caudatus) is responsible for the subsequent weighing up action versus outcome to establish policy for future action (action-outcome). The dorso-lateral striatum (putamen) pertains to stimulus-response associations, which are independent of outcome devaluation, are an artefact of overtraining often referred to as habitual responding. Chronic stress in rodents alters dopaminergic modulation of the striatum and similar physiological changes appear to occur in the horse. For example, crib-biting horses have been reported with significantly higher (p<0.05) D1 and D2 receptor subtypes in the nucleus accumbens and significantly lower (p<0.05) D1 receptor sub-types in the caudatus regions of the brain. These results suggest a down-regulation of transmission along the dorso-medial striatum-prefrontal pathway with concurrent up-regulation of the mesoaccumbens pathway (ventral tegmentum area-nucleus accumbens-prefrontal cortex). Given the functionality of these regions (as previously discussed), the ‘learning’ consequences of these physiological changes are now being identified. For example, when placed within an extinction paradigm, this phenotype required significantly more unreinforced trials (p<0.01) and overall button presses (p<0.01) to reach extinction criterion compared to control animals and under a concurrent schedule (responses to each target matches the probability of positive outcome), the number of correct response was significantly lower (p<0.05) compared to control animals. This altered behaviour links very closely to the altered physiology (given the heterogenous functionality of the striatum) and suggests that some horses may exhibit a condition of ‘perseveration’ when exposed to chronic stress that can be explained either in terms of (a) enhanced reward- seeking behaviour or (b) poor assessment of outcome in relation to action. Assessing these data from a training perspective would suggest that ‘perseveration’ might be beneficial in maintaining the response rate of established learnt behaviours but may be problematic when modification is required in a ‘successive approximation’ context.

27

Horse Sport Ireland Coaching Programme

Alison Corbally

Horse Sport Ireland, 1st Floor Beech House, Millennium Park, Naas, Kildare, Ireland

Coaching is an important aspect of progressive training for, and participation in, all sporting activities. The Irish National Coaching and Training Centre (NCTC) established the National Coaching Development Plan (NCDP) in consultation with various sporting national governing bodies. Equestrian sport contributed to this plan, which led to the development of Horse Sport Ireland’s Coaching Programme. Established in 1998 and now firmly embedded in the Irish equestrian environment, the programme provides the highest standard coach education resource for Irish equestrianism and is an accepted global model of excellence. In 2004, the world governing body for equestrian sport, Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI) adopted the Irish coaching programme for use in Olympic Solidarity courses, which are now available worldwide. The Scottish Equestrian Association employs the Irish system to train coaches and Irish tutors frequently travel to Scotland to deliver courses. In Ireland, over 600 coaches have qualified at the various levels through the HSI programme. The programme is a progressive system through five incremental levels from Introduction to Coaching, through Levels 1, 2 and 3, to Level 4 (Coaching International Competitors). All levels up to Level 3 courses are operational and available in Ireland and Level 4 is currently in development. The programme provides coaches with a thorough understanding of coaching principles and hands-on experience with the application of these principles in practice in the course of their training. The insistence on this practical dimension (as an inherent element of the coach training) is crucial in the formation of truly effective, well-rounded coaches. The programme’s tutors include many of Ireland’s top ranking, high achieving riders and experienced coaches that deliver a wealth of experience and knowledge. Specific criteria apply and tutors receive ongoing training from the NCTC to enhance their communication skills and presentation style to ensure uniformity in course delivery.

28

The use of training aids (gadgets) within equitation: Meritorious or detrimental?

Jack Murphy1, Andrew McLean2, Paul McGreevy3, Fiona Sheridan4, Pat Hanly4

1School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, UCD, Dublin, Ireland 2Australian Equine Behaviour Centre, 730 Clonbinane Rd, Broadford, Vic. 3658 3Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, NSW, 2800 4Royal Dublin Society, (RDS) Ballsbridge, Dublin, Ireland

Draw-reins are one of the most common training aids (gadgets) used to set the horse's head in the desired position. While almost ubiquitous in the training of showjumpers, they are inappropriate when the horse is actually jumping. They provide additional leverage in the rider's hands and allow the rider to ‘force’ the horse to lower its head and flex its cervical vertebrae. Several other gadgets ‘fix’ head position, alter outline and develop the ‘way of going’ of the horse on the lunge. Some examples include side-reins, lungie-bungie, chambon, de Gogue and Pessoa training devices. Based on the premise that the elastic properties encourage the horse to relax and take contact, the lungie- bungie is supposed to aid the acceptance of the bit when the horse is being lunged. The chambon is said to generate correct muscle development in the horse. Originally, it was confined to lunging and free schooling exercises although some riders now use it during ridden work. Incorrect usage could result in the horse leaning on the forehand and may generate pain in neck muscles, denigrate the horse’s natural gaits and necessitate retraining of the horse. The de Gogue emanated from French equitation and is closely aligned (and occasionally used in conjunction) with the chambon. It applies pressure on the bit (horse’s mouth) and poll while encouraging the horse to draw its nose caudally and flex the neck. The Pessoa uses a system of ropes and pulleys to persuade the horse to engage itself properly. Any gadget that applies pressure to the horse’s mouth could diminish the deceleration effects of the bit through head lowering or neck shortening. This might lead to an increase in confusion and conflict behaviours due to inconsistent or unpredictable signal-response features of mouth pressure. In general, the reason for using these training aids is to lighten the horse's forehand and make the horse more sensitive and responsive when ridden. Gadgets may be effective when properly used, but misuse occurs frequently and novice equestrians require appropriate supervision with all items of training apparatus.

29

Para Equestrian: extraordinary people, special horses and unequivocal equitation

Eilish Byrne1, Niall Quirke1, Jack Murphy2

1Sleighduff High Performance Equestrian Centre, Johnstown, Arklow, Wicklow, Ireland 2School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, UCD, Dublin, Ireland

Para Equestrian has officially become the eighth equestrian discipline under FEI regulation. Consequently, the FEI has become the first International Federation that actively governs and regulates a sport where both able bodied and disabled athletes participate. This equestrian sport provides a unique form of physical activity based on the affiliation of two finely tuned partners – one each of the horse-human dyad. The Para Equestrians may choose to drive or ride the horse and individuals participate in standardised competition Grades based upon their different levels/types of impairment or disability. While graded with regard to their individual impairment, riders are judged on their equitation skills and ability to compete. Classification ranges from Grade 1a (most severely disabled athletes) who ride and compete their horses in walk only while Grade 30 (least disabled) compete at medium (M) standard. If and where necessary, Para Equestrians may use compensating aids (FEI approved) such as specially modified saddles, custom-made reins and the use of two riding whips and other bespoke equipment. Above all else, participants require access to the most suitable horse and one that has been trained correctly and to an appropriate standard. While temperament and athletic ability of the horse is crucially important, training the horse for this discipline exemplifies the importance of learning theory in equitation science. As at all other times, the horse learns his responses by associative learning, where the trainer uses the aids to reinforce (by their removal) the correct response. The demands of Para Equestrian activity highlights the fact that if the horse has no operant or classically conditioned basic responses, the horse will not perform as required – no matter how well it is ridden. As in all other equestrian pursuits, Para Equestrian participation is typically an interesting mixture of subtle but unequivocal training corrections as well as perfecting riding skills.

30

SMART: Sensitivity Models for Animals in Response to Training

PD. McGreevy1, AN. McLean2, K Keay3, PC. Thomson1

1Faculty of Veterinary Science (B19), University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia 2Australian Equine Behaviour Centre, Broadford, VIC 3658, Australia 3Faculty of Medicine (F13), University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia

Trained responses are said to be under stimulus control when they appear reliably and exclusively on cue. With training, the probability of desirable responses increases and the probability of undesirable responses reduce. With horses, conditioned responses to the rider’s stimuli are desirable whereas undesirable responses are most notably those that emerge in response to environmental stimuli. These include flight responses (such as fast, forward locomotion that is not under stimulus control i.e., bolting) or more direct counter-predator responses, such as bucking. We have developed a conceptual, three- dimensional graphic system, SMART: Sensitivity Models for Animals in Response to Training. The current plots have been designed for ridden horses and using four quadrants to represent the sensitivity of the horse to cues from the two reins (Slow, Stop and Step back and Turn signals) and the rider’s legs (Go and Move Hindquarters). The models assume that the rider’s cues are equivalent unless the intention is to signal a turn or a lateral movement (such as a leg yield or side pass). The extent to which go signals manifest as straight, forward locomotion reflect the bilateral balance of the horse’s reactions to the rider. The Z-axis shows the probability of a favourable response for the specific strength of stimulus from the rider relative to competing stimuli from other sources including internal and non-rider external causal factors. Positive values of Z show that a given response being under stimulus control; i.e., that the external causal factors for this response come from the rider. Where Z is zero for a particular value of X and Y, the horse shows no desired response to the rider. The X-axis shows left versus right movement; while the Y-axis shows Stop versus Go. SMART models can show the schematic difference between unhandled, freshly broken and highly trained horses. The peaks and troughs in the plots represent strengths and weaknesses (including problematic responses) in each horse’s repertoire. SMART models can also conceptualise behavioural individual differences in reactivity and trainability. They may prove useful in the training of other quadrupeds (e.g., guide dogs) but will be of particular interest to equitation scientists since they have the potential to reduce confusion in the horse-human dyad.

31

Estimating actual and minimum trajectories of the performance horse when jumping fences of given dimensions

Robert L Wood

Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK

Jumping is the attraction of several equestrian sports. The biomechanics and particularly the jump stride kinematics (JSK) of performance horses have featured in several recent studies. Sagittal plane SVHS video images provide the basis for assessment and accurate analysis in both the horizontal and vertical planes. However, using the ballistic equation in a kinematic model of horse jumping offers new insight into the general biomechanics of jumping, along with objective assessment of individual horse and rider jump performance. The model calculates the Centre of Mass (CoM) trajectory using the 2 ballistic equation in three forms: (a) Analytical { ( ' ) 4 ( ' −−=− ByaAx )}, (b) Distance: gx 2 gt 2 { xy tanθ −= } and (c) Parametric: { = vtx cosθ and vty sinθ −= }. v cos2 22 θ 2 When airborne during the jump stride (bascule), the horse’s CoM traverses only a small upper section of the full trajectory that would be obtained if the CoM started from ground level. Starting from experimental evidence of CoM location at end of takeoff, along with maximum CoM height, the full trajectory can be calculated, including ‘effective’ CoM launch position, velocity and angle at ground level. These parameters provide a sensitive indication of jump performance. Based upon the assumption that the trajectory apex occurs above the fence, it is also possible to calculate the minimum trajectory required by the horse in order to jump any fence. The model reported here has been used to re-interpret a number of previously reported horse jumping experiments. A notable aspect of these results is that the assumption of trajectory apex occurring above the fence is inappropriate in one instance (when the horse jumped an upright-fence) but is an accurate reflection of performance when the horse jumped a narrow oxer. The findings suggest that apex location depends on horse height, fence shape, approach velocity and the horse’s perception of where it is after assessing the fence in some way.

32

Stretching regime effects on stride length and range of motion in equine trot

Rose, N. S., Northrop, A. J., Brigden, C. V., Martin, J. H.

Myerscough College, St. Michael’s Road, Bilsborrow, Preston, PR3 0RY

The aim was to quantify the effects of two different eight-week stretching regimes on stride length (SL) and range of motion (ROM) in the equine trot. Investigation of stretching regimes on the horse is limited. Equine trainers should be aiming to facilitate movement that is natural and aesthetic for the horse and rider. Injury prevention is also critical for equine welfare and career longevity. The use of stretching regimes is becoming a widespread procedure for the performance horse; this is most likely due to extrapolation of positive findings from human research. Eighteen horses were divided into three matched groups according to age, conformation and breed. The groups were assigned to a 6-day stretching regime (6DSR), 3-day stretching regime (3DSR) and a control, no stretching regime (NSR). Baseline measurements of SL and ROM in trot (in hand) were obtained prior to treatment using two-dimensional video analysis. The two stretching regimes were applied for eight weeks. SL and ROM data were collected at weeks 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10 and 11 for the trot in hand. Subjects were assessed in ridden extended trot at week 8 and 16. Treatments were examined by general linear model using covariates. There were no significant effects of stretching on in hand or ridden SL (P>0.05). Some significant differences were found in joint ROM between treatments. The 6DSR produced lower ROM than the 3DSR in the shoulder (F=10.73; P<0.0001) and lower ROM than the 3DSR and control in the stifle (F=5.890; P<0.01) and hock (F=10.73; P<0.0001). Evidence suggests some negative biomechanical effects for a 6DSR; it may be too intensive and cause delayed onset of muscle soreness. Further examination of stretch frequency by assessing muscle activity, in addition to kinematic investigation, may establish its potential as a tool to enhance performance and welfare.

33

Weighted boots alter the jump stride kinematics in the performance horse

Jack Murphy

School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Ireland

Contemporary equestrian sports expose the elite performance horse to considerable athletic challenge. Showjumping has been associated with a proliferation of innovative gadgets, teaching aids and training techniques. Exponents continually strive to improve the horse’s jump stride kinematics (JSK). Jumping fences ‘cleanly’ is a prerequisite to success and the use of ‘weighted’ boots has become popular. This study investigated the effects of weighted boots on performance horses (n = 6) jumping a 1.25m oxer fence. The horses were equivalent in jumping ability and experience, formed two groups of three subjects (G1 and G2) and they performed ten jumping efforts (loose jumping without a rider). G1 horses performed attempts 1-5 without boots and attempts 6-10 with boots while G2 performed attempts 1-5 with and attempts 6-10 without boots. Data were available via sagittal plane S-VHS recordings and t-test analyses focussed on limb placements during final approach stride and actual jump stride. There was no difference in JSK during the final approach stride among any of the horses in the horizontal plane – leading forelimb placements were ~ 1110mm from the fence at take-off for all horses. However, there were significant differences among the horses in the vertical plane in terms of croup heights, height of hocks and heights achieved by the horses’ distal hind limbs (DHL) during the jump phase. All horses achieved significantly greater elevation over the fence when wearing the weighted boots (DHL = 1.60m) compared to when not wearing boots (DHL = 1.46m; P < 0.05). The findings suggest that weighted boots supplied the horses’ hind limbs with increased elastic potential energy that transferred to greater kinetic energy during the jumping phase. It would appear that the boots increased the centripetal force and kinetic energy of the horses’ DHL and produced greater elevation during the flight phase of the jump stride.

.

34

Day 2

www.equitationscience.com

35

The horse-human dyad: Does physical training of horses have to be attritional and can we ever resolve performance and welfare?

David J Marlin

Associate Dean for Research, Hartpury College, Hartpury, Gloucester, UK

The most common reasons why horses are not trained, not competed or are eliminated during competition are related to musculoskeletal injury. In 1985, Peter Rossdales’ study of wastage in the Thoroughbred industry (Rossdale et al. 1985) identified musculoskeletal injury as the most common cause of wastage. Around 20 years later a similar study by Wilsher et al. (2006) identified similar findings, despite changes in nutrition and training surfaces introduced in this period (e.g. all- weather training tracks and watered canters and gallops). In young racehorses, the types of injury commonly observed clearly indicate a failure of the musculoskeletal system to accommodate training intensity and / or volume; for example the high prevalence of dorsal metacarpal disease (sore shins). Verheyen et al. (2005) identified that around one in five 2-year old racehorses will suffer sore shins in their first year of training. High rates of musculoskeletal injury are not only confined to the Thoroughbred racehorse, but are common in horses competing in all disciplines (e.g. Murray et al. 2006). Conversely, studies of training programmes used by riders and trainers suggest these are often only moderately effective in terms of developing muscular and cardiovascular fitness (e.g. Serrano et al. 2002). Exercise loads that are ideal for inducing an effect in these systems are often excessive for the supporting structures and horses may find it difficult to cope psychologically with certain types of training, such as interval training. Other factors such as genetics and nutrition play an important role in determining the risk of injury, but training clearly increases the risk of musculoskeletal injury many fold. This presentation will cover the basic principles of physical training, the differences between horses and humans in response to exercise and common errors in training and alternative approaches that can reduce injury and enhance welfare and performance.

36

Stimulus' perception in horses: Using Heart Rate (HR) as an appropriate indicator

Paolo Baragli, Chiara Mariti, Francesco De Giorgio, Claudio Sighieri

Department of Veterinary Anatomy, Biochemistry and Physiology, University of Pisa, viale delle Piagge 2, 56124, Pisa, Italy

Heart Rate (HR) is considered to be an effective tool for assessing animal responses to human interaction. We investigated changes in HR during grooming tests (GT) to evaluate how horses with different human interaction and training perceived a series of standardised stimuli. We used 4 groups: grA (8 grazing horses, 13±4 year old), grB (15 school horses, 14±3 year old), grC (6 ponies, 2 year old, traditionally trained) and grD (6 ponies, 2 year old, trained considering stimulus intensity and horses' behavioural response). A HR monitor was applied to each horse, which was left unattended in the box for 10 minutes. Then the operator began the GT procedure, standardized at the following measuring points: 1) entering the box, 2) halter fastened, 3) start of grooming, 4) end of grooming, 5) saddling, 6) inserting the bit. The whole procedure took 6 minutes and the HR monitor was used to assess HR at each measuring point. GrA repeated the GT twice: grA1 (known operator, horses' caretaker) and grA2 (unknown operator). All groups showed a statistically significant increase in HR (ANOVA for repeated measures, P<0.05) at point 2 compared with the baseline, except grD. Significant differences (ANOVA one-way, P<0.05) were also found at all points between grA1 and grA2, grA2 and grB, grA1 and grC, grB and grC and at points 5 and 6 between grA2 and grC, grC and grD. Data suggest that modality of training and familiarity with a single person are important for a positive perception of the stimulus ‘person’ while generalisation (grB) appears to be ineffective for a positive characterisation of the ‘halter fastened’ stimulus, which seems to be a critical moment in horses’ perception of human actions.

37

Changes in heart rate during the initial training period of three-year- old warmblood sport horse stallions

Alice Schmidt1, Stefanie Neuhauser2, Jörg Aurich2, Jürgen Müller1, Christine Aurich1,2

1Graf Lehndorff Institute, Brandenburg State Stud, 16845 Neustadt (Dosse), Germany 2Section for Reproduction, University of Veterinary Science, 1210 Vienna, Austria

The first weeks of training have been suggested to represent a stressful period for young horses. In general, training practises for horses have been questioned recently. Heart rate (HR) provides information on fitness of the horse but is also an indicator of stress or pain correlating with plasma cortisol concentrations. In this study, three-year-old warmblood stallions (n=8) were followed through a standardised 10-week classical training programme from lunging to first mounting of a rider and progressing to moderate work. Feed and management was similar for all horses. HR was recorded with a mobile recording System (Polar, Finland) fixed to a girth around the thorax of the horse and was monitored twice weekly from 30 min before to 30 min after training. In addition, cortisol concentrations were determined in saliva and faeces. Overall basal HR before daily training was 39±2 (SEM) beats/min and did not change over the study period. Average HR during initial lunging (week 1) was 119±14 beats min and decreased to 95±5 beats/min in week 2. Due to individual variations this decrease did not reach statistical significance. Neither first mounting of a rider (89±10) nor an increasing workload (e.g. week 8: 111±4) were associated with prolonged increases in mean HR, but transient increases were recorded and the response to mounting of the rider differed markedly between stallions. After daily training, HR decreased rapidly but was slightly, although significantly (p<0.05, Friedman-test) higher than pre-work values (46±2 beats/min). In conclusion, based on HR, the initial training of sport horse stallions in the classical German training system is not associated with major stress for the horse. The increase in HR during training is due to physical exercise itself and not associated with specific situations of training programme.

(Supported by a Fellowship from Stiftung Forschung für das Pferd to AS)

38

Horse owners’ experiences of (horses) going barefoot

Emma Creighton, Kiran Jones

Anthrozoology Unit, Chester Centre for Stress Research, University of Chester, UK

A number of equine professionals have recently highlighted the damaging effects that traditional shoeing methods may have upon horse hoof health. This has prompted the philosophy that shoeing is unnecessary, even for working horses; and that with a combination of gradual acclimatisation and specialist hoof care, it is possible to restore natural functioning of the hoof. This has sparked heated debate within the equestrian world, but to date there is very little empirical research to inform these opinions. This study aimed to quantify the experiences of owners who had chosen to transition their horses to barefoot and to test some of the claims and counterclaims made in the grey literature. Data were collected via an online survey targeted at barefoot horse owners via specialist Internet forums. Respondents (N=109) were in transition or had successfully transitioned their horses to barefoot soundness, and so did not reflect the experiences of owners who had abandoned going barefoot. The majority (62%) had gone barefoot to promote hoof health, with 19% aiming to treat specific hoof problems. Ninety percent reported an improvement in hoof health and 83% had made no changes to the amount or type of work they did with their horse. Median transition time was 6-12 months, with the majority of horses showing hoof soreness, though little evidence of more serious problems. Transition time increased with number of years of prior shoeing (P=0.035) and continuous shoeing (P=0.009). Trimming frequency matched farriery standards, but the type of trim and training of the trimmer varied, reflecting different schools of the barefoot movement. Collectively, the data suggest that barefoot horses can work successfully, that shoeing may have long- term pathological effects on hoof health that can be corrected by going barefoot, but that a consistent industry with established methods and trained professionals has yet to emerge.

39

Exercise during training affects racing performance in Thoroughbreds

Kristien L P Verheyen1, Joanna S Price2, James L N Wood3

1Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK 2Department of Veterinary Basic Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Royal College Street, London NW1 0TU, UK 3Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK

Epidemiological studies have shown significant effects of canter and high-speed exercise on skeletal injury risk in Thoroughbreds in training. However, recommendations for modification of training regimes to reduce injury risk should take into account potential effects on racing performance. The aim of this study was to estimate the effect of exercise during training on racing performance. Race records were obtained for horses participating in a large epidemiological study of injuries in flat racehorses in training in England. Distances exercised at canter and gallop during training, and distance raced in the 30 days prior to a ‘case race’, were calculated. Multivariable mixed effects logistic and linear regression were used to relate exercise distances in 30 days to the odds of winning a race, earning any prize money and the amount of prize money won. Other variables studied were number of races run in 30 days, trainer and horse. During the study period, 860 horses ran 5,210 flat races in total. Trainer and horse were significantly associated with all measures of race performance. Higher cumulative high-speed exercise distances (training gallop + raced) in 30 days were associated with increased odds of winning a race or earning any prize money. Having raced in the previous 30 days also increased the odds of winning. The amount of prize money won was affected by distances cantered and galloped during training as well as race distance in a 30- day period. Higher canter distances were associated with higher average amounts of prize money won, but only if gallop distance remained below 25 furlongs (f) in a 30-day period. Horses that galloped more than 25f won on average more prize money when concurrent canter distances decreased. These findings indicate that training regimens for young Thoroughbreds can be modified to reduce skeletal injury without compromising racing performance.

40

The effect of two different training methods on the behaviour, heart rate and performance of horses

Kathalijne Visser1, Lotte Rijksen2, Andrea Ellis3, Kees Van Reenen1, Machteld Van Dierendonck4

1Animal Sciences Group, Wageningen University and Research Centres, PO Box 65, 8200 AB Lelystad, the Netherlands 2HAS Den Bosch, HAS Kennistransfer, PO Box 90108, 5200 MA Den Bosch, NL 3Nottingham Trent University, School of Animal Rural and Environmental Sciences, Southwell, NG25 0DS Nottinghamshire, United Kingdom 4Department of Animals, Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, PO Box 80168, 3508 TD Utrecht, the Netherlands

The commencement of work under saddle and rider can be a stressful period for horses. Together with the increasing popularity of ‘sympathetic’ training methods in the last decades, the concern about welfare during early training is increasing. This study addressed two questions: Firstly, how do parameters measured during this period relate to each other? Secondly, how do parameters scored for two different training methods compare? Twenty-eight horses, three years of age, were started according to two training methods (14 horses per method): a traditional training method and a ‘sympathetic’ training method. During training, behavioural observations were made at predefined and standardized moments, comparable across methods. During a final assessment at a neutral location, all horses performed a basic dressage test. Compared to the ‘sympathetic’ method, horses were more tense during the traditional training method (23.9% versus 5.3% of observation time, p<0.001), displayed a higher head carriage for a longer time (17.4% versus 9.9% of time, p<0.001), showed more lip movements (16.6 versus 3.4 times, p<0.008) and ground their teeth more frequently (12.8 versus 1.7 times, p=0.03). Correspondingly, a principal component analysis demonstrated that horses trained differently show consistent differences in a range of correlated behavioural and heart rate parameters. In the final assessment horses that received a high score for general impression by the judges tended to carry their head low (Rs=0.32, p=0.07) and tended to exhibit a low frequency of lip movements (Rs=- 0.35, p=0.07). Behavioural parameters and technical performance during the final assessment did not differ significantly between treatment groups, but mean heart rate was higher for horses trained according to the traditional method (98 bpm versus 82 bpm, p<0.001). In conclusion, our results suggest that both prevailing training methods may be experienced by horses, but in a different way, without affecting the level of technical performance ultimately achieved.

41

Preliminary investigations of horses' (Equus caballus) responses to bitted and bitless bridles during foundation training

Jessica S Quick1, Amanda K Warren-Smith2

1Faculty of Rural Management, University of Sydney, PO Box 883, Orange, NSW, 2800, Australia 2Faculty of Science, Charles Stuart University, PO Box 883, Orange, NSW, 2800, Australia

Traditionally, bridles have been the primary mechanism for controlling the ridden horse. Normally, these bridles will contain a metal bit, designed to apply pressure to various locations within the horse's mouth, which is a highly sensitive site. Despite the near universal use and acceptance of bitted bridles by riders, debate continues as to whether the presence of the bit is required for the effective training of horses. In response, bridles that do not require a bit have been made available, although the effectiveness of bitless bridles on horses has not been previously examined scientifically. Therefore, the current study measured behavioural and cardiac responses of horses (n=8) undergoing foundation training wearing either a bitted or bitless bridle. Measures were recorded during three stages of training; bridling, long-reining and riding. There was no difference in heart rate between the groups during any of the training stages. However, the horses wearing the bitless bridle had lower heart rate variability when long-reining (P=0.035), indicating that they were experiencing less stress than those wearing the bitted bridle. During all stages of training the horses wearing a bitted bridle exhibited more chewing (P<0.001), head nodding (P<0.001), opening of the mouth (P<0.001), pawing the ground (P=0.009) and rubbing their noses on the ground (P<0.001) than those horses wearing a bitless bridle. The horses that had the bitless bridle were more likely to maintain a steady head carriage, a desirable response in most performance horses. Accordingly, the data indicate that there may be some benefits to both horse and rider in terms of communication, safety, performance and welfare in using bitless bridles and that further work with larger numbers of horses using bitless bridles in a range of disciplines should be conducted to establish further advantages.

42

Colour vision in the horse

Roth, L.S.V1., Balkenius, A2., Kelber, A1

1Department of Cell and Organism Biology, Vision Group, Lund University, Helgonavägen 3, S-22362 Lund, Sweden 2Department of Plant Protection Biology, The Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sundsvägen 14, S-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden

Dichromats, such as the horse, have a retina with two types of cone to use for colour vision during the day and one type of rod that operates at night. Even though many behavioural studies have been performed, it has never been established how dichromats perceive their colour space nor has their colour vision threshold been recognised. The cones of dichromatic mammals are usually most sensitive for short wavelengths (blue colours) and long wavelengths (green colours), respectively. The comparison of the two cone signals gives rise to a one- dimensional colour space when brightness cues are excluded. In our first experiment, horses learned to choose colour in a relative manner. We used a dual choice apparatus wall with two lockable doors on either side of a divider, to force the horse to make choices. Two horses were trained to associate a reward of carrots with grey and yellow colours (corresponding to middle and long wavelengths, respectively), with blue as negative colour. In tests with grey and a novel green colour they chose green at frequencies of 77% and 82%, respectively (P<0.01). Hence, they preferred green that corresponded to the longer wavelengths. This is different from the way we trichromatic humans (with three cone types) perceive and learn colours, which is often in absolute colour terms. A colour signal is more trustworthy than brightness cues. Given that horses have large and very light sensitive eyes we wondered whether colour is an important cue at night for them. We performed dual choice experiments and our results showed that one horse discriminated colours at intensities comparable to moonlight intensities (0.02 Cd/m2) with a choice frequency of 78% (P<0.01). With our research, we hope to deepen our knowledge about the visual world of horses, and thereby achieve a better understanding about horse behaviour.

43

The effects of goal-setting on self-efficacy and performance in the showjumping rider

Pepijn Ott1,2, Mari Zetterqvist Blokhuis2, Inga A Wolframm1

1University of Applied Science, Van Hall Larenstein (Wageningen UR), Postbus 4116700 AK Wageningen, NL 2 Ridskolan Strömsholm, 730 40 Kolbäck, SW

Goal-setting has been used in industrial settings and sports to increase self- confidence and ultimately performance. Performance in equestrian sports depends on appropriate horse-rider interaction which may be influenced by levels of self- confidence experienced by the rider. Using principles of goal-setting may be more effective in increasing levels of self-confidence and performance in equestrian riders than traditional teaching methods. Following informed consent, 45 riders (27 goal-setting, 18 controls; mean age 26 ± 10.6) were recruited to participate in a 10-week showjumping training study. All participants were tested prior and post training on levels of cognitive anxiety (CA), somatic anxiety (SA) and self- confidence (SC) using the Revised Competitive Anxiety Inventory 2. Showjumping performance was scored blindly pre-and post intervention using two independent judges both on showjumping penalty points, and riding style using a scoring system from 1 to 10. Data was analysed using a Mann-Whitney U Test. All groups showed a significant difference between pre-and post-intervention for CA (16.4 vs. 14.7; p<0.05) and SA (19 vs. 15.4; p<0.001). There were significant differences between test and control subjects post-intervention for SA (19.5 vs. 28.1; p<.05) and for SC (27.9 vs. 15.5; p<.01). No significant differences were found for showjumping penalty points nor riding style. The findings support the existing notion that regular showjumping lessons lead to a decrease in somatic and cognitive aspects of anxiety. More importantly, showjumping lessons based around principles of goal setting compared to traditional training methods may lead to an even greater decrease in levels of somatic anxiety and improve levels of confidence further. This might lead to horses that are more relaxed and obedient to the rider’s aids when showjumping, resulting in fewer riding-related accidents and ultimately improving equine welfare. Long-term intervention programmes using goal-setting training techniques may provide additional support to the overall aims of equitation science leading to improved horse-rider interaction and improvements in showjumping performance.

44

Effects on behaviour and rein tension in horses ridden with/without martingales and rein inserts

N.L. Smith1, C.R. Heleski1, P.D. McGreevy2, L. Kaiser3, N. Bello4, H.M. Clayton3

1Dept of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 US 2Animal Behavior, University of Sydney, Australia 3McPhail Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University 4Statistical Consulting Ctr, College of Agriculture & Natural Resources, Michigan State University

Novice riders lack postural control and are often observed using the reins to stabilize their balance. This can result in unpredictable changes in the magnitude/direction of rein tension that may cause discomfort to the horse and may be associated with behaviours that indicate conflict or stress (CB); e.g. head tossing, chomping at the bit, tail lashing. Some instructors feel that properly fitted martingales or elastic rein inserts can reduce this discomfort, thereby enhancing horse welfare. Our hypothesis was that martingales would contribute to less CB and more consistent rein tension than the control situation and rein inserts would show intermediate values. Five horses and nine riders were assigned to a repeated measures design. Each horse-rider combination completed all 3 treatments (control, martingale, inserts) in random order. Riders performed trials at a sitting trot using a dressage saddle and snaffle bridle. Rein tension data were collected for 7 s and behavioural data for 30 s in each direction. Rein tension data were collected via strain gauge transducers. Behavioural data were collected live using an ethogram of 8 defined behaviours. Data were also video recorded to allow calculations of inter-observer reliability. Behavioural data were fitted to a generalized linear mixed model using a Poisson distribution with GLIMMIX, SAS. Martingales resulted in less CB than control (p=0.013); n.s.d. was identified between control and inserts (p=0.074). Rein tension data supported these findings in that trials ridden with martingales showed more consistent rein tension (max and min values were closer together than the range for control trials and rein insert trials). Tensions ranged from 4-35 N. This study demonstrates the potential value in combining biomechanical analysis with behavioural assessments to evaluate training devices and to begin making assessments on how those training devices impact equine welfare.

45

The effects of a treeless and treed saddle on stride length, neck length and shoulder range of motion in the horse

Brigden, C. V., Burton, K. J., Northrop, A. J.

Myerscough College, St. Michael’s Road, Bilsborrow, Preston, PR3 0RY

Saddles influence horses’ movement and can contribute to development of behavioural and physical problems. Treeless saddles are promoted within the equestrian industry to improve horse movement, but the benefits are not proven scientifically. The objective of this study was to compare horse movement when ridden in a treed (TD) saddle and a treeless (TLS) saddle. Ten horses formed two treatment groups. The horses were videoed while ridden in walk and trot on a free rein in both a treeless and treed saddle – twice over the two-day experimental period. The treatment sequence was alternated between groups (and rotated between days) to minimise the effect of running order. Two-dimensional motion analysis software was used to measure stride length, neck length and shoulder range of motion (ROM). General linear model was used to investigate interactions between measurements, horses, day and saddle type. Neck length was longer with the treeless saddle (TLS=0.746±0.013m TD=0.730±0.013m, F=5.31 P<0.05), significantly different between horses (F=29.08 P<0.001) and days (Day1=0.759±0.013m, Day2=0.717±0.011m, F=33.81 P<0.001). A significant reduction in stride length occurred on day two ((Day1=1.952±0.042m, Day2=1.860±0.042m, F=29.90 P<0.001), irrespective of saddle type (F=0.64 P>0.05). No other significant differences occurred in any of the measured parameters. The treeless saddle appeared to increase neck length, which may help relaxation of the back muscles according to the accepted ‘bow-and-string’ biomechanical concept of the back. The short-term effects of the treeless saddle on stride length and shoulder ROM were no different to those of a properly fitted treed saddle, suggesting that the treeless saddle may be a viable alternative to a treed saddle. Individual horses show marked differences in movement and this varied between days, possibly related to previous workload or weather conditions. Research into long term effects of treeless saddles are necessary to form reliable conclusions regarding the proposed benefits of the saddles.

46

The horse-human dyad: Improving rider stability and biomechanics through coaching with sensory-specific-language

Mary Wanless

Overdale Equestrian Centre, Nether Westcote, Oxon OX7 6SE

The most talented and elite equestrians make riding seem effortless. These gifted riders appear to possess an ‘in-built’ natural talent that comprises the phenomena of balance and ‘feel’. The aids produced from this ‘in-built’ skill-set maximise equine associative learning and classical conditioning during basic cue-response training. These implicit skills of talented riders are not ‘cognitively penetrable’ so they cannot be expressed in language. Since skilled riders cannot always explain their skills, they commonly presuppose them when teaching. However, empirical research has shown that these implicit skill-sets can be defined, and broken down into ‘chunks’ of information that can be learnt explicitly and sequentially. The primary biomechanical challenge facing the rider is that of stabilising his/her body on top of a moving medium. The skills of isometric muscle use and spinal stabilisation enable the rider to mirror the forces that the horse’s movement exerts on his/her body. The practical workshop associated with this paper will demonstrate that rider skills such as these can be taught through an approach that encompasses the use of sensory-specific-language, hands-on input, and the skills of process coaching. The resulting reduction of extraneous movement reduces the ‘noise to signal’ ratio within the rider’s sitting, enabling the transmission of much clearer (accurate and timely) cues to the ridden horse, and avoiding unintentional conflict within the aids. Under optimal conditions, the ensuing changes in the rider’s biomechanics, and the appropriate placing of his/her centre of gravity, will often lead to a profound and instant change in the horse’s way of going. As the rider develops body-awareness, this will facilitate development of balance and ‘feel’ and enable progressive refinement of these responses through classical conditioning – provided that the horse has had basic operant or classically conditioned response training. This approach also provides a conceptual framework through which the rider can understand the rider/horse interaction more fully to create repeatable and predictable results similar to the effortless performance of elite equestrians.

47

Overcoming hidden pain in the ridden horse: Predictable patterns of myofascial dysfunction in the equine body

Dianne Y Jenkins

P.O. Box 6104, Conder, Canberra, Australia

Connective tissue damage often predisposes physiological and performance deficiencies through chronic low grade pain in the ridden horse. Even with the technological advances of ultrasonography and infrared thermography as location testing tools, assessment of these palpable issues have been inconsistent. However, learned manual assessment techniques can define the presence of these soft tissue injuries without the use of scientific equipment. This study reports on soft tissue injury record keeping over a 12 year period between Jan 2006 & Dec 2007 and reveals that 99% of 1285 horses at initial consultation, presented with myofascial distortions in one or both shoulders and all suffered varying degrees of back pain. The horses were a cross section from the thoroughbred racing, harness racing and pleasure horse industries. Several of the horses had previous veterinary treatment, but still displayed persistent unresolved pain and compromised movement. The use of innovative neuro-muscular release techniques during as few as one to three treatments over a one-month period, together with owner administrated rehabilitation exercises, usually resolved the problems completely. Palpable myofascial distortions located near the scapulo-humeral joint resolved almost all cases of back pain where the horses demonstrated inefficient movement or were out of work for long periods. Further research will determine which form of known treatment eliminates the problem in the shortest period while at the same time manual techniques are being developed and refined to facilitate these treatments. This study opens up important new avenues for dealing with health, training, behavioural and welfare issues/problems in horses. This new treatment has important implications for all involved in the horse industry from owners and riders to veterinarians, trainers and therapists because it demonstrates it is now possible to locate and address the cause of most postural inefficiencies before they, in turn, cause inevitable debilitating pathology.

48

Movement and reflex responses of the horse’s neck, withers and back

Mary Bromiley

Comberleigh Farm, Wheddon Cross, Minehead, Somerset, TA24 7AT

There is considerable confusion regarding the horses back amongst the riding fraternity. The horses back should be considered as comprising the entire vertebral column stretching from poll to tail – and not just the saddle area. The vertebral column of the horse is multi-jointed; rod placed centrally and acts as the main ‘scaffold-beam’ of the skeleton. While there are pads of fibro cartilage (discs) lying between the individual bones, they bear little resemblance to those of the human model. Under normal living conditions, horses do not slip their discs nor do they displace vertebrae. Anatomically the structure is divided into the neck, (cervical vertebrae 7) and back (thoracic vertebrae to whom the ribs attach 18), the loins (lumber vertebrae 6, 5 or 7) and the croup (sacrum 5 fused vertebrae). The withers are formed by the tips of spines arising from the 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th thoracic vertebrae. Each section of the column enjoys a differing range of movement dependant upon architectural design. The ball and socket joints of the neck ensure mobility, then within the body mass, the opposing surfaces of adjacent bones become flat plates, allowing ‘give’ rather than movement. It is not until the last bone of the loins, L6, joins to the sacrum, S1, that the opposing joint surfaces are designed to allow an increased movement range. The horses back muscles present as two interwoven cables – their function is to create a stable centre for the body frame and suspend the abdominal contents, not to achieve active movement. When the horse is ridden (and as weight needs to be both suspended and carried), the muscles must change (subtly) the way they were designed to work and utilise the position of the head and neck to help counteract extra lode. The nuchal ligament spans the natural gap, created by bone enlargement between poll and withers – continuing centrally along the back to the tail and renamed the supra spinous ligament. An even break-over in the neck, creates traction throughout the structure, which enables the muscles and ligaments to suspend the back against the combined forces of abdominal contents, gravity and rider weight. During a short practical exhibition, highlighting (with paint) the bone position of the vertebral column, nuchal and supra spinous ligaments on the horse’s body will facilitate the demonstration (using reflex responses) of the very small amount of movement in the central back compared to mobility of the neck.

49

Horse communication: A practical demonstration

Kateřina Santarová

Farm Petrovice, Petrovice 11, 368 01 Strakonice, Czech Republic

Historically, man and horse have been closely associated with each other for thousands of years. Horses have fulfilled several roles for man including the provision of a food source, a mode of transport, providing a source of power in industry, work and war and more recently, as an active partner in sport, equitation and leisure. Within this partnership however, many people have had a tendency (unfortunately) to separate their relationship with the horse from the rest of horse's interaction with other aspects of its environment. When the human enters the realm of the horses' world, it might be more appropriate for the individual to endeavour to adapt to the horse’s needs rather than (continually) attempting to ‘adapt’ the horse to human demands. The objective of this practical demonstration is to outline how man and horse can embark on a working relationship – but devoid of any force – based on an understanding of the horse's mind and its effort to communicate. During this practical session, the aim is to demonstrate the subtle signals that the horse emits toward human handlers and the importance of recognising and interpreting these signals in a timely manner as the appropriate response. Indeed, it should then become apparent (almost instantly) as the horse takes notice of the handler that a relationship will begin to evolve based upon trust of mutual communication. This particular demo will attempt to achieve this aim, even while working with two horses simultaneously – and under different circumstances (in hand and under saddle) and despite differences in their degrees of training. This demo is not so much about training the horse for a specific purpose but more to identify the direction to take in order to achieve a mutual and harmonious horse-human bond. Essentially, horses are communicative animals and when trainers themselves improve their attempts to commune, training for both parties of the horse-human dyad will benefit from this inclusive approach.

50

Horsemanship: Conventional, Natural and Equitation Science

Deborah Goodwin1, Paul McGreevy2, Natalie Waran3, Andrew McLean4

1School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK 2Faculty of Veterinary Science (B19), University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia 3Animal Welfare Group, Unitec New Zealand, Private Bag 92025, Auckland, NZ 4Australian Equine Behaviour Centre, Clonbinane Road, Broadford, VIC 3658, Australia

Many cultures have trained horses using conventional approaches and acknowledged a talent for working with horses as natural horsemanship. The current popularity of ‘Natural Horsemanship’ has prompted change in the equestrian industry. These changes extend from individuals to conventional training organizations. Academic ethologists were interested in these developments, but expressed concern at the way some Natural Horsemanship trainers presented ‘Equine Ethology’. Often personal opinions present as facts, without any associated objective study of horse behaviour in the natural or domestic environment. Enlightened Natural Horsemanship trainers are talented observers of horse behaviour and respond precisely to subtle cues during training. They have demonstrated their ability to utilize the marketplace and teach their methods for commercial reward. Unfortunately, not all followers of these methods are as effective as the trainers that were the originators of Natural Horsemanship. Poor technique can lead to disappointing result, frustration and reduced safety in practitioners, and result in abuse, confusion and conflict behaviour in horses. The success of Natural Horsemanship trainers encouraged scientists studying horse behaviour and training to be more active in communicating their work to horse owners and trainers. Science has much to offer in advancing techniques in horse training and reducing wastage by objectively assessing what does and does not work, and most importantly, why? Calibrated rein tension gauges and pressure sensitive pads can measure the strength and frequency of rider’s signals to the horse. Riders and trainers can integrate technology into their training methods to measure contact and lightness objectively. Assessment of welfare and performance is increasingly possible via a range of physiological and behavioural measures. Equitation scientists, conventional and Natural Horsemanship trainers aim to help people train horses more effectively. It is critical that we share our knowledge to achieve these goals because, when training fails, horses suffer and may pay the ultimate price with their lives.

51

What is Ethical Horse Training?

Natalie Waran

School of Natural Sciences, Unitec New Zealand, Carrington road, 92025, Auckland, New Zealand

Until relatively recently, although there were a variety of horse training approaches utilised worldwide, there were few claims made about which of them were better in terms of improved performance or humaneness – rather they were considered as different training protocols to suit the different nature of the performance expected from the animal. More recently, there has been a plethora of, so called ‘new’ training methods disseminated and promoted by trainers and their supporters, aided by improved access to information via the World Wide Web. Often these training approaches or training devices are advertised as being more effective and/or more ethical than others are. The UK Police have committed to using only ethical training methods for their horses, which suggests that some methods might be more ethical than others are. As do statements like ‘Clicker training is an ethical and effective way to allow trainers to tap in to good horsemanship skills, which may have eluded them in the past’. Therefore, what does ‘ethical horse training’ mean – and how can we assess it? There appears to be a need to produce a structured framework to enable standardised ethical assessments of the various training protocols, equipment and methods to be undertaken. These assessment criteria should take into account that successful and humane training relies upon the use of good understanding of the application of learning theory, horse ethology and a clear awareness of the goals and the limitations of the training approach/device/protocol currently used. Examples of the criteria to be used as well as their relative weighting, will be presented to the ISES audience to produce a ‘first–cut’ assessment framework to enable us to move forward in relation to what is or is not acceptable for use in the training of horses.

52

Vendor and purchaser expectations: Differential market segment requirements for sport horses

Karen Hennessy1, Katherine Quinn2, Mary Lambkin3, Jack Murphy2

1Centre for Sports Studies, University College Dublin, Ireland 2School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, UCD, Ireland 3School of Business, University College Dublin, Ireland

Sport horses are traded for various purposes including (a) elite competition, (b) leisure riding and (c) breeding and the purchasers may be end consumers or resellers. We sought to investigate the different requirements of these various market segments. This study involved both quantitative and qualitative methodologies. We conducted a questionnaire-based survey of active purchasers (n= 585) within various market segments. The participants rated specific equine attributes including conformation, movement, presence, height, colour, gender, soundness, pedigree, temperament, trainability, performance history and competition experience in terms of importance. The study reported here also included eight in-depth interviews with large volume, international sport horse buyers to tease out further the specific or subtle differences between market requirements. We employed a Likert psychometric response scale and data underwent analysis for statistical significance using the Kruskal-Wallis non- parametric test within the SAS statistical package. The findings indicated that there were significant differences in the rating of market requirements across the various market segments for a number of attributes including, soundness, conformation, movement, presence and trainability. Curiously, although it is taken as a given by producers that training and competition experience will always add value – it appears that this may not be exclusively so. In fact, the findings indicated that the level of training, competition experience, competition performance and placement in young horse competitions ranked quite low across all market segments including the competition market. The in-depth interview findings also supported this unexpected result. Clearly, producers need to understand the market requirements of their target market segment to avoid wastage. Most sport horses enter the leisure market where temperament and trainability are highly important. The perception of adding value to young horses through competition exposure at a young age is misplaced and damage may occur from by rushed or inappropriate training practices to achieve this misplaced perception.

53

Habituation and object generalisation in horses

Janne Winther Christensen1, Tatjana Zharkikh2, Jan Ladewig3

1Dept. of Animal Health, Welfare and Nutrition, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Aarhus, P.O. Box 50, 8830 Tjele, Denmark 2Biosphere Reserve Askania-Nova, Chaplinskii r-n, Khersonskaya obl. 75230, Ukraine 3Dept. of Large Animal Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1870 Frederiksberg C., Denmark

Habituation to novel stimuli plays an important role in horse training, and we aimed to investigate the extent to which horses generalise between different visual objects. Twenty-four, 2-year-old stallions were habituated to feeding from a container placed inside a test arena and assigned as TEST (n=12) or CONTROL horses (n=12). In Experiment 1, TEST horses were habituated to six differently coloured objects (ball, barrel, board, box, cone, and cylinder) presented in sequence in a balanced order. Each object was placed 0.5 m in front of the feed container, forcing the horses to pass the object to get to the food. TEST horses received as many 2 min. exposures to each object as required to meet a habituation criterion. We recorded behavioural reactions to the object, latency to feed, total eating time, and heart rate (HR) during all exposures. There was no significant decrease in initial responses towards a novel object with increasing object number (Mixed Models, e.g. HR: P=0.33; latency: P=0.81), indicating that habituation was stimulus specific. CONTROL horses were exposed to the test arena without objects in the same period, and reactions of TEST and CONTROL horses were subsequently compared in a fear-test (exposure to a rubber mat on the ground), but there were no significant differences between the treatment groups. Due to the lack of generalisation in Experiment 1, we designed a supplemental experiment (Experiment 2), in which CONTROL horses were exposed to the same six objects except that object colour was kept constant. We found a significant reduction in responses to novel objects with increasing object number (Mixed Models, e.g. HR: P=0.012; latency: P<0.001), indicating that horses generalise between similarly coloured objects of varying shape. We conclude that when habituating horses to objects, only one feature should be altered at a time for generalisation to occur.

54

Building a scale of behavioural indicators of stress in domestic horses

Tamsin Hughes, Emma Creighton, Rob Coleman

Anthrozoology Unit, Chester Centre for Stress Research, University of Chester, UK

Stabled domestic horses are required to adapt to conditions far removed from their ethology and this may cause varying degrees of stress to individuals. An immediate behavioural measure of stress would be useful in identifying stressors so that management practices can be altered to alleviate sources of poor welfare. Crossbred stabled mares and geldings (N=28) in similar management and exercise regimes underwent 10 minute stress tests that manipulated their physiological stress response using routine husbandry or environmental stressors such as the sound of clippers. Physiological stress was measured by changes from rest in salivary cortisol assessed by immunological assay or heart rate recorded with a heart-rate monitor (Polar S610i); and associated behaviour was videoed and coded using The Observer package v5. The stress tests produced statistical increases in heart rate (t12=3.328, P=0.003, inverse transformed) and there was a trend towards a similar increase in salivary cortisol, but measures were confounded by the short duration of the stress tests and large between-subjects effects swamping treatment effects. The behavioural stress score, ranging from 0 (rest) to 10 (panic), was derived from the correspondence between three sources of data: 1) differences in coded behaviour that showed statistically significant changes across categories of increase in physiological stress measures in the stress tests (Kruskal-Wallis ANOVAs P<0.05); 2) a subjective scale of behavioural descriptions devised by a panel of N=13 equestrian professionals who scored the videos of the horses’ behavioural reactions to the stress tests; and 3) descriptions of behavioural indicators of stress found in the literature. The scores derived from the stress tests ranged from zero to seven (average 3.9) with the panel agreeing 4 and above to be the onset of stress. For ethical reasons, the upper-end of the scale (above 7) was inferred from descriptions in the literature.

55

An investigation of the health and welfare of horses transported long distances for slaughter in the European Union

David J Marlin1, Keith Meldrum2, Peter Kettlewell3, Tim Parkin4, Mark Kennedy5, Jo White2, Caroline Heard2, James Wood6 1Hartpury College, Hartpury, Gloucester, GL19 3BE, UK 2World Horse Welfare, Anne Colvin House, Snetterton, Norfolk, NR16 2LR, UK 3ADAS, Ceres House, 2 Searby Road, Lincoln LN2 4DW 4Inst. of Comp. Medicine, Faculty of Vet. Med, University of Glasgow, G61 1QH 5Anglia Ruskin University, East Road, Cambridge, CB1 1PT, UK 6Cambridge Infectious Diseases Consortium, Dept. of Veterinary Medicine, Madingley Road, Cambridge, CB3 0ES, UK

Consumption of horsemeat within particular European countries is still widespread and is supported by a large trade in live horses. Large numbers of horses are transported from Eastern European countries over long distances to be slaughtered. The trade appears to consist of the movement of either young animals bred specifically for human consumption or old animals that have reached the end of their working life. Anecdotal reports exist of examples of poor health and welfare of some animals during transport, but there are no objective data available. The objectives of this study are to investigate the health and welfare of horses being transported long distances for slaughter within the EU in accordance with EU Regulation 1/2005 on the Welfare of Animals during Transport using an epidemiological approach. The aim of the study is to provide objective information allowing steps to be taken to improve the health and welfare of horses transported long distances for slaughter. Data collection is taking place at collecting centres in Romania (RO) and at slaughterhouses in Italy (IT). To date (May 2008) 7 shipments of horses (total 193 horses) have been observed in RO and 11 different shipments (total 211 horses) have been observed in IT. The horses leaving RO were predominantly female (79%), less than 2.5 years of age (72%) and body condition score of 4 or 5 (54%). The horses arriving in IT were a mixture of females (34%), geldings (39%) and entire males (27%), were again predominantly less than 2.5 years of age (79%) and with a body condition score of 3 or (84%). Twenty-two horses leaving RO (11%) were considered unfit to be transported. External injuries were observed in 38% of horses. Of the horses arriving in IT, 22 (10.4%) were considered unfit for travelling and the frequency of external injuries observed was lower in IT (11.4%).

56

Day 3

www.equitationscience.com

57

The horse-human dyad: Can we align horse training and handling activities with the equid ethogram?

Paul McGreevy1, Francis Burton2 , Andrew McLean3

1Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia 227 Grosvenor Lane, Glasgow, Scotland, G12 9AA 3Australian Equine Behaviour Centre, 730 Clonbinane Road, Broadford, VIC, 3658

Various contemporary equestrian training systems advocate that humans occupy roles as alphas, dominators and benign leaders. This paper examines the recently completed equid ethogram and shows how analogues of social interactions between horses may occur in various human-horse interactions. It illustrates how some common analogues may be adaptive for the horse and show appropriate correspondent behaviours while others may be unusual or even abnormal. It also shows how correspondent behaviours sometimes become inappropriate because of their duration, consistency or context. It argues that one analogue for all situations is unlikely to hold true in all horse-human contexts. So, when applying any model from horse-horse interactions to human-horse interactions, the limitations of the model may eclipse the intended outcome of the intervention. These limitations are especially likely in the ridden context. Our analysis may help to determine the validity of extrapolating intra-specific interactions to the inter-specific setting and highlight the subsequent limitations of role-playing in horse handling and training. This analysis provides a constructive framework for further informed debate and empirical investigation of the critical features of successful intra-specific interactions. Equitation is an activity for which neither horses nor humans have evolved and, given the casualties on both sides of this dyad, one could argue that it is not an adaptive behaviour for either species. It relies on both species responding to the cues of the other. Only those horses and humans with an aptitude for interspecific communication will thrive in this context. Given the tremendous breadth of horse-horse interactions, it is striking how few interactions are required to train elegant responses in horses. The apparent gulf in our ability to integrate the equid sociogram into riding technique explains some of the difficulties faced by both species involved in equitation and has profound implications for rider safety and horse welfare. Perhaps equestrians will become increasingly subtle and sophisticated in their use of the analogues we describe here. In the meantime, we hope that this paper provides a starting point for the debate over the extent to which horses respond to these analogues as stimuli or recognise them as attempts to communicate.

58

Breeding value estimation in Hungarian Sport Horse populations

János Posta, István Komlósi, Sándor Mihók

Institute for Animal Sciences, University of Debrecen, Böszörményi str. 138, H- 4032 Debrecen, Hungary

The Hungarian Sport Horse population has been continuously increasing in the recent years. Breeders are interested in the development of a breeding value prediction scheme. The aims of the research were to analyze the breeding value estimation alternatives for the Hungarian Sport Horses. The analyses were based on the Hungarian Sport Horse Studbook, results of 600 mares’ self-performance tests and 22860 records show-jumping competition results. The mares’ performance test includes judgement of conformational traits, movement analysis traits and free jumping performance. Genetic structure of the population was described with genetic distance among studs, generation interval and number of ancestors explaining genetic variability. All parameters were estimated using ENDOG software. The Nei-based genetic distance was between 0.012–0.039 for the most important studs. Generation interval was 10.6 years. One ancestor with the largest influence contributed 1.72% to the total genetic variability of the breed. Judgement of type, saddle region and head traits amongst the conformational traits were closely related, obtained by principal component analysis. Breeding values of self performance test results were estimated with an animal model. Different measurements of the competition performance were compared using the same repeatability model. Variance and covariance components were estimated with VCE-5 software package. Breeding value estimation for sport results with random regression models was sufficient with first order Legendre polynomial. Heritability continuously increased and variance proportion of permanent environment effect continuously decreased with the increase of age. Breeding values can be estimated at different ages and from these values, a composite breeding value index can be computed. Using this index, it will be possible to weight breeding values for the specific requirements of breeders. The authors are among the firsts to apply random regression models for continuously measured horse breeding data in equitation science.

59

The prevalence of ridden behaviour problems in the UK leisure horse population and associated risk factors

Jo Hockenhull, Emma Creighton

Anthrozoology Unit, Chester Centre for Stress Research, University of Chester, UK

In the UK, the number of people riding horses for leisure has increased over the last decade. Problem behaviour from the horse under saddle is potentially dangerous and may lead to poorer welfare from harsher training techniques. Understanding the prevalence and risk factors for these behaviours is important if riders are to address this issue. To answer this need, a large-scale internet survey of 1326 leisure horse owners aimed to collect horse-level data regarding problem behaviour and associated risk factors. Owners were asked to rate the frequency their horse performed 15 problem behaviours (1-5 scale) during the last week it was ridden; and to answer closed questions about potential risk factors for these problems, spanning methods of training and types of equipment used with the horse. Problem behaviour was reported in 86% of 869 horses, with shying (47%), moving off when the rider mounts (43%), and pulling/leaning on the bit (42%) being the most common. Given that problems were reported only for the preceding week and some respondents reported active avoidance in their riding (e.g. by not jumping or hacking out), these figures may be an underestimate. Principle Components Analysis extracted four behaviour problem factors: FA1- issues with jumping, FA2-buck/bolt/rear/stop, FA3-resistance to slowing, and FA4-behaviours associated with pain. Associations between scores on these factors and potential risk factors revealed effects due to type of training technique 2 2 used (e.g. FA1-jumping χ 19=35.33, N=615, P=0.013; FA4-pain χ 19=36.42, P=0.009, N=619) and equipment used (e.g. FA3-resistance and use of running martingale U=56467241,549 P=0.001; FA2-buck/bolt/rear/stop and use of whip U=67567252,536 P=0.001). This research concludes that the prevalence of ridden behaviour problems in the UK leisure horse population is high and has definable risk factors. A better understanding of these problems may help to shape rider education and improve the welfare of ridden horses.

60

Comparison of the effects of positive and negative reinforcement during training on the human-equine relationship

Carol Sankey, Marie-Annick Richard-Yris, Martine Hausberger

UMR-CNRS 6552 Laboratoire d’ethologie animale et humaine (Ethos), Université de Rennes 1, Campus de Beaulieu, F-35042 Rennes cedex, France

Equine trainers generally use either positive or negative reinforcement training procedures to educate their animals and we suggest that these two strategies may have a different impact on the Human-equine relationship (HER). The aim of this study was to compare the effects of positive vs. negative reinforcement during training on the HER. The experimental protocol was conducted in two riding schools with a total of 21 ponies. All animals were trained to walk backwards on a vocal command, using either positive (riding school 1 [RS1]: n=5; riding school 2 [RS2]: n=6) or negative (RS1: n=5; RS2: n=5) reinforcement techniques. Positive reinforcement was a food reward: the experimenter stood in front of the pony, gave the order and waited for the pony to walk backwards; never applying pressure on the lead rope and negative reinforcement was applied by agitating a stick in front of the animal’s head. On all training days, heart rate was measured (R-R Intervals) and behaviour was recorded. HER was assessed by performing a ‘motionless person test’ before and after the training period. Non-parametric Mann-Whitney U-tests were used to compare experimental groups. There were no differences in any of the variables before the training started. However, post training, ponies trained with positive reinforcement were faster to approach a motionless person than the ones trained with negative reinforcement (RS1: 14.6s.±8.9 vs. 146.2s.±65.37, p<0.05; RS2: 50.5s.±33 vs. 300s.±0, p<0.005, respectively). They also spent more time close to this person (distance<1m.: RS1: 95.4% vs. 21.9%, p<0.05; RS2: 70% vs. 0%, p<0.005, respectively) and displayed positive behaviours such as sniffing (RS1: 55% vs. 6.4%, p<0.01; RS2: 20% vs. 0%, p<0.005) and nibbling (RS2: 20.3% vs. 0%, p<0.005) the experimenter. The use of positive reinforcement, contrarily to negative reinforcement, in equine training programmes appears to have beneficial effects on the HER.

61

Human/horse relationship quality: Similar equine perception of humans reflected in different situations

C. Fureix, P. Jego, M. Hausberger

Laboratoire Ethologie Animale et Humaine, Université de Rennes1, France

Human-horse relationship (HHR) is of major importance in both competition as well as recreational horseback riding. A negative perception of humans by horses can decrease performances, welfare of both horse and rider and safety for both parties. Several behavioural tests have been used to evaluate HHR but no study compare horses’ reactions between these tests. This study aimed to investigate if horses generalize their reactions to humans from one to another context or if HHR quality depends on context assessment. Four tests were performed on 60 horses in riding centres including (a) ‘passive presence test’ (the experimenter entered the box and remained motionless during 5 minutes), (b) ‘slow approach test’ (the experimenter approached slowly and tried to touch the horse in the box), (c) ‘saddle-approach test’ (experimenter showing a saddle to the horse) and (d) ‘bridge test’ (the experimenter led the horse and tried to make it cross a mattress). The behaviour of the horse, and the time required by the horse to accept being touched and the time required for the horse to cross the bridge were recorded. Non- parametric analyses were performed to compare the horses’ reactions between all tests. The horses that were the most difficult to touch in their box also stayed the furthest away from the motionless human (Spearman, ρ = -0.41, p = 0.002), were the most aggressive when approached with a saddle (Fisher, p = 0.01) and were the most reluctant to cross the bridge (MannWhitney, U = 74, p = 0.002). Similarly, the most agressive horses when approached with a saddle were also the most reluctant to cross the bridge (Fisher, p = 0.04) and the most threatening towards the motionless human (MannWhitney, U = 169, p = 0.007). The findings suggest that an altered HHR may be reflected in different contexts and daily perception of humans may present as stressful for these horses, potentially leading to poor welfare, performances and safety in some instances.

62

Investigating horse-human interactions

Linda J Keeling, Lovisa Lanneborn, Liv Jonare

Department of Animal Environment and Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7038, SE 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden

We report two separate studies measuring heart rate (HR) and behaviour of average riding horses ridden by hobby riders under controlled conditions. The aim was to investigate horse-human interactions. In the first study, riders rode the same horse (9 riders, 9 horses) three times in a 20-min standardised programme and then another group (12 riders, 12 horses) each rode three different horses in the same programme. The HR of riders and horses followed the same general pattern with significant correlations (Pearson; r=0.73, r=0.47, r=0.43; all P<0.001). The HR of horse and rider were recorded and the deviation of each horse/rider’s HR ratio from a standard curve based on all pairs. Results showed large individual variation between and within horses and riders. In the second study, people led a horse (20 people, 10 horses) three times over a distance of 100m and people rode (17 other people, 17 other horses) over the same distance. Just before the fourth pass, the person leading or riding the horse learned that the person standing to the side holding an umbrella would put up the umbrella as the horse went past. No other information was available and in fact, the umbrella was not raised at any time. There was an overall effect of pass on the HR of the human leading the horse (F=3.66, p<0.001) or riding it (F=6.07, P<0.01). It decreased from pass 1-3 and tended to increase on pass four when leading (p=0.06) and significantly when riding (P<0.05). Similar overall effects were found on the HR of the horse being led (F=15.42, P<0.001) or ridden (F=12.7, P<0.001). The HR of the horse increased for the fourth pass when being led (P<0.05) and when ridden (P<0.05). The findings indicate that the horse’s HR increased when the person ‘thought’ the horse may be frightened.

63

Can a simple problem-solving task be used to assess Learned Helplessness in horses?

Hayley Randle

Duchy College, Stoke Climsland, Callington, Cornwall, UK, PL17 8PB

Learned helplessness (LH) is defined as a psychological condition in which individuals learn that they have no control over unpleasant conditions and are ‘helpless’. Despite suggestions of LH in horses 20 years ago, objective data are not available. This study investigated the possibility of LH in horses kept in an educational establishment using a food-based problem-solving task. This study had 39 equine subjects, 6-20 years old, of various breeds. The experimenter entered the horse’s stable with an unused feed bucket and allowed it to sniff an apple-quarter, which was then placed under the inverted bucket 1.5m directly in front of the horse. Behaviours were recorded instantaneously using continuous time sampling for a maximum of 300s. Observed behaviours were categorised into task-related, human-directed and other non-task-directed. Behavioural Diversity (BD), Behavioural Intensity (BI), time (s) until first contact (TC), Attention Span (AS) and Solving Time (ST) scores were derived. The findings revealed 69% of subjects solved the task in 114.5s±87.7s with AS of 78.9±76.8s. In terms of latency, 25.5±35.7s passed until TC for solvers compared to 37.5±83.8 for non- solvers. Only the frequency of human-directed activity and BI were normally distributed (Anderson-Darling P>0.05). The frequency of human-directed behaviours differed significantly (t18=-2.27; P<0.05) between solvers (3.78±2.42) and non-solvers (5.92±2.84). Solvers spent a significantly greater proportion of their time engaging in task-related behaviours (median=0.5; Mann-Whitney W= 40.5; P<0.05) than non-solvers (median=0.25). PCA indicated that solvers focus more clearly on the task. There does not appear to be direct evidence of LH (based at least on this task) in this sample of horses which are kept in a system that might easily predispose them to LH (individually housed for majority of their time with limited turnout), although individual differences probably due to past experience were evident. LH remains an important aspect of the human-horse dyad and must be included in any consideration of horse welfare.

64

Equine Chronobiology – An emerging scientific field with implications for health and performance in the horse

Barbara A. Murphy

School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Ireland

The sun and the constant rotation of the Earth influence all planetary life forms. From the simplest algae to mammals, almost all organisms adapt their lifestyles and organise activities into 24-hr cycles determined by sunrise and sunset. The evolution of the circadian system permits alignment of physiological function with the solar day. The master mammalian pacemaker, located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the brain, receives light information from the retina and regulates diverse physiological processes. Circadian rhythms of body temperature, heart rate, locomotor activity, blood glucose and numerous serum hormones have been described in the horse. However, the implications of these physiological rhythms for training and performance remain unexplored. Timing-information transmits from the master clock to peripheral tissues continually, synchronising molecular clockwork mechanisms in each cell. The equine core molecular clock genes have been identified and their expression profiles examined in peripheral blood and adipose tissue. The findings revealed intriguing differences in peripheral circadian regulation between the horse and other mammalian species. Circadian disruption occurs due to rapid transmeridian travel and the associated physiological malaise and performance deficits demonstrated in humans are equally relevant for the equine athlete at international competition. The first study to investigate jet lag in the horse has revealed that two important markers of circadian pacemaker phase, the melatonin and body temperature rhythms, adjust almost immediately to an abrupt 6-hr advance of the light/dark cycle in the horse. This is in stark contrast to the slow re-adaptation times observed in similar studies in humans and rodents. Further chronobiology studies are warranted to determine whether rapid re- entrainment also occurs at the level of peripheral tissues and the impact, if any, on performance parameters. Application of our knowledge of equine circadian rhythms to their daily management and training routines will have long-term benefits for health and performance.

65

Equine influenza epidemics in immunologically naïve and partially immune horse populations

Ann Cullinane, Michelle Quinlivan, Maura Nelly, Sarah Gildea, Pamela Lyons

The Virology Unit, Irish Equine Centre, Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare, Ireland

Influenza viruses belong to the family Orthomyxoviridae and are classified into subtypes because of differences in their surface glycoproteins, haemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (N). To-date 16 haemagglutinins and 9 neuraminidases have been described, but only subtype H3N8 is currently circulating in horses. Antigenic drift of the HA in the late 1980s resulted in the divergence of equine H3N8 viruses into American and Eurasian lineages with the American lineage evolving later into 3 sub-lineages designated Argentina, Kentucky and Florida. Equine influenza is the most important cause of respiratory disease in horses and is endemic in Europe and North America. In 1989, there was an influenza epidemic in Ireland. The country had a mandatory vaccination policy for racehorses and competition horses in operation for almost a decade at the time of the epizootic. Horses received a primary course of three doses of vaccine followed by annual booster vaccination. Antigenic variation reduces vaccine efficacy and the virus that caused the 1989 epidemic was shown to be significantly different from those contained in the vaccines at that time. Since the 1989 epidemic the vaccines have been updated and improved and the FEI now require six monthly booster vaccinations. However, sporadic outbreaks of influenza due to viruses of both American and Eurasian lineages have continued to occur in Ireland. These have varied in magnitude, some have been countrywide, but none has reached epidemic proportions. In 2007, the introduction of equine influenza virus into Australia for the first time resulted in the infection of over 70,000 horses and a cost to the horse industry estimated to be hundreds of millions of dollars. The virus responsible belongs to the Florida sub-lineage and is similar to viruses isolated in Japan and America in 2007. Here we review the factors that lead to influenza epidemics, examine exposure issues, pathogenicity of the virus and the ability of the horse to counteract equine influenza virus.

66

Completion and treatment rates in modern endurance racing

David J Marlin1, John McEwen2, Frits Sluyter3

1Hartpury College, Hartpury, Gloucester, UK 2Cross-Country Equine Clinic, Devauden, Chepstow, Monmouthsire, UK 3Veterinary Department, Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI), Lausanne, Switzerland

Endurance is the fastest growing discipline of the FEI. In recent years, the average speed of rides has increased, while completion rates have fallen. This trend has raised concerns over welfare of endurance horses but to date there has been no formal analysis of race records. The present investigation used archive records held by the Fédération Equestre International (FEI) and reviewed data from 120 and 160km race rides in the 8 global regions in the period 2005 to 2007. We sought to determine if there is evidence of increasing rates of elimination and whether this relates to increasing numbers of horses requiring veterinary treatment. For each year and each region, two 120km and two 160km rides were randomly selected. For each race the region, month, distance, number of starters, number of finishers, number eliminated, reason for elimination (lameness, metabolic or other) and number of horses receiving veterinary treatment were available. A total of 1651 horses’ starts were analysed for which the average completion rate was 57%. Overall completion rates were not different between 160 (51%) and 120 km races (55%) but did vary by region (range: 41% Middle East to 73% Eastern Europe). Eliminations due to lameness and metabolic reasons were not different between 120 and 160km. The numbers of horses eliminated for lameness in all rides increased from 2005 to 2007, whilst the rate of metabolic eliminations was unchanged. The proportion of horses starting races that received invasive veterinary treatment was almost twice as high in 160 (22%) versus 120km races (12%). By region, treatment rates were highest in Western and Eastern Europe and Africa and lowest in Asia, Australasia and the Middle East. There was a trend for rides with the highest completion rates to have the highest treatment rates also. The overall proportion of horses starting that were treated was 19.7% in 2005, 28.0% in 2006 and 8.8% in 2007 and in the same period, completion rates fell. The finding that low completion rates may not be associated with high treatment rates suggests that strict vetting procedures may protect horses in endurance and reduce the rates of treatment and warrants further and more detailed investigation.

67

Can we improve short-term memory in the horse?

Jack Murphy

School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Ireland

A previous study reported short-term memory limitations in horses during a two- choice feed trial when subjected to a 10-second delayed release to access a feed resource. In the current study, eight horses performed individually using a Y-maze apparatus where they had to choose either the left or the right arm of the apparatus correctly to access the stimulus (feed). The experimental protocol required the horses to stand at a starting gate and witness (visually and aurally) the feed delivery into a container in one or other arm of the apparatus. Following stimulus activation, each horse chose one or other location in five experimental contexts: immediate release after feed delivery, release 3 seconds after feed delivery, release 6 seconds after feed delivery, release 9 seconds after feed delivery and release 12 seconds after feed delivery. Individual subjects performed five immediate-release (IR) trials, followed by five three-second delayed release trials (3DR), five six- second delayed release trials (6DR), five nine-second delayed release trials (9DR) and five twelve-second delayed release trials (12DR) during testing sessions on one day. The protocol was repeated one week later to re-test the horses. Data were analysed by log-linear analysis of frequencies. Results showed that the horses were capable of achieving the correct stimulus location in the immediate- release trials. They were also largely successful with the delayed release trials and improved marginally during the re-test. The findings suggest that if there are limitations in short-term memory recall abilities in horses when exposed to delays of 10-seconds or more without prior training, incremental memory-training exercise may ameliorate this shortcoming. Horses may have a limited but trainable form of prospective memory. However, the danger still exists with overestimation of equine cognitive ability during training and unnecessary delays in reinforcements are likely to lead to welfare and training setbacks.

68

Poster Section

www.equitationscience.com

69

Initial acceptance of novel flavours in diets offered to stabled horses

Elaine Hart1, Deborah Goodwin1, Pat Harris2

1Animal Behaviour Unit, School of Psychology, University of Southampton, UK Equine Studies Group, WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition, UK

Odour and taste are important factors in food selected and consumed by horses. Published trials in stabled horses using fifteen flavours presented at 1% in standard meals of 100 g cereal by-product showed flavour affected diet acceptance, selection and consumption times in an otherwise identical base diet. The study reported here aimed to investigate the effects of a lower concentration of flavour i.e. 0.5% on initial acceptance in the same base diet. Eight novel flavours were presented to eight Thoroughbred horses (1 mare, 7 geldings) according to a Latin Square design to control for order effects. The flavours were presented at 0.5% in the base diet (i.e. 0.5g by weight in 99.5g) and were fed dry. The meals were presented to the horses in hanging door mangers, with a minimum of 24 hours between trial days. No more than six meals were presented in any 24-hour period and a minimum of one hour was allowed between meals to approximate standard hunger levels. Quantity consumed, partial rejection, complete rejection and consumption times were recorded. Two flavours, agrimony and horehound were universally accepted and completely consumed by all participants. Although acceptance varied between the remaining flavours none were universally rejected. Burdock was rejected by two horses and orange by one individual. Variation in amount consumed was compared for all eight flavours using Kendall’s coefficient of concordance. This showed a significant difference existed between amount consumed (W = 0.456, n = 8, p < 0.001). Mean consumption times were affected by individual variation but were NS for the group overall (p = 0.2). This trial showed flavour concentrations of 0.5% in a standard base diet significantly affected diet selection and acceptance, but not consumption times. These results may have practical implications in diet formulation for the equine feed industry.

70

Does the provision of creep feed post-weaning affect the development of oral stereotypies in foals (Equus caballus)?

T. Parnell, D. Goodwin

School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK

The treatment of stereotypies in horses (Equus caballus) commonly referred to as ‘stable vices’ has been addressed by a range of different methods. None, however, has provided a ‘cure’ for these unwanted behaviours. This deficiency highlights the need to identify the underlying mechanisms and to treat the behaviours prophylactically; i.e. to address the causative agents using a preventative approach. There appears to be a higher incidence of stereotypical behaviours in the Thoroughbred (TB) than in other breeds of horse generally. One of the proffered explanations for this has been the very different management practices involved in producing and maintaining TB racehorses in a competitive market. The aim of this study was to investigate if there is a correlation between the feeding of creep feed/hard feed after weaning and the development of oral stereotypies in TB foals. The methodology included a self-administered questionnaire distributed to twenty- five Irish stud farms in counties Kildare and Meath. Following a response rate of 88%, twenty-two responses were available, representing a cohort of six hundred and seventy three foals. With the exception of sixteen foals, all the remaining foals had access to some form of concentrated proprietary horse feed both before and after weaning. All of the foals were at least four months of age prior to weaning. All of the foals had access to grass paddocks post-weaning and they were brought in once daily for feeding and checking for a short period before returning to the field. Only three foals (0.004% of the test population) developed oral stereotypies and all three foals were on different farms. In contrast to other studies, the current study failed to provide any evidence of a correlation between the feeding of creep feed post-weaning and the development of crib-biting behaviour in TB foals.

71

Husbandry factors and the incidence of stereotypy in Irish Racehorses

Noelle Carroll, Sean Arkins

Department of Life Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

While several studies have documented the prevalence of stereotypies in horses, there has been limited research of this nature in Ireland. The aims of this study were twofold: (a) determine the prevalence of stereotypies in Irish racehorses (b) document the management, environment and training regimes in Irish racing yards. The study comprised of telephone interviews with a random sample of 105 trainers (28.5% of all trainers) and involved 1368 racehorses (33.5% of TB horses in training in Ireland). The results indicated that an average training yard consisted of 21 horses on the farm, 13 horses in training, 42 hectares of available land and 4 employees working full-time. On average, each employee was charged with 3 horses. Most horses in the study (84%) were in training for National Hunt racing and horses exercised on average 62 minutes (+ 23.0) per day. Mechanical walkers were used in conjunction with ridden exercise by 48% of trainers. While 72% of the trainers in this study allowed their horses independent time out in a paddock or yard, only 42% of trainers allowed their horses time-out with other horses. The bedding substrate used predominately was shavings (39%), straw (35%) and paper (20%). Most trainers fed 3 concentrate feeds per day (67%) and forage twice a day (70%). On average, each horse received 7.7kg of concentrate feed and 4.9kg of forage per day. Hay was the predominant forage used – 56% of trainers reported feeding hay. Of the trainers sampled, 74 (70.5%) reported animals exhibiting stereotypies at the time of the survey. From 1368 horses, trainers reported 233 horses (17.0%) exhibited stereotypic behaviours. The stereotypies encountered were crib biting (3.3%), weaving (2.9%), box-walking (2.3%), wood chewing (2.6%), stamping/pawing (1.5%), shaking/bobbing head (1.4%), coprophagia (1.0%), polydipsia nervosa (0.9%), kicking out (0.5%), pica (0.5%) and self- mutilation (0.2%).

72

Are there ‘optimal timeframes’ for handling the foal (Equus caballus)?

Figueiredo, I¹; Costa, H²; Meireles J¹, Rosa, I¹.

1Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Técnica de Lisboa, Portugal 2Fundação Alter-Real, Coutada do Arneiro, Alter-do-Chão, Portugal

There is evidence to suggest that handling young horses (early life experience) seems to influence the horse’s behaviour later during adulthood. It may be important therefore to identify the optimal timeframes to handle young horses with simple procedures, which are likely to affect the horse’s fearfulness, learning performance and manageability. These study aims were to test the effects of 3 sessions of an early type of handling during three different timeframes of the foal’s early life. Lusitanian foals (n = 46) were assigned to one of five groups and three of the foal groups were handled during specific timeframes. The first group (n = 8) was handled as neonates (NF), the second (n = 9) during weaning (WF), the third (n = 12) during the first month (OF), while a fourth group (n = 9) was left unhandled (UF) until the beginning of training sessions and the fifth group (n = 8) served as control (CF). Following the handling periods and 1 month post-weaning, the foals participated in 4 training sessions (they were trained to halter and to lead). Testing occurred twice: once just before the training sessions started and again just after they ended. There were no differences between handled groups when tested before the training sessions. However, after handling, there were significant differences between NF, WF and control groups. NF and WF groups reacted less (p<0.005), tolerated the human approaches better (p<0.05) and showed less locomotor activity in the handler’s presence (p<0.05). The WF group was easier to halter during all training sessions and was the only group that passed all aims. In general, it seems that three handling sessions may be sufficient to shape foal behaviour if performed during specific periods or ‘optimal timeframes’. Neonatal handled foals are less reactive and foals handled at weaning more manageable.

73

An investigation into personality traits of elite, amateur and non- riders

1,2 2 Inga A Wolframm , Dominic Micklewright

1University of Applied Science, Van Hall Larenstein (Wageningen UR), Postbus 4116700 AK Wageningen, NL 2University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK

Performance in sport has been linked to personality traits and resultant behavioural expressions. Investigating personality traits in equestrian riders and comparing elite, amateur and non-riders may give a better understanding of equestrian performance and horse-rider interaction. Following ethical approval, 8 elite riders (mean age 39.1±8.2), 36 amateur riders competing at intermediate level (mean age 23.8±6.5) and 27 non-riders (mean age 32.6±8.7) were asked to complete the NEO PI-R personality questionnaire. Data were analysed using a One-Way ANOVA with a Post Hoc Scheffe test to examine the data for differences in personality domains of neuroticism, extroversion, openness, agreeableness and conscientious and corresponding personality facets. Most notable findings were a significant difference between elite riders and amateur riders in the facet of Vulnerability with (6.5±4.2 vs. 12.0±4.3, p<0.05). Furthermore, significant differences were found between amateur riders and non-riders in the domain of Agreeableness with (108±2.7 vs. 120.8±3, p<0.05) and for the facets of Excitement Seeking (18.7±4.1 vs. 14.7±6.7, p≤0.01); Feelings (23.2±3.5 vs. 20.6±4.6, p<0.05); Trust (17.7±4.2 vs. 20.9±4.8, p≤0.01) and Compliance (14.6±4.7 vs. 18.5±5.9, p≤0.01). Differences in Tendermindedness were found between elite and non-riders (16.5±3.0 vs. 20.0±2.7, p≤0.001), and amateur and non-riders (18.7±2.9 vs. 21.0±2.7, p≤0.001). Differences were also found in Achievement Striving between elite and non-riders (23.1±2.9 vs. 18.4±5.0, p<0.05), and amateur and non-riders (21.4±3.9 vs. 18.4±5.0, p<0.05). The equestrian personality may thus be described as hard working and tough-minded, competitive and aggressive, craving excitement and able to experience intense feelings. Elite riders cope better during stress than amateur riders. These findings support the notion that in effective horse-rider relationships a more confident rider results in a more successful horse-rider combination. The design of subsequent sport psychological interventions may improve rider confidence.

74

Anxiety and self-confidence among elite and non-elite equestrian riders

Inga A Wolframm1,2, Dominic Micklewright2

1University of Applied Science, Van Hall Larenstein (Wageningen UR), Postbus 4116700 AK Wageningen, NL 2University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK

Equestrian sport depends on effective horse-rider communication to allow the dyad to perform harmoniously and relaxed. Research into other sports has shown that excessive levels of anxiety can undermine motor function during performance. In the rider, this may result in unclear aids, leaving the horse unresponsive. Investigations into anxiety and its interaction with self-confidence in elite and non- elite riders may provide indications towards what defines successful horse-rider interaction. Forty riders (12 male, 28 female; 15 elite, 25 non-elite; 12 dressage, 17 showjumping, 11 eventing) completed the Revised Competitive Sport Anxiety Inventory 2, which measures somatic anxiety (SA), cognitive anxiety (CA) and self-confidence (SC). Data were analyzed using independent samples t-tests and Pearson’s product moment correlations. Results showed that, compared to non- elite riders, elite riders scored significantly lower on SA (15.2±4.4 vs. 19.0±5.0, p≤0.01) and higher on SC (31.5±4.8 vs. 25.1±7.4, p≤0.01). Negative correlations between CA and SC were found among elite riders (r=-.61, p<0.05) and non-elite riders (r=-.40, p<0.05). Compared to female riders, males scored lower in CA (15.3±3.6 vs. 20.6±7.7, p<0.01) and higher in SC (30.7±4.9 vs. 26.1±7.6, p<0.05). Findings suggest that elite riders tend to have lower levels of SA and higher levels of SC than non-elite riders. Horses may react to increased symptoms of SA by becoming tense and unresponsive. Low levels of SA as found in elite riders may facilitate a more relaxed, harmonious performance. Greater riding-specific skill in the elite rider may result in increased levels of self-confidence allowing for task- focused concentration and improved performance. Results also suggest that anxiety is lower and self-confidence is higher among male riders which may be one of the reasons why there are proportionately more male than female riders at elite level. Future research should focus on developing appropriate intervention strategies to manage anxiety and increase confidence particularly in non-elite riders.

75

An investigation into personality traits of equestrian riders, grooms and managers of equine businesses

Inga A Wolframm1,2, Dominic Micklewright2

1University of Applied Science, Van Hall Larenstein (Wageningen UR), Postbus 4116700 AK Wageningen, NL 2University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK

The equine industry is rapidly increasing in size and importance, contributing considerably to national economic output. In order to operate optimally, equine businesses depend on individual performances of their employees. The aim of the study is to gain a better understanding of the personality characteristics of different equine professionals, which may assist in devising relevant professional training schemes leading to increased job satisfaction and overall performance in equine business and sport. Following ethical approval, 14 managers of equine businesses (mean age 42.3±8.3), 31 horse grooms (mean age 21.2±5.6) and 21 professional riders (29.5±4.3) completed an online questionnaire of the Big Five Personality Factors containing 48 questions rated on a 5-point Likert scale. Raw scores were converted into percentile scores. Data were analysed using a One-Way ANOVA with a Post Hoc Scheffe test to examine the data for differences in personality domains of Neuroticism, Extroversion, Openness, Agreeableness and Conscientious. Significant differences were found in Neuroticism between managers and riders (31.8±21.8 vs. 57.6±24.6, p<0.01), in Extroversion between managers and grooms (84.7±10.7 vs. 56.9±28.9, p<0.001) and grooms and riders (56.9±28.9 vs. 86.2±14.4, p<0.001), in Openness between managers and grooms (46.3±27 vs. 8.9±16.9, p<0.001) and managers and riders (46.3±27 vs. 14.8±21.8, p<0.001), in Agreeableness between managers and riders (32.4±24.2 vs. 11.5±12, p<0.05), and in Conscientiousness between managers and grooms (91±7.3 vs. 57.4±25.7, p<0.001). The findings support the view that managers of equine businesses are confident, able to deal with customers, open to new ideas and highly committed to their work. The results also suggest that grooms are conventional and conservative in outlook and on-the-job training should focus on further increasing conscientiousness and commitment. Riders are outgoing, aggressive, highly competitive and should be encouraged to manage levels of anxiety in order to improve horse-rider interaction and achieve optimum performance in training and competition.

76

Behavioural repertoires of Irish thoroughbred (TB) yearling horses

Jack Murphy

School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Ireland

Ireland is the third largest producer of thoroughbred (TB) horses worldwide with 12633 foals in 2007. Abnormal Repetitive Behaviour (ARB) can affect both athletic performance and monetary value of afflicted horses. This study sought to determine behavioural profiles including ARBs among Irish TB yearling horses. The study used a self-reporting questionnaire survey of all members of the Irish Thoroughbred Breeders Association (ITBA) – the representative body of the Irish thoroughbred breeding industry. Questionnaires were distributed to the membership (n= 749) with ‘Business Reply Envelopes’ enclosed. Returns numbered 228, (response rate of 30%) and 209 individual members had suitable TB horses for the survey. The total number of horses investigated was 1893 animals (16% of total population) – consisting of 807 colts, 195 geldings and 891 fillies. Behavioural incidence included crib-biting 0.07%; weaving 0.05%; box- walking 0.08%; wind-sucking 0.03%; tail-eating 2.75%; wood-chewing 1.5%; head-shaking 0.01%; tongue-playing 0.03% and object-licking 0.05%. Causative factors suggested by the respondents included: inherited 25%; copied 16%; represented purely a coping mechanism 14%; learned by trial and error 9%; as a result of multiple causes (some or all of the previous) 12%; stemming from a specific cause (e.g. illness or medically induced) 7% and 17% of respondents offered no opinion as to the probable cause. The most surprising finding is the low rates of ARB (e.g. crib-biting & wood-chewing) compared to significantly higher rates reported for equid populations generally. One of the more recent studies of 225 foals in the UK reported crib-biting in 11% of foals at a median age of 20 weeks and wood chewing in 30% of foals at a median age of 30 weeks. The ITBA members employed various husbandry initiatives to minimise the incidence of ARBs and the findings may indicate the use of enlightened husbandry systems among Irish producers of TB horses generally.

77

The extent of abnormal behaviours observed in a cohort of Irish thoroughbred (TB) weanling-yearling horses

Jack Murphy

School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Ireland

Ireland enjoys a reputation of consistently producing superior thoroughbred (TB) horses that go on to perform at the highest level. The Irish TB breeding industry involves some 13,000 foals per annum from a population of more than 19,500 mares and 420 stallions. Exhibiting Abnormal Repetitive Behaviour (ARB) has a negative influence on the monetary value of young horses that exhibit these unwanted activities. This aim of this study was to determine the extent of abnormal behavioural activities in a cohort of weanling-yearling horses under standard husbandry conditions. The study was conducted at TB breeding farms (n = 22) where most young TB horses (foals and weanlings) are housed or at least sheltered for management and feeding during the winter months depending upon prevailing weather conditions. The number of animals at individual farms ranged from four to forty-two and they were ‘housed’ in groups of at least four at each breeding farm. The method included both scan sampling and direct focal sampling of the animals [n = 323: colts (n = 173) & fillies (n = 150)] during November ’06 to February ‘07 in South-east Ireland. Scan sampling (60 seconds every 15 minutes from 08.00 – 09.30 and 18.30 – 20.00) of the animals revealed normal behavioural patterns with the exception of very few individuals. Once identified, focal sampling of these individuals showed that tail-eating was prevalent in 22 animals (colts = 18; fillies = 4), wood-chewing in 15 animals (colts = 6; fillies = 9) and crib-biting was observed in only one colt during the observational period. There was no evidence of locomotory behaviours (box-walking or weaving) or other oral stereotypies in any of the horses. Breeders ‘housed’ the weanling horses in groups wherever possible in an effort to maximise the welfare status and avoid ARB development in the young animals.

78

The incidence of stereotypy in Irish thoroughbred (TB) horses sold at auction

Jack Murphy

School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Ireland

Ireland is synonymous with thoroughbred (TB) horse production and graduates from the Irish bloodstock auction sales have won many of the most prestigious races worldwide. There Irish bloodstock sales companies (Goffs Bloodstock Sales, Goresbridge Horse Sales and Tattersalls Ireland) specialise in selling TB horses. Vendors of horses sold via the auction houses must declare if animals exhibit stereotypy such as box-walking, weaving, crib-biting or windsucking at the time of sale. The conditions of sale also stipulate that if animals (declared as stereotypy free) subsequently perform stereotypy within 7-days post sale, the animal is returnable to the vendor who is then liable for all costs incurred during the process. The current study set out to examine the incidence of stereotypy typically reported in horses within the 7-day post sale period. Goresbridge Horse Sales yearling results (1996 to 2006) revealed that only one animal was returned as a crib-biter within the 7-day period from 1451 yearlings sold. Concerns that two further horses displayed crib-biting behaviour were not upheld as in both cases the veterinary panel subsequently found in favour of the vendor i.e. animals were adjudged as normal. The Tattersalls Ireland November 2006 Sales included the return of a 4-year old windsucker from 95 horses sold, two yearling windsuckers from 387 yearlings sold, one foal (box-walker) returned from 946 foals sold and there were no returns from 181 older mares sold. Goffs Bloodstock Sales reported that two windsuckers were returned from 353 yearling sold in September 2006. During the Goffs November Sales, one foal was returned from 778 animals sold and there was no stereotypy reported in 160 foals post the December Sale 2006. The findings suggest a low incidence of stereotypy during the 7-day post sale period and may be indicative of low incidence of stereotypy overall in Irish TB horses.

79

A preliminary investigation into the effectiveness of different halter types used on horses

Belinda J. McDonald, Amanda K. Warren-Smith

Faculty of Science, Charles Sturt University, Orange, NSW, Australia

The success of interactions between humans and horses is determined by the effectiveness of the communication from handler to horse. Many pieces of equipment are used to manually communicate with horses. One example is the halter, which may also be referred to as a headstall or head collar, of which there are two main types, the web halter and the rope halter. Anecdotally, there is debate as to which halter type is the most effective for both communicating to, and controlling horses. Given that halters are the main form of horse control in un- ridden activities, it is important to establish the effectiveness of each type when used for training purposes. In the current study, horses (n=10) were paired for breed, age and sex and one from each pair placed into Group 1 (web halter) and the other from each pair placed into Group 2 (rope halter). Each horse was led a 10 m distance on 5 consecutive occasions with a 30 s rest between each occasion. The behavioural responses (resist, anticipate, head up, slow to respond, look away) exhibited by each horse as well as the times taken for each horse to respond to the leading stimulus and to complete the 10 m distance were recorded and analysed using one-way ANOVA. The same handler was used for all leading. There was no difference between the groups for the time taken to lead forward, although there was a trend for the horses wearing the rope halter to complete the distance in less time than those wearing the web halter (P=0.079). There were insufficient behavioural responses exhibited for reliable analysis. While the results show that there was no difference between the two halter types, the low number of horses used in this trial may have confounded the results. Likewise, the use of experienced horses may not have allowed the effectiveness of each halter to be fully evaluated.

80

Keeping riding horses in groups – a descriptive study on the common procedure of separating a horse from the group for riding or training purposes

Grete Helen Meisfjord Jørgensen1, Kjersti Elisabeth Fremstad1, Cecilie Marie Mejdell2, Knut Egil Bøe1 1Department of Animal and Aquacultural Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, PO. Box 5003, N-1432 Ås, Norway. 2Department of Animal Health, National Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo, Norway

The aim of this experiment was to describe problems related to separating a horse from a group for riding or training purposes. Twenty different horse groups with a minimum of 5 horses in each group were studied on 14 farms in Norway. The horses (n =100) that were tested ranged in age from one to 26 years and represented mares (n = 47), geldings (n = 29) and stallions (n = 4). As a condition for participating in this study, all horses had to be used to haltering and leading. On every farm, information about the facilities, horses and handlers were recorded. In each group, the horse owner was asked to go into the group, approach his/her horse, halter it and lead it out (later referred to as a test). The procedure was video taped, and behaviour of the target horse as well as other horses towards the human was scored continuously using categories for approach and haltering the horse, leading the horse out through the gate and alertness when target horse was visually isolated from other horses. Mean values for the scored behaviours were discussed against facilities and management findings. Only one of the one hundred horses moved away from the handler when approached and was haltered at first attempt. In ten of the tests, other horses approached the handler in a non- threatening manner and this was the highest level of interference recorded. When socially isolated, 72 horses stayed stationary while 26 horses took a few steps and two horses tried to break free. Location of feed and water in relation to gate influenced how easy it was to lead the target horse towards and through the gate. In conclusion, separating a horse from a social group can be considered relatively easy and safe when handlers are attentive and management practices are suitable.

81

Effects of diet on learning and responsive behaviour of young foals

Becky C Hothersall1, Christine J Nicol1, Ailison Kelland2, Patricia A Harris3

1Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, North Somerset, BS40 5DU 2Hartpury College, Hartpury, Gloucestershire, GL19 3BE 3WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition, Melton Mowbray, Leicestershire, LE14 4R

Training, learning and exposure to novel stimuli present challenging situations to the young horse. Fearfulness or reactivity can result in difficult or even dangerous behaviour. Weanling horses fed a supplement rich in fibre and oils (FF), rather than a traditional cereal-based feed high in starch and sugar (SS), have shown reduced fearfulness and increased investigative behaviour in novel or stressful situations. This study investigated whether dietary effects were apparent in younger suckling foals fed small quantities of either a FF or SS diet, which was also fed to their dams through the last 3 months of gestation and lactation. Performance was assessed on a previously validated Novel Object test, and on a discrimination-learning task in a subset of foals. At 3 months of age (± 1 week), 17 foals (9FF, 8SS) were exposed to a slowly spinning striped golf umbrella on three consecutive weeks. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed that foals fed an FF diet spent more time walking towards the umbrella (F=10.876, df=1, p=0.006) and investigating the environment (F=4.882, df=1, p=0.046). SS foals spent longer looking at the object without investigating it (F=7.700, df=1, p=0.016.) FF foals had a significantly shorter average latency to approach the object within one metre (Mann-Whitney U test, z=-2.194, p=0.030). Only five foals, all FF, touched the object. At 4 months of age (± 1 week), there was no significant difference in the number of sessions FF (n=4) and SS (n=5) foals took to learn to find food in one of three buckets identifiable by both their pattern (plain, striped or chequered) and their position (left, middle or right). However, mean latency to approach and select a bucket was significantly shorter in FF foals (mean 17.90s) than SS foals (mean=41.42s; exact t-test, t=-3.666, p=0.021). The results of this study echoed previous findings in weanling horses.

82

Using a treadmill to normalize different physiological parameters in the Spanish Pure Bred Horse

María Dolores Rubio, Estrella I. Agüera, Rafael Santisteban, Pura Tovar, Rafael Vivo, Fernando Arroyo, Begoña M. Escribano

Faculty of Veterinary Science; University of Córdoba, Campus of Rabanales, 14071-Córdoba, Spain

Notable advances have been made in equine exercise physiology with the use of the treadmill. Depending on its inclination, this locomotion and exercise device controls exercise speed and intensity. It also helps to assess the aptitude of any horse trained in different sporting disciplines by accommodating its physiological characteristics to the type of test made. Much and highly varied research has been done in this field, but the normal values of different haematological and biochemical parameters have never been defined in Spanish Pure Bred horses when using a treadmill. This is the novelty of this study, together with the fact that it has been done on 94 male animals classified into two age groups (48 and 46, respectively), younger (1-3.5 years: Y) and older (4-12.5 years: O) than 4 years. After initially training the horses on the treadmill, we exposed the subjects to an increasing intensity exercise test, with speeds maintained for 2 minutes at 4, 5, 6 and 7 m/s (with a 3-min rest between speed changes) and with the treadmill at an inclination of 6%. We extracted blood samples while horses were at rest, immediately after each speed, and at 5, 10 and 20 minutes of a passive recovery. The parameters analysed in the blood included RBC, haematocrit, haemoglobin, WBC, and neutrophils and lymphocytes numbers. In plasma, lactate, uric acid, creatinine, AST, LDH, CK and total plasma proteins were determined. A factorial ANOVA indicated age differences in haematocrit, haemoglobin and neutrophils (all higher in O) and RBC, WBC, lymphocytes and LDH (all higher in Y). The exercise intensity triggered an increase in all parameters with the speed, except in plasma enzymes. This study determined (1) the normal values on a treadmill for haematological and biochemical parameters in Pure Bred Spanish horses; (2) that the horse age influenced the exercise intensity response and (3) that the exercise seemed to be more intensive in the Y horses.

83

Relationship between stifle-hock-fetlock angulation in free-jumping and jumping capacity of horses

Sándor Jónás1, István Komlósi2, János Posta2, Sándor Mihók2

1Dózsa Gy. Str. 2, H-8628 Nagycsepely, Hungary 2Institute for Animal Sciences, University of Debrecen, Böszörményi str, 138, H- 4032 Debrecen, Hungary

Detailed evaluations of correctly performed free-jumping self-performance tests in foals may be predictive of sporting performance among the horses in later life. With such evaluation, it may become possible to obtain information on participating horses at early ages that will help selection objectively. The aim of this study was to measure the stifle-hock-fetlock angulation – as one of the most important part of the push off phase during the jump – at airborne phases of the jump between the peak of the trajectory and landing of the two forelimbs. Movement analyses of twelve one-year-old foals of the same breed that were reared at the same location with repeating the tests at three-year-old were done. The foals worked individually in a corridor formed without a sidewall, where an oxer jump was situated without any small helping fences. The digital camera used for recording (29 photos/sec) was installed up to 12m from and in line with the first element of the oxer jump. We evaluated the photo images by using “Szelektor HDPG 02” software developed by the authors. The stifle-hock-fetlock angulation above the hurdle of the hind limbs pushing off depends on the intensity of the push off. There was only a tendency in stifle-hock-fetlock angulation at the moment of the landing of the forelimbs at the age of one, but differences were significant between good and weak jumpers at age of three. At the age of three, the changes in the angles of the more outstretched stifle-hock-fetlock during the time period between the peak of the trajectory and the landing of the forelimbs are smaller and the further closing of the closed stifle-hock-fetlock angle with weaker jumpers is more significant. The findings suggest that there is a correlation between the stifle-hock-fetlock angulation of the yearlings and the angulation properties when the horses are at the three-year-old stage.

84

Balance performance in showjumping versus dressage riders

Victoria Leisk, Jenni Johnson

Hartpury College, University of the West of England, Gloucester, UK

Riders require balance to position and change their centre of gravity (COG), so that horse and rider can move in biomechanical efficiency. Show jump riders display a larger degree of movement in order to change their COG effectively and remain in balance with the horse, in comparison to the dressage rider whose COG remains relatively stable. This can be further demonstrated by jump riders incurring a higher rate of acute injury due to rider falls from loss of balance and displacement. We hypothesised that show jump riders will have a greater kinesthetic awareness compared to dressage riders, which would present as a higher mean score in balance performance tests. The study population consisted of seven dressage riders (mean age 21.9 ± 3.1 years, height 169.2 ± 7.3 cm and weight 67 ± 9.9 kg ) competing at elementary, and seven show jump riders (mean age 20.1 ± 0.5 years, height 168.7 ± 11.3 cm and weight 72 ± 12.8 kg) competing at newcomers. Subjects completed standard uni-pedal static and dynamic balance tests on dominant and non-dominant limbs in a random order, timing to initial loss of balance in accordance with Emery et al. (2005). There were no significant differences found between balance performance and equestrian disciplines. The dressage riders consistently had a higher mean balance time across all four tests, as did the riders who regularly participate in balance training and other physical activity. This study documents the need for further research to improve understanding of rider balance, and thus reduce occurrence of falls. Trends for dressage riders to have higher mean balance scores is explained by the tests replicating the stable and undynamic nature of ridden position. Future research may direct towards supplementary exercise in riders, investigating dynamic balance exercise.

85

The effectiveness of equine assisted activities on positive and negative behaviours of children with learning disabilities

Olga J M Braat, Inga A Wolframm

University of Applied Science, Van Hall Larenstein (Wageningen UR), Postbus 4116700 AK Wageningen, NL

Equine Assisted Activities (EAAs) are small-scale group activities guided by professional trainers and designed to promote mental health through facilitating human-equine interactions. The present study aims to investigate the effect of EAAs on positive and negative social behaviours of children with learning disabilities. Ethical approval and written consent was obtained prior to recruiting 21 children (mean age 12.8 ± 0.63) with mild learning disabilities for the study. The first group, consisting of 7 subjects, participated in a predefined set of EAAs once a week, while the second group, consisting of 14 subjects participated in the same type of EAAs once every two weeks over a total period of 10 weeks. The EAAs were video-taped for data analysis. Social behaviours displayed during the first and last session of both groups were scored on a six-point likert scale using a scoring inventory based on the Animal Assisted Therapy-Psychosocial Session Form (AAT-PSF), identifying 9 positive and 10 negative behaviours. Data were examined for statistically significant differences between the first and last session using the Wilcoxon-Signed Rank Test. Results show statistically significant increases in the positive behaviours of active listening (p≤0.05), cooperation (p<0.05), looking at (p≤0.01), attention to task (p≤0.01), initiating contact (p<0.01), leadership (p<0.01), participation (p≤0.001), and positive interaction with peers (p<0.01) and professional trainer (p≤0.001). Statistically significant decreases were found in four of the negative behaviours, including withdrawn (p<0.05), submissive (p<0.05), overly fearful (p≤0.01) and passive (p≤0.01). The findings suggest that EAAs support the development of positive interactive behaviours and reduce the display of negative behaviours in children with mild learning disabilities and could be used to aid in their continuing social education.

86

Can standardised behaviour tests predict suitability for use in horses?

Rachel Flentje, Emma Creighton

Anthrozoology Unit, Chester Centre for Stress Research, University of Chester, UK

Standardised behaviour tests have the potential to improve equine welfare by enabling the selection of horses suitable for a particular role. There is a range of tests in the scientific literature that makes such claims. However, with notable exceptions, authors have failed to establish the reliability of their tests or the validity of their claims. This study aimed to determine a set of reliable behaviour tests based on those reported in literature; and to test the validity of these as predictors of horses’ suitability as riding school or police horses. Reliability of response to novel object, social isolation and handling tests was established by tests repeated at three-week intervals on 33 horses. The majority of the tests were at best moderately reliable (Weighted Kappa >0.41) with only reactivity showing good or better reliability (Weighted Kappa >0.6-0.8). These tests were included in the validity testing, which compared the horses’ responses to the behavioural tests with the handlers’ ratings of key aspects of riding school and police performance. These subjective scales of suitability were developed from interviews with instructors and yard managers. Bonferroni corrected correlations between the horses’ behavioural responses to the tests and subjective ratings of their suitability for their use revealed no significant associations. These findings suggest that standardised behavioural tests are not strongly reliable and that either the tests used in this study did not serve as predictors of suitability for use, or that behavioural responses to standardised tests cannot be generalised to the wider challenges faced by these horses in their roles. Either way, the findings of this study cannot support claims made for these (or similar) tests to be valid predictors of a horse’s suitability for use.

87

Goal-related educational staircase in show jumping

Morgan, K., Pettersson, A-C., Berggren, E., Zetterqvist Blokhuis, M.

The Swedish National Equestrian Centre, S-734 94 Strömsholm, Sweden

The aim of the study was to develop an improved system for education in show jumping. This educational staircase included four steps: 1) rider’s seat and balance, 2) rider’s control and effectiveness of the aids, 3) rhythm and approach to the fence, 4) jumping a course. The study was divided into three consecutive steps. First, the exercises were evaluated with a test group as compared to control with regular education. Second, the system was implemented two years within the high-school programme. The teacher judged the achievements of every student before and after each step. A two-way ANOVA for repeated measurements, and where appropriate followed by a post-hoc test (Mann-Whitney Sum Rank Test or Holm-Sidak), were used for statistical analyses. Third, an enquiry to riding instructors and trainers was compiled to evaluate their opinion. The clearly separate steps with their clear goals and well-defined exercises were very much appreciated. The educational staircase increased the student’s comprehension and provided the teacher and student with a common basis for analysing. Comprehension increased faster than the skill. The step ’rider’s seat and balance’ was significantly (p<0.05) improved for both the years and ‘rider’s control and effectiveness of the aids’ during one year. The riding instructors and trainers thought that the system increased riders’ motivation and security and that the examination could be fairer. The results showed that the system increased the rider’s self-awareness. The results could not confirm that the examination would be regarded more objective, and this requires further study. In conclusion, practice improves skills and a clear and stated system as this educational staircase in show jumping improves the rider’s comprehension, security and self-confidence. We believe the educational staircase can improve education in show jumping, improve the horse rider interaction and contribute to the wellbeing of both horse and rider.

88

Relationship between rider’s aerobic fitness and heart rate during a show jumping course

Rachel S McCarthy, Jenni Johnson

Hartpury College, University of the West of England, Hartpury House, Gloucester, GL19 3BE

It is well recognised that heart rate has a relationship with aerobic fitness, at present there is minimal literature surrounding rider fitness and its effects on performance. The ability to have a higher aerobic capacity may be demonstrated by a lower heart rate throughout exercise, ultimately prolonging time to fatigue. Therefore the aim of this study is to discover if there is a relationship between riders’ aerobic fitness and heart rate while show jumping. Study population consisted of 9 participants (8 females, 1 male) who regularly competed at newcomers (110cm fences). Each subject completed the Bruce protocol (maximal treadmill, symptom-limited cardiopulmonary exercise test) to determine aerobic fitness times to fatigue were recorded (s). Subjects were fitted with a Polar S610i which recorded heart rate over a pre planned show jumping course at a fence height of 1meter. Each subjects mean, range and peak heart rates were calculated. Pearson’s correlation was used to demonstrate any significant relationships. A significant negative relationship was demonstrated between fitness test time and range of heart rate (p=0.05 r= -0.739). Significant differences were not found between peak and mean heart rates. Interestingly relationships indicated that participants with shorter time to fatigue had higher/larger ranges in heart rate, the increase in heart rate could be due to effects such as energy expenditure or anxiety. Increased aerobic fitness may delay fatigue onset in riders, and may therefore reduce risk of injury via enhancing physical and mental ability. This research is preliminary to encourage riders to understand how their aerobic fitness levels may improve performance, increase safety and subsequently increase welfare of the horse.

89

Behavioural reactions of horses ridden by beginner riders

Michela Minero, Serena De Moliner, Elisabetta Canali

Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Milan, Via Celoria 10, Milano

During basic equitation lessons, the chance that riders without adequate position and balance give inconsistent signals to horses is high. As a consequence, horses may show conflict behaviours (e.g. bucking) and develop behaviour problems. We investigated the behaviour of horses in relation to incorrect/inconsistent signals given by riders. We examined six adult ponies (4 geldings, 2 females) and two gelding horses, owned by two different riding centres, during 10 equitation lessons for each of eighteen riders. The riders were absolute beginners aged 6–8 years. Direct observations of horses and riders were done using a continuous recording method for the whole lessons. Reactions of horses were evaluated in relation to riders’ signals and during specific exercises. Proportional frequencies of behaviours were calculated and chi-square testing was used to verify if conflict behaviours shown by horses varied in relation to riders’ actions. Excessive pressure on reins (25,2%) and lost rein contact with the horse’s mouth (37,4%) were the incorrect signals most frequently recorded in riders. The most frequent reaction to excessive pressure on reins was evading the bit (38,7% of times; P<0,001) while losing contact often resulted in making corners smaller (45,7% of times; P<0,001). Horses also refused to trot frequently (12%) or increased speed (10,6%). Among exercises, coordination exercises performed by riders standing at walk were associated with different conflict behaviour in horses (e.g. head tossing). Beginner riders in this study probably did not have sufficient balance to perform all of the required exercises and sometimes gave incorrect signals that elicited the avoidance or conflict behaviour of horses. We hypothesize that similar conditions would be observed in most riding centres that cater to novice riders. Intervention strategies should be developed to enhance the welfare of lesson horses in these centres.

90

Equestrian Coaching: An action research approach to equitation teaching and learning

Lisa Beard

Rodbaston College, Staffordshire, United Kingdom

A key component to equine training, performance and welfare is the coach. In 2005, the author conducted action research to explore the complexities and challenges equestrian coaches face. The ability to facilitate humane, clear and progressive learning of the horse and rider was identified as the most complex and difficult challenge. In an attempt to address this challenge, a continual professional development (CPD) programme was designed to provide knowledge and support of scientific horse training principles and the application of equitation science. In September 2007 a CPD programme for coaches in an educational setting commenced. The demand for the programme was low. Three coaches participated, whilst one coach left equestrianism and the institute after 3 months. A three-hour initial training session delivered scientific horse training principles and its application. Due to the participant’s work commitments and time constraints, formal weekly sessions were viewed restrictive, with participants favouring informal discussions, on an informal basis. A total of 43 separate discussions over a 6 month period were coded. Four themes were identified including (a) equitation science provides evidence of what is innately known, (b) the application of equitation science enables the rider to obtain a response in a shorter timeline than previously achieved, (c) coaches perceived knowledge and the ability to communicate how horses learn and correlation to riders speed of progression and (d) the self-efficacy of a coach elevated, and attributed by coaches to acquired knowledge and understanding of scientific training principles. A written evaluation concluded participants strongly agreed knowledge of equitation science valuable and essential to facilitating humane, clear and progressive learning in the coaching context. The design and implementation of a coaching development programme offering equitation science is strongly recommended, whilst further research into the motivation of an equestrian coach to develop self and engage in CPD is required.

91

Preferences of riders for selected dimensions of horses’ traits – preliminary results

Aleksandra Górecka1, Michał H Chruszczewski2, Zbigniew Jaworski3, Małgorzata Golonka4, Magdalena Pieszka5, Bogusława Długosz5, Marta Walczak1

1Institute of Genetics and Animal Breeding, Polish Academy of Sciences, 05-552 Wólka Kosowska, Poland 2Faculty of Psychology, Warsaw University, Stawki 5/7, 00-183 Warsaw, Poland 3Faculty of Animal Bioengineering, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 5, 10-719 Olsztyn 4Faculty of Animal Sciences, Warsaw Agricultural University, Ciszewskiego 8, 02- 786 Warsaw, Poland 5Faculty of Animal Sciences, Agricultural University of Kraków, al. Mickiewicza 24/28 30-059 Kraków

The aim of the study was to investigate preferences of student riders for a priori established dimensions of horses’ traits: training level (TL), behaviour during riding and handling (B), physical make-up (PM) and maintenance (M). Participants were asked to place TL, B, PM and M on scale of importance (from 0 to 3). Distribution of dimensions, qualified as the most important to 82 students from 3 agricultural universities, was analysed. In total, B was selected by 41% of participants as the most important group of traits, followed by PM (29%), TL (20%) and M (10%). The majority of riders were females (76.1%) and their first choice was B (45.3%). The males preferred dimension was PM (36.8%). PM was also selected as the most important trait by 77.8% of owners of 1 horse, TL by 38.5% of owners of more than 1 horse and B by 46.7% of non-owners. B was placed first by more than 45% of people riding once or less than once a week, as well as 60% of dressage competitors, 60% of participants of both dressage and show-jumping competitions and 64% of non-competitors. In turn, PM was crucial to 40% of people riding more than once a week, to 41.7% of advanced riders and to 64% of show-jumping competitors. B was the most important to less experienced riders (45.5, 45.0 and 43.0% of beginners, basic and medium experienced riders, respectively). Our preliminary conclusion here suggest that more men, experienced riders, and show-jumping competitors assess physical make-up of a horse as the most important, and women, less experienced riders and dressage competitors are more focused on how horse behaves. The horse’s level of training and its maintenance were less important to the studied population. This study is part of a larger project.

92

Consequences of fluctuations in density and group composition on social behaviour of group housed horses

Marc Pierard

Geelstraat 30, B-3800 Sint-Truiden, Belgium

This was a preliminary study to observe what happens in group-housed horses with regular changes in group composition or available area. A common objection to group housing at riding stables is the fact that group composition changes all the time and that this would lead to significantly increased aggression. This study aims to look at what happens in reality at a stud farm/training stable with group housing, observing the horses from February until the end of April 2008. The starting group of horses consisted of 8 Coloured horses (Tinkers), 3 Arabians and 1 Warmblood. There were short-term changes in group composition, e.g. for training sessions, and long term changes, e.g. horses being sold or housed elsewhere. Density also varied because of changes in accessible surface. Three of the Tinker mares were pregnant and 2 foals were born during the observation period. Data were gathered by scan sampling every 15 min for the position of every group member and continuous all occurrence sampling of 13 different affiliative and agonistic behaviour categories. Behavioural data were recorded on a voice recorder by one observer. Clear patterns in social relations were observed at 2 crates with hay, which changed with a lower stocking density. The frequencies of interactions were compared under different circumstances. The introduction of 2 young foals made it possible to compare the responses of other group members to them and the behaviour of the mothers, which happened to be the highest ranking and the lowest ranking horses in the group. The multitude of circumstances and events over the entire period also allowed to gather some non- quantitative data on behaviour and the link to housing regime. The overall conclusion after this study is that group housing is possible for groups of horses with regular changes in group composition.

93

Information wanted: where do horse owners seek advice about issues affecting their horses?

Jo Hockenhull, Emma Creighton

Anthrozoology Unit, Chester Centre for Stress Research, University of Chester, UK

Equine welfare charities have identified the education of (primarily novice) horse owners as the principal route to tackling the majority of equine welfare problems in the UK. To reach and educate owners effectively we must understand where they seek advice about issues that arise when owning or caring for a horse. Questions regarding information seeking behaviour were included in an internet survey completed by a convenience sample of 1424 leisure horse owners, recruited online and via electronic and postal mail shots to equestrian clubs and establishments. The questions asked where owners sought advice about four different subject areas: horse behaviour, health, stable care and training. Participants were asked to select their main sources of information from a list of seven – books/magazines, vet/farrier, instructor, internet/forums, friends/family, tack shops and other. While books/magazines were the most frequently used information source across all four subject areas overall, there were differences between the most commonly selected sources (χ2=992, P<0.001) and combinations of sources (χ2=2110, P<0.001) between the four subject areas, and between the number of sources consulted (χ2=254, P<0.001). Vet/farriers were the source consulted most frequently for health advice (Z=-13.32, P<0.001), instructors for training advice (Z=-3.93, P<0.001) and books/magazines for advice regarding both behaviour (Z=-9.49, P<0.001) and stable care (Z=-8.26, P<0.001). Despite the survey mode and that many participants were recruited online, internet/forums were only the 3rd to the 5th most used of the seven information sources, depending on subject area. Although internet technology is becoming ever more accessible and represents the primary source of information for some members of the population, the horse industry does not appear to have reached high acceptance yet. This has important implications for those trying to reach the horse-owning population to disseminate research findings and ultimately improve the welfare of their horses.

94

The influence of filler pole layout on jumping technique of horses

Albert Bracun, Carol A Hall, Andrea D Ellis

School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Nottinghamshire, NG25 0QF

Previous research and training of horses has focused on developing accurate biomechanical skills to jump fences. However, horses rely on visual perception of layout and height when approaching the fence. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of fence design on the jumping technique of un-ridden horses. Twelve horses in show-jumping training (6 mares and 6 geldings) were loose jumped over vertical fences with blocked, randomly assigned filler pole positions (cross, ascending diagonal, descending diagonal and vertical position). To compensate for horse experience and training level the maximum comfortable (MaxC) jumping height was determined (horses were loose jumped at increasing heights until 2 consecutive knock downs). Fence height was individually adjusted to 66% (two thirds) of MaxC for each horse, following advice from professional trainers. Video measurements of positioning were taken from the anterior plane at the end of the jumping lane. In total, 144 jumping efforts were recorded (36 per type of fence). There was no effect of fence on canter lead in at take off, on lateral deviation of the horse from the centre of the fence or on landing leg. Over all fences 68% of horses preferred to jump to the right of the centre (p<0.001). Canter lead into the fence was evenly distributed but there was a preference for left canter lead out of the fence (70%, p<0.001). There was no effect of gender on results. When analysing for combinations of canter lead in, landing leg and canter lead out, all possible combinations were observed (for example: same, same, opposite, etc.). This highlights the horses’ ability to change leg leads during the bascule phase but also, contrary to previous reports, during the landing phase. In conclusion, there was no influence of filler pole layout on horses’ jumping technique when loose jumping.

95

The effects of gender on learning ability in the horse

E.L. Blundell, A.J. Northrop, J.H. Martin

Myerscough College, Preston, Lancashire, UK. PR3 0RY

The aim of the study was to determine effects of equine gender on learning ability, applied to a specific task. Individual learning ability can affect training, and is dependent on age, gender and personality. Equine males are more able to keep track of changes throughout the environment than females (males have superior visuo-spatial awareness). Equine males have also shown superior learning abilities in the execution of Gardner’s (1937) black box task. The study used six mares and five geldings. Horses were habituated to the experimental area over four days. Horses were then taught to touch a yellow target. A successful touch was rewarded with food, delivered via a tube, by an outside observer. Once horses were able to do this without a handler, a green target was introduced. Horses were tested ten times a day for three days and were only rewarded for touching the yellow target. The green target was then replaced with a red target and the procedure repeated. The final trial involved red, green and blue versus yellow targets. After three months, horses were re-tested using the same colour combinations. Geldings exhibited higher success rates than mares (P<0.05) in both assessments, determined using Chi-Squared (Figure 1.0). There was no significant effect of colour combination on success (P>0.05), determined using ANOVA. There was a strong significant effect of individual horse (P<0.0001), determined using ANOVA. There was a smaller difference between success rates of mares than geldings after three months. This suggests geldings interpreted the task more quickly, but mares retained the memory of the task, implying that mentally, mares could break from training for longer. Overall, the study indicates training regimes should be tailored for individual needs to maintain horses at desired levels. Extension of the sample size would provide further insight into these preliminary findings.

96

Weight of the reins technique is most appropriate for both horse and rider in equitation

Nelly Valère1, Francis Desbrosse2

1Belle-Ile 61120 Canapville, France 2Clinique Desbrosse 78470 St Lambert des Bois, France

The achievement of lightness during equitation, (a matter of survival at war in the past) has become a challenge for Dressage competitors as well as for all riding horse-lovers. The objective of this study is to demonstrate that there exists a specific technique for achieving the required lightness (also called “riding via the weight of the reins”). Indeed this technique was originally described by the Great Masters of the Past, and this approach is still in use in some places around the world. This technique involves specific features associated with the anatomical characteristics of the horse’s head during equitation – essentially the opening of the temporo-madibular joint. In the first instance, using the curb bit presses on the bars of the mandibular surface and this action reflects the ‘effect of the firm hand’ as outlined by La Guérinière. The ‘effect of the firm hand’ subsequently induces the opening of the articulation of the tempora-mandibular joint or cession de mâchoire as described by Baucher. Thereafter the result is the lightening of the contact between the rider's hand and the horse's mouth that facilitates ‘easier locomotion’, which is the desired outcome within equitation. For maximum effect and benefit in terms of rider prowess, equine biomechanics and horse welfare, equestrianism should always work on the principle of employing the ‘least amount of pressure’ to achieve the desired outcomes and responses. Revisiting the ancient treatises (Xenophon, La Guérinière, Baucher and successors) demonstrates that these writings are the fruits of experience and they give salient clues for pleasurable and efficient riding using this least pressure approach. Scientific research is required to validate the equine biomechanics referred to in the ancient treatises and achieved by some of our contemporaries so that all equestrian culture can be studied (and taught) as an experimental science.

97

Changing attitudes towards horses’ defensive aggression body language communication

Anneliese Durant, Emma Creighton

Anthrozoology Unit, Chester Centre for Stress Research, University of Chester, UK

Horses (Equus caballus) are often punished for what is interpreted as wilful bad behaviour when it is actually the horse communicating discomfort or annoyance. This is particularly evident in young riders who have yet to develop an understanding of horse ethology or a good ability to empathise. Damaging lifelong attitudes can be formed at an early age and it is important to educate young riders to understand the motivation behind their mount’s behaviour. A science communication project was designed that aimed to educate young riders and develop in them a constructive attitude towards horses showing defensive aggression behaviour. The programme included a basic introduction to horse ethology, and video clips of horses objecting to common husbandry tasks, with accompanying ethological explanations as to why the horse was behaving in the way observed. Thirty-two riders aged 9-16 years took part at riding schools in Cheshire, UK and Co. Meath, Ireland. An attitude survey was developed to test the degree of blame attributed to the horse, the horse-handler interaction or a neutral cause, in the participants’ interpretation of short test clips shown before and after the science communication presentation. These showed a shift in attitude 2 (χ 5=34.6, P<0.001) from blaming the horse to blaming the human-horse interaction for the defensive aggression shown by horses, and suggested that the riders had shifted to looking for a constructive explanation for the horse’s behaviour. Such changes in attitude have been shown to cause positive changes in behaviour towards animals, and it may be concluded that this programme has the potential to improve the emotional welfare of riding horses by reducing riders’ tendencies to blame, and so punish horses’ attempts to communicate their discomfort. The programme will be made available to riding schools throughout the UK and Ireland as a web-based learning resource.

98

Communicating research findings on behavioural enrichment of stables

Helen Messer, Emma Creighton

Anthrozoology Unit, Chester Centre for Stress Research, University of Chester, UK

Stabled horses suffer restriction in their foraging, social and movement behaviour that may have adverse effects on their welfare and contribute to the development of oral and movement stereotypies. Stable enrichment devices and techniques have been developed to alleviate some of these behavioural restrictions and research evidence exists to support their effectiveness. A website was designed to translate the findings of this research into readily accessible information for owners seeking advice on enriching their stabled horse’s environment. The site was designed to present concise information on crib-biting, weaving and box walking; and the use and effectiveness of The Equiball, stable mirrors and increasing visual horizons as stable enrichment devices and techniques. In line with current research on web-based learning resources, information for each device/technique was organised into hierarchies of increasing complexity ranging from a basic description, to detail of its use, and research evidence supporting its effectiveness. The effectiveness of the website was assessed by questionnaire comparing prior knowledge and learned knowledge from viewing the website in foundation-level university students studying animal management (N=28). There was an increase in descriptive (Wilcoxon: W28=2.83, P=0.002) and functional knowledge of the devices/techniques (Wilcoxon: W28=2.48, P=0.006); but there was no improvement in knowledge of the associated research, with the majority of respondents choosing not to investigate these deeper levels of the site. There was a greater increase in knowledge of The Equiball and stable mirrors than for increasing visual horizons. Qualitative feedback indicated that the structure and content of the website was a good educational resource for horse owners. This evaluation supports the effectiveness of the website as a resource for horse owners seeking information on stable enrichment – even if they do not access the research- related information, and it will be made available to owners as a web-based resource.

99

Investigating training surfaces as a risk factor for injury in UK dressage horses

Hannah Snart1, Tim Parkin2, Rachel Murray3

1School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD 2University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ 3Centre for Equine Studies, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, CB8 7UU

Equestrian sport is in a growth phase and dressage is a sport rapidly gaining popularity in the UK. The athletic demands placed on horses during both training and competition is considerable. Training-associated injuries are one of the primary reasons that prevent horses from training and competing at both Elite and Non-elite levels of dressage competition. Dressage training and competition regularly takes place on various different artificial surface types including sand, sand and rubber composites and other synthetic materials. However, it is yet unknown how any of these surfaces could affect the risk of injury in dressage horses. We hypothesised that the type of surface would influence the types of injuries sustained by dressage horses. We distributed a Questionnaire survey to British Dressage members (n = 11,838) and we received 2554 completed returns (21.6%). We analysed the response data with descriptive, univariate and multivariate analyses to generate frequency data and to test for associations between surface types and injury. The results showed that the foot, suspensory ligament and tarsus were the most frequently injured anatomical structures in the dressage horse. The most frequently used surface was a sand and rubber composite (55%) followed by sand-only surfaces (16%). Working the horse in sand-only arenas increased the likelihood of the horse experiencing an injury by 1.32 times (p<0.001). However, for every time per week a horse trained in the sand-only arena, the likelihood of lameness decreased by 0.9 times (p<0.005). Boggy surfaces and surfaces that became deeper in wet weather increased the risk of injury 1.44 times and 1.48 times respectively (p<0.01). Our findings would suggest that horses might undergo adaptive tissue responses to particular surface types, although further research extending from this study is required. These results have generated important data, which have practical application relating to performance horse training and welfare.

100

The role of alternative forages in satisfying both physiological and psychological demands of domesticated equidae

Catherine E Hale1, Andrew J Hemmings2 1Centre for Equine and Animal Science, Writtle College, Chelsmford, Essex, CM1 3RR 2Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, Gloucestershire, GL7 6JS, UK

Increased energy demands (placed upon domesticated equidae by man) dictate that high-energy, cereal-based diets replace traditional forage-based diets of hay. These high-energy diets limit innate grazing behaviours of horses, which may consequently be at greater risk of developing oral strereotypies. High cereal diets are also concomitant with high starch intakes – linked to metabolic disorders, such as laminitis. High starch diets may compromise the welfare of the horse through reduced intake times and the possible deleterious effects of excess starch. This study aims to identify forages of high nutritive value, which can provide high- energy intakes, but minimise the risk of abhorrent behaviours through the supposed reduction of the glycaemic response, alongside satisfying the horse’s innate desire to graze. Two 3 x 3 latin square digestibility trials where hay (H), big bale grass silage (GS) and big bale red clover silage (RCS) were fed ad libitum and in vivo apparent digestibility of energy (DE), fresh weight intake (FWI) and dry matter intake (DMI) was determined for each diet by total collection. Results revealed that FWI for RCS were significantly higher (mean FWI values [kg/d] H, 6.40; GS, 15.96; RCS, 26.24; s.e.d. 1.46; p<0.001) than all other forages. DMI was highest for RCS (mean DMI values [kg/d] H, 5.5; GS, 6.13; RCS, 7.2; s.e.d. 0.44; p<0.05) although this figure was not significantly different from GS, and both RCS and GS showed significantly higher DE values than H (mean DE values [MJ/kg/d] H, 6.023; GS, 14.567; RCS, 14.263; s.e.d. 0.40; p<0.05). The high DE values for both RCS and GS indicate that these forages could meet the energy demands for horses in hard work, when fed at NRC recommended levels. These findings suggest that RCS and GS are appropriate in place of conventional cereal- based feeds and provide a more natural alternative to energy provision.

101

The effects of prior handling experiences on the stress responses of semi-feral foals presented at auction

C.E. Hale1, G. Laycock1, A. J. Hemmings2

1Writtle College, Writtle, Chelmsford, Essesx, CM1 3RR 2The Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, Gloucestershire, GL76JS

Welfare refers to the state of an individual to cope with its environment and environmental stimuli typically cause ‘stress response’. Stress can be measured by alterations in behaviour and through changes in physiological parameters. Aversive handling and the consequent fear that animals feel towards humans can be a major source of stress. Research into aversive handling has a propensity to focus on intensively farmed production animals, such as pigs and cows. Management of pony stock (particularly unhandled foals) through Auction House sale rings is often less than optimal. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of prior handling experience on the stress response of semi-feral foals at auction. The subjects included New Forest (NF) ponies (n = 74) between the ages of 4 months and 2 years at regular pony auction sales. The ponies were blocked for age and handling status where animals not broken to halter and therefore herded through the ring were classified as unhandled. Ponies initially led into the ring, and then turned loose were classified as handled. Ponies were videoed whilst in the ring, and an ethogram study conducted to establish stress levels through analysis of behavioural parameters. Unhandled ponies spent significantly more time (P<0.001) performing avoidance and jump behaviour, and ears back (P<0.01) than handled ponies. Conversely, handled ponies spent significantly more time standing and walking, possibly indicating a reduced fear response due to prior conditioning. Investigative behaviour was significantly higher in unhandled foals; common in horses responding to novel stimuli and often performed at higher frequencies in unhandled horses in novel object tests. The results show that ears back occurred significantly more with the unhandled ponies (P<0.01). The findings indicate that prior handling of foals significantly reduces the occurrence of behavioural parameters specifically linked to a heightened stress response.

102

Fulfilling the educational aims of the International Society for Equitation Science (ISES)

Hayley Randle, Lorna Button

Duchy College, Stoke Climsland, Callington, Cornwall, UK, PL17 8PB

Two of the aims of the ISES are to (1) encourage and support basic and applied research into the training and welfare of horses used by humans and (2) encourage and support the teaching of equitation science in research and academic institutions, especially veterinary schools, departments of animal science and animal production, agricultural colleges and departments concerned with laboratory or companion animals or captive animals. This abstract summarises academic delivery to FdSc and final year BSc Equine/Equitation Science degree students in the UK. ‘Equine Behaviour and Training’ focuses on the application of the principles of learning theory and behavioural psychology to both training and behaviour problem-solving, considering a range of horses and taking into account characteristics of both the equine and associated humans. The ‘Equitation Science’ module presents the students the opportunity to conduct simple experiments in order to appraise and evaluate the importance of the comprehension and application of scientific principles to the horse within equitation disciplines, and reflects contemporary issues under the examination of ISES. During the 2007/2008 academic year a simply constructed ‘rein-o-meter’ tested on 15 students revealed a significant difference between perceived ‘contact strength’ (F2,264=73.0; P<0.001) with significant differences between ‘light’ (0.16lb), ‘medium’ (0.73lb) and ‘strong’ (2.49lb) contact but no difference in handedness (F1,264=3.56; P>0.05). Another study of 17 blindfolded students standing on two sets of bathroom scales 2 showed that there was a clear tendency towards right sidedness (χ 1=9.99; P<0.01). When informed, 70% of participants overcompensated in the opposite direction. Finally a study using Dartfish movement analysis software demonstrated that the stride length of horses did not differ significantly when ridden or not (t4=1.70; P>0.05). The relative ease of generating objective equitation-related data using cheaply constructed equipment and readily available software within an educational establishment is demonstrated, helping to fulfil the ISES aims.

103

Association of facial hair whorl direction and motor laterality during grazing in the domestic horse (Equus caballus)

Hayley Randle1, Liz Francis2, Paul McGreevy3

1Duchy College, Stoke Climsland, Callington, Cornwall, PL17 8PB, UK 2Plymouth University, Drakes Circus, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK 3Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, NSW, 2800

The aim of this study was to explore the possible relationship between motor laterality in the grazing horse and facial hair whorl direction. Facial hair whorl direction is a structural marker of functional brain lateralisation in humans and so may represent a visual indicator of leg preference. Potentially, this could enable trainers to assist in the selection foals for specific competitive sports. Forty-two horses of three different racing breeds; Thoroughbreds, Quarter horses and Standardbred horses were observed in pairs in paddocks to derive a behavioural scoring of the relative position of their forelegs while standing. A minimum of 50 observations were made one minute apart. Laterality index (LI) of motor preference was calculated as (L-R)/(L+R)x100, where L was the number of times a horse was observed standing with left foreleg advanced and R the number of times observed standing with right foreleg advanced. Significance of individual preferences were determined using z scores ≥±1.96 (P<0.05). The direction of the forehead hair whorl was scored as either clockwise (CW) or anti-clockwise (AC). Results showed that the frequency of left and right forelimb preference is the same in horses with either an AC (Left = 16; Right = 5) or C (Left = 16; Right= 5) facial hair whorl orientation (df = 1, P<0.05, chi-squared = 0). The mean laterality index was -17.3, mean LI for AC horses was -7.62 compared to a mean LI for CW horses of -27.1, indicating that although there was a population bias with both AC and CW horses preferring to graze with the left foreleg in advance, there is a stronger expression of left forelimb bias in CW horses. These findings suggest that there is no relationship between the two variables and implies that grazing asymmetries may be skeletal rather than neurological in origin.

104

Factors affecting prices of Thoroughbred (TB) foals in the Irish market

Julia Luehr, Sean Arkins

Department of Life Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

Ireland is now the third largest producer of thoroughbreds in the world. As significant amounts of money are involved in buying and selling thoroughbreds, the provision of quantitative evidence about price determinants of thoroughbreds is of interest to breeding and sales sectors within the industry. This study sought to determine factors affecting thoroughbred foal price based on a regression model allowing for prediction of thoroughbred foal price. A sample size of 2660 foals was chosen. Data were collected from the Goffs November Foal Sales in the years 2004, 2005 and 2006. From literature, 28 independent variables were selected and compared with price using linear modelling in SPSS. The final model was able to account for 45.5% in variability of foal price over the examined time period 2 (r adj=0.455; p<0.001). ‘Stallion fee during year of sale’ was identified as best predictor of foal price accounting for 30% in the variability of price 2 (r change=0.301). The variables ‘percentage of black type progeny produced by the dam’, ‘gender’ and ‘first crop (sire)’ accounted for an additional increase in 2 2 predictability of 4.3%, 3.5% and 2.3% respectively (r change=0.043; r change=0.035; 2 r change=0.023). Overall, variables representing sire quality, dam and dam progeny racing performance, as well as grand dam and grand dam progeny racing performance were found to be statistically significant (p<0.05). Sales prices could be predicted within a range of ± €5,000 50% of the time when testing the final model on the sample population. This study indicates buyers valued sire quality among other previously mentioned variables as important and these variables should be considered when making breeding decisions and purchasing young stock. This study can serve as a basis for further research in areas such as the relation of performance to sales prices and hence could provide a further understanding of equine performance and factors affecting it.

105

Analysis of peri-parturient and postnatal behaviours in TB mares and foals on Irish Farms

Soraya Morscher, Sean Arkins

Department of Life Science, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

Parturition in the mare is a rapid event in three stages, where each stage can be an indication of health and wellbeing of mare and foal. It is essential to be able to assess potential abnormalities in any of the stages of parturition. Additionally, the neonate displays essential behaviour patterns after birth in the extra uterine environment that may have an effect on its further development. This study set out to analyze and clarify some aspects of equine parturition and potential factors affecting these. Data on a sample set of 1,297 parturitions were obtained from foaling reports of a large Irish stud farm (1993-2006) and chi-square tests, t-tests and ANOVA were carried out using SPSS. For 1,294 parturitions the mean gestation length was 340.37±0.27 days. Gestation length was significantly affected by season/photoperiod, foal sex, foal weight (p<0.001) and mare parity (p<0.05). The majority (83%) of parturitions took place between 19:00 and 7:00 hours. The mean duration of second stage labour was 17.51±0.30 minutes. The mean interval from birth of the foal to standing successfully was 47.98±0.55 minutes and the mean duration from birth to the foal nursing was 92.45±0.88 minutes. Additionally the birth to standing interval was significantly affected by sex, parity and foaling difficulty (p<0.05) and the duration to nursing was significantly affected by both parity and sex (p<0.05). The incidence of dystocia in 1,297 mares was 17.1%. Premature placental separation occurred in 6.3% of all years combined and 12.9% in 2006. The incidences of premature placental separation significantly increased with an increase in mare age and parity (p<0.001). The study provides important baseline data on peri-parturient events and neonatal behaviours in the thoroughbred mare and foal in the light of current management practices. Therefore giving foaling personnel a guideline to identify potential welfare issues arising from abnormal situations.

106

A comparison of coarse and pelleted compound feed for horses

B. Younge, G. O’Neill, S. Arkins

Department of Life Sciences, Equine Science, University of Limerick

The objectives of this study were to compare the ingestive behaviour and intake rate of pelleted and coarse feed. Six riding school horses were offered equal amounts of energy, in the form of coarse and pelleted feed. During a 10-day adaptation period, feed type offered alternated between morning (8:00, AM) and evening feeds (17:00, PM). Both feed types were offered an equal number of times on either the right or left hand side of the stable. During the measurement period (5-days) both feed types were offered together at both AM and PM feeds. Behaviour was measured pre-feeding (15 mins), during feeding and post feeding (20 mins). Subsequently the horses were subjected to a 6-day adaptation period and 3-day measurement period. During both periods the horses were presented pelleted or coarse feed, alternating between AM and PM feeds. During the measurement period total amount offered, intake at five-minute intervals and refusals were recorded. Student t-tests were used to compare the differences between the treatments. In the AM feed the number of first preferences for coarse feed was significantly higher than pelleted feed (P<0.05). During feeding the horses lifted their heads out of the pelleted feed more frequently (28 ± 12.2) than from the coarse feed (23 ±10.6), (P<0.007). Horses spent a greater length of time consuming pelleted feed at both feeding times (AM: 13.1± 6.8 vs. 8.6 ± 1.5 mins and PM: 12.3± 4.6 vs. 10.4±2.6 mins, P>0.05). At all measurement times intake of coarse feed was higher than the intake of pellets (AM: 92% vs. 82% at 15 mins (P>0.05), PM: 92% vs.79% at 15 mins (P<0.06). This study indicates that when horses are offered a choice they will show a preference for coarse feed over pelleted feed. In addition, horses tend to consume more coarse feed per unit time than pelleted feed.

107

Detection of emotionality in horses during physical activity

F Jansen1, J Van der Krogt1, K Van Loon1, V Avezzù2, M Guarino2, S Quanten1, D Berckmans1

1Division Monitor, Model & Manage Bioresponses (M3-BIORES), K.U. Leuven, Belgium 2Department of Veterinary and Technological Sciences for Food Safety, University of Milano, Italy

In equine sports, the horse’s performance depends on both its physical abilities as well as its emotional status. The objective of this research was to measure in a continuous and non-invasive way emotionality, specifically fear, in horses during training activity. In the experiment carried out, a horse walked for 5 minutes, then trotted for 10 minutes and finally walked again for 5 minutes. After 5 minutes of trotting stress was applied to the horse by suddenly opening an umbrella, as used by other authors. The experiment was repeated 37 times using two different horses. During the experiment the horse’s heart rate and physical activity were continuously measured using the Polar Equine RS800 and the ActiGraph GT1M respectively. The relationship between the horse’s physical activity and its heart rate was described in real-time by a single input – single output (SISO) mathematical model. This real-time input-output modelling allows determination of the component of the horse’s heart rate, which is solely related to physical activity. During the first part of the experiment, before stress is applied, on average 93% of the variance of the measured heart rate could be related to physical activity (RT2avg = 0.93). When stress is applied during trotting by suddenly opening an umbrella, the physical model accounts for only 58%, on average over 37 experiments, of the variance of the horse’s heart rate (RT2avg = 0.58). This increase in the model error can then be used to asses the horse’s fearfulness. In 33 out of the 37 experiments, the opening of the umbrella could be detected from the physical model error. In the 4 remaining experiments, no stable SISO model could be found. This shows that model-based decomposition of heart rate can be used to monitor stress levels and corresponding welfare levels during training, i.e. while improving physical performance.

108

Factors influencing gastric ulceration in Irish racehorses

Niamh K. Morrissey1, Maureen Prendergast1, Christopher R. Bellenger2

1Department of Life Sciences, University of Limerick, Ireland 2Robert Menzies College, New South Wales, Australia

Gastric ulceration is a common condition in performance horses. While many affected horses are apparently asymptomatic gastric ulceration has been associated with alterations in behaviour, reduced performance, appearance and appetite and even colic symptoms. This current study aimed to document the prevalence of gastric ulceration in Irish racehorses and to identify associated risk factors. Gastroscopy was performed on 100 racehorses in active training, in ten Irish training yards, on three occasions. Results were analysed using a variety of statistical methods including stepwise regression and Chi-Squared, Kruskall- Wallis and Mann Whitney tests. At the time of the first examination 76% had nonglandular lesions while 32% of horses had lesions in the more ventral glandular mucosa. There was a significant difference (p<0.02) in nonglandular lesion scores between horses trained in different yards. In this study horses that were six years or older, or had previously raced, or had raced in the ten days prior to examination, or that were bedded on paper, had significantly higher nonglandular lesion scores (p<0.05) than horses in other categories. Horses reported to have poor appetite had higher nonglandular lesion scores than other horses although this difference only showed a trend towards significance (p<0.08). There was no association found between the severity of nonglandular gastric ulceration and poor performance, temperament, the presence of stereotypic behaviour patterns, gender or poor dentition. Overall trainers greatly underestimated the prevalence of gastric ulceration in horses under their care. The prevalence of gastric ulceration detected in this study is comparable with that previously reported in other countries. While intensive training and racing schedules were shown to negatively affect stomach morphology the exposure of racehorses to such risk factors is unavoidable. However, the results suggest that other modifiable management decisions were also of influence. An appreciation of altered behaviour in affected horses and a greater understanding of the impact of management decisions on stomach morphology could potentially improve both the welfare and performance of all equine athletes.

109

The contribution of craniosacral therapy to the rehabilitation of problem horses

Mike Harrison1, Johanna Macarthur2, Alison Wakelin2

1Anglian School of Craniosacral Therapy, Sheringham, Norfolk NR26 8PX, UK 2Progressive Equitation, Running Free Farm, Aylmerton, Norfolk NR11 8PU, UK

We define a ‘problem horse’ as one that is either difficult or impossible to ride or handle. The previous experience of the horse may be that considerable time, effort and expense have been expended in other methods of training and/or veterinary intervention. In the worst cases, the horse may have been recommended for destruction. A joint approach of learning theory and rider biomechanics principles achieves significant improvements in behaviour as it addresses the needs of both horse and rider. The process of rehabilitation requires physical and psychological changes to take place, to reverse the effects of habituation. Much of this can be done within the approach described above. However, given the individual nature of all such cases, patterns of dysfunction are sometimes not detected except by subtle palpation – both on and off the body – by an experienced practitioner of craniosacral therapy. It is suggested that such an enhanced approach may often facilitate more rapid recovery by revealing previously hidden features of the case (in horse or rider). The objective of the original joint approach is ultimately to achieve obedience in the horse and a relaxed bond between horse and rider. By contrast, the craniosacral method allows the horse to express its problems in its own way and not simply in terms of for example its stay mechanism or muscle chains; to identify any chronic patterns; and to make choices about its treatment. Various instrumental methods are planned for evaluation; however, assessment is likely for practical purposes to be mainly by observation, both visual and experiential. Results are expected to lead to improved understanding of the horse/human partnership in the learning process leading to rehabilitation. This will have wider implications in equine training, performance and welfare. The programme will be continuous, permitting adjustments to the approach as outcomes are evaluated and discussed.

110

Point-to-Point Racing in Ireland – A Critical Review 2000-2007

Carol Quish, Sean Arkins

Department of Life Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick

Ireland produces more thoroughbred foals than any other EU member state. Horse Racing Ireland are experiencing difficulties in increasing racing fixtures, so securing racing opportunities on the racetrack in Ireland is becoming more difficult. Point-to-Point racing in Ireland has experienced phenomenal growth as a direct result of this. This study sought to provide baseline data on Irish point-to- points, which had not been previously assembled. The study population consisted of 25,466 horses over three point-to-point seasons. The factors examined included age, gender, type of race ran, fence options and racing profile. In addition associations between these factors were also investigated. The number of horses participating in point-to-points has increased by 49%, the number of fixtures has increased by 27% and the number of races by 34%. The average number of runners in races has increased from 11.7 to 12.0 with maiden races showing the largest increase. The percentage of mares participating in point-to-points has decreased by 5% over the study period. In all seasons geldings were significantly older participating in Point-to-Points compared to mares (6.33±0.03yrs. 6.02±0.03yrs, P< 0.001). Age had an effect on type of race and Open Races had older horses than maiden races (P< 0.001). Horses 7 year olds and older ran more frequently than horses less than 7 years of age (P< 0.001). In addition, mares ran significantly more times than geldings in all seasons (P< 0.05). The percentage of horses finishing races has improved by 8% and geldings more likely than mares to finish (P< 0.001). Horses 4 years old had the highest percentage of finishers while 5 year olds had the lowest percentage of finishers. There was a significant positive correlation between the number of times horses ran and the number of times horses finished races(r= 0.627, P< 0.001).

111

The effect of forage nonstructural carbohydrate on glycemic response

Lindsay A Perry1, Bridget A Younge1, Catherine S Ballard2

University of Limerick, Castletroy, Limerick1 W. H. Miner Agricultural Research Institute, P.O. Box 90, Chazy, NY 129212

Dietary nonstructural carbohydrates (NSC) have been implicated in the development of insulin resistance and metabolic diseases e.g. laminitis. Research has focused on effects of concentrate meals. The objectives of this study were to observe biochemical and physiological changes in horses fed a forage only diet differing in NSC content. Eight horses were divided into two groups and randomly allocated to one of two treatments; (1) Low NSC hay <100g/kg; (2) High NSC hay (200g/kg). The experimental design was cross over, and consisted of two treatment periods (21days each) and a washout between treatments (7days). Horses had access hay (1.75% BW) at two feeds times (8:00 and 17:00). Pre- feeding blood samples (07:30am) and forage samples were taken on days 1, 7, 14, and 21. On days 1 and 21 blood samples were taken at 0, 1, 2, 4 and 8 hours post feeding. Plasma was analysed for glucose, insulin, non esterified fatty acids and triglycerides. BW, BCS, neck and girth circumference were measured on days 1 and 21. Forage was analysed for proximate constituents, NSC, fructan and starch. The forage samples showed substantial variability (low NSC: 96-151g/kg; high NSC: 137-196g/kg). On day 1, horses fed high NSC had higher peak glucose and insulin concentration (glucose 105.1 vs. 93.8mg/dl; insulin 25.3 vs. 17.1mIU; p<0.05). On day 21, there was no difference in glucose concentrations between treatments and insulin was higher in horses fed low NSC hay (30.74 vs. 21.04mIU). The horses fed high NSC had a steady increase in resting triglyceride concentration between days 1 and 21 (35.7 vs. 26.3mg/dl) and was different between treatments on day 21 (35.7 vs. 24.0mg/dl). There were no significant changes in physical measurements. The findings suggest that there is considerable variation in NSC content of forage and that higher NSC content, particularly fructan, may increase plasma triglyceride concentrations.

112

Merits of an automated system in determining and implementing optimal feeding schedules for the stabled horse

J.P. Monahan1, Jack Murphy2

1Cheval Equi Products, ArcLabs Research and Innovation Centre WIT West Campus, Carriganore, Waterford 2School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, UCD

The horse is a browsing grazer with a high reliance on forage and a digestive system that is not naturally adapted to high levels of cereal intake. Free-living horses spend in excess of 16 hours per day on feeding behaviour. In contrast, some domesticated horses spend more than 20 hours per day in the stable. Feed consumption is approximately 1.5-3.5% of bodyweight depending on individual requirements and feeding schedules are usually twice or three times per day. The objective of this pilot study was to investigate the responses of hunter hirelings to an increased feeding (automated) schedule. The horses (n = 8) were used for hunting twice per week during November to February. Previously, the horses were fed at 07.30 and 17.30 (identical feed deliveries) receiving a total of 6 kg of concentrates consisting of grain, cubes and coarse mix. The horses also received 6 kg of forage per day – hay equally divided between morning and evening feeds. We used a programmable feed dispenser to deliver the concentrates at 06.00, 08.00, 10.00, 18.00, 20.00 and 22.00 daily in equal 1kg amounts. The horses habituated to the new routine relatively easily with the exception of one subject that displayed adverse behaviour for approximately 20 days. Riders reported that the horses exhibited increased energy levels during daily exercise. At the end of the trial, four of the horses gained weight (average = 11 kg) while the remainder maintained bodyweight throughout the trial period. The increases may have resulted from a noticeable slower eating behaviour (average increase = 17 minutes/day) and perhaps more efficient digestion of the feed. The findings suggest that feeding stabled horses up to 6 times per day may be beneficial in some instances. The findings warrant further enquiry to evaluate the effects of multiple feeding schedules for horses.

113

An Evaluation of a Trickle Feeding System for Horses

Siobhan Hardman1, JP Monahan2, Bridget Younge1

1Dept of Life Sciences, Equine Science, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland 2Cheval Equi, Arc Labs Research Centre, West Campus, Waterford

Free-living horses spend 16–18 hours per day browsing and grazing. Domesticated horses spend up to 23 hours per day in stables. This intensive practice limits normal dietary behaviour and poses welfare concerns for horses under such rigid husbandry routines. The objective of this study was to investigate feeding behaviour using two feeding systems. Four riding school horses (all geldings) in a cross over design were fed using two feeding systems 1. An automated trickle feeding system; 2. A manual feeding system. The horses were allowed a four-day adaptation period followed by a four-day measurement period. Time-lapse video recording was used to observe behaviours during feeding times (08:30 13:15 16:30 hours) and for 15 mins during night rest (02:00 hours). An ethogram of feeding and resting behaviours was developed and behaviours were recorded using the Noldus Observer 5.0 system. The horses spent more time consuming their concentrate when fed via the trickle compared to the manual feeding system (33.4 ±5.4 vs. 27.1± 4.5 mins/day) (P>0.05). The horses spent more time eating dropped concentrate off the floor when feeding on the manual system (11.1 ±1.0mins) compared to the trickle system (9.4 ±2.2mins), this difference was significant at the 8:30 feeding time (P<0.01). Analyses of nocturnal time budgets revealed that the horses on the trickle system spent more time resting than the horses on the manual system, 9.3 ±3.1 vs. 0.03 ±0.03 from 15-minute scans. In addition, at night the horses on the manual system spent significantly more time (9.5 ±0.3mins) searching stall bedding than horses on the trickle system (0.04 ±2.3mins; P<0.05). These findings suggest that the automated trickle feeding system may have helped to slow down the rate of feeding and increase resting bouts. The results warrant study to evaluate the benefits of reducing meal size and increasing meal frequency.

114

Are there advantages to a cantilevered saddle over traditional English and western type saddles?

Martin Ryan1, Jack Murphy2

1Industrial Design Department, Faculty of Design, National College of Art & Design, 100 Thomas St. Dublin 8 2School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Ireland

Within equitation, the saddle provides support for the rider’s position and facilitates weight distribution over the muscular structures of the horse’s thoracic column. An ever-increasing array (both traditional English and western type) are currently available with fixed trees, adjustable trees and treeless types with various padding, flocking and pneumatic undersides. The objective of this study was to investigate the efficacy of an innovative-cantilevered saddle design. Several types of seating systems have employed cantilevered principles successfully including bicycle saddles – utilizing the benefits of natural suspension and flexion properties. This innovative saddle is a product of modern materials and engineering principles and may improve comfort and performance for both horse and rider. The cantilevered tree structure of this saddle is constructed from 3 separate features: 1. support resting on the horses back, 2. support under the riders seat, 3. support connecting 1 and 2 positioned to the to the front of the saddle, completing a C shaped structure. A prototype is under test and the structure elevates the rider’s seat off the horses back. While this may prove beneficial by allowing greater freedom of movement of the horse’s back, it may also compromise control via the seat due to the loss of ‘feel’ through the rider’s seat. Moreover, any excessive spring due to the cantilever system could de-stabilise the rider and/or the additional height may compromise balance between horse and rider. Notwithstanding any such deficits, there may be significant advantage in such a system within equitation by achieving greater comfort, performance and welfare benefits in Endurance riding or Show jumping and Eventing. Preliminary field tests and initial rider feedback indicates that the benefits may outweigh the disadvantages. A cantilevered system may facilitate more appropriate weight distribution and subsequently freer movement of the horses back and merits further comprehensive scientific testing.

115

Horse trials: Fence design and cross-country falls

Emma Ponsonby, Karen Hennessy

Centre for Sports Studies, University College Dublin, Ireland

The sport of horse trials or ‘eventing’ consists of dressage, showjumping and cross-country riding. The cross-country phase is a high-risk activity and there have been a spate of rider fatalities in recent years. Multiple combination fences (more than one jumping element) may be associated with an increased risk of injury while (spread) fences with an ascending profile might reduce the risk of falling. The aim of this study was to identify some factors that contributed to the falls, which occurred during the cross-country phase of international eventing competitions in Ireland. Data on cross-country falls (that occurred at international events held in Ireland in 2005) were available from the FEI database. These data, combined with interviews of organising event secretaries and safety reviews of cross-country course descriptors were analysed. The analysis included competition type, competition level and fence profile, obstacle design (post & rails, palisade, square spread, ascending spread, step into/out of water). Regression analysis was used to test the number of falls incurred by competition type and chi-squared analysis was used to test the number of falls incurred by fence profile. There were 38 cross-country falls from 529 starters (7.2%), of which 14 (37%) were horse falls. The shorter distance CIC competitions incurred fewer falls (4.8%) compared to the longer distance CCI (9.6%) competitions, (P = 0.55). Combination fences incurred a significantly higher percentage of fallers (74%, P = 0.025), than single effort fences. Overall, fence design appeared to play an influential role in the number of fallers during competition. Specifically, post and rail type fences and round-top fences accounted for 30% and 24% of falls respectively, whereas ascending spreads accounted for only 5% of falls. It may be possible to improve horse and rider safety significantly during the cross-country phase of eventing by simply using more appropriate fence designs.

116

Equestrian participation: A case study of the Irish Sport Horse Industry

Karen Hennessy1, Katherine Quinn2

1Centre for Sports Studies, University College Dublin, Ireland 2School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Ireland

The first equestrian jumping competition, ever held, was at The Royal Dublin Society’s inaugural Dublin Horse Show (1868) and comprised of the High Leap, the Wide Leap and the Stone Wall. The equestrian sports of showjumping, dressage and eventing are now well-established Olympic sports, with a multitude of international competitions worldwide. International success is a major goal, and national governing bodies are constantly dividing their focus and funding programmes between national and international level competition / training to target competition successes, albeit for a minority group. On the other hand there is a huge volume of equestrian activity at grass root level, which very often goes unnoticed. We sought to investigate the balance of participation in equestrian activities in Ireland, so as to understand its participation profile. A questionnaire- based survey was conducted on all equestrian organisations within Ireland. Activities were categorised into competition and leisure, for which the annual entries (participation numbers) were calculated. The findings indicated that 65% of participation was leisure-based and 35% was competition-based (27% within the Olympic sports). The competition-based group, however, also include many amateur and leisure riders participating in novice competitions at the weekend as a hobby. One of the most interesting findings was that hunting days accounted for 38% of all activity (>150,000 outings). This indicates a huge volume of activity over the winter months given seasonality of hunting (Nov – Feb). Many of these participants might not be involved in other equestrian organisations and hence receive little or no education or training supports. The findings indicate that the broad grass root level base is the strength of equestrian activity in Ireland. Identifying a means to educate and influence the knowledge base of these grass root level participants would have the greatest impact on the training and welfare of the greatest number of horses.

117

The changing nature of Sport horse ownership: A case study of the Irish Sport Horse Industry

Karen Hennessy1, Katherine Quinn2

1Centre for Sports Studies, University College Dublin, Ireland. 2School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Ireland

Since domestication, horses have functioned to provide milk, meat, ridden to war, work the land and to transport humans and goods. However, with the increased urbanisation and farm mechanisation since World War II, the role of the horse changed and it became a source of competition and leisure, and was more predominantly accessible by those with farm-based backgrounds. However, anecdotal evidence suggests that since the 1990s the nature of horse ownership has changed, brought about new wealth, modern living and greater accessibility to horses and away from the traditional farm-based associations. We sought to investigate sport horse ownership profiles in Ireland, in order to obtain statistics on its nature and gain an understanding of the industry’s strengths and needs. A questionnaire based survey, was conducted on sport horse industry participants (n= 1550). The findings indicated that 23% of participants were new horse owners within the previous 10 years, of whom 50% were in the over 40 years of age category. Of these new horse owners, 71% indicated that they had no basic equine-related qualifications; neither pony club, riding club nor otherwise. Another finding of note was that 50% of the sport horse yards were unaccounted for by the agricultural statistics register and hence were considered non- agricultural based facilities. This would indicate a shift away from the typical association of horses with farm-based facilities and its traditional animal husbandry based connections. Such findings suggest that new horse ownership may occur at any stage in a person’s life, and that there is a strong educational need amongst these newcomers. The findings also highlight that a farm-based horse connection can be no longer assumed. Such changing horse ownership profiles bring with it many challenges for education and training within the human-horse dyad.

118

A comparison of Linear versus Traditional Scoring Models for assessment of conformation traits in Irish Draught Horses

Elaine Breen, Sean Arkins

Dept of Life Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

Traditionally, conformational characteristics have been assessed on a subjective numerical scale in relation to an ideal. An alternative approach, the linear scoring method evaluates individual traits on a linear scale from one biological extreme to the other. The linear system operates successfully in several cattle breeding programmes and a number of equine studbooks. The objective of the current study was to compare the use of the traditional and linear scoring methods for conformation traits of Irish Draught horses. A panel of 21 experienced judges evaluated the conformation of a sample of 22 Registered Irish Draught mares (average age 3.9 years) using both the traditional and linear scoring methods individually. Descriptive statistics, intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) and the iota coefficient interpreted the data and determined the level of agreement between judges for both scoring methods. The use of the scale available was greater for the linear scoring method than the traditional scoring method. ICC values ranged from 0.020 to 0.234 for the traditional scoring method and 0.037 to 0.320 for the linear scoring method indicating slight to fair agreement between judges. The iota coefficient determined slightly better agreement between judges for the linear scoring method (0.135) than the traditional scoring method (0.124). Independent t-tests found significant differences (p < 0.05) between Sport Horse judges and Irish Draught judges for 4 of the traits assessed by the traditional scoring method and 19 of the traits assessed by the linear scoring method. The findings highlight the lack of agreement between judges when assessing the conformation traits. There was a significant difference in how Sport Horse and Irish Draught judges evaluated the horses for a number of conformation traits and indicated a need to standardise the assessment process. The slightly better agreement found for the linear scoring method would imply that greater consistency may is achievable with this approach.

119

Conformation traits of Irish Draught (ID) horses: changes over time

Elaine Breen, Sean Arkins

Dept of Life Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

The Irish Draught horse has played a significant role in Irish agriculture, industry and society, traditionally as a means of motive power for agriculture and transport and in more recent times as foundation stock for the Irish Sport Horse and as a riding horse. The objective of the current study was to investigate the development of conformation traits in Irish Draught horses born over 10 year periods from pre 1975 to 2004. Conformation traits of Irish Draught mares and stallions (n = 207) born pre 1975 to 2004 were assessed using quality side profile (sagittal plane) photographs. Four experienced Irish Draught judges evaluated each of the horses using the linear scoring method. General linear models were used to determine the effect of year of birth category on each of the conformation traits. The effect of year of birth category was found to be significant (p < 0.05) for 8 of the conformation traits examined – Head Appearance, Head-Neck Connection, Muscling of Neck, Line of Back, Line of Loins, Shape of Croup, Muscularity of Hindquarters and Stance of Pasterns (hindlimbs). The findings show that the horses examined have changed significantly over the years analysed for these traits. The results also indicated a lack of progress for a number of conformation traits and faults, where the horses were described on average to be back at the knee and have upright forelimb pasterns in all of the year of birth categories. Traits describing type and traits considered important to the Irish Draught as outlined by the Breed Standard were included in the analysis. A decrease in type traits was observed over the year of birth categories, in particular in the mares analysed where the findings showed a significant decrease in bone and a significant increase in cannon bone length over the year of birth categories. The results highlight the need to define the breeding objectives of the Irish Draught and the characteristics considered important for these breeding objectives. These findings suggest the need for an appropriate system to monitor morphological changes and developments in the Irish Draught horse breed.

120

Notes

121