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Lives in Chemistry LIVES IN CHEMISTRY John Scales Avery November 10, 2019 INTRODUCTION1 Human history as cultural history At present, history is taught as though power struggles were its most impor- tant aspect. Furthermore, the prtesent teaching of history is an indoctrina- tion i nationalism. We need to reform our teaching of history so that the emphasis will be placed on the gradual growth of human culture and knowl- edge, a growth to which all nations and ethnic groups have contributed. This book is part of a series on cultural history. Here is a list of the other books in the series that have, until now, been completed: Lives in Medicine • Lives in Ecology • Lives in Physics • Lives in Economics • Lives in the Peace Movement • The pdf files of these books may be freely downloaded and circulated from the following web address: http://eacpe.org/about-john-scales-avery/ Culture, education, solidarity and sustainability Cultural and educational activities have a small ecological footprint, and therefore are more sustainable than pollution-producing, fossil-fuel-using jobs in industry. Furthermore, since culture and knowledge are shared among all nations, work in culture and education leads societies naturally towards internationalism and peace. Economies based on a high level of consumption of material goods are unsustainable and will have to be abandoned by a future world that renounces the use of fossil fuels in order to avoid catastrophic climate change, a world where non-renewable resources such as metals will become increasingly rare and expensive. How then can full employment be maintained? 1This book makes some use of my previously published book chapters and articles, but most of the material is new. The creation of renewable energy infrastructure will provide work for a large number of people; but in addition, sustainable economies of the future will need to shift many workers from jobs in industry to jobs in the service sector. Within the service sector, jobs in culture and education are partic- ularly valuable because they will help to avoid the disastrous wars that are currently producing enormous human suffering and millions of refugees, wars that threaten to escalate into an all-destroying global thermonuclear war.2 Nor is a truly sustainable economic system utopian or impossible. To achieve it, we should begin by shifting jobs to the creation of renewable energy infrastructure, and to the fields of culture and education. By so doing we will suport human solidarity and avoid the twin disasters of catastrophic war and climate change. 2http://www.fredsakademiet.dk/library/need.pdf http://eruditio.worldacademy.org/issue-5/article/urgent-need-renewable-energy 4 Contents 1 THE INVENTION OF METALLURGY 9 1.1 The first use of fire . .9 1.2 Pottery . 12 1.3 Early metallurgy in Asia Minor . 17 1.4 Iron . 19 2 LEUCIPPIUS, DEMOCRATES AND EPICURIUS 21 2.1 The atomists . 21 2.2 De Natura Rerum . 24 3 PAPER AND PRINTING 27 3.1 Civilizations of the east . 27 3.2 Ink, paper and printing . 30 3.3 Islamic civilization and printing . 42 3.4 Gutenberg . 46 4 ALCHEMISTS 51 4.1 Searching for the Philosopher's Stone . 51 4.2 Robert Boyle: The last alchemist or the first modern chemist? . 55 4.3 The Chemical Revolution . 62 5 BLACK, PRIESTLEY AND CAVENDISH 65 5.1 William Cullen . 65 5.2 Joseph Black . 66 5.3 Joseph Priestley . 70 5.4 Henry Cavendish . 73 6 LAVOISIER 79 6.1 Lavoisier: \the father of modern chemistry" . 79 7 DALTON AND BERZELIUS 93 7.1 Atoms in chemistry . 93 7.2 Gay-Lussac and Avogadro . 96 7.3 Berzelius: atomic weights; electronegativity . 99 5 6 CONTENTS 7.4 The Karlsruhe Congress . 104 8 DAVY AND FARADAY 105 8.1 Galvani and Volta . 105 8.2 Sir Humphry Davy . 106 8.3 Michael Faraday . 108 9 BOLTZMANN, GIBBS AND ARRHENIUS 113 9.1 The second law of thermodynamics . 113 9.2 Statistical mechanics . 114 9.3 Gibbs free energy . 118 9.4 Svante Arrhenius . 125 10 MENDELEEV 131 10.1 Mendel´eevand the periodic table . 131 11 QUANTUM THEORY AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 139 11.1 The Geiger-Marsden scattering experiment . 139 11.2 Planck, Einstein and Bohr . 140 11.3 Atomic numbers . 144 11.4 A wave equation for matter . 145 11.5 The Pauli exclusion principle and the periodic table . 148 12 X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 157 12.1 Roentgen's discovery of X-rays . 157 12.2 Bragg father and son . 159 12.3 J.D. Bernal and Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin . 163 12.4 The structure of DNA: Molecular biology . 166 13 WILKINSON 173 13.1 A revival of inorganic chemistry . 173 14 HERSCHBACH 181 14.1 Molecular beam experiments . 181 14.2 Some excerpts from Dudley Herschbach's Nobel autobiography . 190 15 QUANTUM CHEMISTRY 193 15.1 Valence bond theory . 193 15.2 Molecular orbital theory . 195 15.3 Quantum chemistry and the development of computers . 206 16 NANOSCIENCE 227 16.1 Quantum dots . 227 16.2 Fullerenes . 229 CONTENTS 7 16.3 Jean-Marie Lehn's supramolecular chemistry . 235 16.4 The scanning tunneling microscope . 239 16.5 Anita Goel: biomedical applications of nanoscience . 241 8 CONTENTS Chapter 1 THE INVENTION OF METALLURGY 1.1 The first use of fire The first chemical reaction controlled by humans The control of fire marks an extremely important step in human cultural evolution. It allowed prehuman species such as Homo erectus to extend their range to colder climates, and it later led to the discovery of pottery and metallurgy. Chemical reactions that do not take place at room temperatures, often do so at higher temperatures, and thus fire was the key that unlocked all of chemistry. The first use of fire is believed to have taken place roughly a million years ago. However, the invention of pottery was much more recent. The first known pottery artifacts are the Gravettian figurines that are believed to be from to 29,000 to 25,000 BC. Metallurgy probably evolved from the use of minerals containing oxides of copper to decorate pottery, as is discussed below. Homo erectus The first fossil remains of H. erectus were discovered in Sumatra in 1857 by the young Dutch physician, Eug`eneDubois. Most paleoanthropologists believe that H. erectus evolved in Africa, and was the first hominin to leave that continent, during a period when the climates of Africa and the Middle East were more favorable to migration then they later became. However, there is a minority school of thought that maintains that H. erectus evolved in Asia. In any case the species survived in Asia until only 143,000 years before the present, and was able to use fire. 9 10 INVENTION OF METALLURGY Figure 1.1: Fire is was the first chemical reaction that humans were able to use. The first use of fire by species related to humans occurred roughly a million years ago, but the chemistry of combustion was not properly understood until the time of Lavoisier. Neolithic human use of fire led to the inventions of pottery and metallurgy. 1.1. THE FIRST USE OF FIRE 11 Figure 1.2: A diorama showing Homo erectus, the earliest human species that is known to have controlled fire. Figure 1.3: Homo erectus left Africa, and spread throughout Eurasia, as far as Georgia, Armenia, India, Sri Lanka, China and Indonesia. 12 INVENTION OF METALLURGY Figure 1.4: Homo erectus using fire. 1.2 Pottery Pottery was invented during the neolithic period, with the first known artifacts dating from 29,000-25,000 BC. Early pottery was fired at low temperatures (600oC). Vessels produced at these low firing temperatures were porous, and therefore not suitable for the storage of liquids. Later, higher temperatures were achieved, and glazes made ceramics impervious to liquids. Stoneware is fired at 1,100-1,200oC, and it is very hard and impervious to liquids. Chinese porcelain In China, techniques were developed for achieving very high kiln temperatures. Porcelain is fired at 1,200-1,400oC. and kaolin is included in the mixture being fired. This produces the vitrification and semi-transparency that are characteristic of porcelain ceramics. For many years, China retained a monopoly on the lucrative produduction and trade of high-quality porcelain objects. However, both Japan and Europe later discovered the secrets of porcelain manufacture, and their products began to compete with imports from China. 1.2. POTTERY 13 Figure 1.5: Earliest known ceramics are the Gravettian figurines that date to 29,000 to 25,000 BC. 14 INVENTION OF METALLURGY Figure 1.6: Xianrendong cave pottery fragments, radiocarbon dated to circa 20,000 BP. China. Figure 1.7: A black pottery cooking cauldron from the Hemudu culture (c. 5000 - c. 3000 BC), China. 1.2. POTTERY 15 Figure 1.8: Greek red-figure vase in the krater shape, between 470 and 460 BC, by the Altamura Painter 16 INVENTION OF METALLURGY Figure 1.9: A Ming Dynasty blue and white porcelain dish. 1.3. EARLY METALLURGY IN ASIA MINOR 17 1.3 Early metallurgy in Asia Minor Whatever the ancient civilizations of the Near East knew about chemistry and metallurgy, they probably learned as “spin-off" from their pottery industry. In the Paleolithic and neolithic phases of their culture, like people everywhere in the world, they found lumps of native gold, native copper and meteoric iron, which they hammered into necklaces, bracelets, rings, implements and weapons. In the course of time, however, after settled communities had been established in the Near East for several thousand years, it became much more rare to find a nugget of gold or metallic copper.
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