T Political Handbook & NGO Calendar 2010 A N Z A N I A
General Elections 2010
Dear Partners, Friends, and interested Readers, Karibuni sana 2010! We warmly welcome you to the year 2010!
2010 – A Year of Change! In 2010, Tanzanians will elect their representatives for the fourth time since the introduction of multiparty democracy. Elections are intended to identify the most suitable candidates for positions of political power. Their purpose is to reward those that have done their job well and to dismiss those that haven’t. This 12th edition of our political handbook is dedicated to the questions of change and continuation: What have we done so far? What have we achieved? What do we want for the future? Which principles and guidelines could and should lead us on our way? How can we learn from the past while focusing on the present and the future? To address these questions, we will have a look at what the outgoing government has done with regards to poverty reduction and the fight against corruption. We will recall Mwalimu Nyerere as a role model for ethical leadership and will ask how his ideas should influence today’s policies. Hon. Samuel Sitta (MP) will provide us with “Some Ideas for Free and Fair Elections in 2010”. The Registrar of Political Parties will enlighten us about “Parties and the Code of Conduct for Political Parties”. Women and their positions in society remains one of our core topics. Women’s rights are human rights! The empowerment of Tanzanian women is vital for Tanzania’s development. One of our former office trainees is analysing the link between “Poverty Reduction and Women’s Empowerment in Tanzania”. In terms of political succession, the equal integration of women remains one of the main challenges. FES has been training women to run for office in local governments and will encourage women to do so in the 2010 general elections. Another key area for FES Tanzania remains the training of young leaders through our Young Leaders Training Programme (YLTP). In 2010 suitable young candidates-50% women and 50% men-will join us for the 9th programme. 2010 will also be a year of change for the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. I have handed over my responsibilities as Resident Director to Stefan Chrobot and wish him all the best and good luck. I would like to use this opportunity to thank all partners and friends of the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung in Tanzania. I have very much appreciated working with you. Thank you for years of interesting and inspiring discussions, of productive cooperation and of the realisation of some sustainable projects! Asante sana for a very fruitful co-operation on many fields of Democracy and Social Development. We would also like to thank the contributors to this edition and give a special thanks to Mama Angela Ishengoma who has been coordinating the Political Handbook for 12 years. We sincerely hope that the topics and articles mentioned in this edition support the constructive discourse on current hot issues in Tanzanian life. May 2010 be a peaceful year towards more democracy, social justice and the respect of human rights! Kind regards, Peter Häussler, Resident Director FES-Tanzania Ta b l e o f c o n t e n t s
CALENDAR 2010 6
1) OVERVIEW 63 Some basic facts and figures
2) GOOD GOVERNANCE Mwalimu Nyerere as a Role Model of Good Leadership 68 Assesment of poverty strategies; where are we? 79
3) POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT IN TANZANIA Power Sharing in East Africa: Can it work for Zanzibar? 81 How CCM promotes the active participation of women in the political arena 87 THE ROAD TO 2010 - Yes, Democracy Should Guarantee Credible Elections 92 “The Code of Conduct for Political Parties in Tanzania” 96 Youth Participation in Politics in Tanzania: Opportunities and Impediments 100
4) WOMEN Mobilizing Women in Tanzania for Elections: A three-tier women’s empowerment campaign 106 The Role of Communication Skills in Enhancing the Political Participation of Women 110 Poverty Reduction and Women’s Empowerment in Tanzania 115
5) TRADE UNIONS The East African Community Common Market: Challenges and the position of the Trade Unions 124 The new Labour Law: Proliferatio of Trade Unions, a positive phenomenon? 130 A New Convention for Domestic Workers by 2011: The Tanzanian Experience 136
6) HUMAN RIGHTS Global Justice and Human Security in Tanzania 140 The role of Paralegals in promoting women´s rights with a gender perspective in Tanzania 145
8) USEFUL TOOLS 149 a) Computers and Internet (i) Internet and e-Mail - User Guide 150 (ii) How to choose the right computer for your business 152 (iii) Basic system maintenance (for PCs) 154 b) Conference and discussion tools (i) Holding a workshop, seminar, conference 155 (ii) 8 tips on how to successfully chair a conference 157 (iii) Holding effective internal meetings and planning sessions 158 (iv) Project outlines 159 (v) Qualities of a moderator 160 (vi) The moderation method 161 (vii) The structure of your speech 162 (viii) Argumentation techniques 162 (ix) How to use the blackboards and flipcharts 163 (x) The checklist for good implementation of activities 164 (xi) Twelve steps towards conflict resolution 165 c) Personal skills (i) Time management - self management 166 d) Public Relations Basics (i) What is Public Relations? 166 (ii) Preparing and running a press conference 167 (iii) A press release 168 e) Participatory impact, monitoring and evaluation 169
Calendar 2010 Overview 2010
January 2010 February 2010 March 2010
M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S
1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 31
April 2010 May 2010 June 2010
M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S
1 2 3 4 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
26 27 28 29 30 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30
July 2010 August 2010 September 2010
M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S
1 2 3 4 30 31 1 1 2 3 4 5
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30
October 2010 November 2010 December 2010
M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S
1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 Overview 2011
January 2011 February 2011 March 2011
M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S
31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 28 29 30 31
April 2011 May 2011 June 2011
M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S
1 2 3 30 31 1 1 2 3 4 5
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
25 26 27 28 29 30 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30
July 2011 August 2011 September 2011
M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S
1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30
October 2011 November 2011 December 2011
M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S
31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 week Dec. 09 Jan. 2010 Feb. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 52 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Dec. 2009 21st - 27th
Monday 21 Tuesday 22 Wednesday 23
...... DECEMBER 09 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 24 Friday 25 Saturday 26 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 27 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
9 week Dec. 09 Jan. 2010 Feb. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S DEC / JAN 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 53 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Dec. 2009 - Jan. 2010 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 28th - 3rd
Monday 28 Tuesday 29 Wednesday 30 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 31 Friday 1 Saturday 2 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 3 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
10 week Dec. 09 Jan. 2010 Feb. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 01 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 January 2010 4th - 10th
Monday 4 Tuesday 5 Wednesday 6 JANUARY ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 7 Friday 8 Saturday 9 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 10 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
11 week Dec. 09 Jan. 2010 Feb. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S JANUARY 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 02 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 January 2010 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 11th - 17th
Monday 11 Tuesday 12 Wednesday 13 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 14 Friday 15 Saturday 16 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 17 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
12 week Dec. 09 Jan. 2010 Feb. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 03 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 January 2010 18th - 24th
Monday 18 Tuesday 19 Wednesday 20 JANUARY ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 21 Friday 22 Saturday 23 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 24 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
13 week Jan. 2010 Feb. 2010 March 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S JANUARY 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 04 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 January 2010 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 31 25th - 31st
Monday 25 Tuesday 26 Wednesday 27 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 28 Friday 29 Saturday 30 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 31 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
14 week Jan. 2010 Feb. 2010 March 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 05 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 31 February 2010 1st - 7th
Monday 1 Tuesday 2 Wednesday 3 FEBRUARY ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 4 Friday 5 Saturday 6 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 7 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
15 week Jan. 2010 Feb. 2010 March 2010
FEBRUARY M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 06 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 February 2010 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 31 8th - 14th
Monday 8 Tuesday 9 Wednesday 10 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 11 Friday 12 Saturday 13 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 14 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
16 week Jan. 2010 Feb. 2010 March 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 07 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 31 February 2010 15th - 21st
Monday 15 Tuesday 16 Wednesday 17 FEBRUARY ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 18 Friday 19 Saturday 20 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 21 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
17 week Feb. 2010 March 2010 April 2010
FEBRUARY M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 08 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 February 2010 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 22nd - 28th
Monday 22 Tuesday 23 Wednesday 24 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 25 Friday 26 Saturday 27 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 28 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
18 week Feb. 2010 March 2010 April 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 09 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 March 2010 1st - 7th
Monday 1 Tuesday 2 Wednesday 3 MARCH ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 4 Friday 5 Saturday 6 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 7 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
19 week Feb. 2010 March 2010 April 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4
MARCH 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 10 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 March 2010 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 8th - 14th
Monday 8 Tuesday 9 Wednesday 10 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 11 Friday 12 Saturday 13 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 14 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
20 week Feb. 2010 March 2010 April 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 11 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 March 2010 15th - 21st
Monday 15 Tuesday 16 Wednesday 17 MARCH ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 18 Friday 19 Saturday 20 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 21 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
21 week Feb. 2010 March 2010 April 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4
MARCH 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 March 2010 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 22nd - 28th
Monday 22 Tuesday 23 Wednesday 24 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 25 Friday 26 Saturday 27 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 28 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
22 week March 2010 April 2010 May 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 31 1 2 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 13 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Mar. - Apr. 2010 29th - 4th
Monday 29 Tuesday 30 Wednesday 31 MAR / APR ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 1 Friday 2 Saturday 3 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 4 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
23 week March 2010 April 2010 May 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 31 1 2 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
APRIL 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 April 2010 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 5th - 11th
Monday 5 Tuesday 6 Wednesday 7 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 8 Friday 9 Saturday 10 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 11 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
24 week March 2010 April 2010 May 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 31 1 2 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 April 2010 12th - 18th APRIL Monday 12 Tuesday 13 Wednesday 14 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 15 Friday 16 Saturday 17 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 18 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
25 week March 2010 April 2010 May 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 31 1 2 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
APRIL 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 April 2010 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 19th - 25th
Monday 19 Tuesday 20 Wednesday 21 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 22 Friday 23 Saturday 24 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 25 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
26 week April 2010 May 2010 June 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 17 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 26 27 28 29 30 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 Apr. - May 2010 26th - 2nd
Monday 26 Tuesday 27 Wednesday 28 APR / MAY ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 29 Friday 30 Saturday 1 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 2 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
27 week April 2010 May 2010 June 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
MAY 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 May 2010 26 27 28 29 30 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 3rd - 9th
Monday 3 Tuesday 4 Wednesday 5 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 6 Friday 7 Saturday 8 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 9 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
28 week April 2010 May 2010 June 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 19 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 26 27 28 29 30 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 May 2010 10th - 16th MAY Monday 10 Tuesday 11 Wednesday 12 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 13 Friday 14 Saturday 15 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 16 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
29 week April 2010 May 2010 June 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
MAY 20 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 May 2010 26 27 28 29 30 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 17th - 23rd
Monday 17 Tuesday 18 Wednesday 19 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 20 Friday 21 Saturday 22 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 23 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
30 week May 2010 June 2010 July 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 21 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 May 2010 24th - 30th MAY Monday 24 Tuesday 25 Wednesday 26 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 27 Friday 28 Saturday 29 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 30 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
31 week May 2010 June 2010 July 2010 MAY / JUNE M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 22 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 May - June 2010 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 31st - 6th
Monday 31 Tuesday 1 Wednesday 2 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 3 Friday 4 Saturday 5 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 6 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
32 week May 2010 June 2010 July 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 June 2010 7th - 13th JUNE Monday 7 Tuesday 8 Wednesday 9 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 10 Friday 11 Saturday 12 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 13 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
33 week May 2010 June 2010 July 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
JUNE 24 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 June 2010 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 14th - 20th
Monday 14 Tuesday 15 Wednesday 16 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 17 Friday 18 Saturday 19 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 20 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
34 week May 2010 June 2010 July 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 25 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 June 2010 21st - 27th JUNE Monday 21 Tuesday 22 Wednesday 23 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 24 Friday 25 Saturday 26 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 27 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
35 week June 2010 July 2010 Aug. 2010 JUNE / JULY M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 30 31 1 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 26 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 June - July 2010 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28th - 4th
Monday 28 Tuesday 29 Wednesday 30 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 1 Friday 2 Saturday 3 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 4 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
36 week June 2010 July 2010 Aug. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 30 31 1 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 27 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 July 2010 5th - 11th JULY Monday 5 Tuesday 6 Wednesday 7 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 8 Friday 9 Saturday 10 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 11 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
37 week June 2010 July 2010 Aug. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 30 31 1 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
JULY 28 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 July 2010 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 12th - 18th
Monday 12 Tuesday 13 Wednesday 14 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 15 Friday 16 Saturday 17 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 18 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
38 week June 2010 July 2010 Aug. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 30 31 1 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 29 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 July 2010 19th - 25th JULY Monday 19 Tuesday 20 Wednesday 21 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 22 Friday 23 Saturday 24 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 25 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
39 week July 2010 Aug. 2010 Sept. 2010 JULY / AUG M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 30 31 1 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 30 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 July - Aug. 2010 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30 26th - 1st
Monday 26 Tuesday 27 Wednesday 28 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 29 Friday 30 Saturday 31 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 1 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
40 week July 2010 Aug. 2010 Sept. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 30 31 1 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 31 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30 August 2010 2nd - 8th
Monday 2 Tuesday 3 Wednesday 4 AUGUST ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 5 Friday 6 Saturday 7 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 8 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
41 week July 2010 Aug. 2010 Sept. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 30 31 1 1 2 3 4 5 AUGUST 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 32 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 August 2010 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30 9th - 15th
Monday 9 Tuesday 10 Wednesday 11 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 12 Friday 13 Saturday 14 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 15 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
42 week July 2010 Aug. 2010 Sept. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 30 31 1 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 33 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30 August 2010 16th - 22nd
Monday 16 Tuesday 17 Wednesday 18 AUGUST ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 19 Friday 20 Saturday 21 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 22 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
43 week July 2010 Aug. 2010 Sept. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 30 31 1 1 2 3 4 5 AUGUST 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 34 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 August 2010 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30 23rd - 29th
Monday 23 Tuesday 24 Wednesday 25 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 26 Friday 27 Saturday 28 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 29 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
44 week Aug. 2010 Sept. 2010 Oct. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 30 31 1 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 35 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Aug. - Sept. 2010 30th - 5th
Monday 30 Tuesday 31 Wednesday 1 AUG / SEPT ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 2 Friday 3 Saturday 4 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 5 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
45 week Aug. 2010 Sept. 2010 Oct. 2010 SEPTEMBER M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 30 31 1 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 36 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 September 2010 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 6th - 12th
Monday 6 Tuesday 7 Wednesday 8 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 9 Friday 10 Saturday 11 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 12 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
46 week Aug. 2010 Sept. 2010 Oct. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 30 31 1 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 37 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 September 2010 13th - 19th
Monday 13 Tuesday 14 Wednesday 15 ...... SEPTEMBER 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 16 Friday 17 Saturday 18 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 19 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
47 week Aug. 2010 Sept. 2010 Oct. 2010 SEPTEMBER M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 30 31 1 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 38 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 September 2010 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 20th - 26th
Monday 20 Tuesday 21 Wednesday 22 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 23 Friday 24 Saturday 25 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 26 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
48 week Sept. 2010 Oct. 2010 Nov. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 39 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 27 28 29 30 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 Sept. - Oct. 2010 27th - 3rd
Monday Tuesday Wednesday 27 28 29 SEPT / OCT ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 30 Friday 1 Saturday 2 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 3 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
49 week Sept. 2010 Oct. 2010 Nov. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S OCTOBER 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 40 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 October 2010 27 28 29 30 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 4th - 10th
Monday 4 Tuesday 5 Wednesday 6 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 7 Friday 8 Saturday 9 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 10 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
50 Sept. 2010 Oct. 2010 Nov. 2010 week M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 41 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 27 28 29 30 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 October 2010 11th - 17th
Monday 11 Tuesday 12 Wednesday 13 OCTOBER ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 14 Friday 15 Saturday 16 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 17 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
51 week Sept. 2010 Oct. 2010 Nov. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S OCTOBER 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 42 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 October 2010 27 28 29 30 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 18th - 24th
Monday 18 Tuesday 19 Wednesday 20 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 21 Friday 22 Saturday 23 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 24 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
52 week Oct. 2010 Nov. 2010 Dec. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 43 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 October 2010 25th - 31st
Monday 25 Tuesday 26 Wednesday 27 OCTOBER ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 28 Friday 29 Saturday 30 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 31 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
53 week Oct. 2010 Nov. 2010 Dec. 2010 NOVEMBER M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 44 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 November 2010 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 1st - 7th
Monday 1 Tuesday 2 Wednesday 3 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 4 Friday 5 Saturday 6 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 7 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
54 week Oct. 2010 Nov. 2010 Dec. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 45 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 November 2010 8th - 14th
Monday 8 Tuesday 9 Wednesday 10 ...... NOVEMBER 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 11 Friday 12 Saturday 13 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 14 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
55 week Oct. 2010 Nov. 2010 Dec. 2010 NOVEMBER M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 46 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 November 2010 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 15th - 21st
Monday 15 Tuesday 16 Wednesday 17 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 18 Friday 19 Saturday 20 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 21 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
56 week Oct. 2010 Nov. 2010 Dec. 2010 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 47 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 November 2010 22nd - 28th
Monday 22 Tuesday 23 Wednesday 24 ...... NOVEMBER 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 25 Friday 26 Saturday 27 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 28 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
57 week Nov. 2010 Dec. 2010 Jan. 2011
NOV / DEC M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 31 1 2 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 48 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Nov. - Dec. 2010 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29th - 5th
Monday 29 Tuesday 30 Wednesday 1 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 2 Friday 3 Saturday 4 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 5 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
58 week Nov. 2010 Dec. 2010 Jan. 2011 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 31 1 2 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 49 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 December 2010 6th - 12th
Monday 6 Tuesday 7 Wednesday 8 DECEMBER ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 9 Friday 10 Saturday 11 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 12 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
59 week Nov. 2010 Dec. 2010 Jan. 2011
DECEMBER M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 31 1 2 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 50 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 December 2010 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 13th - 19th
Monday 13 Tuesday 14 Wednesday 15 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 16 Friday 17 Saturday 18 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 19 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
60 week Nov. 2010 Dec. 2010 Jan. 2011 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 31 1 2 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 51 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 December 2010 20th - 26th
Monday 20 Tuesday 21 Wednesday 22 DECEMBER ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 23 Friday 24 Saturday 25 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 26 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
61 DEC10 / JAN 1 week Nov. 2010 Dec. 2010 Jan. 2011 M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 31 1 2 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 52 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Dec. 2010 - Jan. 2011 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 27th - 2nd
Monday 27 Tuesday 28 Wednesday 29 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20
Thursday 30 Friday 31 Saturday 1 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 2 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20
62
Overview
63 BASIC FACTS AND FIGURES Geography Area total 945,087 sq km (land: 886,037 sq km and water: 59,050 sq km1 Border countries Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Uganda, Zambia Coastline 1,424 km Lowest point Indian Ocean 0 m Highest point Kilimanjaro 5,895 m Source: CIA World Factbook (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/TZ.html) Demography Total Population 41,048,532 (2009 est.)2 Urbanization 25% of total population urban population Age structure 0-14 years: 43% (female 8,805,810; male 8,853,529) 15-64 years: 54.1% (female 11,255,868; male 10,956,133) 65 years and over: 2.9% (female 663233; male 5 13959) (2009 est.) Median age 18 years (2009 est.) Population growth rate 2.04% (2009 est.) Birth Rate 34.29 births/ 1,000 population (2009 est.) Death Rate 12.92 deaths/ 1,000 population (2008 est.) Religion mainland: Christian 30%, Muslim 35%, indig- enous beliefs 35% Zanzibar: more than 99% Muslim Sources: a) CIA World Factbook (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/TZ.html) b) UNESCO Institute for Statistics (http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=124&IF_ Language=eng&BR_Country=7620&BR_Region=40540) 1 Note: includes the islands of Mafia, Pemba, and Zanzibar. 2 Note: estimates explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality, higher death rates, lower population growth rates, and changes in the distribu- tion of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected. Economy and Public Finances GDP 54.26 billion US Dollars (2008 est.) GDP per capita 1,300 US Dollars (2008 est.) GDP composition by sector 27% agriculture; 22.7% industry; 50.3% service (2008 est.) Inflation Rate 9.3% (2008 est.) 64 Economy and Public Finances Exports 2.49 billion US Dollars (2008 est.) Imports 5.901 billion US Dollars (2008 est.) Dept - external 5.311 billion US Dollars (2008 est.) Government budget revenues: 4.216 billion US Dollars and expendi- tures: 4.658 billion US Dollars (2008 est.) Investment Rate 24% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (2008 est.) Sources: a) United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (http://unstats.un.org/unsd/snaama/results- Country.asp?Country=835&SLevel=99&Year=2007&x=28&y=7&Selection=country) b) CIA World Factbook (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/TZ.html) East African Community Economy and Finance GDP growth Rate 3.6% Burundi; 7.0% Kenya; 7.1% Tanzania; 7.9% Rwanda, 8.6% Uganda (2008 est.) Source: East African Community: Statistics (http://statistics.eac.int/en/social.html) Tanzania Intra EAC Trade (2006) Tanzania to/ from Kenya 97.2/ 169.1 million US Dollars Tanzania to/ from Uganda 20.5/ 5.3 million US Dollars Tanzania to/ from Rqanda 9.1/ 0.1 million US Dollars Tanzania to/ from Burundi 31.0/ 1.0 million US Dollars Tanzania to rest of EAC 157.8 million US Dollars Tanzania from rest of EAC 175.5 million US Dollars Source: East African Community: Statistics (http://statistics.eac.int/en/social.html) Unemployment/ employment Rate Unemployment (total) 10.4% (2007 est.) Employment (male) 8.78 million (2006 est.) Employment (female) 9.16 million (2006 est.) Child labour 4.0% (2007 est.) Sources: a) ILO Department of Statistics: Statistics Tanzania 2005-2007 (http://laborsta.ilo.org/STP/guest) b) East African Community: Statistics (http://statistics.eac.int/en/social.html) Education Literacy Rate 15 to 24 years: (female 76.2%; male 78.9%), 15 years and older (female 65.9%; male 79.0%) Adult literacy Rate, total 72% /female: 66%; male: 79%) (2007 est.) Pre-primary enrolment Rate 33% (2007 est.) Primary enrolment Rate 97% (2007 est.) Secondary enrolment Rate 21% (2007 est.)
65 Education Pupil/ student teacher ratio Pre-primary 43; Primary 53; Secondary 34 (2007 est.) Public expenditure on educa- 11,4% (2005 est.) tion Sources: a) UNESCO Institute for Statistics (http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document. aspx?ReportId=124&IF_Language=eng&BR_Country=7620&BR_Region=40540) b) UNDP 2007/2008 Human Development Report (http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document. aspx?ReportId=124&IF_Language=eng&BR_Country=7620&BR_Region=40540) c) East African Community, Statistics (http://statistics.eac.int/en/social.html)
Source: Ministry of Education and Vocational Training 2008: Basic Statistics in Education - National 2008. Secondary Tables. Chart 3.1 (http://www.moe.go.tz/statistics.html)
66 Health Infant mortality Rate 69.28 deaths/ 1,000 live births Life expectancy at birth 52.01 years (male: 50.56 and female 53.51 years) (2009 est.) Total fertility Rate 4.46 children born/ woman (2009 est.) HIV Rate in adults (age 15-49) 5.7% (wmoen: 6.6%; men: 4.6%) (2007/2008 est.)3 HIV prevalence in urbal areas 8.7% (2007/2008 est.) HIV prevalence in rural areas 4.7% (2007/2008 est.) Sources: a) CIA World Factbook (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/TZ.html) b) Tanzania Commission for AIDS (TACAIDS), National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) and Macro International: 2007-08 Tanzania HIV and Malaria Indicator Survey (www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/HF28/HF28.pdf) c) UNESCO Institute for Statistics (http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=121&IF_ Language=eng&BR_Country=7620&BR_Region=40540) 3 By contrast, the 2003-04 Tanzania HIV Indicator Survey (THIS) found an overall HIV prevalence of 7.0%, with 7.7% for women (6,000 tested) and 6.3% for men (4,900 tested). These results show a statistically significant decline in HIV prevalence among men but not among women.
67 GOOD GOVERNANCE
Mwalimu Nyerere as a Role Model of Good Leadership
By Peter Haeussler, FES Dar es Salaam
A tribute to Mwalimu Julius K. Ny- Historical aspects: the struggle for erere, in commemoration of an ex- independence traordinary ethical political leader Nyerere’s struggle for Tanzanian in- 1 and a role model for Africa dependence was set in motion in 1949 at Edinburgh University, where 2009 was the year when Tanzania he had just begun to study history and celebrated the 10th anniversary of economics. He was reacting to India’s the death of Mwalimu Julius Kam- independence, achieved in 1947, and barage Nyerere. For months the daily the campaign for independence in papers, journals, radio programmes Ghana, which had put Kwame Nkru- and TV talk shows have portrayed the mah in prison. Nkrumah’s release in life of Mwalimu and his thoughts and 1949 triggered a political transforma- deeds. One issue in particular stands tion. “You could see it in the Ghana- out in this revival of Nyerere’s life ians! They became different human work: his leadership. Innumerable beings, different from all the rest of us! articles, essays, readers’ letters and This thing of freedom began growing political columns have emphasized inside all of us”, writes Nyerere about the extraordinary role of Mwalimu this essential moment in his political as an ethical political leader. In this life (Mwakikagile, 2002:82). He soon article I recall – and commemorate – became a full-time political activist in some important phases in Nyerere’s the struggle for independence. In an leadership and some examples of his unpublished pamphlet written during political actions. his studies in 1952, Nyerere discussed the race problem in East Africa under British colonial rule. He discovered that the European settlers in Kenya (“our white neighbours”) had force- 1 This article is partly taken from the book “Lead- ership for Democratic Development in Tanzania: fully influenced the British govern- The Perspective of Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere Dur- ment to withdraw a colonial White ing the First Decade of Independence” (Häussler, 2009)
68 Paper that would have granted equal Sir Andrew Cohen, then permanent racial representation for East Africa. representative to the United Nations Nyerere went back to Tanganyika in Trusteeship Council met Nyerere in 1952, after obtaining a master of arts New York in June 1957. Showing a degree. In the same year, he became rather farsighted political evaluation president of the Tanganyika African of Nyerere, he tried to influence the Association (TAA), founded in 1929. Governor Twining in Tanganyika: TAA was an organisation for native “He struck me as able and very intel- interests, mostly economic, which also ligent and I imagine that he is likely to received support from the wealthy have a leading position for a long time native coffee farmers. It became more ahead. He also struck me as essential- politically relevant in 1951, when it ly a moderate in politics… The impres- sion I formed of Nyerere has made me took sides during the Meru land case wonder whether even now it is too late and opposed the eviction of Wameru to get him into the fold (ibid.). Arusha farmers from their fertile land by the colonial government (Iliffe, 1979:499-503). TAA was the forerun- Ujamaa - socialism in Tanzania ner of the Tanganyika African Nation- Nyerere and TANU decided immedi- al Union (TANU), which Nyerere (and ately after Tanzanian independence others) founded in 1954 and lead in December 1961 to build up a so- from its inception until 1977, when it cialist society in Tanganyika. After the became Chama Cha Mapinduzi,CCM, revolution in Zanzibar in 1964, they “party of the Revolution”, after the formed the Union of Tanzania, where fusion with Zanzibar’s Afro-Shiraz socialism became the official politi- Party (ASP). cal philosophy and ideology. A fur- British officials in the 1950th eventu- ther cornerstone was put in place in ally became aware of Nyerere’s politi- 1967 with “The Arusha Declaration cal influence and his leadership skills, and TANU’s Policy on Socialism and and saw the possibility of compromis- Self-Reliance” (Nyerere, 1968:231– ing with him to achieve a mutually ac- 250). This document was accepted ceptable result for the independence by the national executive committee of Tanganyika and East Africa – one of TANU on 29 January 1967, and which would differ significantly from was then disseminated to the public West Africa (e.g. Nkrumah’s Ghana) on the 5th of February. It contained where African nationalism took power the principles on which to build a so- with sometimes violent consequenc- cialist state, the policy of self-reliance, es. Sir John MacPherson, permanent leadership qualifications and a kind of secretary and a previous governor- leadership code. In the preface to the general of Nigeria, was impressed by booklet, Nyerere on Socialism (1977), Nyerere. In 1957, on the issue of fair Nyerere explains its purpose: negotiations, he informed the colonial “It is quite true that to our people in secretary that “the demands of people the villages, a discussion about social- like Julius Nyerere strike me as very ism and Marxism, or even socialism reasonable in content and moderate and religion, is an irrelevance… But in tone” (ibid:12). the residents of our towns, the students 69 at the university and other higher edu- rare in the world of political leaders, cation institutions, and even our sec- both in Africa and abroad. ondary school pupils, do hear discus- sions about whether Tanzania is going communist, about whether socialism is Democracy, “villagisation” and incompatible with Christianity or with good leadership our deeply felt national aspirations. It Haroub Othman2, a law professor and is primarily for these groups, and for human rights activist and a very close others who are interested in Tanza- compatriot of Mwalimu, wrote that nia’s experiments and concerned about “the evolution of a one-party system these matters, that this reprint has in Tanzania was a historical accident, been designed (Nyerere, 1977:iv). although Nyerere later gave it a philo- The political concept of Ujamaa sophical justification and backed it up shaped the development of Tanzania after 1965 with legislation” (Othman in the first three decades after inde- in Hodd, 1989:160). Othman probably pendence and created hope for the did not know in 1988 what research- people of Tanzania and many other ers now know, that the key speech Africans. about one-party democracy was giv- “Ujamaa is Tanzanian socialism! Its en by Nyerere in 1960 at a sympo- meaning is ‘family-hood’ and it em- sium hosted by Wellesley College in phasises the African-ness we intend Massachusetts, USA. In this speech, to examine. On the other hand, so- which was only published in 2000, cialism is international, its ideas and Nyerere talked about the “essentials beliefs relate in general to ‘man and of democracy”, arguing keenly for the society’ and to our dignity (Nyerere, 1966:7ff). sufficiency of a one-party system: Nyerere as a student and young lead- er soon developed a strong and out- “I do not care whether it’s one party or spoken sense of equality and social twenty parties, provided the govern- justice, which remained throughout ment of that country can be replaced without assassination, if the people go his life. After he was appointed as to the ballot box freely and regularly, student to a prefect at Tabora Sec- and re-elect their government, or re- ondary, he discovered that prefects place it with another, then as far as I enjoyed the privilege of two rations am concerned, the two basic essentials of food. “He agitated against such in- of democracy are there, whether you equalities,” writes Lamb (1986:66), have twenty parties or one party… “and they were dropped.” Therefore, in our circumstances an op- He was a teacher of passion, of great position becomes ridiculous. It rules out debate… That is why I am saying enthusiasm, of intellect and energy, that in an organisation which is basi- and with the power of language; an cally democratic, the checks and bal- orator, fluent in English and in Kiswa- hili – the language he would make into the national tongue of Tanganyika. He 2 Haroub Othman died untimely end of June taught what he believed, and in gen- 2009; he was a longstanding partner to FES and eral he lived up to it – something quite an outstanding fighter for more social justice; he believed on democratic socialism and human rights. 70 ances are there within itself (Nyerere An Ujamaa village is a voluntary as- in MNF, 2000:12–17). sociation of people who decide of their Until his death, Nyerere personally be- own free will to live together and work together for their common good (Ny- lieved that democratic African social- erere, 1973b:67). Unfortunatelly, many ism belonged to, and better served, people were forced to move into such African societies. However, because villages and the nobel idea of creating of international pressure from the centres of social development – with World Bank and the IMF, and domes- healthcare, schools, markets, work- tic influences towards liberalisation places and social activities as sports and economic growth by his succes- and cultural clubs - vanished. Still sor, President Ali Hassan Mwinyi, Ny- nowadays many people prize the “vil- erere accepted a wider opening of the lage idea”, but Mwalimu and the party Tanzanian society to regional and in- leadership – that partly was selfish ternational influences (Isata, 2000). and incapable - has to be blamed. Despite a government survey finding The previously mass-movement TANU that 72.2% of Tanzanians preferred was supposed to become a party with the one-party system (Mmuya, 1998), qualified membership and responsi- the 1991 Nyalali Commission and the ble leaders claims Nyerere: “Where ruling CCM party (lead by Nyerere it is thought unlikely that an appli- until 1990) recommended the reintro- cant really accepts the beliefs, aims duction of multiparty democracy. The and objectives of the Party, he should first general election took place in be denied membership” (Nyerere, 1995. Besides the basics of free and 1968:248). Positions of leadership in fair elections at regular intervals, the TANU and government included top, concept of democracy in Tanzania in- high and middle cadres. “In this con- cludes and requires the active partici- text, ‘leaders’ means a man, or a man pation of citizens from different inter- and his wife; a woman, or a woman est groups, the rule of law and respect and her husband” (ibid:249). for human rights, transparency of Some principles for the development political decision-making, as well as of “good policies” in Tanzania are the existence of a free press, freedom equally important for the profile of from oppression for everybody, and the “good leader”: political, cultural and religious toler- “TANU realises the importance of good ance (Bunge (Parliamentary) Digest, leadership. The problem is that we 1998). have not prepared proper plans for the training of leaders. The Party Head- The “villagisation” programme was quarters is now called upon to prepare the heart of Ujamaa. It grouped peo- specific plans for the training of lead- ple into village communities in order ers from the national level down to the to cultivate land together and be pro- leaders of the ten-house cells, so that vided with essential services: all may understand our political and “Ujamaa villages are intended to be economic policies. Leaders must be socialist organisations created by the good examples to the rest of the people people, and governed by those who through their actions and in their own live and work in them… No one can lives (ibid:247–248). be forced into an Ujamaa village… 71 In Nyerere’s perspective, of the six War, the situation improved. John mandates of the Leadership Code, the Iliffe writes, “apart from groundnuts, following are particularly crucial: the most contentious area of post-war • No TANU or Government leader policy was education. Tanganyika’s should hold shares in any com- educational backwardness brought pany. repeated criticism from London” (Ili- ffe, 1979:444). • No TANU or Government leader should hold directorships in any The development of an adequate privately owned enterprises. education system that would be cul- turally acceptable and comparable No TANU or Government leader • to international standards was a big should receive two or more sala- challenge for TANU and Nyerere. The ries. scattered settlements in Tanganyika • No TANU or Government leader also made it more difficult to develop should own houses which he and implement effective schooling. rents to others. (ibid:249) Some, including some Muslim areas, The process of nationalising industries refused European education. These and banks soon followed the Arusha are Nyerere’s words from the first for- Declaration and created new econom- mal ceremony of the University Col- ic ownership with emphasis on public lege on October 25, 1961: enterprises and government control “We are in the process of building up a of key sectors (industry, agriculture Tanganyikan nation. Valuable as is the – e.g. the sisal plantations – mineral contribution which overseas education resources, forests, land tenure, water can give us, in the long run, if we are to and electricity). Nyerere soon pointed build up a sturdy sense of nationhood, out the aims of investment in an ad- we must have an African-oriented edu- dress to the party leadership. cation. That is an education which is not only given in Africa but also di- rected at meeting the present needs Education, Development and Unity of Africa. For, while other people can In the first years after independence, aim at reaching the moon, and while the political philosophy and govern- in future we might aim at reaching the moon, our present plans must be ment policies were directed to the directed at reaching the villages (Ny- goal of equal opportunities in educa- erere, 1966:130–31). tion and integration for 120 ethnic groups, including Asians and Europe- The promotion of free schooling for ans. Colonial education had been ori- all increased enrolment significantly. ented by the interests of the colonial “Between 1961 and 1966, the in- master; the Germans had used an “as- crease in primary education was similative” approach, and the British from 482 121 to 740 991 [pupils], an an “adaptive” one to educate a tiny average of 54%” (Morrison in Schei- group of children and adults, often dtweiler and McDonald, 1997:27). from privileged households (chiefs’ Primary education depended on the families, administrative officers, busi- communities, on their resources and ness people). After the Second World the local authorities, which soon led
72 to qualitative and quantitative differ- Masai in Kenya should become part of ences within Tanzania. Tanganyika; so that when Tanganyika Nyerere fought for an African educa- becomes independent, it includes part of Masai, from Kenya. I suspected the tional system which could combine American missionary was responsible people’s traditional experiences with for that idea. I don’t remember that I the new political philosophy of Tanza- was particularly polite to him. Keny- nian socialism and the knowledge of atta was then in detention, and here the “modern world”. He believed that somebody comes to me, that we should a new curriculum was needed, and break up Kenya and make part of Ken- that a critical education would lead to ya part of Tanganyika. (Nyerere in self-awareness for everybody and to a Mwakikagile, 2002:390) genuine dignity for all Tanzanians, for Nyerere also postulated the rights of all Africans. the sovereign states, claiming that “no African state has the right to in- Throughout his life, Nyerere advanced terfere in the internal affairs of the the idea of African unity and – partic- other” (ibid:12). This was also a basic ularly – of regional African unification principle of the OAU Charter. Howev- (e.g. the East African Community). er, the obligation of non-interference With consistent and logical argu- caused serious problems for Nyerere ments and never-ending enthusiasm, and a crisis of credibility for the OAU he promoted the idea of unity even in the 1978–9 war between Tanzania before independence, and he urged and Uganda. the (heterogeneous) states to agree on Since 1971, Nyerere had protested a minimum consensus, for the sake of publicly against the ethnic cleansing a “movement for African unity”. For and killings Amin directed against Nyerere, the Tanganyikan process of Asian business people and against nation building – Ujamaa socialism educated people in general, saying – went hand in hand with an African that the OAU had failed to stop the process of regionalisation with the aggression. Very saddening for him aim of unification. This was unlike was the fact that other countries gave the Ghanaian leader Nkrumah, who military support to Uganda. For in- fought ideologically for a united Af- stance, Libya was supplying arms rica and an immediate political union and troops to Amin’s forces. “Amin in a time of a very diverse colonially- was an abominable murderer of the dominated Africa. The following sto- people of Uganda; a turbulent menace ry shows Nyerere’s uncompromised to the peace of East Africa; a blatant commitment to unity and reliability: and bragging aggressor against Tan- “In 1960, just before this country be- zania… We are not sorry to be rid of came independent – I think I was then him” (Nyerere in Smyth and Seftel, chief minister – I received a delegation 1998:254–255). of Masai elders from Kenya, led by an Nyerere’s last great unity struggle American missionary. And they came was to save the Tanzanian Union. In to persuade me to let the Masai invoke 1994, there was increasing pressure something called the Anglo-Masai Agreement so that that section of the within the CCM to adopt a proposal
73 that would see three governments – active member of the global community. Union, Mainland and Zanzibar – in- (Mazrui in Mwakikagile, 2002:362) stead of two (Union and Zanzibar), as After Nyerere’s death in 1999, and recommended in 1992 by the Nyalali in the context of numerous obituar- Commission. ies that reviewed his life’s work and The survival of the structure of the his political leadership, a series of Union is a tribute to Nyerere’s per- critical – even polemical – comments sonal stubbornness to guarantee the appeared. The two examples below political stability of the country and cover the basic approaches of such the region. He further explained and criticism. demonstrated to everyone in Tan- • “Nyerere has one glaring weakness: zania (and abroad) the possibility of he does not always practice what he combining and cohering different cul- preaches. And what he does prac- tural and religious lifestyles. His idea tice has brought Tanzania few vis- of peaceful nation building took root; ible benefits. His 17 million people the policy of unity, in spite of many have adhered to his socialistic doc- conflicts in history and those still to trine for two decades and at the end come, is a great achievement. The of the rainbow have found only an empty pot.” (Lamb, 1986:67) present leadership in Tanzania hon- ours this approach. At Mwalimu’s fu- • “Nyerere left a bankrupt country be- cause of his misconceived policies of neral, then-President Benjamin Mka- Ujamaa, which resulted in forcible pa pledged himself to the Tanzanian collectivisation of peasants.” (Tony consensus and to “stay the course” Leon, then-leader of South Africa’s with Nyerere: Democratic Party, quoted by S. L. “He built a united nation with a vision Chachage in the University of Dar of equality and respect across racial, es Salaam Newsletter (2000)) religious, tribal and gender divides. Until this day, the union between Tan- ganyika and Zanzibar remains an With Nyerere and beyond Nyerere: enduring example of African unity. ethical leadership matters We shall defend and strengthen this Nonetheless, Nyerere managed to union with all our might. (Mkapa in start the transformation of a capital- Mwakikagile, 2002:399) ist society into a socialist one. Jack- Ali Mazrui, political philosopher, col- son and Rosberg (1982) evaluated league and ever-critical intellectual the first decade of the Tanzanian ex- friend to Nyerere, summarised his periment and stated that Nyerere’s dedication in the essay, “Nyerere and mastery,“not only of a rhetoric na- I”: ture”, helped make these fundamen- “Nyerere’s policies of nation building tal changes understood by the “ordi- amount to a case of unsung heroism. nary man” and that the Leadership With wise and strong leadership, and Code contributed to building a less with brilliant policies of cultural in- privileged political elite: tegration, he took one of the poorest countries in the world and made it a Members of this elite have been given proud leader in African affairs and an less latitude to acquire wealth through
74 politics than the elites of less puritani- of peace, progress and development” cal regimes… The diminution of class (ibid:6). Nyerere’s fight against the divisions, however, means not only less three enemies – poverty, ignorance economic exploitation by progressive and disease – continues to this day. farmers and entrepreneurs, but also a decrease in the material contribution that their pursuit of wealth could make Nyerere stood for peace and he deep- to Tanzanian’s economy (ibid:231). ly detested corruption and exploita- tion as evils and vices. Many of his countrymen and women still do so to- Nyerere supported multiparty politics day. Globally, it seems that this group as he was committed to social devel- is growing since the recent financial opment which included a decent eco- crisis and the appearance of the ugly nomic growth based on a policy of so- face of “predatory capitalism” (Hel- cial justice and equality and related to mut Schmidt). Nowadays, big world a policy of self-reliance with a strongly leaders (Obama, Hu Jintao) demand controlled “social market” economy. more control, accountability and re- He rejected capitalism as “inhuman” liability, as well as a new culture of and his vision was a world of “human good leadership, in order to cope with equality”, the dream for so many who the global threats of poverty, global still deeply believe in human rights warming, etc. and solidarity.
The present discussion in Tanza- Willy Brandt, chairman of the Social nia about a new leadership code, Democratic Party of Germany (Sozial- launched by President Kikwete last demokratische Partei Deutschlands, year, can be seen partly as a “renais- SPD) until 1987 and German Chan- sance“ of Nyerere’s leadership code – cellor who served as president of the as his legacy; but it can also be seen in Socialist International (SI) from 1976 terms of a new policy of adjustment to until shortly before his death in 1992, contemporary societal developments remained politically influential and, under a “free market policy”. This is like Nyerere, he did not give up the a clear signal to strengthen the fight “dream” of more solidarity and glo- against corruption. “We … will define bal justice for all. In May 1985, the the conduct of business persons who two icons met again in Bonn, Germa- want to take political positions. The ny, where Brandt honoured Nyerere, idea is to avoid conflict of interests whom he had known for two dec- on the part of business persons hold- ades, as “an outstanding friend and ing political positions”, explained the comrade in the struggle for social jus- President at a leadership forum on tice, peace and human rights” (FES, social justice in 2009 (Kikwete in FES, 1985: 5). Brandt closed his statement 2009). “The call for ethical behaviour by addressing their “great friend, the to leaders and public servants is now teacher of the people of Tanzania”, being heard more than ever before who “all his life [had] been in the throughout the continent. …people forefront of those who have struggled are tired of corrupt leaders”, stated to overcome the obstacles in the way 75 Kikwete, specifically addressing the We wish all Tanzanians, and partic- young leaders in the region, his firm ularly the President, good luck and proclamation striking a chord with success in the implementation of a them: “Some of the critical values in new leadership code with the right le- the political leadership endeavour gal proceedings, all forms of endorse- which I believe are key to your suc- ment and adequate law enforcement. cess as leaders include: integrity, Mwalimu, were he here with us today, service, honesty, credibility, responsi- would probably nod vigorously to sig- bility, respect, dedication, teamwork, nal support and he would probably be innovativeness, loyalty, dependability, proud of his “political son” Kikwete. sociability, learning and flexibility. If The 2010 elections are just around you adhere to these values the like- the corner. The push for ethical lead- lihood that you will succeed in your ership is gaining momentum. leadership career is very high” (ibid.)
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76 Mmuya, Max (1998). Tanzania Political Nyerere Julius K. (1977). Nyerere on Reform in Eclipse: Crises and Cleavages Socialism. Oxford University Press: in Political Parties. Friedrich Ebert Stif- Tanzania. tung: Tanzania. Scheidtweiler, Thomas and McDonald, Nyerere, Julius K. (1966). Freedom and Thomas (eds.) (1997). Higher Education Unity. Oxford University Press: Tanzania. in East Africa, Katholischer Akadem- ischer Auslaender Dienst: Bonn. Nyerere, Julius K. (1968). Freedom and Socialism. Oxford University Press: Smyth, Annie and Seftel, Adam (eds.) Tanzania. (1998). Tanzania: The Story of Julius Nyerere through the Pages of DRUM. Nyerere, Julius K. (1973b). “President’s Fountain Publishers Ltd.: Uganda. report” TANU Conference Proceedings, September 1973. Government Printer: Tanzania.
Notes
77 Notes
78 Assessment of poverty strategies; where are we?
By: Mr. Ntime Mwalyambi, Vice President´s Office
At the heart of mankind’s every ex- transformation to adjust and conform perience is the desire to survive and to the rigid national guidelines and prosper. Everyone wants to live with- priorities. out fear, hunger or suffering. Every- Some of these changes seriously af- one would like to dream about how fected the economy and resulted in a life could be better and to have the gradual and protracted decline of all means to change it. At all levels, as an growth indicators during the 1970’s individual, a family, a community and and 1980’s. Since then the country a nation at large, we all strive to have has recovered significantly through the power to decide on our destiny. the implementation of various struc- Poverty is a condition where a person tural adjustments and restructuring or community lacks the essentials for programmes led by the government upholding even the minimum stand- with the help of the donors. ards of well-being. Poverty can be Tanzania’s first PRS (Poverty Reduc- understood in different ways. It can tion Strategy) covered a three-year be the lack material resources such period from 2000 to 2003. In June as food, safe drinking water and shel- 2003, before the strategic term was ter. It can also be the lack of social re- completed in October 2003, the Tan- sources such as access to information, zanian government examined the education, health care, social status, outcomes of the PRS and decided to political power and the opportunity to continue with poverty reduction as develop meaningful connections with the first priority in its development other people in the society. goals. Since October 2003, the Tanza- 50 years ago Tanzania was one of the nian government has revised the PRS poor countries in sub-Saharan Africa through a series of consultations with and, unfortunately, this is still the case various stakeholders. The revised PRS today. Reducing poverty has been one was called NSGRP and was presented of the major goals since independ- to the parliament in June 2005. ence. Government efforts to address After the PRS was formulated, various poverty date back to the late 1960’s poverty monitoring activities were as is apparent from the wide range conducted which produced data and of policy documents and processes. information related to poverty. The In the course of the years the coun- outcomes showed that there were a try’s social, political and economic number of contradictions in relation institutions have undergone a drastic to the progress made in poverty re-
79 duction. While school enrolment in- 85 per cent of the country’s poor peo- dicators showed impressive progress ple live in rural areas and rely on ag- and vaccination rates, road indicators riculture as their main source of in- had also improved, most of the sur- come and livelihood. vival indicators did not show any im- The Household Budget Survey of provement. The participatory poverty 2000/01 shows that 20 per cent of assessment showed that governance, rural people live in extreme poverty macro-economic conditions and the and about 39 per cent are considered environment are the factors which poor. Within the agriculture sector, had contributed to general impover- food crop producers are generally ishment (Impoverishing Forces) and poorer than cash crop farmers, but that HIV/AIDS was the most severe both operate under cyclical and struc- factor for impoverishing individuals tural constraints and are subject to and households. frequent natural calamities (drought But the increasing need for resources and flooding), and lack market link- to address the challenges of a grow- ages, inputs, credit and irrigation wa- ing population in urban areas and the ter. Income inequality for rural areas deterioration of the terms of trade for has remained more or less constant agricultural products poses a huge and is rooted in inequitable access to challenge to the government’s pover- productive assets including land, fi- ty eradication efforts. Research on the nancial services, livestock and educa- impact of health services shows that tion. According to the poverty profile charging fees reduces poor people’s survey of rural households, the per- access to health services. centage of the rural population pro- The incidence of poverty varies greatly ducing food for home consumption across the country but is high among has dropped by 10 per cent in the last rural families living in arid and semi- decade. Few rural households have arid regions that depend exclusively access to safe drinking water, prima- on livestock and food crops produc- ry education and medical treatment. tion. The people of the central and There is also clear evidence that pov- northern highlands are nutritionally erty increases with the distance from the most deficient, while the coastal markets, drinking water supplies and and southern highlands zone register health clinics. the most severe levels of poverty. At the centre of all these efforts there Rural poverty in the country has been is a need to increase the growth rate halved in the period from 1985 to of the economy. This is mentioned by 2001. At present about 38 per cent of scholars as the means to pull people people living in rural areas are classi- out of poverty. Although there are fied as poor. This progress is reflected countless efforts to fight poverty at in the United Nations Development all levels, addressing the emerging Programme’s Human Development obstacles to development is a huge Index for Tanzania, which rose from challenge. It is evident that the global 0.3 in 1991 to 0.4 in 2002. Neverthe- economic crisis is worsening the situ- less, poverty is still spreading. It is ation by hitting those sectors which generally a rural phenomenon: about had previously looked hopeful. 80 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT IN TANZANIA
Power Sharing in East Africa: Can it work for Zanzibar?
By: Bashiru Ally and Hanif Tuwa, University of Dar es Salaam
Introduction ing has been to restore waning po- litical legitimacy and sustain electoral The East African region has been liberal democracy by establishing a haunted by political conflicts, some of coalition government which includes great magnitude. These conflicts have the rivalling political parties, thereby generally emanated from political, creating a unified front. In East Afri- economic and social conditions. Some ca, Burundi, Rwanda and Kenya have have culminated in violent ethnic and implemented various styles of power religious clashes. In 1994, in Rwanda, sharing as a means to ending political the world witnessed genocide of un- strife. The aim of this paper is to ex- imaginable scale. The Burundi civil plore the possibilities and constraints war killed and displaced citizens and for using the power-sharing approach turned others into refugees. Recently, as an option for resolving the political Kenya witnessed a post-election crisis impasse which has impeded democ- which was largely spurred by issues of ratization efforts in Zanzibar. But first land ownership, rural and urban pov- we will give a brief overview of how erty and inequality, a crisis that tore power sharing works in some East apart grassroots communities and African partner states. claimed the lives of some 1,200 people. This conflict reflects the struggle for Power Sharing in East Africa power, survival and the accumulation of wealth taking place below the sur- The power-sharing mechanism has face amongst members of the Kenyan been applied in Rwanda, Burundi and political class. In recognition of this, Kenya to provide a solution to ethnic power sharing is gradually turning and political violence. It has been into a fashionable strategy to resolve considered to be an appropriate op- political rivalries in the East African tion for peaceful coexistence and con- region. The basic aim of power shar- flict resolution despite the differing
81 political objectives of the key actors constitutional provision is ambiguous (Nsabimana, 2005). Two approaches and can undermine the power-shar- to power sharing have been used in ing arrangement in a situation where East Africa, namely, the constitutional the President decides to declare war (Rwanda and Burundi) and ad hoc/ without prior consensus having been non-constitutional approaches (Ken- established in the cabinet. Without ya). consensus such a decision would not In Rwanda, the constitution makes an be in line with the approach of deci- explicit reference to power sharing sion making through consensus be- as a critical element in the process of tween political parties represented in rebuilding the ethnically divided so- the cabinet as provided by the Consti- ciety and establishing a sustainable tution itself. liberal democracy (Ndayizeye, 2004). In Burundi, the Constitution provides The constitution of Rwanda stipulates for power sharing with emphasis that: “Rwanda is a State governed on the ethnic aspect. A quota sys- by inter alia the rule of law, human tem is provided for by the constitu- rights, pluralistic democracy, equita- tion whereby the composition of the ble power sharing, tolerance and res- cabinet must be proportionate to the olution of issues through dialogue”. number of seats allocated to a po- Pursuant to Article 58 of the Constitu- litical party in the national assembly. tion, the President and the Speaker of Through this arrangement, the Hutus the Chamber of Deputies shall be from should not exceed 60 % of the seats different political parties. The cabinet and Tutsis should not exceed 40 % of members are selected from political the seats in the national assembly. In parties proportionate to the number addition, when the President appoints of seats they hold in the Chamber of the two Vice Presidents, s/he must Deputies. consider their political and ethnic ori- Furthermore, the constitution stipu- gin: one of the Vice Presidents must lates that the political party holding be from a different ethnic group from the majority of the seats in the Cham- that of the President. The First Vice ber of the Deputies should not have President is charged with the respon- members of the cabinet exceeding sibility of coordinating the adminis- half of the total number of cabinet trative and political affairs whereas ministers. However, there are some the Second Vice President is in charge ambiguous constitutional provisions of economic and social affairs. How- which can undermine checks and ever, the Constitution of Burundi does balances between the President and not specify clearly which of the Vice the Legislature and thereby pose a Presidents shall be from the ethnic threat to the legitimacy and effective- group different from the President. ness of the power sharing arrange- Even in the case where the President ment (Traniello, 2008). For example, dismisses the Vice President(s) from the constitution of Rwanda allows the office, it is required that the replace- President to declare war by just in- ment must be from the ethnic group forming the Parliament and he is not and political party whose member compelled to consult the cabinet. This has lost the post.
82 In the case of Kenya, the post-election ity, which fueled the post-election vio- crisis saw the international commu- lence in the first place, have not been nity and regional bodies stressing the sufficiently addressed. need for the main rival parties, name- ly the Orange Democratic Movement Can Power Sharing Work in Zanzi- (ODM) and the Party of National Unity bar? (PNU), to resolve their differences. In 2008, the two major parties formed Since the reinstatement of multiparty the National Unity Government fol- politics in Zanzibar in 1992, political lowing hard and serious negotiations conflict between the ruling party CCM which were successfully mediated by (Chama Cha Mapinduzi) and the main the former United Nations General opposition party CUF (Civic United Secretary Kofi Annan on behalf of Front) has characterized electoral the African Union. The rival parties politics. There have been sporadic managed to agree on how to parcel incidences of violence, hostilities and out posts in a new Cabinet equally mutual distrust and these continue to among their allies. While Kibaki’s undermine the credibility of demo- team retained most of the powerful cratic reforms in the isles. The efforts posts, including finance and foreign to resolve the inter-party conflicts in affairs, Odinga’s allies in the ODM got Zanzibar through dialogue have al- substantial cabinet posts including ways involved external and internal the new post of Prime Minister. Presi- actors. These negotiations resulted dent Kibaki appointed the opposition in two unsuccessful peace accords- leader Raila Odinga to the new post of “Muafaka I” of 1999 and “Muafaka Prime Minister. However, in the end, II” of 2001. Their implementation has when they could not entirely agree, failed to end the political impasse. Kibaki and Odinga decided to cre- Power sharing has been proposed as ate more ministries, expanding the alternative means to a rather delayed number from 34 to 42. process of conflict resolution, but The power-sharing approach to con- without any success. Taking into con- flict management and resolution in sideration these previous attempts to Burundi, Rwanda and Kenya have resolve the conflict in Zanzibar and achieved significant short-term gains the ongoing relationship between the including ending political violence, disputants, we believe that the power- restoring the basic political rights of sharing approach to conflict resolu- ordinary citizens and meeting the hu- tion is only feasible if the lost spirit of manitarian needs of the displaced. trust can be restored. As long as the For Kenya, however, the fundamental rival parties continue to distrust each changes that were expected to be im- other, as is the case now, the possi- plemented by the government of na- bilities of instituting and executing tional unity such as the constitutional power-sharing arrangements either review have been put on a very slow before the 2010 elections or after the track. More importantly, the highly elections remain improbable. charged issues of land ownership, The readiness of both parties to enter social exclusion, poverty and inequal- into direct dialogue as the approach
83 in the 2001 Muafaka II to resolving proval of the Zanzibaris themselves, the conflict created a situation where preferably through a referendum. Had violent confrontation was avoided and the CCM-NEC endorsed the ‘Muafaka’ this helped restore peace and social team’s recommendations, Zanzibar order. One would have expected the would have had a coalition govern- ‘spirit’ that enabled the two parties ment operational almost immediately to reach this peaceful settlement to (Peter and Sige, 2008). But following enable them to discuss the causes of CCM’s refusal to endorse the recom- conflict openly and honestly and thus mendations, CUF has maintained that agree on the way forward. The rival it would not engage in any more talks parties failed to respect the agree- on the matter (CUF, 2008b)1. ment as everyone focused on winning Power disparity between the two par- the 2005 elections (Heilman, 2004). ties is visible, with the ruling party of The prospects for power sharing are course drawing power from its con- very low due to lack of consensus on trol of policymaking processes and the root causes of the conflict. While institutions. The main decision-mak- CUF perceives election rigging as the ing organs, for example, the House root cause of the problems, CCM per- of Representatives is dominated by sistently denies it (Bakari, 2001; CUF, CCM which makes it less likely for a 2008a). This has significant impli- power-sharing model to pass if the cations for the prospects for power decision is left to the representatives sharing. One of the core issues for to legislate it. On the other side, CUF CUF has been the “Winner-Takes-It- lacks sufficient formal power over its All” electoral model because it denies counterpart to ensure that the latter CUF the opportunity to share power seriously and favourably responds to despite winning almost the same its demands, particularly to form a quantity of votes as CCM. On its part, coalition government. CCM used the negotiations (Muafaka I The other constraint to power shar- and Muafaka II) as a strategy to con- ing in Zanzibar relates to the respons- tain CUF’s outbursts rather than to es of the conflicting parties towards resolve conflict, and the prospects for each other. To achieve their goals, power sharing between them there- both CCM and CUF have been em- fore remains low. ploying strategies that have induced Experience from the two previous antagonistic rather than collabora- negotiations suggests that the ruling tive relationship and mistrust (Salim, party (CCM) sees the conflict as a ze- 2008). For example, in the course of ro-sum game, with a coalition govern- implementing the Muafaka II in 2002, ment seen as a loss. While CUF were CUF ridiculed the Presidential Com- pleased with the recommendations mission’s report and alleged that it arising from the bipartisan talks, was merely a cover-up for the state’s mainly the one calling for a coalition atrocious acts against its supporters government, the ruling party’s pow- erful National Executive Committee 1 The Secretary General of CUF, Mr Hamad, had (NEC) decided that it was wiser for the told the press that CCM were deliberately dan- gling a carrot through strategic engagement while government to seek the popular ap- prolonging the talks until election time without tackling the issue. 84 in 26th and 27th January 2001 (Heil- mocracy. One may ask the question: man, 2004:56) which severely dented Whose power to be shared, among the then much needed trust building. whom and for whose interest? For The other incident was preventing the us there is no power to share if those CUF presidential candidate, Maalim mandated to serve the Zanzibaris do Shariff Hamad, from registering to not behave responsibly and respon- vote for the 2005 general elections on sively. It is gratifying that the two rival grounds of residential requirements. parties understand that the peaceful This was translated as a scheme by settlement of their differences is the CCM to deprive Mr Hamad of the right only way to go. What is required for to run for the presidency, thereby re- the leadership of both parties is to get fuelling the antagonism between the committed to dialogue and to work two parties. Incidences of this nature hard to communicate their visions are witnessed even today. to their members. More importantly, In the Zanzibar conflict, the role of their visions must be shared and put the donors in the previous attempts into action. It is constructive dialogue at conflict resolution presents mixed built on mutual trust and respect that signals with regard to the prospect for can help Zanzibaris enjoy the fruits of power sharing as means for conflict democracy. Empty political rhetoric settlement. Since the highly disputed about power sharing may delay the 1995 general elections, the reactions efforts of those interested in building of the donors have differed signifi- democracy in Zanzibar. In fact, con- cantly and this has had implications structive dialogue among Zanzibaris for the process of conflict resolution. is a matter of urgency and necessity The coercive approach was used by and not a choice. It is a duty of all Zan- some Scandinavian countries and the zibaris, especially the young ones. European Union, especially after the 1995 general elections, and involved Bibliography the threat of suspending aid to Zan- zibar as an incentive for speedier Bakari, M.A. (2001), ‘The Democratiza- conflict settlement (Bakari, 2001). tion Process in Zanzibar: A Retarded Moreover, the marginal role of the do- Transition’, PhD Thesis, Hamburg: Insti- nors after the 2005 general elections, tute of African Studies. partly because many international ob- CUF (2008a), ‘Ukweli Unaofichwa na CCM servers as well as local monitors had kuhusu Mazungumzo ya Muafaka’, Civic certified them as free and fair (SADC, United Front: Dar es Salaam. 2005; EAC, 2005; TEMCO, 2005), has reduced pressure on CCM to speed CUF (2008b), ‘CUF Disappointed by CCM’s up the negotiation process, and this Rejection of Zanzibari Muafaka’, Kuru- makes the possibility of power shar- genzi ya Uenezi na Umma, Civic United ing highly unlikely. Front: Dar es Salaam. It is important to note that the delayed settlement of the political impasse has [online:http://hakinaumma.worldpress. significantly eroded the confidence of com /2008/08/08/cuf-disappointed-by- Zanzibaris in electoral multiparty de- ccms-rejection-to-zanzibari-muafaka/]
85 Republic of Kenya, Constitution of Kenya East Africa Community (EAC) (2005), ‘The (adopted in 1963, amended in 1999). EAC Observer Mission to Zanzibar Elec- tions: Report’, The EAC Mission: Arusha. Republic of Rwanda, The Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda of 2003. Heilman, B. (2004), “The Second Muafa- ka: A Ceasefire or Conflict Resolution?” in [Online: http://www.cjcr.gov.rw/eng/con- The African Review Vol.31, No. 1&2. stitution_eng.doc.]
Ndayizeye,D. (2004), ‘Promulgation de la Salim, S. S., ‘Historia ya Muafaka Bado Constitution de la République du Burun- Haijabadilika’ in Tanzania Daima, 6 April di’, International Documentation Network 2008. on the Great African Lakes Region. South African Development Community Nsabimana, C.G., 2005, The Concept of (SADC) (2005), ‘The Southern African Power Sharing in the Constitutions of Development Community Today’, Vol.8, Burundi and Rwanda, Masters Thesis, No.5. Faculty of Law, University Of Pretoria. [Online: https://www.up.ac.za/dspace/ TEMCO (2005), ‘Report Of the Tanzania bitstream/2263/1156/1/nsabimana_cg_1. Election Monitoring Committee on the pdf.] 2005 General Elections in Zanzibar’, Uni- versity of Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam. Peter, F. and L. Sige (2008), ‘Zanzibar: CCM Makes Premature Referendum Call’, Traniello, M. (2008), “Power-Sharing: Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Or- Lessons from South Africa and Rwanda”, ganization. International Public Policy Review 3(2), March 2008.
86 HOW CCM PROMOTES THE ACTIVE PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN THE POLITICAL ARENA
By: Hon. Hasna Mwilima, UWT National Secretary, Dar es Salaam
INTRODUCTION CCM did the same in the 2005 general elections, putting a special clause in In order to reach the Millennium its election manifesto promising that Goals, both SADC and the AU have women would be given special consid- put pressure on their member states eration. The President, Hon. Jakaya to include specific and decisive agen- Mrisho Kikwete, has been very keen das in their political and developmen- to live up to the CCM election manifes- tal programmes aimed at increasing to and he has appointed more women the number of women in political de- to government and party posts. As a cision making bodies at all levels in result, the level of women’s represen- society, from the local to the national tation in parliament under the fourth level, in order to achieve 50:50 par- phase government is 30%. ticipation of men and women by the year 2010. The National Executive Council (NEC) of Chama Cha Mapinduzi has declared The ruling party - Chama Cha Mapin- that the 50:50 target for women’s duzi - has always supported this dec- representation in parliament must laration by creating more conducive be reached in the coming 2010 gen- economic and political environments eral elections and it has directed all for women. This has resulted in a women members of the party to fully significant increase in the number prepare themselves to participate in of female ward representatives and the coming general elections and to female members of parliament since go for the leadership posts. the 1995 general elections. STRATEGIES In the 2000 general elections, CCM took steps to include the SADC and AU An analysis of the political and eco- declarations in its election manifesto, nomic environment shows positive reiterating that both presidential can- signs that the 50:50 target for wom- didates would implement the terms en’s participation in leadership will of the declaration by giving women be achieved easily for the following special priority in the presidential ap- reasons: pointments to be made during their term of office. 1. 52 per cent of the population of Tanzania are women and they support and need this change. 87 2. It is estimated that 68 per cent of ance reforms, UWT and Chama Cha the total number of eligible vot- Mapinduzi drew up a set of priorities ers prepared to turn up to vote on and planned a series of training pro- election day are women. grammes for the period 2005 – 2012.
3. More women are now educated The planned activities are intended on various matters pertaining to to encourage women to expose them- their development than in the pre- selves to information, evidence and vious elections, e.g. they are more the key components of leadership and aware and they no longer support governance, and to highlight the chal- the bad cultural traditions and lenges which hinder their political, negative taboos that favour men social and economic empowerment. more than women in society. The programme is specifically de- There is a remarkable increase in 4. signed to: self-confidence amongst women, particularly in matters related Increase the number of women to income generating activities • participating at different levels of which give them economic inde- leadership and decision making pendence. In other words, many bodies in order to reach a 50:50 women are nowadays engaged in ratio in the year 2010 as was various small businesses or they agreed by all SADC and AU mem- are employed in different fields of ber states work and they are therefore not totally economically dependent • Stimulate women’s participation on their husband’s income. in leadership and governance is- sues by emphasizing the impor- There is an increase in coopera- 5. tant role women can play in the tion and solidarity amongst wom- leadership of our nation and by en, politically, economically and addressing issues of ‘bad politics’ socially. (corruption, etc.) and by fighting 6. There is a visible and remarkable for a fair and ‘people-centred’ political will on the part of the politics leadership to spearhead gender Encourage women to demand ac- equality in decision making bod- • countability and concrete action ies both in the party and the gov- on the part of the government in ernment. addressing problems of political discrimination, dishonesty, fraud and human rights violations OBJECTIVE • Motivate women to be active agents for political and leader- In order to acknowledge the position ship transformation within com- of women in the development of our munities and at national level, nation and to improve and involve by addressing governance and women in leadership and govern- 88 leadership problems and encour- MPs elected from the aging all women to participate in House of Repre- development in order to break the sentatives of Zanzibar: 2 cycles of poverty, ignorance and MPs appointed by disease The Union’s President: 5 • Exchange ideas and experience MPs elected from the on training women political lead- constituencies: 17 ers MPs Special Seats: 75 ______TOTAL 98 The Nomination of Contestants
UWT is an affiliate of the ruling party Women Political and Leadership Em- and its leadership is democratically powerment elected every five years. CCM deals with women’s affairs. UWT is whole-heartedly determined to see that the SADC goal of a 50% The constitutions of CCM and UWT women’s representation/participa- give every member the right to vote tion in central and local government and to be elected to the leadership. leadership, in parliament and the Zanzibar House of Representatives is Those who meet the requirements reached by year 2010. normally fill in a form and are elected by the UWT members of particular Currently, women’s participation in area. After the polls, contestants are parliament and the House of Repre- screened by the party’s special po- sentatives is 30% while in local gov- litical committees before they are an- ernment it is 33%. nounced winners. Constitutionally, there has been a (A) The Current Women Representa- gradual increase in the percentage of tion in the Parliament women’s special seats in parliament. In the 1995 general elections 10% of The Constitution of the United Repub- the seats were designated as special lic of Tanzania, Clause 66 Section 1 women’s seats. The figure rose to (b) states that there shall be women 20% in the 2000 elections and now it MPs in the Parliament of the United is 30%. Republic of Tanzania. Their current number is 98, a representation of The data shows a gradual increase 30%.The breakdown is as follows: in women’s participation in leader- ship of 10% in each election period. Although the government and the National Executive Council (NEC) of CCM have vowed to reach the AU and SADC member states’ target of 50:50
89 men/women representation/partici- nia women with more scope to lead pation in leadership at the 2010 gen- themselves from ward-level to the na- eral elections, it is likely that the level tional level. CCM has created a spe- reached will be 40%, as the trend has cial category of seats (100 seats in all) been an increase of 10% in each of in different political groups as shown the three previous general elections. below.
UWT has lodged a special appeal to UWT Chair Person - 1 the President of the United Republic UWT Secretary General - 1 of Tanzania to continue considering Youth wing -11 women for leadership and appoint- ing women representatives to lead Disabled - 4 Government and parastatals when NGOs - 2 the opportunity arises. Women from higher learning institutions - 2 Training Programmes Women from employees association - 2 • Capacity building for women Representative from through their various networks Regions 3@26 -78 and organizations in order to ______overcome traditions, attitudes TOTAL 101 and behaviour that continue to discriminate against women The CCM manifesto for the 2005 general elections gives women more • Civic education for women that opportunities for leadership in politi- encourages them to participate cal/government positions and more equally with men in different elec- women have in fact been appointed tions and increase their aware- to various government and political ness of both their constitutional posts. and legal rights • Gender budgeting which ensures According to Millennium Develop- that budgets are fair to both men ment Goals, political decision making and women, thereby decreasing and participation by women play a the gender gap major role in the development of dif- ferent sectors. This has also encour- aged many women to stand in their constituents in order to achieve a rep- How to achieve 50:50 resentation of 50:50. At the moment there are 17 female MPS from the In order to achieve 50:50 of women constituencies. representation in leadership CCM and UWT are mobilizing women to engage Furthermore, as well as encouraging themselves in different leadership and women to take part in local regional decision making activities. Umoja wa and national elections, CCM created Wanawake wa also provides Tanza- 90 more chances for women to partici- contestants emerged winners and pate in the party leadership. For ex- became the chairpersons of CCM in ample, many women contested key two regions - Kagera and Kilimanjaro political leadership positions in the - and many more won in many dis- last party elections and two women tricts.
Notes
91 THE ROAD TO 2010 Yes, Democracy Should Guarantee Credible Elections By: Hon. Samuel Sitta (MP), Speaker of the Tanzanian National Assembly
The expression “free and fair elec- entrenchment of Tanzania’s emerging tions” strictly used refers to perfect democratic governance system. elections, though some would ar- gue that no election anywhere in the As such, it is crucial that at election world can really be free and fair. times debates are shaped and based on issues, not personalities. While im- They would say that it is therefore bet- pressed with the growing civic and po- ter to consider free and fair elections litical awareness in the country since as referring to the quality of elections the advent of multi-partyism in 1992, in which the will of the people can there has always been call for room be expressed. The coming election in for improvement. Former President 2010 is as important in the evolution Benjamin Mkapa also commented in of the democratic process in Tanza- the past that one room that can never nia as the 2005 election was, with the get full is the room for improvement. qualities that can render it a free and fair contest. It appears that lessons are being learnt from previous elections even Recent elections in Tanzania have though there were hiccups ahead of received a clean bill of health from the recent October 25 civic elections. observers and citizens, save for cases The need for timely registration was where Zanzibar political leaders have important ahead of the recent elec- contested the results, making allega- tions and it still as vital for next year’s tions of illegalities against the winners 2010 general election. of the presidency and of non-compli- ance with the electoral laws against Timely registration gives the politi- the Electoral Commission. Whether cal parties more time to organise and their cries were legitimate or not must carry out their campaigns. The ruling be determined by the court of law. party and the opposition parties are thus able to present their candidates With less than a year to go, it is now in several constituencies for the presi- no secret that Tanzania will be hold- dential and parliamentary elections. ing its next rounds of elections soon. The local level elections ran on 25th Whether the recent half turn-out for October this year, while the general registration was a result of innocent elections are slated for October 2010. ignorance on the part of the civil- Both of these are very important ians, or not, it could have a direct and processes in the consolidation and 92 negative impact on the quality of the out voter education both on mainland elections. and Zanzibar, and is able to secure and deliver electoral materials on time. It One major challenge for the electoral must procure good quality items such reform process in many African coun- as ink that cannot be washed out of tries is the “inherent bias for continu- paper. Funds for the EC’s work must ity” as the ruling party, which usually also be released in good time. has a clear majority in parliament, may have a vested interest in the sta- According to Moses Kulaba, director tus quo. of Agenda 2000, activities like updat- ing the voter register and voter edu- Even in developed democracies, it is cation should not be tied to any par- somewhat unusual for ruling parties ticular elections. He suggests that the that benefit from existing systems to EC therefore needs a standing budget sponsor changes that would weaken not tied to any particular elections to their advantage. This, however, is be able to carry out its functions. part of the cost of democracy - it has to be paid. In the last three election cycles, Tan- zania has had different sets of elec- Such lessons provide precedents from toral laws for each round of election. which the Electoral Commission, Par- All these laws have been debated and liament, the Executive, political par- passed ahead of major elections. ties, civil society and the media have to set the ball rolling for 2010. Now Just some 11 months before the 2010 is the time for political parties to ef- general elections, in January, the Par- fectively and meaningfully engage the liament will overhaul the laws govern- electorate. ing elections, the conduct of political parties and leadership ethics to curb Even though some political scientists graft, foul play and excessive use of may see it as rather idealistic to ex- money during elections. pect and hope for free and fair elec- tions per se in Africa, it is still very It was in the 17th parliamentary ses- important in the context of Tanzania sion when the Minister of State re- to have quality elections, which can sponsible for policy and parliamentary be accepted as expressing the will of affairs, Mr Philip Marmo, announced the people. that bills proposing changes to the Elections Act of 1985 and the Political The outcome of the 2010 October gen- Parties Act of 1992, would be moved eral elections should show no flaws as in the January National Assembly far as their compliance with elector- session. al laws is concerned. They must not compromise the principles of a free “The bills will be tabled in January and fair election. (2010) in order to give ample time to the government to draw up rules and Although some might view the issues regulations governing the proposed as trivial, it is important that the Na- laws, well ahead of the next General tional Electoral Commission carries Elections,” he said. 93 He said the government expects the mum amount of money to be spent by various stakeholders to discuss the political parties and their candidates proposed changes in the laws govern- in elections, saying the matter would ing the conduct of elections and lead- be determined by stakeholders. ership ethics extensively. The government formed a team of ex- The law would also prohibit politi- perts to work on a bill on leadership cal parties and individual aspirants code. The team comprised officials in elections from obtaining external from the Prevention and Combating funds to finance campaigns. of Corruption Bureau, the Attorney General’s Office, the Registrar of Po- In a move designed to facilitate an litical Parties, the Leadership Ethics even playing field, the government Secretariat and the National Electoral would provide security to all presi- Commission. dential candidates and their running mates as well as giving them airtime “The team has accomplished its mis- and space in public-owned media. sion and submitted recommendations The state would also pay due allow- to the government. The two bills are ances to agents of political parties now at the Government’s Printer and during elections. will soon be circulated for public de- bate,” he said. The government would overhaul the Public Leadership Code Act of 1995 The proposed laws would enhance in a move designed to separate poli- morality, ethics, and discipline and tics and business to avoid conflicts help other related laws to be en- of interest in public offices. As part forced. of the proposed changes on elections funding, the Registrar of Political Par- The passing of these laws as early as ties would be given more powers to possible is seen to be essential for the monitor political parties and their as- EC and the candidates to have suf- pirants. ficient time to prepare for the elec- tions. “Political parties and their respective aspirants should specify to the Reg- Other measures would to curb voter istrar the amount of money they will intimidation and harassment and per- spend on elections and sources of the haps control the wholesale involve- money,” he explained. ment of the military in the electoral process as this has always created a A team of experts visited Mozambique, spirit of fear, anxiety and unrest in Botswana, Lesotho, South Africa and Tanzania’s neighbouring countries Zambia to study how those countries during election time. monitor and control election financ- ing and the findings of the team have Real democracy requires free and been incorporated into the Bill. fair elections. The basic minimum requirements for such elections in- Mr Marmo, however, said that the Bill clude: an independent, transparent, had not specified a minimum or maxi- accountable and impartial election
94 body, freedom of expression, move- attaining sustainable socio-economic ment and assembly, an atmosphere development in the country and a cul- free from violence, harassment and ture of respect for the country to face intimidation. yet another election that qualifies as free and fair in 2010. All the above call for political will, democratic leadership committed to Notes
95 “The Code of Conduct for Political Parties in Tanzania” By: Zakia Stephano, Office of the Registrar of Political Parties, Dar es Salaam
1.0 Introduction petition amongst political parties as part of the democratization process. This paper scrutinizes the concept of The winds of change blew from out- political parties, their background, side. Different external forces made rights and responsibilities, how the the adoption of multiparty politics Code of Conduct for Political Parties necessary. The main driving force was came into existence, the acceptable the serious demand made by the ma- Code of Conduct for Political Parties, jor financial institutions for the intro- recommendations and the way for- duction of the multiparty democracy, ward. but the economic crisis faced by the developing countries after the decline 2.0 Background of political parties of the socialist block also played a sig- in Tanzania nificant role. In addition, the one par- ty political system was seen to pose a It should be borne in mind that multi- number of problems. Hence the call party democracy is not new to Tanza- for a democratization movement in nia. For a few years after independ- developing countries like Tanzania ence there was non-active multiparty was inevitable1. democracy with a number of regis- tered political parties. These parties 3.0 The Rights of Political Parties included Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), United Tanganyika The political parties in Tanzania play Party (UTP), African National Con- a vital role in promoting democracy: gress (ANC) and All-Muslim National their fundamental role is to enhance Union of Tanganyika (AMNUT). In harmony and peace within the demo- Zanzibar there were the Afro Shiraz cratic state. Thus, in order to achieve Party (ASP), People’s Convention Par- their objectives the registered politi- ty (PCP), African Independence Move- cal parties in Tanzania are accorded ment (AIM) and People’s Democratic the following significant rights2 Party (PDP). Multiparty politics as it • The right to provide civil educa- is known today came into existence tion during general elections in around July 1992 after the Constitu- tion of the United Republic of Tanza- 1 Pius Msekwa;(2007) “The First Decade of Multi- nia was amended to accommodate Party Politics in Tanzania 2nd Ed; Plus International changes which would allow fair com- Ltd; Dar es Salaam” 2 The Code of Conduct for Political Parties in Tanzania of 2007 96 conformity with the laws of the and enforced by the law. The Code of country Political Parties was proposed and • The right to organize a lawful enacted through the Prime Minister’s procession without violating the Office in collaboration with the Centre regulations and the laws of the for Democracy (TCD) which played a land vital role in the process3. • The right to hold a political rally in accordance with the laws of the 5.0 The Code of Conduct for Politi- country cal Parties • The right to participate in general elections conducted in accord- The code of conduct refers to an ac- ance with the electoral laws and ceptable standard of practices that to receive information and re- the political parties have to adhere sults from the same election to in order to avoid the violation of national peace and security. The po- 4.0 How the Code of Conduct for litical parties are not allowed to un- Political Parties came into opera- dertake any political activity which tion is not in conformity with the Code of Conduct which they have signed. Co- Progression from a single party to ordination of lawful procession: the multiparty system culminated in a political parties should never resort to number of problems as a result of the undertaking unlawful strikes or pro- misconduct of political parties in Tan- cessions; the political parties have the zania. It was inevitable that the need duty to comply with and obey orders to have laws and regulations in such on how a given procession should be a fast growing multiparty democracy undertaken. If there is any order in would arise. An attempt to establish force in the localities through which an effective legal instrument to regu- the procession will pass the political late the activities of political parties parties have to comply with the re- was made before the General Election striction unless exempted by the con- of 2005: the Prime Minister’s Office, cerned authority. representing the electoral Commis- Upholding discipline and respect: sion, concluded the Code of Conduct political parties have the obligation for Political Parties so as to control to respect and implement common activities of political parties in the agreements and decisions adopted General Election of 2005. However, by other political parties. The Code of the Code lacked legal enforcement. Conduct requires the political parties It is indisputable that it is a hard task to take all necessary measures to up- for political parties to operate under hold a high degree of discipline and an uncontrolled legal framework. The respect in the party, amongst candi- Registry Office for the Political Parties dates’ representatives, employees or therefore called upon the stakehold- supporters. ers to discuss the mechanism for pre- paring the Code of Conduct for politi- cal parties which would be recognized 3 The Code of Conduct for political parties of 2007 97 Observation of traffic regulations: the he/she pursues selfish or discrimina- Code for Political Conduct requires tory policies, or engages in activities the political parties in a lawful pro- detrimental to national unity, peace cession to undertake the duty of en- and stability” 4 suring the traffic regulations and laws are observed to the highest possible 6.0 Recommendations and the way standard during the procession and forward necessary steps are to be taken to en- sure that there is no hindrance to the The following key actions are recom- flow of traffic. mended in the Code of Conduct for Observation of the duty of confidenti- Political Parties in order to attain the ality: the Code of Conduct requires the expected goals of the Code. The Code political parties to undertake meas- should undergo legal reform to en- ures which assure the voters that the hance its role as an effective mecha- voting process is carried out in a con- nism to political activities in the fol- fidential manner and the integrity of lowing aspects: the ballot will be maintained to the extent that no one will be allowed to The Code must condemn and prevent know how another person has exer- any of the following acts: (i) any act cised the voting right. Thus, a high which undermines the rights of any degree of secrecy in the voting proc- person or other political parties (ii) ess is not only a mandatory require- the use of insulting words during po- ment but also the acceptable standard litical campaigns (iii) the use of force of ethical conduct in politics. so as to gain popularity from the gen- Upholding National Unity and secu- eral public (iv) corrupt practices dur- rity: national unity is important for ing elections (vi) the use public prop- peace and stability. The political par- erty such as public vehicles, buildings, ties should uphold peace and security and fund to undermine other political during political rallies by conducting parties during the general elections. activities without violating the laws of the country. Thus the political parties The Code should enhance politi- play a vital role in uniting citizens re- cal tolerance: every effort should be gardless of their political differences made to promote political tolerance when it comes to matters of national among the parties during election. concerns. Emphasizing the impor- The parties which lose an election tance of maintaining political stabil- should accept the results and respect ity, President Jakaya Kikwete said, the winning party. In addition, politi- cal parties must not destroy, disfig- “I should like us to reach a stage where ure or remove other political parties’ our national values and ethos are so campaigning materials during the entrenched that any political leader, of campaigning process. any political party; any leader of a vol- untary association or trade union; any 4 Speech by the President of the United Republic leader of a professional association or of Tanzania, His Excellency Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete, any other organization, would resign on inaugurating the fourth phase Parliament of immediately upon it being proven that the United Republic of Tanzania, Parliament Build- ings, Dodoma, 30 December 2005 98 Avoiding abuse of power: the Code The Code of Conducts of Political Parties proposes that ministers should not of 2007 make use of any advantage provided by their office, such as combining Books their official visits with election cam- Hellsten S.K & Lwaitama A.F (2004), Civic paigning.. This implies that ministe- Ethics Handbook for Development; Ethics rial power or executive power should and Reflective Civic Skills for Democracy, not be imposed against other political Oxford University Press, Dar es Salaam parties with less power. In addition, the Code suggests that public places Nyerere, J.K (1995), Our Leadership and and resources should not be monopo- the Destiny of Tanzania, African Publish- lized and all parties should be allowed ing Group, Harare Zimbabwe to use the resources equally. Pius Msekwa;(2007) “The First Decade of The Code should promote gender Multi-Party Politics in Tanzania 2nd Ed; balance and equality between men Plus International Ltd; Dar es Salaam” and women’s participation in the de- Shivji, I.G (2006). Let the People Speak; mocratization process. The Code of Tanzania Down the Road to Neo-colonial- Conduct for Political Parties does not ism CODESRIA, Dakar. accept any form of discrimination be it on the basis of tribe, gender, reli- Journals, Papers, Articles and Speeches gion and race. Speech by the President of the United The Code should give the political Republic of Tanzania, His Excellency Ja- parties the duty of making sure that kaya Mrisho Kikwete, on inaugurating eligible candidates and voters are the fourth phase Parliament of the United not prevented from taking part in the Republic of Tanzania, Parliament Build- ings, Dodoma, 30 December 2005 election process and that their sup- porters are encouraged to vote for the Majtenyi, Cathy, “With Election Days parties they wish and they must avoid Away, Tanzanians Say Some Poll Problem any conduct which discourages or Remain” Dar es Salaam, 25 October2005 compels the voters not to participate in lawful election in their localities. Professor G. Mgongo Fimbo &Professor Athuman J. Liviga (2008) “Deepening De- mocracy in Tanzania Programme, Dar es References Salaam
Statutes Internet sources
The Political Parties Act of 1992 http;//www.ippmedia.com/ipp/guard- ian/2008/08/24/12115.html The Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania of 1977 as amended from time to time
99 Youth Participation in Politics in Tanzania: Opportunities and Impediments
By: Israel Ilunde, Youth Partnership Countrywide, Kibaha, Tanzania
Introduction and background are required, if we are to make use of them. This is what my colleagues in It is now 17 years since the re-in- development and I wish to propound troduction of the multiparty system in the near future. in Tanzania yet youth participation in politics is still weak. Some of the The purpose of this presentation political parties do not have a func- therefore is to provoke a debate on tional youth organization structure. the factors that hinder active partici- Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) is a pation in politics. The paper will also case in point. The parties have, how- identify available and potential op- ever, established youth desks but they portunities which can be utilized by are manned by one person only. Al- youth to influence public decisions, though there also other impediments, particularly those which affect their party structures and the type of open- lives. Before I embark on the central ings they offer for youth participation discussion, here are some key defini- may play a significant negative role in tions. youth participation in politics. It is basically bad news that almost Definitions no young people participate in politics and decision-making bodies and this Youth, participation, politics raises fears about our common future. It may very well sound as though the The concept of youth varies from one young generation has already been de- community to another depending on feated in its fight for rights, responsi- customs and traditions, social behav- bilities and power. However, the good iour and their location (Ministry of news is that it is not too late for the Labour and Youth Development 1996 present young generation to bridge p.1). While the United Nations defines the political gap which has been cre- youth as those persons within the age ated in the course of decades at the bracket of 15 to 24 years, in Uganda expense of youth. Although there are youths are defined as all young- per obvious obstacles which prevent the sons, female and male, aged between political empowerment of the youth, 12 to 30 years (The Republic of Ugan- there are also opportunities at our da p.12). disposal. However, strategic thinking, active and meaningful participation Some scholars have defined youth under a more inclusive framework as a period between childhood and 100 adulthood (Collins, in Osei- Hwedie, acknowledged voices (Slocum, R et al 1990). At its most simplistic, the defi- 1995 p 4-5). In addition to this, “ it is nition of youth is that found in the Ox- worth emphasizing at the outset that ford dictionary which defines youth current notions of youth participation as the time between childhood and form part of a wider debate about full maturity. popular participation” Midglej et al No matter how divergent are the defi- (1986 p.12). Therefore seen from this nitions of youth, what remains at the angle, the issue of youth participation core is that “this is a period of great makes it possible for youth to discuss emotional, physical and psychological issues concerning their political par- changes that require societal support ticipation in order to construct the for a safe passage from adolescent to Tanzania they would like to have. full adulthood” (Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development 2001 Politics is any activity which in- p.12). volves power and influence, Leftwich As far as policy is concerned, Tanza- (2004). nia defines youths as persons aged between 15 and 35 (National Youth The current position of youth in Policy 2007: 10). I agree with this politics definition and it will therefore serve as the working definition in this pres- As I went through various pieces of entation. Let me add, however, that literature I observed a number of youths are energetic people who are concurring voices: youth has been, enthusiastic, visionary and have new and is still, marginalized in decision ideas. They are expected to live long- making circles. In its 2008 annual re- er than previous generations so the port, MS Tanzania clearly states that future of any society relies on them. “at present, youth are politically and And society expects them to bring economically marginalized in Tanza- about a much better future for all. nia, thus they have no or little say in decision making or conditions that The World Bank in UNDP (2001) affect their lives” (MS Tanzania 2008 defines participation as processes p.7). The same claim was made in the through which stakeholders influence Ugandan national youth policy where and share control over development it is stated that “the trend analysis initiatives and decisions which affect of involvement and participation in them. When we talk of youth participa- leadership and decision making since tion we are simply talking about em- independence shows that the youth powering youth to voice their points were mostly marginalized and their of view and ensuring that their views involvement seen only as beneficiar- are heard and acknowledged. “We ies of programmes/services rather regard the empowerment of youth as than as active participants in the de- a process through which youth iden- velopment process” (The Republic of tify and shape their lives and the kind Uganda, 2001 p.9). of society in which they live. This is simply to amplify the traditionally un-
101 Youth participation in politics: op- ants or labourers, (Nelson, N and portunities and impediments Wright S 1995). In spite of the vari- ous policy, legal and institutional re- Inadequate civic competence forms in Tanzania, the country seems to lack an independent and impartial Civic competence is a result of con- mechanism or framework to support tinued exposure, training and inter- youth empowerment and participa- action on issues, processes and skills tion in politics. related to civic and political life. The central theme remains to be civic ed- Although there are several youth or- ucation which provides citizens with ganizations and groups within civil the ability to engage in public life. society, it is still unclear as to how Civic awareness and information pro- they are represented in formal deci- vide people with the power to enter sion making bodies from local level to a political road. Informed citizens are national level. Those few who were better equipped to take advantage of successful in climbing the political opportunities, exercise their rights ladder up to parliamentary and coun- and hold the state accountable. cil levels have no feedback platforms In Tanzania, civic education is not a except their tight links with the po- sustained exercise. It is done during litical parties which sponsored their election years and up to central elec- seats in parliament and in local gov- tions in particular. The worst thing ernment. is that such education is offered in Tanzania is one of the Commonwealth green rooms where pre-selected par- countries south of the Sahara which ticipants are invited and paid allow- does not have a national youth council ances. Youth, the majority of whom to unite youth and help young people cannot access this kind of informa- raise their voices and channel their tion, is left unseen in the mainstream. ideas to influence public decisions. I think that it is always important to This is an indication that youth is in- remember: “Any society which ne- adequately represented in decision glects its youth and forgets its com- making and is only passively involved munities must as well forget its fu- in politics. How we are to prepare our ture.” (Mufune et al., 1990). future leadership is an obvious chal- lenge! Nnauye in Kabwe & Ilunde Lack of a proper mechanism and (2003 p.108) observe that “In some framework for youth empower- years to come, this nation will have ment and participation very poor leaders and will be in great danger due to a leadership crisis.” Although Tanzania has adopted the concept of participation with the best However, I must acknowledge the of intentions, it is supposed to em- historical work done by the Kivukoni power the weakest and the poorest College which used to prepare youth such as the youth and it is therefore leaders who since became the strong a pity to learn that youth are involved past and current politicians. This was simply as passive recipients, inform- possible during a single party regime
102 but today we need more initiatives Only young people themselves can and a different style. properly describe the kind of life Tanzania should be proud of the Frie- hardships they encounter on a daily drich Ebert Stiftung (FES) which cur- basis - poor education, lack of em- rently runs a Youth Leadership Train- ployment and their inability to create ing Programme (YLTP) which has jobs. They must be provided with the produced several members of par- opportunity and forum to do so. liament (MPs), district commission- It seems logical that a hungry young ers, various chief executives and top person does not dare to participate officials in both the public sector and in any political activity. Therefore civil society. unemployment and other hardships In Uganda all youth is united in the endanger political growth and the ex- National Youth Council which elects pansion of democracy. representatives to serve at various decision making levels, including the Legal and policy impediments parliament. Youth in schools are or- ganised in the Ugandan National Stu- In as far as elections are concerned dent Association (UNSA). participation in a democratic political Decision making bodies which sit and system is about inclusion; about giv- decide on plans and budgets need ing all citizens an equal opportunity to take youth on board as primary to participate in elections and elec- stakeholders. It is a matter of fact that toral processes as voters, candidates nobody knows more about their life or electoral administrators. Therefore experience and hardships than the I wonder why there should there be youth themselves (Nelson and Wright age limits in connection with contest- 1995). ing a political post. While the voting age is 18 years, a parliamentary post cannot be contested by persons of less Youth poverty and unemployment than 21 years of age and the presi- dential post by persons of less than Youth constitutes 68 percent of the 40 years. labour force in Tanzania and young Along with fellow youth activists I people face a number of problems. wonder why the constitution permits The potential of youth is tragically such confusion. If we say that a per- wasted because of high unemploy- son of 18 years is an adult and legally ment or underemployment. In some allowed to vote, why is such a person sectors, they are underpaid and over- regarded as useless as far as leader- worked under conditions that do not ship is concerned until he or she is live up to the core labour standards the age of 21? If we continue like this, (URT 2007). If they were actively in- we will demoralize active youths aged volved in politics and well represented 18 – 20 who would otherwise partici- in decision making bodies, they could pate in politics. They may feel that as voice their grievances and reverse the adults their rights to become leaders situation. have been denied. The age limit for presidential candidates also creates
103 unnecessary questions when no ex- government and parents will not take planation is given as to why a mem- youth anywhere but cause them to lag ber of parliament in his or her twen- them behind. ties and thirties is not allowed to hold the highest office in politics. Young people themselves have strug- I hope we still have a chance to review gled to create their own space, estab- our constitution and electoral law so lish their personal identity and come that the youth potential can be cap- out through various associations with tured as early as possible. There are other people (Mulenga in Osei- Hweid more that 200 youth organizations (1990). In 1996, “a group of youth led and groups engaged in service deliv- by a long-time former youth activist, ery but very few of them are involved Hebron Mwakagenda, started to mo- in advocacy work. It is important that bilize other youth to demand an inde- we all work together and go beyond pendent national youth council (Bara- service delivery to advocate and lobby za la vijana la taifa –BVT”(Kabwe for favourable policies that will create &Ilunde 2003 p.108). This was echoed a conducive political environment for by the National Youth Forum (NYF) in participation and influence. 1998 launched by the Arusha Youth Committee, only to be taken over later A number of solutions have been by the Ministry of Labour, Youth De- proposed and even tried out in the velopment and Sports which gave the quest for providing a space for youth. promise that the council would be In Tanzania, for example, the 1996 registered - but to date the ministry Youth Development Policy was a bit has failed to honour that promised. I rational because among other things propose that the current youth, both it wanted to enable youth to decide, at school and out of school, demands plan and implement development the registration of this national youth programmes and participate in com- organ. munity development from household to national level (URT 1996 p.10).The Conclusion same is echoed in the current National Youth Development Policy of 2007 but Youth is still marginalized to a large the current policy gives more power to extent in decision making circles. government to initiate youth empow- Although there are obvious obsta- erment programmes while forgetting cles to the political empowerment about the role of the non-state actors of youth, there are also opportuni- and the capacity of youth themselves. ties at our disposal but to make use For instance, the policy makes the of them requires strategic thinking, government responsible for facilitat- active and meaningful participation ing the formation of a national youth under a more inclusive framework. council, a duty which the government While political parties are urged to has failed to fulfil for the past two dec- review their structures to accommo- ades. Youth must waken up and form date youth issues and activities, youth their own council because it seems CSOs must give civic education and that their dependency syndrome on organize youth to demand a space in
104 politics and public life; policy makers Nelson, N and Wright, S (1995) Power and must develop favourable policies; and participatory Development, SRP Exeter, the private sector and the donor com- London. munity must support youth empower- ment programmes so as to prepare a Osei-Hwedie, K. et al (1990) Youth and community work: Methods, techniques just, democratic and corruption free and Skills, Mission Press, Ndola society with a dynamic and account- Slocum, R et al (1995) Power, process and able leadership. participation –tools for change, Intermedi- ate Technology Publications Ltd, London UNDP (2001) Empowering people, a guide Bibliography/Selected references to participation, UNDP, New York
AGENDA PARTICIPATION2000 (2005) URT (2004) Integrated Labour Force sur- Non –State Actors Charter: The Tanzania vey of 2004, Government Printers, Dar es we want during and after elections 2005, Salaam Agenda Participation 2000, Dar es Sa- laam. White, E et al (2007 vol.98) The Problem: Democracy at risk, Heldref Publications, Chachage S & Mbilinyi M (2003) Against Washington. (Online) http/www//heldref. Neo Liberalism: Gender, democracy and org (Accessed on 31st July 2009) development, E&D, Dar es Salaam Leftwich, A (2004) What is politics? Polity D’Souza, (2001) Leaders for today, Hope Press Ltd, Cambridge. for tomorrow: Pauline Publication Africa, Atlanta Laswell, H (1958) Politics: Who Gets What and How, Meridian Books, New York Kabwe Z and Ilunde I, in Mbilinyi M et al (2003) Activist Voices: Feminist Struggles Midglej et al (1986) Community Participa- for an alternative world, E&D Limited, tion, Social Development and the State, Dar es Salaam Methuen and Co. Ltd, London
Ministry of Labour and Youth Develop- Heywood A (1997) Politics, Palgrave, Mac- ment (1996) National Youth Development millan, New York. Policy, Government Printers, Dar es Sa- laam The World Bank (2002) Empowerment and poverty reduction: A source book Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development (2001) The National Youth Policy: a Vision for Youth in 21st Century, Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social De- velopment, Kampala
105 WOMEN
Mobilizing Women in Tanzania for Elections: A three-tier women’s empowerment campaign By: Mary Mwanjelwa, PSI Tanzania, Dar es Salaam
If you want to mobilize women to amorphous in nature. We have reli- vote in Tanzania, you must first and gions such as Christian, Hindu, and foremost identify settings where there Islam. But while these sound like uni- are groups of women who represent fying forces, in essence they have di- women in the country as a whole. visive elements. Muslim women will This sounds a bit tough but it is cru- not share a venue with their Christian cial, if you really want to get a mes- counterparts, and vice versa, yet their sage across to women and not to just feminine needs as women are the brush the surface. same!
Political mobilization, and particular- So we have to look for some neutral ly mobilizing women to vote, is diffi- ground in the country where women cult because it is a cross-cutting issue, have been brought together, if not and there is no single venue where naturally, then by some other factors, women as a target group are easy to be they social, economic, educational find. Nonetheless, as the Obama cam- or political. paign blitz in the US recently taught us, it is better to take the campaign to A quick look at the recent develop- the people rather then try to take the ments in Tanzania shows that there people to the campaign. are issues that tend to bring women from all quarters together, regardless This means that in order to mobi- of their religious, political or racial lize women to vote in Tanzania, we background. These are entrepreneur- need to take the campaign to where ial in nature, and particularly popular the women are to be found in organ- is the informal banking system. ized groups, groups where women are united by a communal purpose or It may sound a bit surprising: most need. people would have expected us to mention culture. But in reality, cul- True, we do have organized groups in ture has long ceased to draw women the country where women are found together, what with the infiltration of as blocks but these blocks are mainly ‘modernity’ brought about by west- 106 ern values and norms! The Tanza- and Credit Societies). From Dar es nian woman who used to wiggle and Salaam to Bukoba, Arusha to Rukwa, gyrate to the rhythm of a throbbing the SACCOS has become the icon of drumbeat is but a social dinosaur female economic solidarity in the today, completely alienated from so- country. So united are women in SAC- called ‘enlightenment’. COS that some men tend to think that it is a women-only thing. Nor can we propose entertainment: only a few can be found in taarab or The other area where we find women jazz bands, or drama or theatre. And united is in entrepreneurship. People you cannot find them in sports either. may well ask how entrepreneurship Try organizing a women’s football can be seen as a force uniting women match in Tanzania, and see how few in Tanzania while everyone seems women will attend. to be minding their own business? We are in the free market economy This is not to say that women are not where a high degree of creativity and interested in such things. They are. dedication is necessary. This surely But we simply cannot find a point of creates something of a mind-your- leverage here as their potential as a own business mentality. group in such cases is not easy to see. We want to find women where they But, looked at properly, we find that feel themselves to be part of a group entrepreneurship, or any business for of women, where they feel very free, that matter, does not separate wom- in a setting where they have liberty, en. On the contrary, it unites them. It autonomy and organizations. is easy to find women in the catering business as a group. It is also easy to A closer look at informal banking address women in a catering busi- shows why this is a tool that can be ness as a regional group. And more used to mobilize women. How do promising, it is possible to address we mobilize women to vote through women in the catering business at the informal banking? Do we give them national level as a group. money? Not exactly. We have to go to them there and take the voting agen- In fact, this has been done; the wom- da to them. en are called mama lishe (‘small-scale outside caterers’). This name was Popularly known as mchezo, the in- coined by the emerging post-socialist formal banking is a national network. entrepreurship school of thought to There is virtually no street in urban replace the original name of mama areas, or no village where at least five nitilie (‘mother, fill in a plate for me’), women do not meet every week or which used to be used to address the month for a merry-go-round, jackpot women but which some ethical ma- winner. niacs considered to be disrespectful. If anyone should doubt that a signifi- The extension of the informal bank- cant number of women are in this ing system is the SACCOS (Savings business, then just count the number
107 of migahawa, as the food outlets are The other aspect of a mobilization called, in any urban street and the campaign is to tell people that some- number of women involved. thing is good for them, and tell them why it is so good. In this type of cam- Now, why should these three things paign, the ins and outs of the object appeal most to a person preparing to being marketed is explained, so that mobilise women? its advantages are known. Obviously, this sort of approach can be used with They appeal because of the nature women in almost any setting. of mobilization itself. A mobilization campaign uses a number of tactics, The final aspect of a mobilization depending on the end in view. For the campaign that we shall dwell on is sake of this discussion, we shall look sensitization. Here the subjects are at the roles that conviction, appeal given information that they were not and sensitization play in a mobiliza- previously aware of, and then pro- tion campaign. pelled into taking action, new initia- tives and/or making decisions. This When it comes to conviction, the sub- approach can be used in various set- jects are told that because they are tings. from a specific group, they have a set of principles that they are supposed It follows, then, that for a pro-voting to believe in. This is the approach of mobilization campaign to succeed with the churches, mosques, synagogues women in Tanzania, it has to use the and, last but not least, of the political appeal and sensitization approaches campaigner. in the right setting. The right setting here is through the national networks But one cannot tell women to vote of women, where they are united by by placating their religious beliefs. It entrepreneurship, informal banking simply doesn’t work. Even the church and savings and credit societies. message for people to vote does not sink in very deeply, because while the Borrowing a leaf from Obama’s book, women may look like a group in the the approach here would be to deliver church, they are not part of the large messages aimed at women through women fraternity at that given time. SACCOS, the informal banking groups After the sermon or preaching ses- and entrepreurship groups. sion, they will simply say, “we have been told so and so in church”, with- A message designed to be delivered out the necessary conviction. through SACCOSes can be infiltrated into all the SACCOSes in the country. So, when a campaigner with this ap- The same can be done for business proach confronts the multi-religious, groupings. If a message is to target multi-cultural and, nowadays, alas!, women market traders, then it must multi-party women audience, the be sent through the whole network, campaign simply fails to click. from the women at Kariakoo to the women at the small village markets.
108 Collecting women in seminars, work- This approach, as we hinted before, shops, and symposia is not the aim of has the advantage of finding the wom- a campaign to make them vote. What en in their natural state. By natural is needed is to deliver the message. here we meant a state where some And that is exactly what Obama did. other force, apart from the mobili- He simply used the Internet through zation campaign, unites the women. social networks, the website and e- The aforementioned three settings mails to deliver the message of his are vastly heterogeneous and if the agenda of change (‘message of hope’) women reach a consensus on those, to millions of Americans - and won they do not need to go and consult the election. anybody else, as a natural sampling has been done already, hence saving This approach can be likened to the time and money. Israeli philosophy of drip irrigation. Faced with a foe far much more bru- The other advantage is that the wom- tal than the Palestinians - the desert en are at peace and relaxed. The per- - the Jews finally learnt that water son taking the campaign to the women should be taken to precisely the root via these three portals has the advan- of the plant. That is where it is most tage of not ‘disturbing’ the women’s needed. natural calm. They are already in a setting where they had allocated the Whether that water is taken to the time themselves, chosen the venues plant by a canal as big as the Suez, a and prepared the place to be comfort- six inch pipe like the municipal water able to them. lifeline, or a five millimeter ‘capillary’ tube does not matter, provided the Another advantage of this approach is plant gets the water. Or does it? that it is efficient, because it uses less time and less energy and less money. Yet, it does matter! Oh yes! Resources This is because the campaigner is are scarce while human needs are saved the huge task of collecting peo- unlimited, so human beings have to ple, organizing them and then deliv- learn to be economical (like the pro- ering the message. verbial bird that realized that since hunters had started shooting with- And collecting people, organizing out missing, it should also learn to fly them and then delivering the mes- without perching!). A human being is sage is what pro-voting mobilizers a rational consumer of resources. So and other campaigners have been do- we should deliver the message that ing for years. This approach is a great women should vote through a route waste of resources. The function of a that will maximize both the consump- mobilization campaign should not be tion and impact of the message, with to collect people or to organize them zero leakages! for a meeting, but to deliver the mes- sage that they are supposed to vote.
109 The Role of Communication Skills in Enhancing the Political Participation of Women By: Prof. Mwajabu Kachenje Possi, School of Education, University of Dar Es Salaam
Introduction Communication defined
Communication is fundamental in our Communication is a process where a lives. Every living creature communi- message is sent from a certain point, cates in one way or another. Human or from an individual, to another beings communicate to make their through a medium. For example, ver- presence felt or their voices heard. bal communication takes place when This is the case with politicians who the sender uses his or her voice to have to impress voters so as to get the transmit the message to the receiver. most votes, win elections and become political leaders. A candidate can- Contextualizing Figure 1, let us sup- not win an election campaign without pose that the sender is a female poli- good communication skills. tician who has a message to send to her voters. It may be a message If a message is to get through to the about herself and her contribution to targeted receiver the person who the nation. She has to choose a me- sends off the message must be aware dium through which to transmit her of the dynamics of a communication message: for example, she may stand process. Of particular importance is up and give a speech to people at a the gender perspective. Various gen- meeting. The receivers have to cap- der specialists, such as Bryannan, ture the message that she sends them claim that men and women are on and react to it. different wavelengths when it comes to communication. In 1990, Deborah When the receivers respond the com- Tannen, a sociolinguist, observed that munication process, or the communi- males use conversation to negotiate cation cycle, is complete as indicated their status in the group and to keep in Figure 1 (next page). people from pushing them around. A male uses conversation to preserve his independence. Females, on the other hand, use conversation to ne- gotiate closeness and intimacy. The question is whether politicians are aware of this.
110 Figure 1: Communication Cycle
Sender Receiver Transmitter
Who is a Good Communicator? vision of special seats for women ac- tually disempowers them. A good communicator is eloquent and the speech flows as a result of an in- This article is not a contribution to ner logic. his or her A good communi- this debate. It is a contribution to cator has the power to convince and women’s empowerment. Women he or she should be an eye, as well as should be instilled with the commu- an ear, catcher. nication skills that will enable them to campaign effectively and serve their Rationale for Empowering Female nation as members of parliament. Contestants How Should Female Contestants The 2010 elections are on our door- Communicate? step, yet there are still very few wom- en eager to contest for political lead- Communication occurs only when the ership. Many women bank on the sender’s intended message is under- women’s seats rather than contesting stood by the receiver (Smith, 2001). for positions in the various constitu- The sender may have an idea to share encies. Currently, there is concern with someone, but the sender’s idea that women are given an unfair ad- needs to be translated into a form, or vantage because of the designated code, that the receivers can under- seats for women. Some men say that stand. Depending on the audience, the women’s seats deny women the various symbols or signals are used opportunity to develop the rigour and to announce events, emotions, etc. strength to contest elections. Men also These could be gestures, or vocal pat- say that women are afraid of stand- terns such as groans or gasps. The ing in elections against men. They receiver uses his or her eyes, ears or say that women lack confidence and one or more of his or her others sens- are incompetent. Some men contend es to take in the message. As the re- that it is a case of double standards ceiver- has to understand the sender to have special seats for women and the sender must use a language that at the same time talk about equality. is easy to follow. Some go as far as saying that the pro-
111 Here are some communication tips What do I want the receiver to do for women who want to contest elec- with the information? tions. The contestant must give voters infor- Aiming mation that will assist them not only to vote for the contestant but also to What do I want to communicate? discern what is right and wrong so that the voters do not end up getting The contestant may wish to tell her lured or bulldozed by other contest- fellow men and women to vote for her ants. An example might be to give the because she will solve the water crisis voters information on gender issues in the village so that men and women and how the contestant intends to of all ages, the able-bodied and the tackle the issues. It should be noted disabled, the young and old will be with concern that despite the fact that able to get water for domestic pur- gender does not mean women only, poses as well as for agriculture and many women expect female contest- animal husbandry. The contestant ants to stand up for women. There- should be honest and sincere about fore, it is very important for a female how she will deal with the problem. candidate to know the burning issues that are of concern to women. After Why do I want to communicate? all, women make up the majority of the voters in Tanzania. Do you want to speak to the audience to build confidence or simply to pass Have I prioritized my information? on information? Do you want to raise a debate? When you have clarified Let the most important and interesting why you want to communicate, then issues come first so that you are not you must prepare yourself thorough- overtaken by events. Key members ly. Collect the correct information, not of audience may be too busy to listen just information which sounds good to long speeches. Make sure that they but which is of no relevance to the hear what they need to hear. people listening. Do your homework so that you do not With whom am I communicating? tell the audience things that they al- ready know. Find out whether or not The contestant must know her audi- there are common interests that you ences. Are they entrepreneurs? Men may want to capitalize on in the proc- or women? Middle class or have they ess of delivering your speech so as to a low social economic status? Are attract your audience. Utilize the fol- they well educated? Are they stu- lowing questions as far as possible to dents? And so on. When you know facilitate the communication. your audience it is easier to shape your speech, to stay focused and for- • What does the receiver already mulate appropriate questions for the know about what I am saying? audience when the need arises.
112 • Do we have a shared basis of ex- different things to different men and perience? women. • Are these assumptions valid? What is the best way to communi- In other words, know your audience. cate the message?
Encoding Know your audience’s level of under- standing and their own communica- As we have seen, the candidate should tion style. What is the literacy level? be very clear in her mind about what Do they like proverbs? Do they like she wants to say. At this juncture, being given examples? Do they use she has to think about the language songs? Do they like pictures, charts, she is going to use. Choosing the ap- diagrams and that sort of thing? propriate language helps deliver the Which is more appropriate, a written intended message. Our choice of or a verbal presentation? language and images are influenced by our own assumptions, our experi- Transmitting ences, gender, status, culture, neigh- bourhood or location, as well as edu- It is now time to deliver the message. cation. Use the following questions to Make sure that everything is in place guide your communication style dur- for the audience or your voters so that ing campaigns. they can see and hear what you have for them. There should be no distrac- What language should I use: what tions. Be sure that whatever words, would make the receiver interested terms or jargon you want to use does in my communication? not belittle, demean, or embarrass your voters. Be consistent and clear. The candidate must how people talk, Here are some questions to guide their choice of words or terminology, you. mannerisms and body language that will attract the audience and glue their • Is this the right time to communi- attention to what he or she is talking cate this? about. The language used should not • Can the receiver see/hear/read offend people. It is important there- what I want to communicate? fore to have studied the way people • Will there be any distractions that speak to one another in your constit- will make communication diffi- uency. Know what words are taboo. cult? Know how to address elders, men • Can I add anything to the words and women, young and old, without I use that will make my meaning harassing or embarrassing them. Use clearer? party buzz words and coin new slo- • Is what I am saying/writing/show- gans that deliver the intended mes- ing consistent with the way I am sage to your audience. Be mindful of saying it? your body language: signs may mean • Am I being gender sensitive?
113 • Am I avoiding gender stereotyp- the audience using phrases such as ing or gender typing? ladies and gentlemen, or simply my • Am I being sexist? voters, or other neutral words such • Am I a chauvinist? as comrades, depending on the group of people you are addressing. Avoid Receiving gender stereotyping.
After you have sent the information Presentability (appearance) to your audience you should expect to receive information or questions from Know how to dress when you are ad- them. Do not hesitate to respond. dressing your voters. Dress casually, However, do not rush to provide a but do not overdo it. Avoid strong response, if you do not have a ready perfumes, glaring cosmetics such as answer. eyelashes, eye-shadow, lipstick, big neck chains, big rings or even chains Decoding on your legs. How you talk and man- nerisms should not distract your vot- If the members of the audience have ers. Very short dresses may distract paid enough attention to what you your voters or put them off. Do not were saying, they should be in a po- wear clothes bearing slogans such as sition to decode it effectively; i.e. be women are better leaders then men. able to understand what has been Do not vote for men. said or written. Do not give any in- dication of favouring responses from Summary, Conclusion and Recom- one particular sex: men or women. mendations
Responding In this paper we have attempted to define communication and its im- Be simple, avoid embarrassing your portance. We have also looked into audience and do not make them feel the process of communication and that you are unapproachable. Re- the importance of communication member, you are the one delivering for female contestants. Female con- the message from which they will testants need to use language cau- draw their conclusions. Pay atten- tiously during campaigns in order to tion to the communication cycle and win over the voters. They should be ensure that no steps are missed out presentable in line with the culture of along the way otherwise there is the people they are addressing. They the risk that you will get the wrong should avoid gender stereotyping or response or no response at all. Use being sexist. gender sensitive language. Address
114 Poverty Reduction and Women’s Empowerment in Tanzania By: Ann-Kathrin Hentschel*, Germany
“Dar [is] keen on gender”1, said Presi- (PRSPs). Although the MDGs and the dent Kikwete in July 2008 when he first generation of PRSPs were drafted officially launched the Millennium independently of one another, when it Development Goal 3 (MDG 3) torch2 came to drafting the second genera- with the aim of putting more focus tion of PRSPs it had become clear that on gender equality and the empow- these strategies could serve as the erment of women. With his commit- means for implementing the MDGs ment to gender and increased focus in the respective countries. The third on the different needs of women MDG is concerned with promoting and men in the fight against poverty, gender equality and empowering President Kikwete is hitting the main- women and thus aims at eliminating stream of recent aid strategies. Thus, gender disparities in education, the he is responding to the many calls employment sector and parliament. made by the international community In response to these demands and the to implement a gender perspective in pressure of international stakehold- development programmes and strate- ers, the second Tanzanian poverty re- gies. duction strategy of 2005 – called The National Strategy for Growth and In 2000, the United Nations came the Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP) or up with an agenda on how to eradi- Mkukuta – has a gender perspective. cate extreme poverty. The outcomes of this summit are now known as the Since Tanzania has no separate im- eight Millennium Development Goals plementation framework for the (MDGs) and their road-map sched- MDGs, Mkukuta serves as the road- ules them to be achieved by 2015. map for their implementation. There- As national actions plans to reduce fore, “the results of the implementa- poverty in developing countries, the tion of MKUKUTA are also indicative international finance institutions si- of Tanzania’s progress on the MDGS multaneously came up with their own achievement gauge”3. In his speech in new concept of individually designed July 2008, President Kikwete stated Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers that Tanzania is “grappling now with the best possible formula”4 to reach 1 Mtambalike, Kilasa. Dar keen on Gender, says JK. Daily News. 25 July, 2008. 2 The MDG 3 Torch Campaign is part of the 3 Tanzania Association of Non-Governmental Global Call to Action Campaign that was initiated Organizations (TANGO). CSO Perspective of MDGS by the Danish Government in March 2008 (EoD 2008 Report. 2008: 18. 2008). 4 Embassy of Denmark (EoD). “President Kikwete 115 gender equality in Tanzania. This ar- affect women and men differently.6 In ticle looks at whether Mkukuta can Tanzania’s agricultural sector, for ex- serve as the right strategy to further ample, “women are significantly more women’s empowerment and thus to active […] than are men”.7 78.9 per reach MDG 3. cent of all Tanzanian women work in agriculture, compared to 70.2 per To answer this question, we will first cent of the male population.8 Thus, a take a look at the phenomenon of the poverty reduction strategy needs to feminization of poverty and why tak- analyze the different roles of women ing a gender perspective towards pov- and men in agriculture, identify their erty reduction is necessary. The term control of agricultural resources and Feminization of Poverty was shaped promote equal access to land and the at the Beijing Conference on Women in control of farming issues. In order to order to pay attention to the fact that achieve sustainable progress, rural poverty is not gender neutral, but that development policies have to be sen- more women than men are affected sitive towards gender-differentiated by it. It is estimated that 70 per cent of roles. But, besides changing the ex- the world’s poor are women and that isting policies and recognizing the although they do about 66 per cent of contributions women make in the the world’s work, they only earn five agricultural sector, a bottom-up ap- per cent of the income.5 This is due to proach is also necessary in order to women’s lack of access to resources, include more women in the develop- the routine and daily discrimination ment process.9 of women with respect to the alloca- tion of the work load and aid benefits, Gender researchers refer to this as as well as their greater vulnerability women’s empowerment. Poor women in the face of crisis. But the poverty of often lack the capacities to participate women is more specifically a result of in decision making processes, for sev- the deprivation of their political rights eral reasons. One factor is the lack - all this in spite of the fact that every of time. Especially for poor women, category of human rights demands the combination of paid employment, gender equality. It is therefore inter- e.g. in the fields, and doing domestic nationally recommended that poverty chores such as fetching water, pre- reduction strategies should have a paring food, raising children lead multidimensional view of poverty: be- to the fact that women work more sides analyzing income poverty, they than men. Women in Tanzania only should also incorporate the non-eco- nomic dimensions of poverty such as 6 Whitehead, Ann. “Failing Women, Sustaining vulnerability, powerlessness, voice- Poverty. Gender in Poverty Reduction Strategy lessness and male-biased governance Papers.” 2003: 7. 7 Zuckerman, Elaine. “Poverty Reduction Strategy systems and take account of how they Papers and Gender.” 2002: 2. 8 National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). “Key Find- ings for the Integrated Labour Force Survey (ILS) 2006/07.” 2007: 14. of Tanzania addresses Violence Against Women.” 9 Cf. James, Valentine Udoh (ed.). Women and 7 August 2008. Sustainable Development in Africa. Westport, CT: 5 Millennium Campaign. “Gender Equity.” n.d. Praeger, 1995: 4. 116 have an average of two leisure hours per day,10 while men have an aver- Despite this knowledge, the Tanza- age of four and a half leisure hours nian government failed to implement per day. Besides, Tanzanian women a mainstreamed gender perspective often complain about laziness and in the first Poverty Reduction Strat- drunkenness among men.11 This dou- egy Paper; instead gender was only ble burden which women face places referred to in specific sections. As a them in a more disadvantaged posi- result, the paper was often criticized tion and easing their time constraints for its lack of a comprehensive gen- would be one way of empowering der perspective, as well as for treat- them. Another factor contributing to ing gender as a specifically women’s women’s low participation is pow- issue and not as something that both erlessness. Education is a precondi- women and men are affected by.13 tion for women breaking this vicious Especially among groups advocating circle and exercising their power. for gender issues “the relative gen- Education plays an important role der-blind nature of PRSPs has caused in creating opportunities for women concern”14. Although civil society was to get involved in policy formulation invited to participate in the drafting and “many studies demonstrate that process of the first PRSP, it had very better-educated women contribute to little influence on its content: the im- the welfare of the next generation by plementation of civil society’s recom- reducing infant and child mortality, mendations in the strategy was lim- lowering fertility, and improving the ited, including those related to gender nutritional status of children”12. and women’s rights.15 Only the annual progress reports16 started to address All in all, poverty can neither be the issue of how gender relations had seen as a purely economic phenom- an impact on power relations between enon since its causes and effects are the sexes and on women’s higher vul- diverse, nor can it be tackled with- nerability to poverty.17 In the drafting out the implementation of a gender process of Mkukuta, all stakeholders perspective. Issues of human rights, realized that “addressing the gender of sector specifics such as access to dimensions of poverty and creating land, education or health, of tradi- gender responsive interventions en- tions as well as cultural and historical hances the likelihood of success of conditions all have their share in con- solidating gender discrimination and 13 Cf. Selbervik, Hilde. PRSP in Tanzania: Do thus have to be kept in mind when Mkukuta and The CCM Election Manifesto Pull in trying to alleviate poverty. Thus, a the same Direction? Bergen: Michelsen Institute, gender perspective on poverty reduc- 2006: 17f. 14 Bell, Emma. “Gender and PRSPs: with experi- tion is a necessity. ences from Tanzania, Bolivia, Viet Nam and Mo- zambique.” Bridge 67, 2003: 13. 10 Cf. Zuckerman, Elaine. “Poverty Reduction 15 Ibid.: 10. Strategy Papers and Gender.” 2002: 3. 16 From 2001 on, Tanzania has written annual 11 Government of Tanzania (GoT). “Poverty Re- PRSP progress reports. duction Strategy Paper.” 2000: 13. 17 Cf. Bell, Emma. “Gender and PRSPs: with 12 Zuckerman, Elaine. “Poverty Reduction Strategy experiences from Tanzania, Bolivia, Viet Nam and Papers and Gender.” 2002: 4. Mozambique.” Bridge 67, 2003: 21f. 117 poverty reduction strategy efforts”18. look on the actions Tanzania is tak- Thus, more emphasis was laid on ing in order to further gender equal- mainstreaming gender. ity and to promote the empowerment of women, which accordingly shall Already in the introduction of Mkuku- lead to the achievement of the three ta it is stated that the strategy is targets of the third MDG. These are committed to the achievement of the namely the elimination of gender dis- MDGs. Therefore, the reduction of parities in primary and secondary discrimination against women can be education, an increase of the share of identified as being among the goals women in wage employment outside of the strategy. It mainstreams gen- the agricultural sector and thirdly the der by stating women’s and men’s increase of the proportion of seats individual roles for every sector and held by women in the national parlia- analyzes it issue by issue, which is ment. an obvious improvement compared to the first strategy. That this devel- According to Mkukuta, the goal for opment was possible is most notably the education sector is to ensure eq- due to the work of gender advocacy uitable access to quality primary and groups and networks such as TGNP. secondary education for both girls This time they were engaged in the and boys. It is aimed at increasing consultation and drafting process19 to the primary enrolment rate of girls a much greater extent. and boys from 90.5 per cent in 2004 up to 99 per cent in 2010. Strategies Although Mkukuta does not make a to achieve this goal are first of all the direct reference to Millennium Devel- continuation of free access to primary opment Goal 3, it indirectly acknowl- education. This is especially impor- edges it by having integrated a gen- tant for girls, since the absence of der perspective. Thus it can be said school fees spares poor families from that the strategy meets the overall denying their girls access to educa- aim of MDG 3, which is the promo- tion for economic reasons. Instead, tion of gender equality and the em- free primary education encourages powerment of women. It has to be access to schooling for all children, questioned if this gender sensitivity regardless of their gender. Secondly, is sufficient to erase all gender im- the NSGRP demands better school balances so that “economic activities infrastructure as well as curriculum will not be identifiable by gender or reforms and a review of the existing race”20, as it is envisioned by Tanza- education policy in order to be more nia’s long term developmental Vision inclusive and gender sensitive.21 Spe- 2025. Therefore, it is necessary to cial strategies on how to achieve gen- der equality in school are not identi- 18 Zuckerman, Elaine. “Poverty Reduction Strategy fied in the NSGRP. However, statistics Papers and Gender.” 2002: 1. show that progress has been made 19 Cf. Tanzania Gender Networking Programme (TGNP). Annual Report 2005. Dar es Salaam: Tan- zania Gender Networking Programme, 2005. 21 Cf. Government of Tanzania (GoT). “The 20 Government of Tanzania (GoT). “The Tanzania National Strategy for Growth and the Reduction of Development Vision 2025.” 2000: 3. Poverty.” 2005: 14f. 118 in the elimination of gender dispari- in secondary schools has a negative ties in school. The percentage of fe- impact on the goal of achieving gen- male primary school enrolment has der parity in both the enrolment and increased to 49.2 per cent of total en- completion rate of secondary educa- rolment in 2008,22 the gender parity tion. Although the quantity of enrolled index now being 0.9923, which indi- children has increased, the quality of cates that the target of equal access to education has not. Especially for il- primary education for girls and boys literate women it is questionable if has been achieved. there will be a sufficient number of programmes for raising their literacy Unfortunately, quantitative improve- rate before 2015. Well paid jobs out- ment does not automatically lead to side the agricultural sector require a qualitative improvement. In its shad- good education. So, unless the liter- ow report on Tanzania’s achievement acy rate of women is increased and of the MDGs, TANGO states that “gov- more girls are enabled to gain access ernment is failing to maintain the to higher education institutions, the quality of education”24. There are not share of women in paid employment enough resources to employ a suf- outside the agricultural sector is un- ficient number of teachers, so there likely to grow. Therefore, achieving are cases where there is only one target one of MDG 3 can be seen as teacher in a school of 200 students precondition for the achievement and an inadequate infrastructure to of target two of MDG 3, which aims cater for the increased number of at increasing the share of women in students.25 Thus, “the achievement wage employment outside the agri- in addressing gender disparity in cultural sector. schools will not produce good results if the issue of quality education is not References to target two of Millen- well addressed”26. All in all, it can nium Development Goal 3, which be concluded that the achievements aims at a reduction of income poverty made for target one of the third MDG of women by integrating them in the are rather mixed. Although Mkukuta formal sector, are missing in Mkuku- has formulated strategies on how to ta. Although the strategy aims at cre- achieve gender equality in the educa- ating employment opportunities for tion sector, their implementation have both women and men, indicators on only been fully successful with regard how to achieve this goal are missing. to gender equality in primary educa- This might be due to the cleft between tion. The high drop-out rate of girls Tanzania’s overall growth strategy which, because of its pro-poor na- 22 Cf. Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MoEVT). “Basic Statistics in Education - ture, puts the agricultural sector first National 2008.” 2008: Table 5.1. and the target of MDG 3, which aims 23 Ibid.: chart 2.8. at creating employment opportunities 24 TANGO. CSO Perspective of MDGS 2008 for women outside the agricultural Report. 2008: 12. sector. Mkukuta is insofar pro-wom- 25 Mwalongo, Rose. “Just one Teacher in a School of 200 Pupils.” The Guardian. 15 June 2009. en and through it pro MDG 3, since 26 TANGO. CSO Perspective of MDGS 2008 the agricultural sector still accommo- Report. 2008: 15. 119 dates 78.9 per cent of all employed employment opportunities are to be women. Thus, it is by far the biggest met. It has also failed to implement a employer in Tanzania. Recent fig- gender perspective on the share that ures show that over 70 per cent of all women and men have in the reduc- women active in agriculture work on tion of income poverty and the growth their own farm. Only 6.1 per cent of of economy. Moreover, Mkukuta does all women are paid employees, with not comply with the corresponding many of them working in the personal target of MDG 3, because they follow service sector. This indicates that paid different growths perspectives. MDG jobs outside the agricultural sector, as 3 aims at increasing the share of sought by the second target of MDG women employed outside the agricul- 3, are still very rare in Tanzania. At tural sector. In contrast, the NSGRP the moment, a slight feminization of favours an “Agriculture First” strategy rural smallholder farmers can be ob- in order to modernize the agricultural served with 56 per cent of all female sector. Therefore, it can be concluded headed households being agricultur- that Mkukuta fails to be Tanzania’s ally active, most of them as subsist- chance to reach the second target of ence farmers.27 MDG 3. But since the second target of Moreover, there is a large difference MDG 3 can also be criticized for its in literacy amongst female and male “one-frame-fits-it-all” nature, the sec- headed households, with 50 per cent ond target of MDG 3 thus correspond- of the female heads being illiterate ingly fails to meet Tanzania’s needs. compared to 21 per cent of the males. According to the Tanzania Agricul- The increased participation of wom- ture Sample Census, this makes it en in politics, which is target three of even harder for them to find employ- Millennium Development Goal 3, is ment outside the agricultural sector.28 not addressed directly in Mkukuta. But the development of their capaci- The only link made is in the Annex to ties is essential if poor women are to Mkukuta, where it is stipulated that be enabled to move away from farm- vulnerable groups must have access ing activities into the non-agricultural to governance institutions.29 Since sector. Therefore, without investing the Ministry for Community Develop- in adult education programmes and ment, Gender and Children (MCDGC) special empowerment programmes, is identified as one of the key actors it is hard for women in Tanzania to for integrating the marginalized, it flee poverty and to find work outside can be assumed that women fall un- the agricultural sector. der the category of vulnerable groups. Unfortunately, no precise strategies In sum, Mkukuta has failed to set have been formulated on how to up indicators on how the different achieve the greater political partici- needs of women and men concerning pation of those groups. Here, the NS- GRP fails again as a road map for the 27 National Bureau of Statistics Tanzania (NBS). Tanzania Agriculture Sample Census 2002/03. “Main Findings – Gender Profile of Rural Small- 29 Government of Tanzania (GoT). “The National holder Farmers.” 2003: 3. Strategy for Growth and the Reduction of Pov- 28 Ibid.: 1. erty.” 2005: Annex 30. 120 implementation of the MDGs.30 But nonetheless taken certain measures although no strategies are mentioned and thus the MDG’s target might be on how to achieve gender equality in achieved by 2010. the national parliament, some efforts have been made. As a first step to- In the course of this article, it has be- wards ending gender discrimination, come clear that although Mkukuta Tanzania has established the so-called itself does incorporate a gender per- Special Seats for Women in order to spective, it is still questionable wheth- increase the number of women in er it is being implemented in a way parliament. Since 2005, article 66 of that both women and men can equally the Constitution states that the mini- benefit from development efforts. The mum of special seats for women in incorporation of a gender perspective the National Assembly shall be 30 per in Mkukuta was a big achievement in cent. This number has been exceeded comparison with the first PRSP and a in the current parliament, but accord- first step towards achieving MDG 3. ing to LHRC, “the number of women who hold senior positions is still very But the goals of Mkukuta are not al- minimal”31. Only four out of 26 min- ways in accordance with the targets istries are lead by a female minister, of MDG 3. As far as the elimination which is less than 21 per cent.32 of gender disparity in primary and secondary education is concerned, To further the participation of women Mkukuta and MDG 3 pull in the same in the political sphere, the African direction and since the operational Union aims at empowering women targets of Mkukuta are very commit- by increasing the share of women in ted, Mkukuta can be seen as Tanza- the national parliaments of its mem- nia’s chance to reach MDG 3. ber countries to 50 per cent by 2010. Since CCM has included this aim in By contrast, Mkukuta and MDG 3 its 2010 election manifesto, gen- have a different agenda concerning der equality in parliament might be the economic empowerment of wom- achieved at the next elections.33 en. While Mkukuta pursues a strategy of putting the agricultural sector first, Although Mkukuta has obviously MDG 3 aims at increasing the share of failed to include an operational target women in paid employment outside about women in politics in its cluster the agricultural sector. on governance, the government has The last target of MDG 3 aims at in- 30 Cf. TANGO. CSO Perspective of MDGS 2008 Report. 2008: 8. creasing the proportion of seats held 31 Legal and Human Rights Centre (LHRC). Tan- by women in the national parliament. zania Human Rights Report 2007. Dar es Salaam: Unfortunately, Mkukuta does not set Legal and Human Rights Centre & Zanzibar Legal Aid Services, 2007: 42. operational targets concerning the 32 Government of Tanzania (GoT).”Cabinet.” achievement of this goal. Although 2009. actions have been taken and gen- 33 Cf. Selbervik, Hilde. PRSP in Tanzania: Do der equality in parliament – thereby Mkukuta and The CCM Election Manifesto Pull in the same Direction? Bergen: Michelsen Institute, tackling the third target of MDG 3 – 2006: 18. 121 will probably be achieved by 2010, Government of Tanzania (GoT). “The Tan- Mkukuta fails to serve as the oppor- zania Development Vision 2025.” 2000. tunity to reach that goal. http://www.tanzania.go.tz/vision.htm (28 June 2009). Unless problems relating to income ---. “Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper.” 2000. poverty and non-income poverty are http://www.imf.org/external/np/ solved, other problems relating to the prsp/2000/tza/02/index.htm (28 June equal access of women and men to de- 2009). velopment can also hardly be solved. ---. “The National Strategy for Growth To put it in President Kikwete’s words: and the Reduction of Poverty.” 2005. “I know [that women empowerment] http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/ is not easy given the longstanding cul- scr/2006/cr06142.pdf (28 June 2009). tures, traditions and idiosyncrasies of ---.”Cabinet.” 2009. http://www. men in our society. But we cannot give parliament.go.tz/bunge/ministers. up nor should we resign to failure. We php?pageNum_min=1&totalRows_ should keep fighting till success”34. min=26 (28 June 2009). James, Valentine Udoh (ed.). Women and Sustainable Development in Africa. West- * Ann-Kathrin Hentschel is a gradu- port, CT: Praeger, 1995. ate of Münster University (Germany) and currently pursuing a Master’s De- Legal and Human Rights Centre (LHRC). gree in “International Development Tanzania Human Rights Report 2007. Dar and Management” at Lund University es Salaam: Legal and Human Rights Cen- (Sweden). This article is a summary tre & Zanzibar Legal Aid Services, 2007. of her Bachelor thesis on the imple- mentation of a gender perspective Millennium Campaign. “Gender Equity.” into the Tanzanian PRSP. n.d. http://www.endpoverty2015.org/goals/ gender-equity (28 June 2009).
References: Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MoEVT). “Basic Statistics in Bell, Emma. “Gender and PRSPs: with Education - National 2008.” 2008. experiences from Tanzania, Bolivia, http://www.moe.go.tz/statistics.html (28 Viet Nam and Mozambique.” Bridge 67 June 2009). (2003). Mwalongo, Rose. “Just one Teacher in a Embassy of Denmark (EoD). “President School of 200 Pupils.” The Guardian. 15 Kikwete of Tanzania addresses Violence June 2009. www.ippmedia.com (15 June Against Women.” 7 August 2008. 2009). http://www.mdg3action.um.dk/en/serv- icemenu/News/PresidentKikweteOfTan- National Bureau of Statistics Tanzania zaniaCommitsToMDG3AndToAddressVio- (NBS). Tanzania Agriculture Sample Cen- lenceAgainstWomen.htm (28 June 2009). sus 2002/03. “Main Findings – Gender Profile of Rural Smallholder Farmers.” 34 Embassy of Denmark (EoD). “President Kikwete 2003. of Tanzania addresses Violence Against Women.” 7 August 2008. 122 http://www.nbs.go.tz/agric_presenta- Tanzania Gender Networking Programme tions/Main%20Findings%20-Gender.pdf (TGNP). Annual Report 2005. Dar es Sa- (28 June 2009). laam: Tanzania Gender Networking Pro- ---. “Key Findings for the Integrated La- gramme, 2005. bour Force Survey (ILS) 2006/07.” 2007. http://www.nbs.go.tz/labourforce/ Whitehead, Ann. “Failing Women, Sus- KEY%20FINDINGS%20ENG_2006.pdf (28 taining Poverty. Gender in Poverty Reduc- June 2009). tion Strategy Papers.” 2003. http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/ Selbervik, Hilde. PRSP in Tanzania: Do library/99169/CD_CC/precourse/CCFY- Mkukuta and The CCM Election Mani- 04CDRom/Week1/2Tuesday/S3%20 festo Pull in the same Direction? Bergen: PRSPs/GenderinPRSPs.pdf (28 June Michelsen Institute, 2006. 2009).
Tanzania Association of Non-Governmen- Zuckerman, Elaine. “Poverty Reduction tal Organizations (TANGO). CSO Perspec- Strategy Papers and Gender.” 2002. tive of MDGS 2008 Report. 2008. http://www2.gtz.de/gender-prsp/english/ http://www.tango.or.tz/index. papers/keynotes/zuckerman.pdf (28 June php?option=com_content&task=view&id 2009). =19&Itemid=31 (28 June 2009).
Notes
123 Trade Unions
THE EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY COMMON MARKET: CHALLENGES AND THE POSITION OF THE TRADE UNIONS By: Hezron J. Kaaya - RAAWU Affiliates of the Trade Union Congress of Tanzania (TUCTA)
1.0 INTRODUCTION other relations of the partner states to the end that there shall be accel- The integration of the East African erated harmonious and balanced de- States is a necessity for the survival, velopment and sustained expansion protection and well-being of the pop- of economic activities, the benefit of ulations of these states. It is a neces- which shall be equally shared”. sity because it is only through unity and cooperation that these states will Trade Unions are aware that the next be able to bargain with others for bet- step after the customs union is the ter terms in trade agreements. No creation of a common market whose state can stand up to the giants of this primary objective is a single internal globalizing world alone. market.
It is in this context that trade unions The common market protocol raises in Tanzania supported the nego- a number of issues which pose chal- tiations and eventually the Treaty of lenges to the trade unions of the East East African Community which was African Community partner states. signed in November 1999. Trade For this reason the trade unions have Unions still support the whole proc- been taking deliberate measures to ess and the stages leading to deeper mitigate these challenges. cooperation as indicated by article 5 (2) which states that “the partner 2.0 PROTOCOL ON THE ESTAB- states undertake to establish among LISHMENT OF THE EAST AFRICAN themselves and in accordance with COMMUNITY COMMON MARKET the provisions of this Treaty; a cus- toms union, a common market, sub- 2.1 The protocol on the establish- sequently a monetary union and ment of the East African Community ultimately a political Federation in Common Market is provided for un- order to strengthen and regulate the der paragraph 4 of article 76 and industrial, commercial, infrastruc- article 104 of the Treaty. The objec- tural, cultural, social political and tive for the establishment of a com- mon market is to accelerate economic 124 growth and development through the Furthermore, a worker shall have the free movement of goods, persons and right to be accompanied by a spouse labour, the right of establishment and and children who shall be entitled to residence and the free movement of engage in economic activities in the services and capital. territory of the partner state, BUT, employment in the public service of 2.2 Free movement of labour partner states is restricted, unless national laws and regulations so per- • Article 9 of the protocol provides mit. for the free movement of workers within the partner states and the 2.3 Harmonization and mutual partner states bind themselves recognition of academic and profes- to ensure non discrimination of sional qualifications these workers on the basis of na- tionality, remuneration and other For the purpose of ensuring the free conditions of work and employ- movement of labour, the partner ment. states enjoin themselves to mutually • Without any prejudice, the free recognize the academic and profes- movement of workers entitles a sional qualifications granted, experi- worker to: ence gained, requirements, licences or certificates granted in partner states a. Apply for employment and ac- and to harmonise their curricula, ex- cept offers of employment aminations, standards, certification b. Move freely within the terri- and accreditation of educational and tories of the partner states for training institutions. the purpose of employment c. Stay in the territory of a part- 2.4 Harmonisation of national ner state for the purpose of labour policies, laws and pro- employment grammes d. Enjoy the freedom of associa- tion and collective bargaining Article 11 of the protocol stipulates for better working conditions that partner states shall harmonise in accordance with the na- their national labour policies, laws tional laws of the host partner and programmes to facilitate the free state movement of labour within the com- e. Conclude contracts and take munity. up employment in accordance with the contracts, national The partner states also undertake to laws and administrative ac- review and harmonise their national tions without any discrimina- social security policies, laws and sys- tion, and tems and to provide social security f. Enjoy the rights and benefits of for self-employed persons who are social security as accorded to nationals of other partner states. the nationals of the host part- ner state.
125 2.5 Right of establishment and thus the partner states shall im- plement programmes relating to: Article 12 of the protocol guarantees the right of establishment of nationals • The promotion of employment of partner states within the territories creation of the community, and this right of • Strengthening labour laws and establishment entitles such nation- improvement of working condi- als to take up and pursue economic tions activities as self-employed persons, • Promotion of formal education to set up and manage economic un- • Promotion of vocational and tech- dertakings, and to join social security nical training systems of the partner states. There • Expansion and improvement of shall be no restrictions on the right social protection of establishment for the nationals of • Promotion of occupational safety the partner states. The same right is and health at work places granted to companies and firms es- • Promotion of social dialogue be- tablished in accordance with the laws tween the social partners and of partner states. The only limitations other stake holders allowed are those based on grounds • The rights of persons with dis- of public policy, public security or abilities public health. • Prevention and management of HIV and AIDS, malaria and tu- 3.0 CO-OPERATION IN SOCIAL berculosis WELFARE (PART XIV, ARTICLE 35) • Prevention and management of the outbreak of epidemics and Under this article, partner states un- idle diseases in order to improve dertake to co-ordinate and harmo- the general hygiene and health of nise their social policies to promote the people and protect decent work and improve • Prevention of social vices such as living conditions for the development alcoholism, drug abuse or sub- of the common market. The partner stance abuse and perverse be- states are enjoined to co-ordinate and haviour harmonise their social policies in re- • Effective abolition of child labour lation to: • Elimination of human smuggling and trafficking • Good governance, rule of law and • Elimination of compulsory and social policies forced labour, and • Promotion and protection of hu- • Elimination of ignorance, diseas- man and people’s rights es and poverty. • Promotion of equal opportunities and gender equality • Promotion and protection of the rights of marginalized and vul- nerable groups
126 4.0 THE INVOLVEMENT OF and workers organizations with THE TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN the view of strengthening social TANZANIA dialogue • To promote the formulation and 4.1 The trade union movement in harmonization of legal, econom- Tanzania, among other stakeholders, ic and social policies and pro- was involved at various stages of the grammes which contribute to the drafting of the Treaty for the estab- creation of decent work and pro- lishment of the East African Commu- ductive employment opportuni- nity. The trade unions put special em- ties and generation of incomes in phasis on the fundamental principles partner states and objectives of the treaty, especially • To promote labour policies and those which relate to the domain of legislation, practices and meas- trade union activities as elaborated ures, which facilitate labour mo- above. bility, remove distortions in labour markets and enhance industrial 4.2 The trade unions in Tanzania harmony and increase productiv- had made it their duty to collaborate ity in partner states with the trade union movements of • To provide a framework for re- partner states of the community. In gional co-operation in the collec- the negotiations on the establishment tion and dissemination of labour of the East African Community Com- market information mon Market by 2010, the East Afri- • To promote the establishment and can Trade Union Confederation (EA- harmonization of social security TUC) represented the East African schemes and protection for all in trade union movement. The East Af- the region rican Trade Union Confederation had • To harmonise regulations relating prepared a draft social charter which to occupational health and safety included the basic concerns and rec- standards at work places across ommendations of the trade union the region, and movement. • To promote the development of institutional capacities as well as 4.3 The East African Community vocational and technical skills in Social Charter as per East African the region. Trade Union Confederation (EATUC) 4.4 Fundamental trade union • The distinguishing feature of the and workers’ rights social charter is its inclusion of The East African Trade Union Con- fundamental social rights as elab- federation draft social charter em- orated in the ILO Employment phasises fundamental trade union and Labour Standards. The objec- and workers’ rights. The East African tive of the charter is to ensure the Treaty omits any mention of trade un- retention of the tripartite struc- ions and their organizational rights. ture of the three social partners, The charter remedies this omission by namely, governments, employers calling on the partner states to revise
127 and domesticate their labour laws to • Information, consultation and conform to the ILO Core Conventions workers’ participation – to be which are: enhanced through industrial and work place democracy, social dia- • Freedom of association and col- logue and the tripartite structure lective bargaining – by which em- of the three social partners, (gov- ployers and workers of the region ernments, employers and work- shall be free to form national and ers organizations) regional employers’ and workers’ • Employment and remuneration – trade unions, trade union federa- whereby every individual is free tions and employers’ associations to engage in an occupation of to negotiate and conclude collec- choice, to receive decent wages, tive bargaining agreements, to with the establishment of equita- have access to dispute settlement ble wage rates across the region machineries and to have the right • Education and training – to be to resort to collective action provided for workers with partic- • Equal treatment of men and women ipation by governments, employ- - providing gender equity in ers and trade unions. conditions and opportunities • Protection of children and young The draft charter also covers the people – in relation to the age of rights of asylum seekers, refugees and entry into employment and worst migrant workers. Trafficking in per- forms of child labour (Conventions sons, especially women and children, No. 138, and 182, respectively) is to be eliminated through relevant • Abolition of forced labour – in all legislation. its forms • Persons with disabilities – to be provided with conditions benefit- 5.0 CHALLENGES ing their situation • Social protection – every worker • The East African Trade Union of the region, regardless of status Council must be officially recog- and the type of employment, is to nized and given due respect in be provided with adequate pro- order to make way for its par- tection ticipation in the various stages of • Elderly persons – to be enabled to negotiations and in implementing enjoy a decent standard of living, the common market protocol. including equity in post-employ- • The recommendations of the ment security scheme trade unions in the social charter • Improvement of working and liv- must be respected by the member ing conditions through harmoni- states of the East African Com- zation of minimum standards laid munity and they must figure as an down in the labour legislations important component of the pro- • Protection of occupational health tocol for the common market. safety and environment • The East African Trade Union Confederation has not yet made
128 adequate publicity for the mem- 6.0 CONCLUSION bers (workers) in East Africa so as to be accepted as a forum for ad- It is clear that the spirit of the East Af- vocating their issues on the social rican Treaty includes most of the ba- charter of the East African Com- sic principles which the trade union mon Market. movement in Tanzania and the trade • The trade unions in all the mem- union movements in the other East ber states of the East African Com- African countries would endorse. The munity must have clear strategies challenge, however, lies in the mode on the ground to address the on- of their operationalisation. This con- going changes related to the East stitutes the future role of the trade un- African Union (Federation). ions.
Notes
129 THE NEW LABOUR LAW: PROLIFERATION OF TRADE UNIONS, A POSITIVE PHENOMENON? By: Dr. Titus Mlengeya, Conservation Hotels Domestic Services and Consultancy Workers Union (CHODAWU)
Introduction 2006 vide Government Notice No. 1 published on 5th January 2007. The socio-economic and political These two laws were intended to changes taking place at both global streamline the cumbersome proce- and national level necessitated the dures that were required to address re-evaluation of Tanzania’s labour labour issues in many different legal market policies, labour legislation organs and also reduce the time that and labour market institutions. This was spent on such matters. More im- re-evaluation was undertaken by a portantly, the laws needed to offer a Task Force on Labour Law Reform full legal basis for practising freedom appointed by the Government of Tan- of association in trade union matters. zania in 2001. Members of the Task Nevertheless, there are still other Force were drawn from the then Min- pieces of legislation that remain ap- istry of Labour, Youth Development plicable in Tanzania alongside the and Sports, the Trade Unions, the two new laws. These include the Pub- employers association, the Industrial lic Service Act, the Public Negotia- Court of Tanzania, the Law Reform tion Machinery Act, the Occupational Commission, the University of Dar Health and Safety Act, the Workmen es Salaam, the business community Compensation Act of 2008 and the and the legal profession. Although Social Security Regulatory Authority there are number of labour laws ap- Act. This paper will, however, discuss plicable in Tanzania, the Task Force the effect of the new labour law, spe- was required to look into the current cifically the Employment and Labour employment and labour relations Relations Act No. 6 (2004) which is law, dispute prevention and settle- relevant to the formation and opera- ment machinery, occupational health tions of trade unions in Tanzania. The and safety, worker’s compensation, paper will look on the merits and de- employment promotion and the legal merits of the law and its consequenc- structures and regulatory framework. es for the mushrooming of trade un- The result of this work culminated in ions. the formulation and enactment of two pieces of legislation, namely, The Em- Freedom of association – funda- ployment and Labour Relations Act mental rights and scope No. 6 (2004) and The Labour Institu- tions Act No. 7 (2004), both of which Freedom of association is one of the became operative on 20th December fundamental rights, or literally hu- 130 man rights, which have to be protect- authorization is required in forming ed by legal provisions. Under the In- the workers organization. ternational Labour Organization (ILO) While it may generally be to the ad- freedom of association stems from vantage of workers to avoid a multi- two Conventions, that is No. 87 and plicity of trade union organizations, 98, both of which have been ratified unification of the trade union move- by the Tanzanian Government. There ment imposed through state interven- are four broad categories of these tion by legislative means runs counter fundamental rights: to the principle embodied in Articles 2 and 11 of Convention No. 87. While i. Freedom of association and the fully appreciating the desire of any effective recognition of the right government to promote a strong trade to collective bargaining (ILO Con- union movement by avoiding the de- ventions 87 and 98) fects resulting from an undue multi- ii. Elimination of all forms of forced plicity of small and competing trade and compulsory labour (ILO Con- unions, and whose independence ventions 29 and 105) may be endangered by their weak- iii. The effective elimination of child ness, ILO recommends that it would labour (ILO Conventions 138 and be more desirable for a government 182) to seek to encourage trade unions to iv. The elimination of discrimination join together freely and voluntarily to in respect of employment and oc- form strong and united organizations cupations (ILO Conventions 100 than to impose upon them by legisla- and 111). tion a compulsory unification which deprives the workers of the free exer- Freedom of association in trade un- cise of their right of association, and ions literally means the right of work- thus runs counter to the principles ers to establish and join workers’ which are embodied in the interna- organizations of their own choosing. tional labour conventions relating to The full freedom of association cannot freedom of association. be said to exist unless such freedom is The government also should neither fully established and respected in law support nor obstruct a legal attempt and in fact. This freedom implies the by a trade union to displace an exist- effective possibility of forming, in a ing organization. Workers should be climate of full security, organizations free to choose the union which, in independent both of those which exist their opinion, will best promote their already and of any political party. The occupational interests without inter- right of workers to establish organi- ference by the authorities. zations of their own choosing also It is thus recommended by the ILO implies the effective possibility to cre- that the State should amend its leg- ate – if the workers so choose – more islation so as to make it clear that than one workers’ organization in an when a trade union already exists for enterprise provided that they believe the same employees as those whom a it is desirable to safeguard their mate- new union seeking registration is or- rial and moral interests. No previous ganizing or is proposing to organize,
131 or the fact the existing union holds other things, human rights issues re- a bargaining certificate in respect of lated to child labour, forced labour, such class of employees, this cannot discrimination and freedom of asso- give rise to objections of sufficient ciation. Part III deals with Employ- substance to justify the registrar in ment Standards, and mainly it ad- refusing to register the new union. dresses hours of work, remuneration, all forms of leave, unfair termination Coverage of Employment and La- and other incidents of termination. bour Relations Act No. 6 (2004) Part IV deals with Trade Unions, Employers Associations and Federa- In view of the principle of freedom of tions and basically it addresses issues association as provided by ILO, the ranging from obligations and require- Employment and Labour Relations ments for registration, constitutional Act No. 6 of Tanzania was formulat- requirements, process and effect of ed to give a legal basis and effect for registration, cancellation, dissolution practising, in full and in fact, these of a trade union or employer’s asso- core conventions as well as other rat- ciation. ified conventions. The principal ob- Part V of the Act is all about Organi- jects of the Employment and Labour zational Rights, under which matters Relations Act include among others: related to the accessibility of the em- ployer’s premises, deduction of trade • To promote economic develop- union dues, trade union representa- ment through economic efficiency, tion, procedure for exercising organi- productivity and social justice; zational rights and termination of the • To provide the legal framework said rights, are dealt with. Part VII for effective and fair employment deals specifically with Strikes and relations and minimum standards Lockouts, and matters related to the regarding conditions of work; subject which include, among other • To provide a framework for vol- things, the right to strike and lock untary collective bargaining; out, restrictions on the said right; es- • To provide a framework for the sential services; disputes of interest in resolution of disputes by media- essential services, provisions of mini- tion, arbitration and adjudica- mum service during strike or lockout, tion; procedures for engaging in a lawful • Generally to give effect to the core strike and lock out and protection and Conventions of the ILO as well as protest action. other ratified conventions. Part VIII covers Dispute Resolution. This is a broad area of the law and The Act consists of 103 sections di- a core part covering the main activi- vided into nine parts. Part I covers ties to be undertaken by Mediators Preliminary Provisions in respect of and Arbitrators in relation to dis- short title, application, objects and pute resolution. Lastly, Part IX deals interpretation. Part II is about Fun- with General Provisions in respect damental Rights and Protections, of record keeping by employers and which basically deals with, among employees, service documents, regu-
132 lations, guidelines, codes of good There is also an informal agreement practice, exemptions, confidentiality, amongst TUCTA affiliates of non-in- penalties, repeal, amendment of laws tervention between unions, although and saving provisions. it is occasionally disobeyed. A project supported by the Danish Aid Agency Recent history of trade unions in (DANIDA) within TUCTA helps to or- Tanzania ganize union members collectively among the unions, thus reducing con- Trade unions in Tanzania have gone flicts between unions. through a series of policy and struc- tural changes which, by and large, The aftermath of the new labour have been influenced by the govern- law ment. Before and soon after inde- pendence, trade unions were based Following the enactment and opera- on sectoral workers and they formed tionalization of the new labour law in the Tanganyika Federation of Labour 2006, at least seven new trade unions (TFL). However, probably with the have been formed and registered by intention of curtailing workers’ au- the Registrar of Trade Unions. These tonomy and political influence, the unions have been formed as splinter ruling party, then Tanganyika Afri- groups from the previously existing can National Union (TANU), decided unions. Despite the rightful provision to turn TFL into the workers’ wing to establish trade unions in Tanza- of the ruling party. Its name was also nia, the main reasons given for the changed to National Union of Tan- establishment of these new unions ganyika Workers (NUTA). Following has mainly been poor or inadequate the merger of the Tanzania Mainland services provided to a group of mem- ruling party TANU with the Zanzibar bers in the existing unions. However, Afro Shiraz Party, since known as differences in individual interests, Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM), NUTA competition for leadership among the was also changed into JUWATA, the leaders of the present unions and the workers’ wing of the ruling party. The purely egoistic desire to create oppor- new drive for freedom of associa- tunities for leadership cannot be ig- tion of trade unions led to the enact- nored altogether as the motivation for ment of new legislation in 1990 and the establishment of breakaway trade it culminated in the establishment of unions. Lack of knowledge about the Organization of Trade Union of trade unions amongst Tanzanian Tanzania (OTTU). The present Trade workers also provides fertile ground Union Congress of Tanzania (TUCTA) for the proliferation of unions as the was formed in 1992 from ten free workers are easy to mislead. trade unions. As a result of splits that These newly formed unions include took place in some trade unions later the Tanzania Union of Private Secu- on, there are now fourteen trade un- rity Workers (TUPSE). Private Se- ions affiliated to the TUCTA. All the curity is one of the constitutionally TUCTA affiliates are formed on basis recognized sectors within the Conser- of sectoral relations. vation Hotels Domestic Services and
133 Consultancy Workers Union (CHOD- pillar of human rights. Unless the un- AWU). TASIU was formed to address ions are established on the basis of workers’ interests in social services. evil motives such as the struggle for This is a very broad sector which cuts power and egoistic desires, the prin- across the membership of many trade cipal is pertinent and sound. Free- unions. A more recent splinter union dom for workers to establish unions broke away from the Research Acad- of their own choosing has the positive emician and Allied Workers Union result of stimulating better services for (RAAWU) to form the so-called High members from the unions. As such, Learning Institutions Workers Union genuine desires to form and join un- (HLIWU). The Tanzania Union of In- ions should be encouraged and nur- dustrial and Commercial Workers tured among workers in Tanzania. (TUICO) is also on the verge of split- However, as a safeguard to ensure ting: the workers in the Banking insti- that the freedom of association is not tutions are looking for an exit. misused, Tanzanian workers need to Although the new breakaway unions be encouraged to learn about labour risk turning into small, weak and relations including, but not limited poorly resourced unions, the breaka- to, the role of trade unions. This is way process has stimulated old trade a massive endeavour which requires unions to act more responsibly and vast resources. to serve their members better. The Therefore, the existing trade unions, sectoral monopoly enjoyed by the old the federation (TUCTA), the employers’ trade unions had a negative impact association, the government as well on their members and workers in as social organizations such as FES general. Consequently, the federation, should be brought together to make the TUCTA, has become a non-re- a concerted effort. All stakeholders sponsive giant with little influence on should allocate substantial resources affiliates in the country. In response, for this activity. This is because all the the affiliated unions, with the excep- stakeholders have a vested interest in tion of only a few, have ignored their assuring that there is harmony in the obligation to service the federation work place as this leads to economic including paying dues and rents, and development, efficiency and produc- the reverse is also true. tivity and hence it benefits everybody. Conflicts at work places as a conse- Conclusion: Is the proliferation of quence of fighting unions can result trade unions a positive phenom- not only in the disruption of harmony enon? but also in economic sabotage which can lead to heavy losses. The conflict Freedom of association is one of the between the Tanzania Plantation and fundamental rights embodied in the Agriculture Workers Union (TPAWU) ILO Convention no. 87 and provided and TUICO at Tanganyika Planting by the Employment and Labour Rela- Company (TPC), Kilimanjaro, in the tions Act No 6 (2004) of Tanzania. The past few years is a case in point. establishment of free trade unions is Formal education amongst trade un- therefore hinged on a very important ion staff has been accorded very lit-
134 tle merit in Tanzania for a long time. tion and skills. Well trained and com- Unfortunately, however, the changing petent staff will ensure that the unions socio-economic pattern in the coun- are better organized and that they try, which includes private invest- consequently render better services ments, demands that the trade unions to their members and that they un- have skilled and well trained person- ionize more workers. Otherwise, they nel who are able to interpret the new will not withstand the turmoil created laws, organize members and address by the proliferation of unions and ulti- disputes. Unions will have to compete mately the natural law of “survival for to recruit staff with a formal educa- the fittest” will prevail.
Notes
135 A New Convention for Domestic Workers by 2011: the Tanzanian Experience By: Vicky Kanyoka, IUF Africa, Dar es Salaam
“Mum? If I am so precious to you, as domestic servants - are invariably why do you pay so little to the wom- overworked and underpaid. They an who takes care of me?” [Respects are often abused in many ways: they and Rights, 2008, IRENE] can be sexually harassed, beaten and raped, amongst other forms of mal- Domestic/household workers play a treatment. In fact their workplace vital role in the well-being and eco- is invisible as they work in isolation nomic structure of society. Millions behind closed doors and this makes of individual employers worldwide, such abuse by their employer easier from the formal sector to the informal as there are no witnesses. sector, are spared having to carry out everyday household tasks because Domestic work is often seen as just they are done by domestic workers. something that women or, all too of- ten, girls do in the homes of others to Domestic workers look after children “help out”. Yet, they often look after and contribute to their up-bringing, other people’s most precious things – they clean the house and the environ- their children. ment, wash and iron the clothes, look after the elderly and the sick, cook, For years there have been reports fetch water and firewood, look after from different countries and conti- poultry and take care of the garden. nents, villages and cities, about the In fact, domestic workers carry out conditions to which domestic workers a multitude of tasks. Working condi- are subjected. These include physi- tions differ from one work-place to cal and psychological violence, sexual another, as well as from one country harassment, rape which can lead to and one continent to another. HIV/AIDS, threats, racism, depriva- tion of food, insults and false allega- Domestic/household workers enable tions. Sometimes they are remanded their employers to work away from or jailed without valid reason and home comfortably while their family some are even killed. They also face and the home are taken care of. poor working conditions such as low pay or pay in kind, excessive duties In spite of its crucial role in society, and hours of work, poor accommo- domestic work is undervalued, poorly dation, health risks, no leave, no so- regulated, and exploitative. Domestic cial protection and no social security workers - who are often referred to schemes. Worse still, those who know 136 about trade unions are prevented Hence a number of programmes and from joining the trade unions. How- activities have had to be carried out ever, in spite of all these evils very few in different continents, regions and measures are taken against the em- countries to make sure that the agen- ployers. da is approved by the ILO Conference in June 2009. Furthermore, the place where a do- mestic worker works is neither rec- WHAT ABOUT TANZANIA? ognized as a work place, nor is the As in other countries, in the United householder recognized as an em- Republic of Tanzania domestic work ployer. In the same way, the domestic is the domain of women and girls and worker is not recognized as a worker/ here, too, they are exploited. Tanza- employee but as a servant, home help nia is one of the countries which has or housemaid, names which show backed the campaign against child la- that they are not recognized as prop- bour, including child-domestic labour, er workers. since 1995. The programme has been supported by ILO/IPEC. “We want the world to recognize For example, in 2005 the trade union us as workers – for that is what we CHODAWU carried out a strong cam- are” [Domestic Workers Conference paign against child domestic workers in Amsterdam, Netherlands, Novem- and reached 7,500 children, either ber, 2006] extracting children already involved or preventing new children from do- The protection of domestic workers is ing hazardous domestic work. Again a concern of domestic worker organi- in 2008 CHODAWU managed to ex- zations, national trade unions deal- tract 1,500 child domestic workers ing with domestic workers, non-gov- from the worst forms of child labour. ernmental organizations and global KIWOHEDE has been successful in ex- unions like ITUC, PSI, UNI, and IUF tracting 1,500 child domestic workers - the lead organization at global level. from the worst forms of child labour. These organizations have worked in This is a very valid indicator and it close collaboration since November is evidence of how big the problem is 2006 after the Amsterdam Confer- and hence how great is the demand ence. for such work in society.
On 19th March 2008, the govern- Being one of the beneficiaries and ing body of the International Labour recognizing the negative impact of the Organization [ILO] agreed to include problem on child domestic workers, the item “Decent Work for Domestic on adult domestic workers, and on Workers” on the agenda of the 99th society in general, Tanzania ratified Session [2010] of the International La- both conventions – No. 138 of 1973 bour Conference. This means that an of Minimum Age and No. 182 of 1999 ILO Convention on domestic/house- of Worst Forms of Child Labour. The hold workers might be approved in Tanzanian Government works very 2011. closely with employers, trade unions
137 and NGOs to eliminate child labour must be created amongst domestic and the worst forms child labour, in- workers on the labour laws and re- cluding those found in the domestic lated issues. work sector. • Do they really understand that they are proper workers like other With regard to domestic workers’ workers? If so, do they know the rights, the child domestic labour pro- institutions responsible for them gramme has been a driving force in and the procedure to be followed achieving recognition of domestic in order to get their rights? workers as proper workers in the • Are they willing to make their country. There is evidence of this in voices heard as domestic work- the Labour Institution Act cap. 30 [c] ers? [Regulations of Wages and Terms of • Do the employers recognize them Employment] Order as per the Gov- as workers, and what role does ernment Notice No. 116 of 2007 where the Association of Tanzania Em- among other Wage Boards as per the ployers (ATE) play to support Act, mentioned was the appointment these workers? of members of the Domestic and Hos- • On the part of the trade unions, pitality Services Sector Wage Board. what is the status with regard to organizing and recruitment, The Wage Board for the Domestic training and education? Sector members includes CHODAWU, • Are they covered by the social se- a trade union representing domestic curity schemes? workers in Tanzania. This illustrates • How does society perceive them? that the Labour Law of 2004 recogniz- • On the part of the government, es domestic workers as proper work- are there any instruments or ers. All the institutions that deal with mechanisms in place to follow workers’ issues such as trade unions, the implementation of the labour the Commission of Mediation and Ar- laws as far as domestic workers bitration [CMA], Ministry of Labour – are concerned? the key Ministry - play a vital role in • Do the labour laws in place cover the country. Therefore, Tanzania has migrant domestic workers? a law in place that protects and de- fends domestic workers, thereby hav- In order to have a successful campaign ing a valid reason for supporting the leading up to the convention, the gov- coming Convention of “Decent Work ernment, trade unions, employers, for Domestic Workers.” non-governmental organizations and the domestic workers themselves However, apart from all these oppor- have to work together to support the tunities, there are a number of chal- “Decent Work for Domestic Workers”. lenges which still need to be sorted out Support includes a response to the for the Convention. Research should questionnaires sent out by ILO with a be carried out to uncover the magni- view to including domestic workers in tude of the problems facing domestic the trade union delegation in the ILO- workers in the country. Awareness ILC in Geneva by 2010.
138 DOMESTIC WORKERS SAY: ganizations and well-wishers in • Domestic/Household workers Tanzania to get involved in the want the right to be treated prop- campaign. erly as workers. • Domestic workers demand re- “As domestic workers, we want the spect for the work that they do. world to recognize us as workers, • Domestic workers invite all do- for that is what we are!” mestic/household worker or-
Notes
139 HUMAN RIGHTS
Global Justice and Human Security in Tanzania
By: Prof. Abillah H. Omari, Centre for Foreign Relations, Dar es Salaam
Introduction ary position. This is not new, though, as it confirms that “in politics the crit- Global justice and human security ical issues are heavily economic.”2 are topical issues which have preoc- Global justice may also be viewed as a cupied the international community problem related to the production and since the onset of the 21st century. distribution of the global economic They are new and emerging concepts cake – in other words as a manage- and they are of common and global ment issue. When we look at global concern. This article looks at the re- justice in this light, we witness con- lationship between global justice and flicts and indeed wars and even geno- human security with a particular fo- cide. When people fight for political cus on Tanzania. space, there is an underlying sense of exploitation and economic margin- Overview on Global Justice alization. It is this view that has led economists to determine the poverty The basic premise for global justice, line, among other issues. or injustice, is that we do not live in a The economy is regulated by poli- just world1. It is this premise which tics and therefore global justice also has enabled the establishment of a addresses the issue of international link between justice and economic governance, including the structures wellbeing. Poverty, for example, is of global organizations like the UN. now considered to be more of an eco- But global justice goes beyond that nomic phenomenon than a moral is- by even addressing the operations of sue as it was in the past. Thus the trans-national corporations in order building blocks of global justice are to determine the extent to which they economic issues of poverty, economic dispense justice or promote injustice. assistance, food, etc; while problems It is injustice which is thought to en- like governance, democracy and other gender insecurity, and there is there- dimensions of politics take a second- fore a relationship between global
1 Nagel, T. (2005), “The Problem of Global 2 Mittlemen, J.H., 1988, Out from Underdevel- Justice:, Philosophy and Public Affairs 33, pp.113 opment: Prospects for the Third World, London: – 147. Macmillan. 140 justice and human security. This re- the dignity of the individual. It also lationship is wide and deep. On the includes the protection of fundamen- one hand, the whole issue of the polit- tal freedoms, the respect of human ical economy of development, which rights, access to education, health- is heavily related to global justice, has care and opportunities and choices to rightly brought to the fore the timely fulfil one’s own potential.3 reality of the Millennium Development This definition of human security is Goals (MDGs). These goals were set a departure from the traditional defi- in recognition of the basic problem nition which held that the state was facing the world; that there cannot central to security, hence national or be global justice when some parts state security.4 This departure is im- of the world experience poverty and portant, for the traditional definition hunger, illiteracy, gender inequality, of security was somehow militaristic. child mortality, bad maternal health, However, the role of the state is still serious diseases, a non-sustainable crucial. Cases have been witnessed environment and no global partner- whereby the state itself has been the ship for development. The MDGs are cause of the insecurity of its own citi- a positive step forward because every zens. The dimensions of human se- single nation-state, big and small, has curity described in this definition of been urged to ensure that the goals human security resemble the MDGs. are achieved. It is hoped that once The resemblance arises out of the re- the goals are achieved most devel- alization that security is related to de- opmental problems will have been velopment - there cannot be the one solved. And this would bring about without the other. Furthermore, the some justice to the global commons two are tied to global justice. or citizens. As a whole, the MDGs are the very The Case of Tanzania foundation of human security. If they are left unfulfilled they will engender Tanzania has been struggling to up- fear, rivalry and internecine conflicts, hold the virtues of global justice and and thus, insecurity. Therefore, glo- human security. A lot has been done, bal justice is inseparable from human and probably achieved, on this front.5 security. As indicated above, the notion of glo- bal justice impacts upon human secu- Of Human Security and Insecurity rity and the two have a symbiotic rela- tionship. To discern this relationship Human security is defined as the se- as far as Tanzania is concerned is not curity of the individual human being. only difficult, but it is now more want- This is in respect to the satisfaction ing that ever before. This is because of life’s basic needs and the absence of fear. In this sense, it involves the 3 Jackie Cilliers (2004), “Human security in Africa. creation of the social, political, eco- A conceptual framework for review: African Hu- man Security Initiative. www.africanreview.org. nomic, military, environmental and 4 In most cases state security implied regime cultural conditions that are necessary security. for the survival, the livelihood and 5 It is difficult to document everything in a paper like this. Only a few indicators are discussed. 141 the intermestic dichotomy between is none internationally. That is why, global justice and human security is even when Africa’s last “colony”, clear.6 A half century of independence South Africa, was democratized, fo- has taught Tanzania that there must cus shifted to the democratization of be interplay between the domestic that global institution, the UN. Here, and the international. Thus, global Tanzania and others are focusing on justice and human security in Tanza- the very core of the UN, the Security nia have been tightly intertwined, and Council, and demanding its democra- therefore only a few elements can be tization, even if this means expanded discussed here. representation. A seat or two for Af- rica, for example, may bring about Demand for global justice some justice. A call for global justice in terms of The demand for global justice was first the democratization of the UN would and foremost tied to the demand for be meaningless if Africa itself did not independence and self-determination. adhere to the principles of global jus- Colonialism is a typical denial of jus- tice. That is why the New Economic tice. Independence was regained in Partnership for Africa’s Development 1961 during the Cold War. The world (NEPAD) instituted the widely ac- was bipolar and this posed a threat to claimed African Peer Review Mecha- that very independence. In order to nism (APRM) as a self-assessment in- survive Tanzania adopted non-align- strument. The APRM process looks at ment as the major principle of Tanza- the whole process of governance, hu- nia’s foreign policy. This ensured not man rights abuses, party politics and only the survival of the nation-state, elections, and also at the whole issue but it also provided a platform from of wider participation in economic which to press for global justice. This development. Tanzania has recently was also the basis for other principles submitted its positive peer review re- of foreign policy: support for the Or- port to the AU. ganization of African Unity (now Afri- As we have already argued, the most can Union), adherence to the Charter critical political issues have a heavy of the United Nations and the Univer- economic bias. Tanzanian leadership, sal Declaration of Human Rights and and particularly former president the cardinal principle of good neigh- Benjamin Mkapa, saw such critical bourliness. issues in concrete terms. President These principles were important in- Mkapa’s regime saw the relationship gredients of Tanzania’s foreign rela- between economic assistance and un- tions and they told the international derdevelopment and pressed strongly community what the new and young for debt write-off. This intricate rela- nation-state stood for. It was also a tionship needs to be critically appre- way of saying that there cannot be ciated. justice at domestic level when there
6 Intermestic means those elements, which are both international and domestic, e.g. diseases that know no international borders – swine flue, HIV/ AIDS, etc. 142 Human Security at Home • Policy of Ujamaa and Self-reli- ance through the Arusha Decla- It is tempting to discuss human se- ration (1967) which stipulated an curity in strategic and political terms egalitarian society through self- and it is easy to focus on the role of reliance. the state. However, this would lead to missing the critical point behind the • Universal Primary Education relationship between global justice (UPE), including an adult educa- and human security. Tanzania has tion campaign, which reduced the made efforts to relate and synchronize rate of illiteracy tremendously and the two. It is cumbersome to look put in place the primary school at each sector, so for the purposes of infrastructure. this analysis we will limit ourselves to • Ujamaa villages’ philosophy is only a few. still instrumental in the provision The father of Tanzania nation, Mwal- of the much needed social serv- imu J. K. Nyerere, was described as an ices, e.g. water, medical care and internationalist who used the coun- education. try’s resources to project its name in- ternationally. This is often described While it is obvious that the war with in terms of Tanzania’s efforts to sup- Uganda was forced on Tanzania, the port liberation processes. Mwalimu economic doldrums of the 1980s af- Nyerere’s regime was even criticized fected Tanzania just like any other for fighting the war with Uganda, country and the leadership cannot 1978/79. The economic woes of the therefore bear responsibility alone. It 1980s have been attributed to the is, thus, a cliché to claim that Mwal- search for international grandeur and imu Nyerere pressed for global justice the war with Uganda. and laid the foundation for human se- On the other hand, Mwalimu Nyerere’s curity in Tanzania. successor, Mzee Ali Hassan Mwinyi, is In present times it may be rightly described as inward looking. He pro- claimed that Tanzania has scored vided redress from his predecessor’s many points on the path to achieving expensive international engagement the eight MDGs, exemplified by its ef- by reforming the internal economy. forts to promote MEM and MES,7 and The story goes on and on. the programme that aims to have a There is another way of comparing health centre in every ward in the the two. The very foundations of Tan- country. Added to this is the new pro- zania’s foreign policy principles which gramme, “Agriculture first”,8 which is pressed for global justice were put in yet to take root. place during Mwalimu Nyerere’s re- gime (1961 – 1985). Nevertheless, although he was looked on as a guru 7 MEM and MES are countrywide projects which of African liberation who propped up aim to expand and improve primary and secondary the international stature of Tanzania, school education. 8 Kilimo Kwanza was announced by the Minister many achievements were made at of Finance and Economic Development at the home, amongst others: Parliamentary Budget Session, Dodoma, in June, 2009. 143 In the political arena, the political mount over the traditional state-cen- parties and very competitive elec- tric security and it is tightly linked to tions continue to entrench demo- global justice, each providing inputs cratic institutions and practices. The for the other. opposition parties are weak perhaps Of course, a lot needs to be done on because they are heavily dependent all the fronts. The cry for more de- on the ruling party for their ideology. mocratization will continue for a long They have not come out as the best time to come, and the eradication of alternative. poverty may well be hampered by the There are, of course, black spots here very process of globalization. It is and there. The political conflict be- our strong hope that the current and tween the ruling Chama cha Mapin- future leaderships will not let what duzi (CCM) and the opposition Civic has been achieved so far go down the United Front (CUF), particularly in drain. Zanzibar, and the failure of the two to reach a rapprochement is one of them. The other is a sacred cow, the issue of the Union, which may raise its head sooner or later. A recent case which brought Tanzania into the media headlines was the killings of albinos. This was the result of su- perstition, but it was nevertheless a serious violation of human rights and an example of the serious insecurity to these disabled people.
Conclusion
It must be emphasized that global jus- tice is related to the principles, and indeed execution, of foreign policy in Tanzania. It is known that any for- eign policy is an extension of domes- tic policy and it has been shown that the humanity that Tanzania works for internationally has its roots at home. Efforts made to eradicate poverty through MKUKUTA and MKUZA,9 and the various domestic efforts to observe human rights are clear ex- amples. Human security is now para-
9 MKUKUTA and MKUZA are programmes to- wards poverty eradication and promotion of eco- nomic growth for Tanzania Mainland and Tanzania Zanzibar, respectively. 144 THE ROLE OF PARALEGALS IN PROMOTING WOMEN’S RIGHTS WITH A GENDER PERSPECTIVE IN TANZANIA By: Jane Magigita, Women’s Legal Aid Centre (WLAC), Dar es Salaam
Who is a paralegal? • Works on selected legislations/ laws There is no fixed legal definition of • Is able to communicate properly who is a paralegal in Tanzania since with the community paralegals are not yet recognized as part of legal system. Generally, ‘pa- Paralegals are ordinary people who ralegal’ is the term used to describe are highly respected within their com- non-lawyers who do legal work - re- munities. They conduct awareness gardless of their job title. In other raising activities and they provide le- jurisdictions the word ‘paralegal’ is gal advice on specific legal matters. used interchangeably with ‘legal as- sistants’, also known as a distinguish- Paralegal work in Tanzania able group of persons who assist attor- neys in the delivery of legal services. The paralegal system in Tanzania Through formal education, training started in the early 1990s after the and experience, legal assistants have failure of the state to provide legal knowledge and expertise regarding aid services to all citizens who were the legal system and substantive and in need of them. The majority of the procedural laws which qualify them population is poor and ignorant, so to do work of a legal nature under the people are often caught out by the law supervision of an attorney. and they cannot afford to hire legal counsel to represent them. Moreover, In Tanzania paralegals are under the statistics indicate that the number of supervision of civil society organiza- legal personnel is inadequate seen in tions. Such organizations have quali- relation to the population as a whole. fied lawyers who recruit, train and For example, there are only 793 ad- monitor paralegal work. The 1st Pa- vocates in Tanzania to serve a popu- ralegal Forum (2005) composed of lation of more than 35 million. various civil society organizations defined the term ‘paralegal’ as a per- In Tanzania 87% of the poor popula- son with the following distinguishing tion live in rural areas (NSGRP, 2005) features: where access to reliable legal services is limited. In most rural areas there • Non-lawyer are limited numbers of courts and • Trained by lawyers and social competent magistrates to tackle tech- workers nical legal issues. The few magistrates 145 designated to serve the rural majority grammes to assist indigent people are therefore overloaded with cases with legal problems. Nevertheless, it and this causes long delays in the jus- is simply not possible for the organi- tice process. The denial of or delayed zations to provide all of those in need justice is against the Constitution of with legal assistance. the United Republic of Tanzania 1977 (as amended from time to time) and The paralegal units established by negates the concept of good govern- various organizations have been ance and this in turn contributes to through training on legal and human aggravating the level of poverty as rights issues. Some of the NGOs that time and resources are lost in the have such paralegals are: pursuit of a case. • The Women’s Legal Aid Centre Tanzania has a total population of (WLAC) in Arusha, Kibaha, Do- 35.9 million people with 23% living doma, Iringa, Kigoma, Kilimanja- in urban areas (Census, 2002). Most ro, Kiteto, Hanang, Lindi, Mbeya, advocates are located in big commer- Morogoro, Mtwara, Mwanza, cial towns thus far away from most of Singida, Shinyanga, Songea, Bu- the marginalized and poor people in koba, Tabora and Tanga. WLAC’s rural areas. In any case, Tanzania has main focus is women’s legal and about 700 advocates and these are human rights not sufficient to serve a population of • The Tanzania Women Lawyers about 35.9 million people (at a ratio of Association (TAWLA) in Iringa about 1:50,000). However, advocates within Mufindi District, Igowele, have no role in primary courts and Isalavanu, Ihalimba, Malangali, thus there is no representation for the Mafinga and Nyololo. TAWLA’s poor and disadvantaged in the com- area of interest is women’s rights munity. Furthermore, the majority and gender equality of people in rural communities have • The Women Advancement Trust language barriers and thus they can- (WAT) in Mbeya within Rungwe, not access basic laws (both substan- Ileje, Mbozi, Mbarali, Chunya tive and procedural) or relevant legal and Mbeya Rural Districts. WAT’s information as most of it is written main focus is land rights and in English and in a complicated le- property ownership. gal language. Thus paralegal services • The Legal and Human Rights are crucial to save the disadvantaged Centre (LHRC) in Kiteto, Ba- groups in the rural community where bati, Mbulu, Serengeti, Tarime, legal services are limited. Kilosa, Mvomero, Hanang and Ngorongoro. LHRC concentrates In recognition of the fact that the on monitoring of human rights vi- state is incapable of providing legal olations in their respective areas. assistance and services to the poor • The Tanzania Women Volunteers sections of society, a number of civil Association (TAWOVA) in Mo- society organizations and institutions rogoro and Kagera. TAWOVA fo- have come up with a variety of pro- cuses on legal aid.
146 • ENVIROCARE in Kilimanjaro is will monitor human rights violations specifically interested in environ- and report them to the responsible mental issues. authorities. Apart from the provision of legal assistance, paralegals carry 21 WLAC Paralegal Centres: Their out educational campaigns on legal role in promoting women’s rights and human rights issues through and the challenges ahead seminars, workshops, songs and dra- ma. Despite the fact that paralegals As the first organization to initiate pa- do commendable work, they are still ralegal work in Tanzania at the begin- not recognized by the legal system. ning of 1990s, WLAC is proud of its vast knowledge and experience. Establish- Thousands of women have been ing paralegal work in Tanzania was reached through the service of pa- in line with WLAC’s goal of ensuring ralegals in Tanzania. Some of the suc- marginalized communities, especially cesses include: women and children, access to justice through the court system. So far more • Women deprived of their property than 750 individual men and women have been able to acquire back have been trained as paralegals and their property through reconcilia- 21 community-based organizations tions and filing of cases in court. and non-governmental organizations • Various discriminatory practices have come into being as a result of and traditions related to wife in- this initiative. The majority of the pa- heritance, elderly killings, prop- ralegal centres established by WLAC erty grabbing, early marriage and have grown to become independent gender based violence have been organizations reaching out to hun- challenged/discouraged and con- dreds of community members within demned. their respective regions. In the year • Paralegals follow up cases in the 2008 a total number of 6,499 cases law enforcement institutions and were assisted by WLAC coordinated other bodies and they challenge paralegals in the country. such institutions to be gender-re- sponsive when addressing gender biased practices. WLAC train paralegals on basic laws • Massive awareness and educa- and human rights with particular em- tional campaigns have been car- phasis on women’s human and legal ried out at the grass root level to rights. After the initial training there encourage both men and women is follow-up training to keep the pa- to promote gender equality, in- ralegals up-to-date and to ensure that cluding protecting girls from any their knowledge relates to their prac- form of abuse such as Female tical experience. The aim of the train- Genital Mutilation (FGM). ing is to get hold of people at the grass roots, people who will help members of their communities with legal prob- lems through counselling and who
147 Need for legal recognition alized are simple and do not require expert legal opinion or formal repre- Many paralegals have accumulated sentation, so a trained paralegal can knowledge and experience and this assist with most of the conflicts which must be recognised. The ongoing arise in the everyday lives of ordinary Legal Sector Reform Strategy under- people. More complex matters can be scored the importance of formalizing referred to advocates should the need paralegal work in Tanzania and it is arise. Thus paralegals can help the therefore high time that the govern- justice system to at least reach those ment took action. in the rural areas, those who cannot afford paid advocates and those who In 2005, six NGOs mentoring parale- are already entangled in the justice gals, namely the Women’s Legal Aid systems. Centre (WLAC), the Tanzania Wom- During the second National Paralegal en Lawyers Association (TAWLA), Symposium 25th-26th August, 2009 the Legal and Human Rights Centre paralegals came together with the (LHRC), the Women Advancement aim of initiating the process of form- Trust-Human Settlement, the Envi- ing a National Paralegal Network, a ronmental Human-Rights Care and forum for them to amplify their voices Gender Organization (ENVIROCARE) and seek government recognition and and the Tanzania Women Volunteers support to reach out to communities Association (TAWOVA), formed a Pa- and provide legal assistance. As for ralegal Forum. The aim was to have a them too “Justice Delayed is Justice platform for NGOs to have a common Denied”. voice in advocating for the recogni- tion and formalization of paralegals. For the special guest at the opening, In 2005 the Paralegal Forum jointly the Hon. George Mlawa, Commission- organized a national paralegal sym- er for the Human Rights and Good posium where, amongst other things, Governance Commission, it was an it was decided that advocating for the opportunity to hear about the work of recognition of paralegals was of para- paralegals and the harsh (legal) envi- mount important. ronment they work in. He encouraged the WLAC to work more closely with The Law Reform Commission submit- his Commission and look for common ted its recommendations to the Minis- ways of getting the paralegals recog- ter for Justice and Constitutional Af- nized by Tanzania’s legal system. fairs on paralegal reforms. Amongst its recommendations was that a pa- ralegal should have high qualifications thereby creating a new cadre of law- yers who most likely would eventually seek greener pastures in commercial towns. The reforms would lead to the death of the paralegals established by CSOs in the rural areas. The margin-
148 Useful Tools
149 Internet and e-Mail spaces in electronic addresses), and are normally written in lower case. The Internet This is a computer network that joins other Search engines and websites networks together e.g. those of academic When you are looking for information and government institutions, schools, you might already know the website to libraries and corporations, making them look in and its address. If you do not seem to be just one network to the user, know where to look, then you will have who sits in front of her / his computer to use a search engine. A search engine at home, in the office or at an “internet helps you find information. To access the cafe”. The Internet provides access to search engine you write http:// and the information stored in different computers name of the search engine, e.g. www. all over the world and it also provides the google.com OR www.altavista.com OR opportunity to engage in discussions and www.yahoo.com. These addresses open to share ideas and research with people the websites of Google, Altavista and connected to the network. Yahoo. When you access a search engine, To access the Internet you need a you will have to type some key words in computer with the adequate software, a the space provided. The search will be telephone-line and a modem (modem = based on those words you chose as the contraction of modulator / demodulator) most important ones. Here is the secret: to link your computer with the telephone. what sort of key words should you use, You also need to subscribe to an “internet and how to combine them? provider”. 1. Be specific! World Wide Web (www) The more specific your search is, the Through the Internet, you can access more likely you will find what you want. the www. This is the name given to the For example if you want to know how apparently seamless “web” of many many international treaties Tanzania geographically separate sources of has signed, you should write “Tanzania information. The mass of data available international treaties signatories” or you is overwhelming. There is no guarantee should even write “how many treaties that it is acurate, up-to-date or even Tanzania has signed?” You will be meant to be helpful. Anyone with access surprised at how often this works! to the internet can publish her / his own material and make it accessible on 2. Use the symbol + to add the web. Internet users must therefore If you want to be sure that the pages you approach websites witha very critical will find contain not only one or another mind. word you typed, but all of them, you A web is distinguished by the prefix should use the symbol +. For instance, http:// in its address, which you should you want to find pages where there are write on the top of the page of your references to President Kikwete together “browser” software (e.g. Fire fox, Opera, with references to Mwalimu Nyerere. You Internet Explorer, ...). Each website has a should then type: +Kikwete+Nyerere. You unique address, known as URL. The FES can narrow down your search by adding Tanzania address is http://tanzania.fes- more specific words. international.de Take care when writing the web addresses for they are sensitive 3. Use the symbol - to substract to punctuation and spaces (there are no If you want all the pages related to those
150 key words but not the ones referring to a • Zebra.co.za specific subject, you can use the symbol • Siftthru.com -. Using the above example, you want • Searchenginewatch.com to reference to President Kikwete and • Fishboo.com Nyerere, but do not want reference to Ujamaa, you can type: +Kikwete+Nyerere- E-Mail Ujamaa. This refers to electronic mail as opposed to airmail or surface mail (today popularly 4. Use quotation marks to keep known as “snail mail”). You can send expressions together messages to anyone with an Internet If you want to find references to a special account, and it can include not only text, combination of words, you will have to but also pictures and spreadsheets. write those words in quotation marks. For Incoming messages are stored in you example, if you type +President+Kikwete, mail-box on your internet provider until you will get sites that make reference to you access it. E-Mail is delivered very those words together or separated. But if fast, in a matter of seconds or a few you write “President Kikwete”, you will hours. get only the reference where both of the This depends amongst other things on words appear in that same order. the amount of data being transferred and the quality of telephone lines and 5. Combining all of it that of your modem. The cost of sending Try to use the different signs email depends on the amount of data to be specific. For example: and therefore the length of time it takes +”President Kikwete”+”Mwalimu to send it from your computer to the local Nyerere”+development-”international server. It is relatively cheap: sending cooperation”. Here are the names of a email to the other side of the globe is not few search engines: more expensive than sending one to a computer next door. • Google (www.google.com) To send and receive e-mails you will need • Altavista (www.altavista.com) a dedicated program, such as Outlook • Yahoo Express, Microsoft Outlook, Morilla, • RSS Thunder bird, and others. You will have • AskJeeves your own electronic address and will • HotBot send your message to another address. • InfoSeek FES Tanzania´s electronic address is • MSN HYPERLINK “mailto:[email protected]” info@ fes.or.tz You can also enter a search engine and search for specific search engines, for Chatting and conferencing example, +”search engines”+Africa. The Internet provides the possibility Some of the specific search engines for of communicating directly with others Africa are: online. In other words the people chatting or • Mosaique.com holding conference are at their computer • ClickAfrica.com and are on the internet at the same time. • Orientation Tanzania • Woyaa.com • Ananzi.com
151 HOW TO CHOOSE THE RIGHT Celeron and Intel Core 2 Duo. The Celeron COMPUTER FOR YOUR BUSINESS processor is fine for applications where By: Vipul Shah, PC Solutions Dar es Salaam the user is only going to run a single application at a time as it is not geared towards multi-processing. However, most Many people think that purchasing a businesses opt for the Intel Core 2 Duo computer for their business is a simple (or the new Intel Quad core) processors matter of knowing how much they want which allow users to work with several to spend and then finding something that applications at the same time e.g. Outlook, fits the budget. This is not ideal. Word and Internet Explorer. To ensure that the users can maximise Memory (RAM) – You can never have too their productivity on the computer it much RAM. Whilst this is not entirely is important to understand what the true, most users will see significant computer is going to be used for. Only performance improvements in their then can you specify what hardware and computers by upgrading to 2GB of RAM software is needed. This is often difficult (particularly if using MS Windows Vista). because the user is rarely the person Hard disk size – Hard drives have been who decides what to buy. Usually such increasing in size at an amazing rate. decisions are made by the procurement Today you can have 1TB (1,000GB) as the department, so it is essential that the user hard disk in your computer. This reflects informs the buyer about what he needs the growing use of multimedia applications and why. For example, if the computer both at home and in business. However, is going to be used primarily outside the unless you are a graphics designer, the office, then a desktop computer will be of basic 120GB or 160GB hard disk will be little use because the user will not be in plenty of storage for your work the office to use it! Screen size – whilst CRT screens are still available most users now only purchase Deciding on the hardware LCD screens because they use less power, The first decision you need to make is take up less desk space and look nicer. whether you need a laptop or a desktop. LCD screens come in many sizes but the Increasingly users choose laptops because two most popular sizes are 17” and 19” in (a) they allow the user to work even when standard and wide format. The standard they are out of the office, (b) they are now format monitor is preferable if you use as powerful as desktop computers, and lots of Word and graphics design files (c) the price of laptops is now similar to whereas the wide format is better if you that of desktops so it does not cost the use lots of applications simultaneously or organisation more to invest in a laptop. work with wide format spreadsheets. Deciding what to buy is about matching specifications to the actual How to determine the ideal computer for need, with processor, memory, hard you disk and screen size being the most The first step is to determine what you important specifications to take into need to use the computer for by asking account. Performance is measured by a questions like the ones below: combination of processor speed and the amount of RAM available.
Processors - Intel processors are the most popular and fall into two main families –
152 Question What you need Do you need to take your work with you? This will tell you whether a laptop or a desk- top is best for you. Do you use many applications at the same This will help you determine the processor time? speed and the amount of RAM you need. Do you work with media (music, video, This will help you determine the processor graphics) files? speed, amount of RAM and the size of hard disk you need. Do you use large spreadsheets with auto- This will determine the amount of RAM and mated macros? the size of screen you need.
Once you have answered the above In the old days it was enough to ask questions you will be able to identify for “anti-virus”. Now you must insist your specifications because you have on a comprehensive “internet security” determined your priorities. The priorities solution because this will protect you can then be communicated to the against viruses, worms, phishing attacks, computer retailers who will be able to and also ensure safe internet browsing. show you some of the options that meet The security threats are serious and once your needs. the computer is infected it can costs a lot of money to disinfect it. Some practical advice If the choice is between a faster processor If you work for an organization with more and more RAM, choose the RAM as that is then fifty computers, than it is important more likely to improve the performance. that you purchase a branded computer If the choice is between RAM and hard (HP, Dell, Apple) that is consistent with disk space, choose the hard disk if you the others in the organization because need to store lots of data because it is this makes it easier to get support from easier to add more RAM than to upgrade your IT support in case of problems. In the hard disk afterwards. addition, a lot of branded computers If you have the money, choose the 19” integrate management and support tools screen: you will see the difference and into the computer making them easier you find it much easier to work on. to manage. This lowers the total cost of If you are going to use MS Windows ownership. Vista make sure you have at least 1GB of RAM. Peripherals that you must consider
More practical advice UPS are essential. The range of UPS has Always make sure that you get a genuine grown so that you can now purchase a operating system with your computer. cheap UPS for as little as $45. This is not The operating system is what allows the recommended as the quality is unknown computer to work and pirated software and the organisation is not only risking will stop you from being able to update damage to the computer but also possible your system and may even leave you loss of data due to power problems. It is vulnerable to viruses and worms. In the best to purchase a line-interactive UPS business environment always specify MS (also known as a Smart UPS) because it Windows Vista Business. provides the protection required in our environment.
153 Printers are the most obvious peripherals of laser black & white copies whilst that you require. For most users the providing the advantage of colour. choice is between inkjets or laser printers. Laser printers are cost effective Microphones and headphones are for black and white print and inkjets becoming essential because they allow are cost effective for low volume mix of users to communicate with colleagues colour and black & white. If you print around the world for free user applications more then 500 pages per month then go like Skype and MSN messenger. This can for a laser. Colour laser printers are now lead to significant cost saving for the less then $500 and give the cost benefit organisation.
Basic system maintenance 3. Clean your internet browser cache By Carl Vancil Cache files are those left over from your browsing experience. They mostly consist of images that your browser had One of the most common questions I to download in order to display on a web have been asked has been, “Why is page you are viewing. my computer so slow?” This has been followed closely by, “What can I do to 4. Defrag the files on your hard drive speed up my computer?” Defrag arranges the files on your hard The answer can be as varied as the drive so that they can be accessed more number of computers with the problem. efficiently. This has two advantages. One, The solutions can range from some your system operates more efficiently. simple maintenance to hardware repair/ Two, your hard drive will last longer upgrades or even a combination. Here because it will not have to work as hard are some common things you can do to to access files. improve system performance. 5. Perform a virus scan 1. Run a thorough scan disk Many viruses use so much of your Errors in the files on your harddrive can system’s resources that they will greatly reduce performance as can a hard drive degrade performance. Some will even that is developing physical errors. Scan crash your system completely. Make sure disk will repair many of the file errors on your virus definitions are up to date and your hard drive. Running the thorough run a complete virus scan of your system. scan disk will also check the hard This should be done weekly. drive for physical errors. Remember, depending on the size of your hard drive 6. Check your system for spyware / this can take a lot of time and you cannot adware do anything else at the same time. The Many websites install spyware/adware best time to run scan disk is when you do on your system without your knowledge. not need to use the computer. These can be as simple as cookies that track where you surf to actual programs 2. Delete temporary files from your hard that give others access to your computer. drive There are many utility programs that you Temporary files are usually the files left can download to scan for these files. over after installing a program and can be safely deleted. 7. Clean the dust out of your computer It seems too simple but just having a
154 dirty computer can slow it down. If Another possibility is that there are too there is an excessive buildup of dust many programs starting when you turn inside your computer, it will cause a heat on your computer. In Windows 98SE or buildup. This heat buildup will degrade XP (both home and pro) this is easy to performance as well accelerate wear and check using the msconfig utility. From tear on the parts inside your computer the ‘run’ command type ‘msconfig’ and which can lead to the premature failure hit the enter key. This will bring up the of a critical part. Remember to unplug Windows Configuration Utility where you your computer before opening the case. can check what is starting with Windows Also, remember to NOT bump any of and it gives you the option of turning off the internal parts with the vacuum to the auto startup of many programs. In prevent damage. other versions of Windows (95, NT, 2000) it would be best to have someone with a These steps are something that we can good working knowledge of the Windows all try if our system is running slow. If Registry service your computer. these do not get the performance of your system back to where you think it should If all this fails then you may need to be then a few more things can be tried. reformat your hard drive or upgrade Many utility programs will perform deep hardware. Remember too that you always checks on your system’s registry as well have the option of taking your system in to as look for missing shortcuts and even a qualified service technician. Sometimes missing Windows files. spending a little extra money will save you hours and hours of headaches or worse yet, the loss of data.
HOLDING A WORKSHOP, Try to involve participants in developing SEMINAR OR CONFERENCE the program.
Planning and Budgeting 3. Calculate the budget • Preparatory meetings 1. Develop the idea • Hall charges Identify: • Catering • The main objectives • Refreshments during sessions • The target group • Accommodation • The intended outcome • Travel Write the outline. • Stationery • Secretariat/organising team 2. Develop the program • Reception (if necessary) Decide: • Which topics 4. Income and expenditure • The time frame Record all income - donations, • The organisational style (conference, participants’ fees etc. lectures, working groups) Record all expenditure, remembering to • How much time is needed for the various keep receipts for each item elements, not forgetting recreation • Who will act as resource persons Organising • Whether or not to seek media coverage of the event 1. A checklist • Book the venue & accommodation 155 • Hold preparatory meetings Implementing • Prepare PR (public relations) activities if relevant 1. Arrival • Make agreements with resource Organisers should be in place well persons before the participants • Prepare the invitations • Check the venue and the technical -State the objectives clearly facilities needed -Give information about the program, • Give resource persons a final briefing venue, dates, resource persons and • Prepare for the registration of participants participants -If participants have to do homework • Display the program and other beforehand, make this clear documents, if relevant -Explain financial and other conditions clearly 2. Registration • Make the necessary travel arrangements 3.Welcome • Hold a joint session with all resource Explain: persons • Subject of the meeting • Prepare the necessary materials, • Who are the organisers and sponsors forms, documents • Objectives -Stationery • Logic and timing of program -Registration forms • Methodological approach -Claims forms for allowances • Expected outcome -Printed program -Papers and teaching materials 4. Holding the sessions -Workshop documentation • Handle transport claims etc. during tea breaks only 2.Terms of reference for resource persons 5. Departure • Discuss subject, objectives and Collect all that is necessary before duration of their input people leave • Explain how these fit in to the • Signed registration forms/list of overall objectives and program for the participants workshop • Signed allowance claims • Discuss the desired method of • Original detailed invoices and receipts presentation for venue, food, drinks, accommodation, • Give information about the venue and travel, stationery etc. the facilities / equipment provided for the workshop 6. After the event • Request a written paper and or hand- As soon as possible take care of outs if they are considered necessary • Accounting • State the terms of payment for the • Report writing persons services • Any other follow-ups needed Try to hold preparatory meetings with resource persons.
156 8 TIPS ON HOW TO SUCCESSFULLY 5 CHAIR A CONFERENCE Preference should be given to open 1 questions (W-questions: who, why, where, when, etc.) and information It is the conference chairperson’s questions. Closed questions (which responsibility to see that the can only be answered with a “yes” atmosphere during the discussion is or “no”) can be fatal to a discussion. always friendly, communicative and fair. 6
2 Should a discussion peter out it is up to the chairperson to get it moving The conference chairperson again by means of (open) questions, introduces the topic in an objective thought-provoking remarks and a and informative way. He/she summary of the proceedings so far. formulates the discussion goals for each item on the agenda. During a 7 discussion, he/she must not initially express his/her own opinion or The chairperson should make interim assessment as this would bias the summaries to emphasize the thread discussion. of the discussion. At the close, the chairperson gives a general summary 3 and his/her evaluation as to which of the goals formulated at the outset The chairperson speaks as little as have or have not been achieved. possible in order to give maximum time to the conference participants. 8 Conference chairmanship principally entails raising questions and giving At the end of the conference, it is also the word to different speakers. up to the chairperson to formulate and delegate tasks to individual 4 participants. Nobody ought to leave the conference without precisely Questions from the chairperson knowing: should always be designed to a. what has been achieved in today’s stimulate dialogue and consequently discussion, should never be answered by the b. what is my specific assignment chairperson himself/herself. until the next conference/meeting, c. where and when is the next conference/meeting? Source: Schulte, Carla (1997) Talking Politics (and being understood), Kampala: Fountain Publishers. 157 HOLDING EFFECTIVE INTERNAL MEETINGS AND PLANNING SESSIONS
Starting the meeting During the meeting
1.Who is chairing the meeting? 1. Follow the agreed agenda, discussing (It is best to have agreed on this in the issues in turn. The chairperson or advance.) moderator must see to it that the agreed time frame is adhered to. If this proves 2. Who is going to write the minutes? difficult, then the group must be asked to decide 3. If the agenda has not been prepared whether to continue the discussion in advance, then the chairman, (you), of the issue in question and therefore should collect the issues that need to be extend the meeting, or whether to stop discussed from the participants. They the discussion and continue it at an should be written up on a board or a agreed time. flipchart, so that everyone can see them. Remember the issues that might have 2. Never move on to the next issue cropped up at the previous meeting. before making a decision on the one being discussed. 4. In collaboration with the participants decide how much time it will take to Closing the meeting discuss each issue. Confirm at what time the meeting has to close. Ask if anyone 1.Quickly repeat the decisions that have has to leave early. been made.
5. Then ask participants which issues 2. Decide when and how the minutes they wish to concentrate on at the will be distributed. meeting and which ones can be postponed (if necessary). After that ask 3. Decide who will chair the next which issue should be dealt with first, meeting. second, third and so on. This should not take more than five minutes! 4. Close the meeting at the agreed time.
Notes
158 PROJECT OUTLINES
Should be short, Explain briefly aims, clear and promi- general objectives, sing. former projects!
Those who really Ti t l e o f t h e Pr o j e c t Convince the know what they reader of the need want can usually do • Name of proposing for this project! with 2-3 objectives. Explain the idea Be as concrete as agency of the project and possible. • Address and contact how you want to person fulfill the objecti- Who takes interest • Short presentation of ves, describe the in this project? your NGO Impact! Who shall be invol- • Objectives ved? Who profits • Justification for choo- Do you need to from the project contact other per- and how? sing the project sons to fulfill your • Target group objectives? Specify Detailed list of • Know-how from out- their capacities or expected expen- side needed? know-how! ditures (personnel • Budget material, travel, • Scedule / program Be precise about etc.) • Feasibility the venue, dura- tion, methodology! • Sustainability Do you foresee any • Intended follow-ups prohibitive difficul- Which further ties or problems? • More info about your impact does it NGOs background, have? Any workshops work done so far etc. about maintenance (optional) By whom? List and organisation of names. the project?
¸ Practical advice • use white, clean sheets of A4 - paper • present your project in a typewritten version if possible • write on one side of the paper • make sure you have a clear structure • attach a covering letter 159 QUALITIES OF A MODERATOR
The Moderator The ideal Moderator is a person who is... Moderation technique can best be used in groups of up to 15 participants. How • regarded as neutral by all participants to be a good moderator is not something to be learned quickly and easily, but • therefore an outsider to the discussion is a matter of guided experiences, self group reflection and continuous learning. A moderator’s tasks are to: • able to use visualisation techniques, such as pinboards, flipcharts and • help the group to know and appreciate blackboards their own knowledge and strengths How to prepare a Moderation • help the discussion process to be coherent and resultoriented • The issue, the main objective, and the quality of the intended results have to be • be expert at guidance as far as the very clear “how” of the discussion process is concerned, and not the “what” • Be aware of the participants’ composition, background, knowledge, • visualise and thus document the interests and potential conflicts steps of the discussion process and its immediate results • Determine the duration of the process, the facilities available and their • ask the right questions and break limitations deadlocks • Identify clear-cut objectives and goals Usually two people can fulfil these tasks for every session, what methods to use easier than one... and the amount of time needed
• Make sure that sufficient visualisation materials are available.
Notes
160 THE MODERATION METHOD
The typical steps in moderating a 4. WORK ON THE ISSUE AND FIND A WAY discussion TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM - Find a method of how to discuss or 1. OPENING “solve” the prioritised subject/s. - Warm-up with participants (explain - The method has to depend on the kind of your role, make them know each other). issue at hand and the intended results. - Discuss and agree on time-frame and organisational matters. 5. PLAN ACTION/DETERMINE THE - Collect the expectations of participants. FOLLOW-UPS - Discuss and agree on expectations that - Visualise the activities regarded shall/can be objectives for the workshop. necessary by the group. - Agree on methodology. - Write down who will be in charge and - How will minutes be taken? by when different tasks need to be done.
2. COLLECT ISSUES/SUBJECTS 6. CLOSING - Phrase the guiding question carefully - Find out, whether participants’ and in a very focused manner and expectations have been fulfilled, visualise it! - Whether they are satisfied with the - Collect all answers/ideas of participants, process and the result. without discussing them first! - Visualise answers/ideas as they come. - Group them into clusters and give a name/title to each cluster. Always come up with a result! Always pin down which task is assigned 3. SELECT ISSUES/SUBJECTS to whom! - Phrase a guiding question carefully and Always ascertain if you have addressed write it down visibly. the needs and expectations of the - Allow participants to prioritise participants! clusters according to their individual preferences. - The agenda will then be determined by the number of “votes” per cluster, going through as many clusters as time or workshop-concept allows. - In doing this, every participant gets the same number of “votes” which he can use on the clusters as he wishes. (One way of doing this is to hand out little markers of some sort to every participant so that they can all jot down their preferences at the same time.) If possible avoid “voting” by raised hands.
161 THE STRUCTURE OF YOUR SPEECH
The aim of a discussion is to convince MAIN BODY the listeners of the correctness of the (max. 20 minutes) speaker’s opinion on the subject in question. Such speeches should not last • Discuss the current situation/the facts/ longer than 30 minutes. the problem. • Discuss a variety of possible solutions. How do you most effectively structure • Discuss the pros and cons of these such a speech? solutions. • Present your own evaluation. AUDIENCE RELATED INTRODUCTION • Prove the accuracy of your assessment. (max. 1 minute) SUBJECT-RELATED CONCLUSION • Create the right atmosphere for the (max. 4 minutes) speech by referring to the audience, the venue, the occasion, etc. • Summarise the main argument in a maximum of three points. SUBJECT-RELATED OPENING REMARKS (max. 3 minutes) AUDIENCE RELATED CONCLUSION (max. 1 minute) • Begin with a provocative proposition, a rhetorical question, a current event, etc. • Close your speech by, for instance, thanking the audience for their PREVIEW THE MAIN POINTS OF YOUR attention. SPEECH (max. 1 minute) Source: H. Hess: Party Work in Social Democratic Parties
ARGUMENTATION • If you are interrupted, insist on the TECHNIQUES right to finish what you were saying. • Anticipate your counterpart’s Good argumentation techniques are arguments by including them in your always beneficial. Your chances to win own argumentation. others over are higher if you can: • Use the persuasive power of examples. Ask your counterpart to provide • present effective arguments and concrete examples of how to apply his • refute your opponent’s arguments. theories. • Expose generalisation and PRACTICAL TIPS inaccuracies. • Stick to the facts of the issue. • Try to understand the position of your • If somebody evades the issue, return to counterpart first, then react to it. the subject. • If your counterpart’s argumentation is weak, repeat your own good arguments. Source: C. Schulte, 1997,Talking Politics (and being understood): Kampala, Fountain Publishers 162 Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere during an interview with the German magazine “Der Überblick” in Hamburg in April 1999.
HOW TO USE BLACKBOARDS AND FLIPCHARTS
Blackboard
Useful in gatherings of up to 25 people. Flipchart + It is easy to write information & easy to correct it. Useful in gatherings of up to 35 people. - Information is wiped off, it disappears + Sheets can be prepared in advance. and it is hard Information can be displayed for a long for participants to retrieve. period by removing sheets from the flipchart and posting them on the wall. TIP If the chalk squeaks - this always TIP Useful for a wide range of information makes participants uncomfortable - break e.g. displaying the day’s agenda, the chalk and continue writing using the important overviews, central statements, broken end. flowcharts, participants’ contributions.
163 • Do not write down too much: concentrate on key issues only. • Give the audience time to copy the contents of the presentation OR give it to them as a hand out afterwards. If you intend to distribute a handout, tell the participants so. Otherwise it is likely that they will spend time making unnecessary notes. • Do not talk with your back turned to participants (e.g. while writing on the blackboard or flipchart). • Do not stand in front of your presentation - the participants will get irritated at not being able to read what is written.
General rules
THE CHECK LIST FOR GOOD IMPLEMENTATION OF ACTIVITIES
1. Important: plan step by step.What 6. Hire assistants, delegate, mobilize should be done first? people.
2. Consider all improbabilities, and plan 7. For seminars & workshops, check alternatives. everything in advance on loco.
3. Fix deadlines for you and for your 8. Take care of the documentation (dates partner. of receipts, use of materials, tasks of people involved ...) 4. Follow-up the results before the deadline. 9. Support partners in the learning process. Sell the idea “on-the-job learning”. 5. Keep an eye on the indicators to be achieved. 164 10. Take care of the financial settlement 12. Write a reminder for following-up and reporting as soon as possible. the results sometime later. Document it.
11. Evaluate with the partners 13. Keep your colleagues informed and the achievement of objectives and updated. indicators. Write recommendations. File documents. Release important Source:Workshop Report Management Skills for papers. Inform other related institutions. Decision-Makers - August 1999
TWELVE STEPS TOWARDS CONFLICT RESOLUTION
1. Understanding the conflict 5. Determining the mechanism of • its type resolution • its sources • The actors/agents • its intensity - States • its impact - NGOs - Individuals: Eminent personalities 2. Identifying the parties to the conflict - Inter-governmental organizations • whether bilateral or multilateral conflict 6. Determining the venue and dates for negotiation 3. Identifying the issues involved 7. Negotiating rules of procedure 4. Determining the method of resolution • Conflict prevention: Preventive 8. Setting the agenda diplomacy • Conflict resolution: Negotiation 9. Launching the substantive - Direct negotiation between the negotiations conflicting parties. - Assisted negotiation: Use of a third 10. Reaching a compromise agreement party. Mediation/Facilitation 11. Implementing the negotiated Conciliation settlement Good offices Arbitration 12. Guaranteeing and monitoring the implementation of the agreement
165 TIME MANAGEMENT - SELF • Review your appointments and MANAGEMENT deadlines regularly, informing those implicated in good time if you want to Most people bristle at the idea of becoming change them. a slave to time: “The Swiss have clocks, • Plan your week: Make the “things but we have time”, said a wise old man in to do” list, get an overview over your Bhutan. A certain degree of time and self- appointments and deadlines. management is nonetheless necessary if • Plan your day. you wish to be effective and to achieve • At the end of each day and at the end your goals. of each week make a review. Did you Many people rely on their memory as do all that you had planned to do? Did their management tool, but most find you meet your deadlines? Did you attend that at some point their memory lets the scheduled meetings? Were you late? them down. “Sorry, I forgot” is not Why? an uncommon statement. This is not necessarily a catastrophe, but in some RULE 2: Be realistic about what you can instances forgetting can have unfortunate manage to do consequences. You might lose an • Do not get overloaded: you have to be important contract, you might lose your realistic about what you can overcome in job, you might even lose your husband/ the given amount of time. wife to-be! • Prioritise: decide what are the most important issues. RULE 1: Write things down - use a diary • Say no, if the task is beyond what you and a calendar, (e.g. the FES diary/ are capable of doing. calendar) • Remember to make time for your • Keep a “things to do” list. private life - family, friends, hobbies and • Enter all your appointments and your own relaxation. This is where you deadlines, putting in a reminder maybe a renew your energy. week before the deadline falls.
WHAT IS PUBLIC RELATIONS?
Public Relations (PR) is about relations atmosphere at its public meetings and between an organization - be it a press conferences, its transparency and business enterprise, a political party or its accountability. an NGO - and the public. Such relations exist, whether we want them to or not. The traditional “tools” of a public relations It is therefore wise to consider what officer are: image you wish the public to have of your • press conferences • publications • organization and to work consciously on leaflets • posters • press releases • public the promotion of that image. events An organization manifests itself to the These tools must be used carefully. A public in many ways. It can be through its public meeting held without being well propagated political aims, the behaviour prepared or a badly designed and written of its representatives and members, its publication may do more harm than public statements and activities, the good!
166 PREPARING AND RUNNING A PRESS CONFERENCE
A press conference is an event to folder that includes the most which members of the press are important statements, a report and invited for a briefing by the host background material. organisation or personality. The briefing is followed by an opportunity Invitation for the journalists to ask questions. Often press conferences are held • The headline must clearly indicate when the subject matter is intricate the host organisation, the name of and further questions from journalists the person responsible and how to are expected and desired. contact him/her. If the information/news to be given at • State the subject matter clearly. the press conference is not sufficiently (Who did/does what, when, where, interesting, relevant or “meaty” for why and how.) the invited media’s readers/viewers, • Provide information about the then it is likely that the journalists speakers. will not show up. • Provide details about the venue, time and date. Preparation • Send out/deliver the invitation at least a week in advance. • Are the objectives clear and is the • Send out a reminder one or two topic well defined? days before the event. • Which media are to be invited? Remember,TV & radio may have Running it special needs. • Is the time/date well chosen and • Ask journalists to note their names convenient for journalists? Does it and which media institution they allow them to meet their deadlines? represent on a prepared list. This is Does it coincide with other important useful information for making follow- events? ups. • Who will chair the conference? • Make the written handouts available • Who will act as the organisation’s for journalists when they arrive. spokesperson/s? • The chairperson opens the • Is the opening statement well conference and introduces the prepared? speakers and subject. • Are the major arguments well • The key presenter makes his/her supported in the written handouts? statement clearly and concisely, and • Check the venue: make sure that relates them to the handouts. there are enough chairs, tables and • The chairperson moderates the lights. question and answer session. • Have handouts ready, e.g. press • Answers must be brief, clear and release.You might prepare a press concise. It is good to give practical
167 examples to illustrate the message friendly and forthcoming even when you want to give. provoked. • Speakers must remain relaxed,
A PRESS RELEASE
This is one of the most useful HOW TO WRITE IT mediums through which an organization can make itself and • The headline must state clearly the its views known to the public. The name of the organization issuing the contents might be: release and the subject matter. • Statements on pertaining issues. • State the most important themes • Reports on activities or events you first. have organized. • Make clear why you are issuing • Announcements of forthcoming the press release at this particular events. point in time. • Reactions to statements made by • The journalist must be able to pick others. out relevant information easily and quickly. PROS AND CONS • Use a typewriter or word processor, double-space and use Issuing a press release is a relatively only one side of the page. cheap way of creating awareness • Give information about how to about one’s stand. However, badly contact the person responsible: written press releases and those name, address, telephone, e-mail dealing with unimportant issues will address. annoy the recipients and may create negative feelings towards your organization. Notes
168 Participatory Impact Monitoring and Evaluation
By Constanze Pfeiffer, Freiburg, Germany
1. Wh y i s i t s o i m p o r t a n t ?
It is not only important to implement Monitoring should include those people, activities but also to learn about the who are involved in the project, because perceptions of and the consequences for they know their situation and problems those people involved in the interventions. best. Since people may be biased because Through participatory impact monitoring they are too close to the project, outsiders and evaluation you find out if your can additionally come in. project is still on track or if things need to be changed. More importantly, you learn What is Impact? not only what people think about your Impact means mid- and long-term activities but if your work has initiated changes attributed to a certain factor any changes, and if so what kind of or intervention. Impact can be positive changes. or negative, intended or unintended, planned and unplanned. 2. Wh a t a r e t h e k e y t e r m s ? What is Evaluation? What is Monitoring? Evaluation is based on the information Monitoring is a repeated observation, discovered during monitoring. Data from reflection and correction of activities. It monitoring formats are summarized, allows us to observe change in order to compared, analysed and interpreted. get a better picture of what is happening. Evaluation can be internal or external. There are two main types of Monitoring: This means evaluation is done either by a member of your organisation or by an 1. Monitoring of activities: Involves the independent person who is an outsider observation of activities with regard to your organisation. Both approaches to the intended project activities, for have advantages and disadvantages. example workshops or production of During internal evaluation the evaluator training materials. can use his/her insider knowledge and avoid misunderstandings, however, this 2. Monitoring of impacts: Impact might lead to biased reports. External Monitoring is done to find out evaluators are more neutral but they whether a project initiated changes, need to backstop results with all people which contribute to achieve the involved, in order to make sure that there project’s objective. Impact Monitoring are no misunderstandings. is crucial since it investigates further than monitoring of activities what has been achieved.
169 What are Indicators? participants of the training find the Indicators are “pointers”, “signs” or trainings useful and apply their knowledge “markers” which are “related to” certain accordingly) and therefore give us changes and which can be felt, seen and descriptions about opinions, experiences questioned. etc.
Quantitative Indicators: 3. Wh a t t o c o n s i d e r w h e n They use measuring or counting (e.g. m o n i t o r i n g a n d e v a l u a t i n g ? number of people that took part in the training) and give us exact numbers. When planning monitoring and evaluation, a matrix is a very helpful tool. Qualitative Indicators: It tells you what needs to be covered. They describe in words only (e.g. First, you should be clear about your
Broad objectives Training of paralegals
• Communities will access information of their rights Expected impact and if needed claim their rights
• Number of trainings conducted • Number of participants trained Indicators • Cases recorded by paralegals at community level • Clients feel satisfied with paralegals and use their services
• Interviews/Focus group discussions Methods • Records Who can give • Paralegals information? • Communities Who can collect • Paralegals information? • Project management unit objectives and your expected impact; 4.1 Quantitative methods then decide on appropriate methods, the interview partners and those who Statistics will collect information. One example: A Record keeping is very helpful to track monitoring matrix focusing on a women’s down changes by collecting numbers (e.g. rights project (see table above). number of the participants of a workshop divided by sex and age) and comparing 4. Wh a t t o o l s t o u s e i n o r d e r t o them over time. l e a r n a b o u t c h a n g e s ? Questionnaires There are two types of methods: Questionnaires consist of open (describing quantitative and qualitative ones. It is in own words) and closed questions highly recommended to use a combination (choosing given answers/categories) of both methods. focusing on a specific topic. They start
170 with information on the interview partner Qualitative interviews (e.g. sex, age, economic and educational Qualitative interviews play a key role status) before proceeding with questions in the PRA approach. There are several related to the addressed topic. ways of conducting an interview with systematically or randomly selected: 4.2 Participatory qualitative methods - Groups of women and/or men Introduction - Individuals In order to learn from local people Interviews rely heavily on questions. That about their conditions, experiences and is why questions: problems, a set of participatory data collection methods named “Participatory -Need to be clear, simple and relevant Rural Appraisal” (PRA) was developed. -Need to consider the target group (e.g. Up to now, new methods are still being gender sensitive) added to the list of participatory data collection methods. PRA can therefore Focus group discussions be understood as a growing tool-box of Group discussions often provide a useful participatory methods. PRA is based on addition to the information gathered several very important principles: in one-to-one interviews. Instead of interviews, discussions are held with • Learn from the locals at the site, face- groups on various topics, e.g. whether the to-face in the local context project has led to any changes and if so what kind of changes. • Be relaxed and not rushed, listen and do not lecture Before/after comparison This method compares situations and • Use the different PRA methods in a conditions before the beginning of a flexible and innovative way project with the current situation. In this context, it is important to find out • Use several methods and compare whether the situation has changed since their results in order to look at the project began and if so, why. findings from different angles Case studies Gender perspectives Case studies of individual women and men During planning- and implementation in the target group provide information on stage, Gender aspects need to be their lives and on changes that resulted covered in order to learn about different from the project. perceptions of women and men (e.g. additionally broken down by social and Observations age group). Depending on the cultural The intention is to observe the lives of setting, the discussions should take place the target group and to gain a better in either single-sex or mixed groups. understanding of their perspectives, experiences and problems. Tools Most of the PRA methods use visualisation Diagrams techniques which allow for visualising Often, some people in the target group conditions, problems and experiences of are illiterate, and it has therefore proved local people. Useful tools are: useful to illustrate certain aspects by
171 Example : Fighting in the family
Chief can solve the conflict
Consulting the chief Chief can not Fighting in solve the conflict; the familiy Consultation of religious institu- tion
Ignoring the problem
using visualisation techniques. Hereby, Role exchange diagrams are a helpful tool. During Here, men analyse the situation of meetings with the participants, processes women and vice versa. This method can are initiated that enable them to discuss serve to open people’s eyes on both sides. certain issues and to illustrate these by A change of view often enables men to using diagrams. For example, to obtain perceive for the first time how life is for information on specific consequences of women and vice versa. an intervention or action, so-called flow charts can be used. ______
Ranking techniques Source: Ranking techniques can help to reveal certain aspects of the target group’s Germann, Dorsi & Gohl, Eberhard (1995): problems and preferences and what Participatory Impact Monitoring. Eschborn: Gate/ criteria apply to their choice. The aim is to GTZ. discuss various aspects and to rank their importance. Hereby, participants assign Juliane Osterhaus & Constanze Pfeiffer (2003): values (e.g. 5 = most important, 1 = least Monitoring – Guidelines for partner organisations important). The aspects to be assessed of the GTZ sector project ‘Strengthening Women’s when using ranking technique are best Rights’. Eschborn: GTZ. collected during brainstorming sessions or interviews held beforehand.
172 Notes
173 Notes
174 ed i T o r i a l
PU B l i S h e d B y Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung P.O. Box 4472 Kawawa Road Plot No. 397 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Telephone: 255-22 2668575 / 2668786 Fax: 255-22 2668669 Mobile: 0754-884485 E-Mail: [email protected]
co P y r i G h T © 2009 Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, Dar es Salaam ed i T o r S Peter Haeussler Angela K. Ishengoma Kate Girvan la y o U T Lars-Christian Treusch
Ty P e S e T T i n G / de S i G n Lars-Christian Treusch
Pr i n T iPrint Ltd.
NB: Articles which carry an author´s name do not necessarily reflect the view of FES. All facts and figures in this Calendar are correct to the best of our knowledge. However, FES bears no responsibility for oversights, mistakes or omissions. The Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung The Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung1, or FES, was founded in 1925 as a political legacy of Germany´s first democratically elected President, Friedrich Ebert, who died in that year. Ebert, a Social Democrat of humble origins, had risen to hold the highest office in his country dispite considerable opposition from his political adversaries. He assumed the burden of the presidency in a country which was crisis ridden following its defeat in World War I. His own personal experience led him to propose the esta- blishment of a foundation with a threefold aim: • to further a democratic, pluralistic political culture by means of political education for all classes of society. • to facilitate access to higher education for gifted young people by providing scholarships. • to contribute to international understanding and co-operation in order to avert a fresh outbreak of war and violent conflicts wherever possible.
Today, the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung is a political non-profit making, public-interest institution com- mitted to the principles and basic values of social democracy in its educational and policy-oriented work.
Development Co-operation In the Foundation´s offices in Africa, Asia, Laitn America and Oceania approximately 80 German staff and 600 local nationals are involved in projects in the fields of economic and social development, socio-political education and information, the media and communication and in providing advisory services.
The Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung sees its activities in the developing countries as a contribution to: • the improvement of political and social frameworl conditions • the democratisation of social structure • enhancement of developing countries´position in the International Trade arrangements • the empowerment of women and the promotion of gender • the strenghening of free trade unions • the improvement of communication and media structures • regional and international media co-operation • regional co-operation between states and interest groups • the resolution of the North-South conflict
This calendar is intended to provide not only an individual tool for purposes of time planning but also a day-to-day handbook for quick reference on issues that may be of interest to the people in Eastern Africa and to those who are politically active.
1 Stiftung is the German word for „foundation“
Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung P.O. Box 4472 North-South Dialogue: Julius Kawawa Road Plot No. 397 Nyerere, former President of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania the United Republic of Tanza- Telephone: 255-22 2668575 / nia and Willy Brandt, former Chancellor of the Federal 2668786 Republic of Germany Fax: 255-22 2668669 Mobile: 0754-884485 Wi l l y Br a n d t : E-Mail: [email protected] „International co-operation is http://www.fes-tz.de far too important to be left to governments alone.“ ISBN: 978-9987-22-051-9