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The Gospel of Luke Scholars Bible Series

The of Luke PUBLISHED VOLUMES

Vol. 1: of Mark, Daryl D. Schmidt

Vol. 2: The Infancy of James and Thomas, Ronald F. Hock

Vol. 3: The , Robert T. Fortna

Vol. 4: The , Richard I. Pervo The Gospel of Luke The Scholars

Richard I. Pervo

Annotated with Introduction

POLEBRIDGE PRESS Salem, Oregon Copyright © 2014 by Polebridge Press

All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without writ- ten permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information address Polebridge Press, Willamette University, 900 State Street, Salem, OR 97301.

Cover and interior design by Robaire Ream

Cover: A tenth-century Byzantine illumination of the evangelist Luke writing.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Pervo, Richard I. The gospel of Luke / annotated with introduction by Richard I. Pervo. pages cm -- (The Scholars Bible) Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN 978-1-59815-141-1 (alk. paper) 1. Bible. Luke--Criticism, interpretation, etc. I. Bible. Luke. English. Schol- ars. 2013. II. Bible. Luke. Greek. 2013. III. Title. BS2595.52.P46 2013 226.405’208--dc23 2013035306 contents

Preface ...... vii Abbreviations ...... viii Map of Palestine in the First Century ...... x

The Gospel of Luke Introduction ...... 1 픓75, an early fragment of Luke ...... 13 Text, , and notes ...... 14 Translation Notes Zechariah ...... 16 Messenger ...... 19 Congratulations/Blessed ...... 23 The Anointed (One) ...... 25 Change of Heart ...... 40 Assembly Hall ...... 49 Kingdom of God ...... 56 Human One ...... 62 Would ...... 68 Congratulations/Damn You! ...... 69 Be Revered . . . Established ...... 113 Cameo Essays Israelite Scriptures ...... 7 The ...... 69 and ...... 85 Entry Processions ...... 166 The Passion Story ...... 183 The ...... 186 Jesus’ Arrest, Execution, and Vindication ...... 190 vi Contents

Bookshelf of Basic Works ...... 211 Indexes Ancient Texts ...... 213 Subjects ...... 219 preface

This little book is a product of more than four decades of reading, research, teaching, and reflection about the Gospel of Luke. Acts has received more of my attention, but only greater fools than I study Acts without attention to Luke. Because the format of this series does not provide opportunities for public acknowledgment of those from whom authors are borrowing, I express my gratitude to all who have delved into the deep and fruitful waters of Lukan studies. Long may they flourish! Thanks are also due to the Polebridge staff for their thoughtful and dili- gent work.

Richard I. Pervo Saint Paul, Minnesota

vii abbreviations

1,2 Chron 1,2 Chronicles 1,2 Cor 1,2 Corinthians 1,2 Kgs 1,2 Kings 1,2,3,4 Macc 1,2,3, 1,2 Pet 1,2 Peter 1,2 Sam 1,2 Samuel 1,2 Thess 1,2 Thessalonians 1,2 Tim 1,2 Ant. Jewish Antiquities, AV Authorized King James Version (1611) Bezae (6th century) Cant (Song of ) Col Colossians Dan Daniel Deut Deuteronomy Did. Didache D-text “Western Text” Eph Ephesians Exod Exodus Ezek Ezekiel Gal Galatians Gen Genesis GMar Gospel of Mary GPet Hab Habakkuk Heb Hebrews HB Hos Hosea Isa Isaiah Jas James JB Bible

viii abbreviations ix

Jdt Judith Jer Judg Judges J.W. Jewish War, Josephus Lev Leviticus LXX Mal Matt Matthew Mic Micah ms(s) manuscript(s) NRSV New Revised Standard Version NT Num Numbers OT Phil Philippians Prov Proverbs Ps(s) Psalm(s) Q Sayings source used by Luke and Matthew Rev Rom Romans RSV Revised Standard Version (1946) Sir SV Scholars Version Thom Tob Tobit Wis Wisdom of Solomon Zech Zechariah

Note: Within SV the following textual marks are used: ( ) Parentheses enclose material the translators take to be the evangelist’s explanation to the reader. < > Words the translators think to be implied by the author but not actually in the text are indicated with pointed brackets. See, for instance, 2:14, “Glory to God in the highest . . .” Jesus’ words are often indented like OT quotations when they can be isolated from the surrounding prose—principally the parables in chap. 13 and elsewhere. Map of Palestine in the First Century Introduction

1. Ways to Read Luke, Sources, Genre

“You can’t tell a book by its cover” does not rise even to the level of use- ful half-truths. Among possible improvements are “You can’t be sure of the subject of a book by its cover,” “You can’t discern the style of a book by its cover,” and “Covers are not sure guides to the quantity and quality of sex and violence in a book.” In the phrase above, “telling a book” refers to its classifi- cation; and simply stated, classification answers the question, “Where shall I place this on my bookshelf?” The Dewey-Cutter and Library of Congress sys- tems tell library workers and patrons where to place and find a book on the shelf. The study of literary genres is a comparative discipline and therefore asks what Luke is like. At this point the classifier turns to content and struc- ture. Luke narrates the story of Jesus, from shortly before his birth to shortly after his death and . That sounds like a biography. Did ancients write biographies? They did. Most will recall the existence (if not the contents) of Plutarch’s Lives. Serious biographers of today are expected to use the critical methods of historians. History and biography were clearly distinguished in antiquity; but neither genre was held to strict standards, for both were types of lit- erature, and the art of rhetoric rather than the pursuit of truth dominated the discipline. A modern analogy would be popular biographies of famous persons written for children. Such books are likely to discover signs of fu- ture greatness and indicators of professional specialization in the youthful actions of their subjects, and will not disdain incidents brimming with moral example. Luke can be called a biography of this popular type, and one way to read the book is to see it as a story of Jesus comparable to other ancient lives, in particular those of , philosophers, leaders, and holy persons. Since others wrote stories of Jesus, Luke can also be read in comparison to them, especially to Matthew, Mark, and John. Together with Matthew and Mark, Luke is called a “Synoptic Gospel,” for they are books among which a literary relationship exists—that is, one or more of them used one or more of the others as a source. The conventional and compelling solution to this

1 2 The Gospel of Luke

“Synoptic Problem” is that Mark is the earliest and was a source of both Matthew and Luke. The last two also used a “gospel” of collected sayings called “Q.” A fruitful means for studying Luke has been to see how he handled Mark. This editorial analysis, cumbersomely called redaction criticism, reveals that Luke changes Mark in a number of ways: by altering words, by revising scenes and sayings, by rearranging the order of story elements, by adding material from Q or elsewhere, and by placing a text in a different context and thus altering its meaning. One may also usefully contrast Luke with Matthew and John, for seeing options not taken by an author may shed light on the work’s purpose. Lukan material not found in Mark and probably absent from Q is called “L,” and although some such passages may have come from a writ- ten tradition, L is not viewed here as a source on the same level as Mark or Q. One thing is certain: the author never intended Luke to be read as one gospel among a number of others, for his aim was to supersede Mark and Q, while Matthew and John were probably unknown to him. Another way to study Luke is in relation to Acts, for the author of the third Gospel also wrote the book now (but not originally) entitled “The Acts of the .” Acts is linked to the Gospel by its preface, continues the gospel’s narrative, and shares many themes with it. Luke is best appreciated and understood when compared with Acts (and vice versa); indeed the most common approach to the study of Luke and Acts treats the two as compo- nents of a single work. The leading alternative is to view Acts as a sequel to the Gospel, but the popular “Luke-Acts” model reads these books in tandem, without comparison to Mark, Paul’s letters, or anything except the Bible it- self. Viewed from this pristine perspective, Luke is not a gospel, but half of a longer book. Advantages of this method include a focus upon the author and his writings.

2. Constituent Forms

Common to the study of all the gospels is the consideration of their con- stituent forms—types that may be found in a variety of contexts and pro- vide a fruitful field for comparative research. They are often best suited to a particular function. (Function is not purpose. The purpose of an automobile engine is to provide motive power; its function is to run.) In the following list, examples from Luke are given within parentheses. Those unfamiliar with these forms will find it useful to consult the examples. describe the expulsion of demons that may be the cause of a physical or mental aberration (4:33–37). Miracles. Some pages are omitted from this sample.

The Gospel of Luke The Scholars Bible

Known as 픓75, Bodmer Papyri XV is the earliest manuscript to preserve, on a single page, the end of one gospel and the beginning of the next, and the very first to identify “the Gospel of Luke.” This photograph contains the text of Lk 24:51–53 and Jn 1:1–16 and probably dates from 200-25 ce. 14 :1–4

Prologue 1 Ἐπειδήπερ πολλοὶ ἐπεχείρησαν ἀνατάξασθαι διήγησιν περὶ τῶν πεπληροφορημένων ἐν ἡμῖν πραγμάτων, 2καθὼς παρέδοσαν ἡμῖν οἱ ἀπ’ ἀρχῆς αὐτόπται καὶ ὑπηρέται γενόμενοι τοῦ λόγου, 3ἔδοξε κἀμοὶ παρηκολουθηκότι ἄνωθεν πᾶσιν ἀκριβῶς καθεξῆς σοι γράψαι, κράτιστε Θεόφιλε, 4ἵνα ἐπιγνῷς περὶ ὧν κατηχήθης λόγων τὴν ἀσφάλειαν.

1:3 Much of the tradition adds to “I,” “and to the ,” affirming inspiration. The phrase is borrowed from :28.

• 1–2 This section, traditionally called the “Infancy Narratives,” comprises about 13 percent of Luke’s text. Along with –2, its importance for theology, art, and poetry is immense. Scholarship tends to assign them to the final stage of composition. The book opens with a preface, the con- ventional language and features of which enable those familiar with Greek prose to recognize its character and intention. Luke is addressing those of the Hellenic and primarily world to which he belongs and in which the faith is finding a home. Yet at 1:5 a dramatic shift thrusts the reader into a world more like that of Ruth and Judges. The style here is that of the LXX, and it pitches us out of the Hellenic orbit and, as it were, takes us back into biblical times to an era of prophecy and promise. Luke juxtaposes two cul- tures. Can they blend? That is a mystery set before the reader. • 1:1–4 Ancient prefaces combined some of the functions of modern prefaces, including dedications and introductions. Since some historians used pref- aces, Luke’s opening has been claimed to demonstrate that he was a histo- rian, but many histories did not have a preface, while other types of writing sometimes did (e.g., Greek Sirach). The style of Luke’s preface more closely resembles those of technical writings; it attempts but does not quite achieve elegant Greek. • 1:1 Many: “Many” and similar intensifiers are common in the openings of ancient writings. Like the authors of modern dissertations, ancients liked to say that they have succeeded after numerous failures by others. The word does not necessarily mean that Luke knew of more sources than Mark and Q. Orderly narrative: Order is a rhetorical, not a chronological concept. Run their course is Lukan “fulfillment” language. The “course” is determined by God. • 1:2 Eyewitnesses: Ancients prized eyewitness participants and authors liked to claim eyewitness experience. Luke does not do so. Ministers: This term is applied to successors of the apostles, e.g., Paul (:16). It is tempting to see a succession of generations: (1) the companions of Jesus, (2) their suc- cessors, and (3) “us”; unfortunately, the grammar does not strongly support this construction. • 1:3 Researching: This is preferable to the alternative “participating in.” : The work is dedicated to Theophilus, addressed as, “Your Excel- lency” (:26 so identifies the governor of a subordinate province), but this honorific is not determinative of status. If a real person, Theophi- lus could have been Luke’s patron, but an attractive alternative is to see Luke 1:1–4 15

1 Since so many have undertaken to compile an orderly narrative Prologue of the events that have run their course among us, 2just as the origi- nal eyewitnesses and ministers of the word transmitted them to us, 3it seemed good that I too, after thoroughly researching everything from the beginning, should set them systematically in writing for you, Theophilus, 4so that Your Excellency may realize the reliability of the teachings in which you have been instructed.

Theophilus as the ideal reader, “beloved of God,” a view that goes back at least to Bede (eighth century). The one so addressed is of Christian persua- sion, or at least instruction. It is not made clear how the Gospel will endow these teachings with reliability. Note that the narrator of the preface is an academic type who unearths facts and corrects predecessors. This provisional narrator henceforth disap- pears, to be replaced by an omniscient author to whom all places are acces- sible and all minds known. • 1:5–2:52 Chapters 1 and 2 do not perfectly cohere. The author appears to have adopted and merged some once-independent stories. Critical readers will observe that Mary is introduced twice (1:27; 2:5), and all might wonder just how dense Jesus’ parents can be, since they are repeatedly amazed at his elevated status, as if encountering evidence of it for the first time. Some of these apparent lapses may be intentional, but the consolidation of disparate legends seems more likely than an entirely Lukan composition or the modi- fication of a single source. Most will be more inclined to savor the artistry of Luke’s accomplishment than to probe for cracks beneath the plaster. On the surface, Luke has created what the art world knows as a diptych; his less obvious literary accomplishment is to compare and contrast two persons, and Jesus, much as Plutarch did in some of his Lives. Here as so often elsewhere, Luke does not say “John was important, but Jesus was even more important”; he shows this with parallel stories. The first two chapters contain a number of hymns: 1:14–17; 1:46–55; 1:67– 79; 2:14; 2:29–32. The author’s skill in selection and/or composition is evi- dent in that all but the first of these have been in continuous use in Chris- tian worship since late antiquity. The first is the most suitable to its setting. The others, which can be called “semi-appropriate,” give the appearance of later insertions into the settings. The closest parallels are Jewish hymns and of the period from ca. 200 bce onward. Examples can be found in , Judith, , 4 Ezra, and the . They function like choruses or some arias to halt the action while a character reflects on or presents a situation. And just as arias often transform banal plots into pro- found dramas, these hymns fashion the two narratives of the diptych into stories of promise (John), fulfillment (Jesus), and praise. • 1:5–25 The story begins with Zechariah and Elizabeth, exemplary members of the community, but v. 7 reveals a tragedy: like Rebecca, , and the mothers of Samson and Samuel, Elizabeth is infertile. Above all, it recalls 16 Luke 1:5–10

John’s birth 5Ἐγένετο ἐν ταῖς ἡμέραις Ἡρῴδου βασιλέως τῆς Ἰουδαίας ἱερεύς predicted τις ὀνόματι Ζαχαρίας ἐξ ἐφημερίας Ἀβιά, καὶ γυνὴ αὐτῷ ἐκ τῶν θυγατέρων Ἀαρών, καὶ τὸ ὄνομα αὐτῆς Ἐλισάβετ. 6ἦσαν δὲ δίκαιοι ἀμφότεροι ἐναντίον τοῦ θεοῦ, πορευόμενοι ἐν πάσαις ταῖς ἐντολαῖς καὶ δικαιώμασιν τοῦ κυρίου ἄμεμπτοι. 7καὶ οὐκ ἦν αὐτοῖς τέκνον, καθότι ἦν ἡ Ἐλισάβετ στεῖρα, καὶ ἀμφότεροι προβεβηκότες ἐν ταῖς ἡμέραις αὐτῶν ἦσαν. 8Ἐγένετο δὲ ἐν τῷ ἱερατεύειν αὐτὸν ἐν τῇ τάξει τῆς ἐφημερίας αὐτοῦ ἔναντι τοῦ θεοῦ, 9κατὰ τὸ ἔθος τῆς ἱερατείας ἔλαχε τοῦ θυμιᾶσαι εἰσελθὼν εἰς τὸν ναὸν τοῦ κυρίου, 10καὶ πᾶν τὸ πλῆθος ἦν τοῦ λαοῦ προσευχόμενον ἔξω τῇ ὥρᾳ

the story of Israel, which began with and Sarah, also childless in their old age. Luke’s aging, childless couple suggests the absence of hope for the future; the beginning looks like the end. But biblically alert readers may sense that a new beginning is at hand. Because the Israelite priesthood consisted of members of twenty-four clans, few individuals had the opportunity to make the incense offering. Choosing by lot indicates (as in :26) that God is directing events. The ceremony is interrupted by the (appearance) of a divine being, who begins with the traditional assurance of a son, though the oracle is somewhat overloaded, predicting numerous roles. It may contain traditions about a John who is to herald God rather than the (cf. 1:76). Great (v. 15) is used of rulers; note the contrast with Jesus in 1:32, and cf. 7:28. Spirit and power of may be Lukan, for it does not equate John with Elijah (on whom see Mal 3:1–3; Sir 48:10). Zechariah’s objection is quite similar to that of Mary in v. 33, but with quite different results. Only now does the messenger identify himself and reproach Zechariah’s lack of trust. The dramatic reason for his punishment is to keep the epiphany and announcement secret. V. 21 returns to the people, who conclude from his silence that he had witnessed a vision. (Together with 24:23 this creates another inclusion, but 24:53 will alleviate this lack of priestly blessing. Elizabeth’s seclusion does not indicate embarrassment, but maintains the theme of secrecy.) • 1:5 Herod (the Great 37–4 bce) was one of the most successful Roman “cli- ent” kings (those in charge of satellite states). Zechariah: See the translation note below. • 1:10 Whole congregation is a favorite Lukan hyperbole. • 1:11–36 The follow a biblical pattern (cf. Genesis 17; Judges 13)

Zechariah Transliterated Hebrew have meanings. They are not given here because few, if any, of the early readers of Luke would have understood them. End of Sample

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