DOCSLIB.ORG

Historia Piscium (1686) and Its Sources 305

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Historia Piscium (1686) and Its Sources 305 Historia Piscium (1686) and Its Sources 305 Chapter 9 Historia Piscium (1686) and Its Sources Sachiko Kusukawa Anyone who wants to know who the author of the Historia piscium was should look up the preface of another book written by the same author, the Ornithology (1676).1 Thus began John Ray’s preface to Historia piscium. The title page of the book indeed declared: ‘The armigerous Francis Willughby’s four books on the history of fishes, published by the command and at the expense of the Royal Society of London.’ The publication of this book was the first venture that the Royal Society directly took financial and logistical responsibility for— in the words of the Secretary, Francis Aston (1644–1715, FRS 16782), it was ‘the first thing of that nature we ever went about’.3 The title page ended: ‘John Ray of the Royal Society reviewed [recognovit], brought together [coaptavit] and supplemented [supplevit] the entire work and also put together all of the first and second books.’ It indicates Ray’s role as the author of the first two books and a compiler and editor of the rest. Ray’s substantial intellectual input into this book as well as the Ornithology was well documented by Charles Raven many years ago.4 Unlike the Ornithology, however, the Historia piscium offi- cially had the support of the Royal Society, and other fellows of the Society actively contributed to it.5 Moreover, the Historia piscium drew extensively on earlier and contemporary works on fishes. The aim of this chapter is to reassess the Historia piscium as a product of many different sources, and to understand the variety of practices of reading, note-taking, compilation, and observation that went into a monumental publication of the natural history of fishes towards the end of the seventeenth century. 1 Willughby and Ray, Historia piscium (hereafter Hist. pisc.), br; Willughby, Ornithologiae, a1r. 2 The year of election to the Fellowship of the Royal Society. 3 Gunther, Dr. Plot, 85. It was also the last, because of the less than ideal rate of sales, Bluhm, ‘Royal Society’s Finances’; and Kusukawa, ‘Historia Piscium’. 4 Raven, John Ray (1942), chapters 12 and 13. 5 For the logistical and financial support of the Society for Historia piscium, see Kusukawa, ‘Historia Piscium’. © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2016 | doi 10.1163/9789004285323_010 306 Kusukawa Historia Piscium and Earlier Publication on Fishes Since the sixteenth century, publications in natural history drew on compila- tions of earlier and contemporary works, which provided a historical context in which to gauge one’s own findings.6 This form of scholarship, described as ‘erudite empiricism’ by Pomata and Siraisi, characterises the works of the six- teenth century that naturalists in the seventeenth century relied upon.7 The fourth volume of Conrad Gessner’s Historia animalium on fish, published in 1558, is a good example of such an approach. Just before its publication, three other illustrated works on aquatic animals had appeared, namely Pierre Belon’s De aquatilibus (1553), Guillaume Rondelet’s Libri de Piscibus Marinis (1554), and Hippolyto Salviani’s Aquatilium animalium historiae liber primus (1554). Gessner relied extensively on Rondelet’s work by using the latter’s names of fishes, citing verbatim his descriptions and copying the woodcuts.8 Gessner relied less frequently on Belon’s work for comparison or supplement, and his references to Salviani’s work were more sporadic, though he did copy some of Salviani’s images.9 These citations were often followed by a ‘corollary’ in which Gessner cited other classical authors and later commentators, and added information from his correspondents and his own observations. Each entry of a fish discussed its name in several languages, its appearance, habitat, habits, character, the method of capturing it, its uses as food and medicine, followed by a lengthy section on philology (places and other things named after the fish, proverbs involving it, as well as historical, poetical, literary, and emblem- atic references). Ulisse Aldrovandi’s De piscibus libri V (1613) reproduced the text and images contained in Gessner’s book and also retained sections on proverbs and emblematic or hieroglyphic references (though more truncated than in Gessner’s work). While the philological aspects were important for the 6 Pinon, ‘Conrad Gessner’; and Ogilvie, Science of Describing. 7 Pomata and Siraisi, Historia. 8 Over half of the 664 images in Gessner, Historiae animalium liber IIII, are copied from the woodcuts in Rondelet, Libri de Piscibus Marinis, usually with the tell-tale sign of left/right inversion. Even where a woodcut is not reproduced, Gessner often discusses Rondelet’s images for comparison. Gessner’s engagement with Rondelet’s textual description is even more ex- tensive, and thus the whole of Rondelet’s work forms a foundation of Gessner’s volume of fishes. 9 Images from Belon, De aquatilibus libri duo, account for about 5 percent of the printed images in Gessner, Historiae animalium liber IIII, and Gessner cites more frequently Belon’s textual descriptions, often to compare with Rondelet’s passages. For Gessner’s use of Salviani, Aquatilium animalium historiae, see, for example, Historiae animalium liber IIII, 1038, 1260, 1264, 1283..
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The 2 Fundamental Questions: Linneaus and Kirchner
    2/1/2011 The 2 fundamental questions: y Has evolution taken pp,lace, and if so, what is the Section 4 evidence? Professor Donald McFarlane y If evolution has taken place, what is the mechanism by which it works? Lecture 2 Evolutionary Ideas Evidence for evolution before Darwin Golden Age of Exploration y Magellan’s voyage –1519 y John Ray –University of y Antonius von Leeuwenhoek ‐ microbes –1683 Cambridge (England) y “Catalog of Cambridge Plants” – 1660 –lists 626 species y 1686 –John Ray listing thousands of plant species! y In 1678, Francis Willoughby publishes “Ornithology” Linneaus and Kirchner Athenasius Kircher ~ 1675 –Noah’s ark Carl Linneaus – Sistema Naturae ‐ 1735 Ark too small!! Uses a ‘phenetic” classification – implies a phylogenetic relationship! 300 x 50 x 30 cubits ~ 135 x 20 x 13 m 1 2/1/2011 y Georges Cuvier 1769‐ 1832 y “Fixity of Species” Evidence for Evolution –prior to 1830 • Enormous diversity of life –WHY ??? JBS Haldane " The Creator, if He exists, has "an inordinate fondness for beetles" ". Evidence for Evolution –prior to 1830 Evidence for Evolution –prior to 1830 y The discovery of variation. y Comparative Anatomy. Pentadactyl limbs Evidence for Evolution –prior to Evidence for Evolution –prior to 1830 1830 y Fossils – homologies with living species y Vestigal structures Pentadactyl limbs !! 2 2/1/2011 Evidence for Evolution –prior to 1830 Evidence for Evolution –prior to 1830 y Invariance of the fossil sequence y Plant and animal breeding JBS Haldane: “I will give up my belief in evolution if someone finds a fossil rabbit in the Precambrian.” Charles Darwin Jean Baptiste Lamark y 1744‐1829 y 1809 –1882 y Organisms have the ability to adapt to their y Voyage of Beagle 1831 ‐ 1836 environments over the course of their lives.
    [Show full text]
  • The Exotic World of Carolus Clusius 1526-1609 and a Reconstruction of the Clusius Garden
    The Netherlandish humanist Carolus Clusius (Arras 1526- Leiden 1609) is one of the most important European the exotic botanists of the sixteenth century. He is the author of innovative, internationally famous botanical publications, the exotic worldof he introduced exotic plants such as the tulip and potato world of in the Low Countries, and he was advisor of princes and aristocrats in various European countries, professor and director of the Hortus botanicus in Leiden, and central figure in a vast European network of exchanges. Carolus On 4 April 2009 Leiden University, Leiden University Library, The Hortus botanicus and the Scaliger Institute 1526-1609 commemorate the quatercentenary of Clusius’ death with an exhibition The Exotic World of Carolus Clusius 1526-1609 and a reconstruction of the Clusius Garden. Clusius carolus clusius scaliger instituut clusius all3.indd 1 16-03-2009 10:38:21 binnenwerk.qxp 16-3-2009 11:11 Pagina 1 Kleine publicaties van de Leidse Universiteitsbibliotheek Nr. 80 binnenwerk.qxp 16-3-2009 11:12 Pagina 2 binnenwerk.qxp 16-3-2009 11:12 Pagina 3 The Exotic World of Carolus Clusius (1526-1609) Catalogue of an exhibition on the quatercentenary of Clusius’ death, 4 April 2009 Edited by Kasper van Ommen With an introductory essay by Florike Egmond LEIDEN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY LEIDEN 2009 binnenwerk.qxp 16-3-2009 11:12 Pagina 4 ISSN 0921-9293, volume 80 This publication was made possible through generous grants from the Clusiusstichting, Clusius Project, Hortus botanicus and The Scaliger Institute, Leiden. Web version: https://disc.leidenuniv.nl/view/exh.jsp?id=exhubl002 Cover: Jacob de Monte (attributed), Portrait of Carolus Clusius at the age of 59.
    [Show full text]
  • ST. LAWRENCE HIGH SCHOOL a JESUIT CHRISTIAN MINORITY INSTITUTION WORKSHEET – 05 Class: IX Sub: Life Science Date: 30.01.2021
    ST. LAWRENCE HIGH SCHOOL A JESUIT CHRISTIAN MINORITY INSTITUTION WORKSHEET – 05 Class: IX Sub: Life Science Date: 30.01.2021 Topic: Taxonomy-Classification of diversity of life F.M. : 15 Choose the correct option: (1x15=15) 1. The process of arranging species in definite pattern is known as: a) taxonomy b) classification c) hierarchy d) nomenclature 2. The branch of biology which deals with the grouping of plants and animals is called …….. a) Nomenclature b) structural hierarchy c) taxonomy d) all of these 3. The study of taxonomy includes: a) Identification b) nomenclature c) classification d) all of these 4. The word ‘taxonomy’ comes from the Greek word Taxis meaning ………….. and nomos meaning laws: a) Classify b) Characterize c) arrangement d)none of these 5. ……………….. divided animals in two groups Anaima and Enaima . a) Aristotle b) John Ray c) John Miller d) Louis Pasteur 6. The word Anaima means …...... a) animals with blue blood b) animals with red blood c) animals without red blood d) animals without blue blood 7. ……………. divided plants as herbs,shrubs,undershrubs and trees. a) Aristotle b) Theophrastus c) John Ray d) all of these 8. Carrolus Linnaeus was a ……… naturalist who classisfied plants in Herbae and Arborea. a) Swedish b) English c) Spainish d) Australian 9. Linnaeus classified plants in in the following book: a) Species Plantarum b) Species Naturae c) Species plantae d) Species herbae 10. In which year did Linnaeus classified animals in Systema Naturae? a) 1753 b) 1758 c) 1756 d) 1769 11. The lowest major group representing plants and animals is referred to as …………… a) Genus b) Species c) Class d) Order 12.
    [Show full text]
  • Ministers of ‘The Black Art’: the Engagement of British Clergy with Photography, 1839-1914
    Ministers of ‘the Black Art’: the engagement of British clergy with photography, 1839-1914 Submitted by James Downs to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English in March 2018 This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature: ………………………………………………………….. Abstract 1 Ministers of ‘the Black Art’: the engagement of British clergy with photography, 1839- 1914 This thesis examines the work of ordained clergymen, of all denominations, who were active photographers between 1839 and the beginning of World War One: its primary aim is to investigate the extent to which a relationship existed between the religious culture of the individual clergyman and the nature of his photographic activities. Ministers of ‘the Black Art’ makes a significant intervention in the study of the history of photography by addressing a major weakness in existing work. Taking an interdisciplinary approach, the research draws on a wide range of primary and secondary sources such as printed books, sermons, religious pamphlets, parish and missionary newsletters, manuscript diaries, correspondence, notebooks, biographies and works of church history, as well as visual materials including original glass plate negatives, paper prints and lantern slides held in archival collections, postcards, camera catalogues, photographic ephemera and photographically-illustrated books.
    [Show full text]
  • This Illustration Provided for the Journal's Cover
    Banisteria, Number 24, 2004 © 2004 by the Virginia Natural History Society The Earliest Illustrations and Descriptions of the Cardinal David W. Johnston 5219 Concordia Street Fairfax, Virginia 22032 ABSTRACT In the 16th century Northern Cardinals were trapped in Mexico, then sent as caged birds because of their beauty and song to various places in Europe and south Africa. The Italian, Aldrovandi, obtained a caged bird in Italy and with a woodcut, published the first known illustration of a cardinal in 1599. The great English naturalist, Francis Willughby, in conjunction with John Ray, published a painting of a cardinal in 1678, and the eccentric and prolific collector, James Petiver, included an illustrated caged cardinal from south Africa in his monumental Opera (1767). Mark Catesby was the first artist to paint a cardinal (probably in Virginia) with a natural background (c. 1731). Aldrovandi's woodcut and description in 1599 represent the earliest known mention of the Northern Cardinal. Key words: Cardinalis cardinalis, history, illustrations, Northern Cardinal. To an ornithological historian it is exciting and Grosbeak from the Indies.” This woodcut was the first rewarding to be able to trace the earliest report and published image of the species (Simpson, 1985). illustration of any bird. Such has been the case for the bird A translation of Aldrovandi’s Latin description reads: now called the Northern Cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis). In the 16th century the cardinal was a favorite cage bird “A bird of this sort, pictured in the guise of life, was among Europeans, long before it was reported by English sent to me several days ago on the command of his serene colonists in its North American range.
    [Show full text]
  • The Charles Knight-Joseph Hooker Correspondence
    A man tenax propositi: transcriptions of letters from Charles Knight to William Jackson Hooker and Joseph Dalton Hooker between 1852 and 1883 David J. Galloway Hon. Research Associate Landcare Research, and Te Papa Tongarewa [email protected] Geoscience Society of New Zealand miscellaneous publication 133J December 2013 Published by the Geoscience Society of New Zealand Inc, 2013 Information on the Society and its publications is given at www.gsnz.org.nz © Copyright David J. Galloway, 2013 Geoscience Society of New Zealand miscellaneous publication 133J ISBN 978-1-877480-36-2 ISSN 2230-4495 (Online) ISSN 2230-4487 (Print) This document is available as a PDF file that can be downloaded from the Geoscience Society website at: http://www.gsnz.org.nz/information/misc-series-i-49.html Bibliographic Reference Galloway D.J. 2013: A man tenax propositi: transcriptions of letters from Charles Knight to William Jackson Hooker and Joseph Dalton Hooker between 1852 and 1883 Geoscience Society of New Zealand miscellaneous publication 133J. 88 pages. A man tenax propositi: transcriptions of letters from Charles Knight to William Jackson Hooker and Joseph Dalton Hooker between 1852 and 1883 Contents Introduction 3 Charles Knight correspondence at Kew 5 Acknowledgements 6 Summaries of the letters 7 Transcriptions of the letters from Charles Knight 15 Footnotes 70 References 77 Figure 1: Dr Charles Knight FLS, FRCS 2 Figure 2: Group photograph including Charles Knight 2 Figure 3: Page of letter from Knight to Hooker 14 Table 1: Comparative chronology of Charles Knight, W.J. Hooker and J.D. Hooker 86 1 Figure 1: Dr Charles Knight FLS, FRCS Alexander Turnbull Library,Wellington, New Zealand ¼-015414 Figure 2: Group taken in Walter Mantell‟s garden about 1865 showing Charles Knight (left), John Buchanan and James Hector (right) and Walter Mantell and his young son, Walter Godfrey Mantell (seated on grass).
    [Show full text]
  • Carl Linnaeus's Botanical Paper Slips (1767–1773)
    Intellectual History Review ISSN: 1749-6977 (Print) 1749-6985 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rihr20 Carl Linnaeus's botanical paper slips (1767–1773) Isabelle Charmantier & Staffan Müller-Wille To cite this article: Isabelle Charmantier & Staffan Müller-Wille (2014) Carl Linnaeus's botanical paper slips (1767–1773), Intellectual History Review, 24:2, 215-238, DOI: 10.1080/17496977.2014.914643 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17496977.2014.914643 © 2014 The Author(s). Published by Taylor & Francis. Published online: 02 Jun 2014. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 2111 View related articles View Crossmark data Citing articles: 6 View citing articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rihr20 Intellectual History Review, 2014 Vol. 24, No. 2, 215–238, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17496977.2014.914643 Carl Linnaeus’s botanical paper slips (1767–1773) Isabelle Charmantier and Staffan Müller-Wille Department of History, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK* The development of paper-based information technologies in the early modern period is a field of enquiry that has lately benefited from extensive studies by intellectual historians and historians of science.1 How scholars coped with ever-increasing amounts of empirical knowledge presented in print and manuscript – leading to the so-called early modern “information overload”–is now being increasingly analysed and understood.2 In this paper we will turn to an example at the close of the early modern period. Towards the very end of his academic career, the Swedish nat- uralist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) – best known today for his “sexual” system of plant classifi- cation and his binomial nomenclature – used little paper slips of a standard size to process information on plants and animals that reached him on a daily basis.
    [Show full text]
  • History of Taxonomy
    History of Taxonomy The history of taxonomy dates back to the origin of human language. Western scientific taxonomy started in Greek some hundred years BC and are here divided into prelinnaean and postlinnaean. The most important works are cited and the progress of taxonomy (with the focus on botanical taxonomy) are described up to the era of the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus, who founded modern taxonomy. The development after Linnaeus is characterized by a taxonomy that increasingly have come to reflect the paradigm of evolution. The used characters have extended from morphological to molecular. Nomenclatural rules have developed strongly during the 19th and 20th century, and during the last decade traditional nomenclature has been challenged by advocates of the Phylocode. Mariette Manktelow Dept of Systematic Biology Evolutionary Biology Centre Uppsala University Norbyv. 18D SE-752 36 Uppsala E-mail: [email protected] 1. Pre-Linnaean taxonomy 1.1. Earliest taxonomy Taxonomy is as old as the language skill of mankind. It has always been essential to know the names of edible as well as poisonous plants in order to communicate acquired experiences to other members of the family and the tribe. Since my profession is that of a systematic botanist, I will focus my lecture on botanical taxonomy. A taxonomist should be aware of that apart from scientific taxonomy there is and has always been folk taxonomy, which is of great importance in, for example, ethnobiological studies. When we speak about ancient taxonomy we usually mean the history in the Western world, starting with Romans and Greek. However, the earliest traces are not from the West, but from the East.
    [Show full text]
  • Middleton and John Ray Jo Walker from Middleton Hall on the Story Behind an Historic and Rare Rose
    Middleton and John Ray Jo Walker from Middleton Hall on the story behind an historic and rare rose Middleton Hall is a Grade ‘Historia Piscium’ were II* listed manor with a published after his death by John Ray. John Ray tutored museum housed in Francis’ children whilst he buildings spanning 750 stayed at Middleton Hall and years of architectural remained at the Hall for a Rose “John Ray” is believed to survive styles. The surrounding number of years after Francis’ only in Middleton Hall’s walled garden estate covers 42 acres and death. It was at Middleton that he developed his original works includes a Site of Special on Natural History including his was gradually superseded by the Scientific Interest, a walled ‘History of Plants’. garden and shops. Now Linnean method which was first John Ray (1627-1705) applied to English botany in Dr J. restored the Hall is run by Philosopher and writer, cleric, Hill’s Flora Britannica 1760. a small independent traveller and taxonomist, Ray enjoyed the advantage of a charitable trust. Middleton deserves a wider reputation. His very long period of productive botanical works - ‘Historiae Hall has had a wide variety activity: in the thirty-four years Plantum’ and ‘Methodus of owners and tenants. that separated his Tables of Plantarum Nova’, were published Plants from his Methodus Two of our most famous 1682. Emendata et Aucta, he had time residents were the great Known as the father of English to revise and remodel his naturalists Francis Willughby natural history, John Ray’s system. (who spelt his name this way) system of plant classification and his tutor, friend and During his residence in became more popular than that collaborator John Ray.
    [Show full text]
  • The Life and Times of a Curiosity-Monger
    COMMENT BOOKS & ARTS Like Close, astronomer John MUSEUMS Dvorak hopscotches through eclipses in Mask of the Sun, but this is science his- tory rather than anecdote. The quotes he interweaves reveal the extraordinary The life and times of a pull the events have had on the human imagination. The writer Virginia Woolf, for instance, who had witnessed the 1927 curiosity-monger total solar eclipse in the north of England, wrote of it in her essay ‘The sun and the Henry Nicholls revels in a biography of Enlightenment fish’ the following year: “Show me the collector and Royal Society president Hans Sloane. eclipse, we say to the eye; let us see that strange spectacle again.” It’s a rich chronicle. Dvorak notes, for hat do bloodletting, slavery, instance, how in 1684 Increase Mather, journal editing and a silver penis the president of Harvard College in Cam- protector have in common? The bridge, Massachusetts, delayed the gradu- Weighteenth-century physician, collector and ation ceremony by ten days so that faculty president of the Royal Society Hans Sloane. PHOTOS.COM/GETTY members and students could reach Mar- In Collecting the World, historian James tha’s Vineyard off the state’s south coast Delbourgo charts Sloane’s rags-to-riches to see a total eclipse. (Mather, a Puritan transformation, from his birth in 1660 into minister, was less enlightened about the a family of domestic servants in the north Salem witch trials less than a decade later, of Ireland, to his death in 1753 as one of the refusing to condemn them.) We see how most influential figures in England.
    [Show full text]
  • THE MAN of SCIENCE Steven Shapin
    THE IMAGE OF THE MAN OF SCIENCE Steven Shapin The relations between the images of the man of science and the social and cultural realities of scientific roles are both consequential and contingent. Finding out “who the guys were” (to use Sir Lewis Namier’s phrase) does in- deed help to illuminate what kinds of guys they were thought to be, and, for that reason alone, any survey of images is bound to deal – to some extent at least – with what are usually called the realities of social roles.1 At the same time, it must be noted that such social roles are always very substantially con- stituted, sustained, and modified by what members of the culture think is, or should be, characteristic of those who occupy the roles, by precisely whom this is thought, and by what is done on the basis of such thoughts. In socio- logical terms of art, the very notion of a social role implicates a set of norms and typifications – ideals, prescriptions, expectations, and conventions thought properly, or actually, to belong to someone performing an activity of a certain kind. That is to say, images are part of social realities, and the two notions can be distinguished only as a matter of convention. Such conventional distinctions may be useful in certain circumstances. So- cial action – historical and contemporary – very often trades in juxtapositions between image and reality. One might hear it said, for example, that modern American lawyers do not really behave like the high-minded professionals 1 For introductions to pertinent prosopography, see, e.g., Robert M.
    [Show full text]
  • John Ray's Natural History Travels
    t rith .,-c!.& a,Yr Stcoe"'r k*:'t r{-dr-aa Cr'.t r<. pp Vq-5r'.) JOHNRAY'S NATURAL HISTORY TRAVELS II.I BRITA]N By Professor WIILIA.II T. STEARN c/o Depa.tnent of Botang, aritjsi ltuse ? (Natutal Eistory) gotanical Socieayof the British Islcs ConferenceReport No. 20 Rend l3th Scptenbcr l9E6 Repr't-r,teCfron TheScottish llatural ist 1986, plgcs 43-57 1985 Jaln Rag's lvatural ,gistorg Ttavels in Britain JOHNRAY'S NATURAL HISTORY TRAVELS IN BRITAIN By WTLLIAM T. STEARN c/o Departnent of Botang, alitish ]tluseun (NaturaT Histotg ) Introduct'ion John Ray, the nost distinguished British naturalist of the ITth century, was boln in 1628 in a Iittle English vil1a8e, Black Notley, near Braintiee, Essex, and thele he died in 1707 (Raven 1942, Baldrin 1986). His publications on botanyr zoology and theology br:ought hin international renown; they are so nulelous that the description of their editions proved a fornidable task even for so experienced and distinguished a bibliographer as Si! Geoffrey (eynes. He wroterrlt nay be that I should never have atternpted to conpile a full-scal.e bibliography of his works; but the versatility of his attai nents, lhe variety of his books, and the real nobility of his character nade hirn irresistibletr. Keynes' detailed work thus brings for\,iard "evidence in a bibliographical dress of his nodesty, his loyalty, and his integrity'r (Keynes1951: ix). Ray was also the nost tTavelled British naturalist of his century, toSethei with his friend Si! Flancis l{iIlughby (1635-1672). Rayrs travels extended fron Stirling in Scotland to Malta and Sicily, where he climbed Mount Etna up to the snow-line.
    [Show full text]