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Home , Acts of the Apostles, Ascension of Jesus, Gospel of Luke, Theophilus (biblical)

The of Luke and the Acts of the : a single work in two-volumes

Mark The Acts of the

Gospel of Luke Apostles Q

Various traditions

The two documents we know as the “” and the “Acts of ” were designed and written as a single, two-volume work. From its inception in the author’s mind, the material was intended as a unit: the “Gospel” volume begins the story of in , and the “Acts” volume traces the expanding missionary effort of the from Jerusalem to .

The aim is to tell the whole story of ’s saving acts in , from the role of the forerunner (John the Baptizer) to the proclamation of in Rome and the world. To understand the author’s literary plan and his message, the intricate and intimate relationship between the two volumes must be kept in mind.

The prologue to the Gospel is an introduction to both volumes, and the secondary prologue in Acts ties Volume II directly to the conclusion of Volume I. Writing to “the most excellent ” suggests that the author was probably a member of the artisan class, and not the elite class. Theophilus may have been a patron or benefactor who underwrote the cost of materials and labor to make this material available in written form.

Author/Sources/Audience/Date

For centuries authorship was attributed to “Luke the physician” who was assumed to have been a traveling companion of Paul. Modern scholars consider is evenly-divided, and supporting evidence is sketchy.

The author says: • he was not an eyewitness, but came later • he inherited a tradition preserved by those who were eyewitnesses • he knows of other traditions that have been circulated.

The author is: • a skilled writer and story-teller who paints vivid scenes with his words (material is well-organized) • adept in Greek; wrote in (the language of the common people) • a Gentile with excellent knowledge of Jewish practices and institutions • knowledgeable of the Hebrew scripture • familiar with the literary conventions of Hellenistic historiography • familiar with the structure and social organization of Hellenistic cities like or . • influenced by the language and structure of the (Greek of Hebrew scripture) • grammar, syntax, and linguistic skills, along with his vocabulary, far exceed that of the other evangelists; the only rival to Luke’s literary skill in the is the anonymous author of Hebrews.

The material appears to have circulated widely in more than one form prior to becoming a written document. It would have been transmitted orally in Aramaic by word of mouth, and later committed to writing in Greek.

1 Luke’s audience is predominantly Gentile , roughly contemporary with but much different from Matthew’s mixed community of Jewish and Gentile Christians.

Possible dates vary from 80 to 110; contemporary scholarship suggests no earlier than 80-85, and probably a date between 90-100

Background and Circumstances/Historical Setting

• “delay” of the return of Jesus • fall of Jerusalem • the need to help the church normalize its relationship with . • the need to help members settle down and become a Christian witness in the world

Genre and Literary Composition

 The author of Luke expands the “gospel” genre by: • linking the story of Jesus more securely with the leaders of his time • narrating both the and births of both John and Jesus • inserting a genealogy that traces Jesus’ ancestry back to Adam • including in his Gospel more of Jesus’ teachings than Mark and Matthew • tying the events in his Gospel to events that followed in the

 The structure of the Jesus story in Luke follows closely the form of ancient biography: • begins with a prologue confirming the author’s qualifications • events surrounding the birth of the hero serve as divine omens of his future greatness • events from his youth foreshadows the work he will do in his maturity • events at the beginning of his public life characterize the significance of the work he is about to do • the heart of this work is a record of Jesus’ might acts and sage teaching • the narrative ends with a hero’s , his notable death, and parting words to his followers

Peculiar to Luke

 Luke includes most of the material found in Mark, significant amounts from Q, and a great deal of material that is unique to Luke. Luke’s unique material may have come from circulating traditions, and some may have been written by the author himself on the basis of oral reminiscences. The birth material had an origin and transmission different from the stories of Jesus’ ministry. The passion and narratives were probably derived from sources Luke knew only in oral form. • Luke omits :45 – 8:26 (@ :17) - Luke’s “big omission” • Luke omits :41 – 10:12 (@Luke 9:50) – Luke’s “little omission” • In the place of these omissions from Mark, Luke adds nine (9) chapters of an extended journey of Jesus to Jerusalem

 Luke gives Mark’s material his own skillful touch: he omits some of Mark’s material, changes some sections, and improves others. These changes are so skillfully made, and are so consistent with the remainder of Luke’s work, that these are obviously changes he made, not differences in the tradition he inherited.

 Three major changes to Mark’s outline : • Jesus’ rejection at comes early in his career, signaling two things: his openness to from the beginning of his ministry, and rejection by his own people as the rationale for that inclusion.

2 • Luke omits a large chunk of Mark’s material and adds his own “special section” with a long travel and teaching narrative . In Luke, Jesus is focused on Jerusalem much earlier than in the other . • All resurrection scenes occur in Jerusalem, setting the stage for : the disciples are told to remain there and wait for the outpouring of the Spirit which will be their cue to go beyond Jerusalem.

 Additional tweaks in Luke: • Omits Semitic and words whenever possible (e.g., Hosanna, Golgotha, , Abba) • Mark’s use of “amen” if either dropped or changed to “truly” • The title “rabbi” is replaced with “master or Lord.” • Luke frequently smoothes Mark’s expressions and improves his grammar • Incorporates numerous Hebraisms, probably taken from early Christian hymns and primitive Christian . • Inserts the story of penitent sinner • Inserts the parable of Good Samaritan • Inserts the story of Mary and • Inserts the parable of Prodigal Son • Inserts the story of the rich fool • Inserts the story of the • Inserts the story of the Pharisee and tax collector • Inserts the story of the walk to – event that drives the disciples back to Jerusalem • Inserts the Ascension, central to Luke’s story, but not reported in any of the other Gospels.

 Comparing Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke In Matthew: • is a significant part of the story • Genealogy is placed at beginning of book • Genealogy traces Jesus back to , emphasizing his Davidic lineage • Matthew appears to have begun with the infancy narrative and moved progressively from there to the rest of his story. In Luke: • Joseph is obscured by Mary • Genealogy is placed after baptism and temptations • Genealogy traces Jesus back to Adam, connecting Jesus with all humans, not just Israelites • Luke adds the infancy narratives later. “If the first two chapters had been lost we would never have suspected their existence.” (Raymond Brown, The Birth of the ) • Luke also inserted beautiful affirmations and hymns of praise, but they are structurally awkward and do not fit the flow of the narrative. However, these later additions to Luke’s material are a great gift to the ongoing worship life of the church. • Luke probably composed his infancy narrative from beginning to end himself, drawing on some items of historical information and popular tradition, while weaving in motifs and characterizations brought forward from the and backward from the Gospel traditions.

Luke’s Vantage Point & Agendas

 Primary interest is to show the rise and expansion of

• He wanted to support the claim that the church had superseded the synagogue as the true Israel and was entitled to the recognition and protection the state had previously afforded Judaism

3 • The Gospel of Luke prepares the way for the story in Acts describing the vast expansion of Christianity. • Jesus is predominantly seen as a , always subordinated to God, and becomes Lord and Christ only at his resurrection.

 Relationship with Rome

• Rome had become the center of the Christian movement. When the early followers of Jesus felt “the end was near,” they were inclined to revile Rome which they assumed would be destroyed soon. However, living in the empire for a long time meant having to come to terms with Rome – something the author presents the churches trying to do. The church had to seek legal status or suffer the consequences of being seen as a subversive cult. Being seen as a Jewish cult was helpful in the beginning, but Jewish leaders were distancing themselves from the Jesus movement and urging Rome to crack down on this subversive group. As part of his strategy to normalize relations between the church and the state, the author strives to portray a favorable attitude of the state toward the church, and the church toward the state.

• He slants the material to present a more sympathetic attitude toward Rome, and to assure Rome that the Christian movement was not anti-empire:

In Volume I (the Gospel): -- Pilate found no fault with Jesus (3 times) -- examined Jesus and found no fault with him. -- It was the Jewish attendants of Herod who mocked Jesus, not the Roman soldiers -- Pilate was shouted down by the Jewish crowd when he sought to beat Jesus and release him. -- Roman at the cross does not say “surely this man is the ” (per Mark), but says “certainly this man was innocent.”

In Volume II (Acts): -- The proconsul in becomes a believer. -- Gallio, proconsul of Achai, sides with Paul against the . -- Pilate’s wife sees Jesus as “a just man.” -- Jesus’ blood was on the hands of the Jewish leaders, not the Roman authorities. -- Paul, the greatest Christian missionary, was born a Roman citizen -- The Roman magistrates in formally apologized to Paul and for their illegal imprisonment, and the jailer and his family were baptized -- State officials in Ephesus were Paul’s friends -- The Roman officer and garrison in Jerusalem rescues Paul twice from a Jewish mob -- Several other examples

Central Themes

 The divine promises to Israel have been extended to the Gentiles – the meaning of the promises was revealed to the Gentiles because Jesus’ own people rejected him. According to Luke, this process was all part of God’s plan.

A recurrent theme in Luke/Acts is dissolution of the wall between Judaism and the Gentile world. God sent God’s word to Israel in Jesus who was anointed by the and with power. His ministry of healing with signs and wonders began after John’s teaching and baptism prepared the way. Jerusalem is the place of of Jesus, and the destruction of Jerusalem occurred because Jesus was rejected and killed there. By the end of volume two, Rome has become the new center of gravity for Christians, the center of the Empire where

4 the Gospel takes root and thrives. In Volume I, everything moves toward Jerusalem; in Volume II, everything moves away from Jerusalem to Rome and beyond.

To portray the story this way, the author has taken some liberties with history: • he limits the resurrection appearances to Jerusalem only • he has Paul go to Jerusalem immediately after his conversion • he suggests that Rome has no problem with Paul’s preaching

 God’s redemptive purposes : Luke emphasizes that the work God began in and the has continued through the ministries of John and Jesus, and now continues through the church’s mission to the empire. The plan of God in Luke/Acts extends temporally through the history of Israel, the , and the mission of the church; geographically from the Temple to the ends of the earth; and ethnically from the religious leaders to the outcasts, and from the Jews to all the people.

 Salvation for all alike : Luke’s most dramatic insight is his perception that Jesus announced salvation for all people alike (although God’s grace will not be universally accepted). No other Gospel is as clear and emphatic on this point. In the Gospel of Luke Jesus repeatedly challenges the collusion of religious authorities in the social prejudices of his day. He reaches out to sinners, , tax collectors, women, and outcasts. • Luke stressed that Christianity was a world religion with no racial limitations. • Luke’s genealogy does not stop with David or , but goes back to Adam. • The prophet declared that the infant Jesus would be a light of to the Gentiles as well as glory to the people of Israel.

 The blessings of poverty and the dangers of wealth/proper attitude toward wealth : Jesus declared God’s vindication of the poor and divine judgment on the rich. Luke’s Gospel includes far more references to poverty and wealth than any of the other Gospels.

 Table fellowship : Luke includes numerous meal scenes in a variety of places. The risen Lord is present with the believing community and makes himself know to them in the breaking of the bread.

 The role of a : Like Matthew, Luke eliminates or softens Jesus’ gruffness with the disciples (and even makes allowances for them). For Luke, Jesus is the model to be emulated. He is empowered by the Spirit, he is compassionate toward the poor and oppressed, he heals and forgives, he prays, and he dies a model martyr’s death. That, too, is what it means to be a disciple. Christian discipleship means witnessing to the , rather than following him in the way of the cross.

 The importance of an accurate witness : The term for witness (martyria) evolved in usage in the culture of early Christianity: from one who has seen (eyewitness) to one who can vouch for the legitimacy of the story and tell it accurately, to one who is willing to die for the faith.

 Frequent emphasis on the spirit of God – central to Luke’s Gospel. • Jesus is a spirit-anointed social prophet whose activity is directed toward the poor and oppressed. • Jesus is conceived by the Spirit. • John the Baptizer’s parents are filled with the Holy Spirit. • Simeon is filled with the Spirit as he praises God after seeing the infant Jesus at the temple. • Like Matthew and Mark, Luke says the spirit descends on Jesus at baptism, but adds that Jesus was filled with the Spirit after the temptations and before returning to . • At the synagogue in Nazareth Jesus declares that the Spirit of is upon me.” This declaration is an apt summary of Luke’s Jesus. This synagogue scene is constructed by Luke to

5 announce the theme of Luke/Acts as a whole: in the Gospel he describes the mission of Jesus to Israel, and in Acts he describes the extension of the mission to the Gentiles. • The Spirit that anoints Jesus at the beginning of his mission (baptism, temptations) also anoints the Christian community at the beginning of its mission (Pentecost), confirming the continuity of God’s activity and launching the mission of the Christian church. • On the cross Jesus exclaims, “Into thy hands I commend my spirit.” • Volume I (the Gospel) ends after Jesus assures his followers they will receive the Spirit from on high. • Volume II (Acts) begins with a reminder of Jesus’ promise that the Spirit will be poured out on the disciples.

Additional Emphases

 Emphasizes the prayer life of Jesus and the place of prayer in the life of the early church..  Shows marked interest in the role of women in the Gospel tradition and in the history of the early church.  Birth and infancy narratives suggest an interest in Jesus’ origins that had not existed at the time Mark was compiled and written. Luke extends this interest to supernatural events associated with the birth of .  Mark had given no accounts of Jesus’ resurrection appearances; Luke seeks to overcome this “deficiency” with several references.  Marked sympathy for the poor in Luke’s account of the gospel tradition  Proper of wealth is stressed in both Luke and Acts.

Theology

 Salvation history : The author makes a great contribution to the New Testament: the idea of salvation history. He thinks in historical terms: distant past; immediate past; present and immediate future; distant future.

The time of Jesus is the center of time. He came to preach the good news of of God. The time of the church is preaching repentance and forgiveness of sins, the time of witnessing from Jerusalem to Rome. The author provides readers an understanding of their place in salvation history and their role in the world.

Luke is far more interested in history than any other evangelist. He is eager to locate the Jesus events and the events of the early church in Roman historical terms. Emphasis on recognizable people, places, and events is much like the writings of , a contemporary.

Historians of the ancient world were typically historiographers rather than historians: they wrote with a clear agenda that directs how they tell the story.

Luke’s epochal view of history becomes one of the most important reinterpretations of for the subsequent development of and self-understanding.

 : For Luke, Jesus is the first Christian, living out the power of the Spirit of God in the world. He is not the Jewish Messiah whose death ransoms people from the power of sin over them. As the first Christian, Jesus is to be emulated; Christian faith means imitating Jesus and following the example of those heroes of the early church who imitated him. • Luke is so focused on the person of Jesus that he builds this focus into the plot of the Galilean ministry: o scribes and ask “who is this one speaking ?”

6 o John’s disciples: are you the one who is to come, or should we wait for another? o Those at table in ’s house: Who is this who even forgives sins?” o The disciples ask each other: Who is this? o Herod: Who is this about whom I hear such things? o Jesus asks the disciples: Who do the crowds say ? • Jesus sees his death as an act of service and not as a means of human’s salvation. • The death of Jesus does not have a role in Luke; it is an act of legal murder by the Jews. • The message preached by Jesus and the church: if people will repent and turn to God they will receive forgiveness of their sins.

For Luke the , unreported in the other Gospels, marks a turning point. It is the clear indication that Jesus has left his work in the hands of the apostles, and that they are blessed to take his work to all nations. In Luke, everything moves toward Jerusalem; in Acts, everything moves away from Jerusalem toward Rome.

Luke’s fluid use of Christological titles:

• Son of God (not part of the public discourse in the Gospel, but communicated by narrator to the reader). Luke assumes Jesus is the Son of God, but for Luke the important issue is what it means to be the Son of God: eating with outcasts; feeding his followers; blessing, breaking, and giving bread. • Jesus is prophet, and one greater than a prophet : He is a prophet who fulfills Moses and the prophets, but he is one greater than the prophets. • Lord : Luke uses the term 103 times, although not all are references to Jesus. This title subtly infuses the Gospel with the post- confession of the risen Lord. Luke affirms the confession of Jesus as Lord. • Messiah or Christ : Not used by the people in the Gospel story itself, but limited to narrator’s remarks to the audience. {“Messiah” = “the anointed one,” “the Christ”}

• Son of Man: Jesus’ most common reference to himself; used 25 times and occurs only on the lips of Jesus. The Son of Man: o Has authority to forgive sins on earth o Is the o Warns his followers that they will be persecuted on his account o In contrast to John the Baptist, he came eating and drinking o Has no place to lay his head o Those who speak against him will be forgiven o Came to seek and save those who are lost o Is betrayed by Judas with a o The lowly one, seen in Jesus’ ministry, will suffer and die; but God will vindicate him and he will return in the future as the vindicated Son of Man.

• Savior: Luke is the only Synoptic evangelist to call Jesus “Savior,” and the term is used only twice (both at the infancy narratives). Although the term “savior” is not used often, the theme of salvation is common in Luke.

 “End times” : Almost all “end of history” ideas in the first and second generation of the Jesus movement were focused on the death of Jesus and his imminent return (the so-called “”), ideas that were heightened by the destruction of the temple in 70.

7 For Luke, however, the return of Jesus is pushed out to a more distant and uncertain future. Destruction of the temple was not seen as the beginning of the end, but as the natural result of Israel’s sins – it was God’s punishment, and was not related to the beginning of a new era leading to the imminent end.

In Luke’s theology, the postponement of Jesus’ return serves two purposes: it allows expectations of the imminent kingdom to be fulfilled, and it also accounts for the final consummation of history as a future (not imminent) expectation. The time lapse is, therefore, less problematic, and it eventually becomes theologically institutionalized as the “age of the church.”

BONUS MATERIAL: PARALLELS BETWEEN VOLUME I AND VOLUME II

Outpouring of Spirit on Jesus at baptism, and on the church at Pentecost Parallel travel narratives:

Luke: long rambling travel narrative about Jesus Acts: long rambling travel narrative about Paul that eventually takes him to Rom

Parallels between Jesus’ first in Nazareth and Peter’s first sermon in Acts. Both scenes have a prophetic event: Jesus opens the scroll and finds the reading from Isaiah; in Acts the Spirit and descent. Both speakers point to their respective events and announce that the audience has witnessed fulfillment of apocalyptic expectations. Both sermons revolve around themes of messianic end times, pouring out of the Spirit, and the fulfillment of prophecy. Long travel narrative in Luke, taking Jesus to Jerusalem; long travel narrative in Acts, taking Paul to Rome.

The emphasis on Jerusalem sets the stage for Pentecost: the disciples are told (in Luke) to wait for the outpouring of the Spirit which will be their cue to go beyond Jerusalem The few who left town were met on the road to Emmaus and told to return to Jerusalem. Volume II begins where Volume I ends, with the disciples waiting in Jerusalem for the outpouring of the Spirit.

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