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Consequences for Women's Leadership The Politics Behind Gender Quotas: Consequences for Women’s Leadership Equity in African Legislatures by Christie Marie Arendt B.A. in Interdisciplinary Studies in Social Science, May 2004, Michigan State University M.A. in International Affairs, May 2006, The George Washington University A Dissertation submitted to The Faculty of The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy January 31, 2017 Dissertation directed by Kimberly J. Morgan Professor of Political Science and International Affairs The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University certifies that Christie Marie Arendt has passed the Final Examination for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy as of December 16, 2016. This is the final and approved form of the dissertation. The Politics Behind Gender Quotas: Consequences for Women’s Leadership Equity in African Legislatures Christie Marie Arendt Dissertation Research Committee: Kimberly J. Morgan, Professor of Political Science and International Affairs, Dissertation Director Jennifer Brinkerhoff, Professor of International Affairs, International Business, and Public Policy & Public Administration Eric Kramon, Assistant Professor of Political Science and International Affairs, Committee Member ii © Copyright 2017 by Christie Marie Arendt All rights reserved iii Dedication To my parents, Anne and Steve Arendt, none of this was possible without your enduring love and support. iv Acknowledgments This dissertation benefitted from the encouragement and guidance of a number of people. As an alumna of The George Washington University’s Elliott School of International Affairs, I knew that GW would provide a perfect environment to pursue my doctoral studies. With an esteemed and engaging faculty, the Department of Political Science proved both collegial and stimulating space for learning and exploring. I remain in awe of all my classmates – their thoughtful critiques and sharp analysis challenged me to become a better comparativist. Few students can say that their advisor helped them to finish their doctorate early. For that and so much more, I will be eternally grateful for the support, wisdom, and guidance of Kimberly Morgan. When I first met Kimberly at an information session before I started the graduate program, I could immediately tell that she understood my professional goals in the policy world and had a plethora of ideas on how to help me succeed. At each stage of this process, Kimberly encouraged me to choose the path that fit my personal goals while also pushing me to grow and consider new possibilities for my career. She dedicated so much time to providing feedback on drafts and mentoring me on conducting field research. I constantly found myself thankful for accepting every pearl of her advice, which I realized time and again saved me a lot of frustration in this long process. Kimberly’s never-ending encouragement and ideas made my work so much clearer and more interesting. For all of her support, I am truly indebted. As a young Masters student, I was greatly inspired by Jennifer Brinkerhoff’s passion and sincerity for international development. Her advice and support started years before I even entered the doctoral program, giving me honest feedback about my research v ideas and encouraging me to return to GW. I am incredibly thankful that she agreed to serve on my committee, as this dissertation benefited tremendously from her valuable suggestions on methodology and expertise in Africa. Her constant injections of confidence through email or during one-on-one conversations are exactly what every PhD candidate needs to make it through to the end. I am so thankful for her active support throughout this endeavor, even as she juggled many far more important priorities as Associate Dean. I am also sincerely thankful that Eric Kramon, the newest member of the Department when I formed my committee, agreed to help on this project. As an expert Africanist, Eric targeted the weak links in my argument and pushed me to address the toughest critiques that could be hurled at my work. Not only did my dissertation vastly improve, but I also have Eric to thank for evolving how I approach questions of power within African political systems. Cynthia McClintock and Aisling Swaine provided excellent feedback and suggestions as external readers. Cynthia’s careful attention to how I defined my argument and Aisling’s insightful suggestions on framing my research both strengthened my final project, and I am so grateful for their involvement. I owe numerous thanks to many people at the 2015 Inter-Parliamentary Union’s Speakers Conference and during my field research in Tanzania, who helped make this project possible. I will be forever humbled by the patience and openness of the many Members of Parliament and non-governmental organizations who agreed to speak with me in Dar es Salaam and Dodoma. Without their generosity and hospitality, this research would not have been feasible. I would also like to thank the staff at the Records and National Archives Division in the Tanzanian Ministry of Public Service Management in vi Dar es Salaam, who during my moment of panic found historical records on National Assembly leadership. I am also grateful for Anne Ellersiek’s advice on Qualitative Comparative Analysis methods, and for taking time to answer my many questions on how to use this tool. Through my four and half year doctoral work, I appreciated the endless reassurances and celebrations from my colleagues at the U.S. State Department and U.S. Agency for International Development. My coworkers covered for me when I went to evening class, backed me when I took weeks of leave to study for exams, and helped me celebrate each milestone of this process. I am especially thankful to Emily Narkis, who served as my cheerleader through the anxiety and obstacles of this process. The never- ending support of my closest friends Mandi Leissoo, Lisa Kraus, and Carol Lee would sustain me through these studies, with their intuitive sense for when I needed to be rescued from studying and writing. I am blessed with an incredibly supportive family including my brother Erik Arendt and my parents Anne and Steve Arendt. They instilled in me the curiosity and drive to go after my dreams – and they stood beside me through every disappointment and every success of this project. The inspiration behind my doctoral work comes from my mother, who attended night school to get her Associate’s and Bachelor’s Degrees because she knew the importance of women empowering themselves through education. Finally, the determination that got me through this dissertation comes from my grandmother, Rita Drouillard. She passed only days after I defended this dissertation, but not before I could share this milestone with her. She will always be in my heart and her tenacity pushing me towards the next adventure. vii Disclaimer The views and opinions expressed in this dissertation are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy or position of the U.S. government. viii Abstract of Dissertation The Politics Behind Gender Quotas: Consequences for Women’s Leadership Equity in African Legislatures The surge in gender quotas across Africa raises questions about the varied impact of these measures on women’s leadership equity in legislatures. With its focus on the international diffusion of these laws, the existing scholarly literature has yet to fully consider how domestic factors at the time of quota adoption may shape their impact on parties and legislators. Does political context at the time of gender quota adoption affect the law’s ability to empower women within the legislative branch? To answer this question, I investigate four conditions under which countries adopt gender quotas – level of women’s mainstream political activity, strength of the NGO sector, openness of civic space to debate the laws, and the degree of political competition in the legislature – to discern which combinations promote laws that empower women within the institution or reinforce party control. To accurately test the effects of gender quotas, I develop a new index of women’s leadership equity that measures the extent to which women in the legislature have authority in political decision-making through the leadership positions they attain. I apply this index to 34 African countries – 18 with gender quotas and 16 without quotas – and find that political competition and women’s mainstream political activity strongly shape party interests and ultimately the design and effects of a gender quota. The design of the quota has consequences for whether women legislators are perceived as qualified, capable, and independent to serve in leadership positions. ix To further unravel causal relationships, I compare three quota-adopting countries in northwestern Africa and analyze one country, Tanzania, over 20 years to explore how different laws and political conditions affected women’s power in legislatures. The findings illustrate that the outcomes of gender quotas are highly contingent on political context and party interests, which suggest a need to shift how academics and practitioners analyze the interaction between international and domestic forces around policy change. This study also emphasizes that gender quotas are not a flawless solution for women’s political empowerment, as the agendas of political parties designing the laws have lasting consequences for leadership
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