CEU eTD Collection ROMANIANNESS AND PUBLIC SPACE IN INTERWAR CLUJ IN INTERWAR SPACE ANDPUBLIC ROMANIANNESS NATIONALIZING THE CITY: MONUMENTS OF THE CITY:MONUMENTS NATIONALIZING In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Second reader: Markian reader: Second Prokopovych Supervisor: Constantin Supervisor: Iordachi Central European University,Central European Department of History , Hungary Budapest, (1919-1933) Submitted tothe Submitted Liliana Iuga 2010 by CEU eTD Collection without the written permission of the Author. of copies such made.Further copies made in maywith such instructions accordance not bmade mustlibrarian.Central from mustbeapart Details European Library. beobtained the This page lodged and inthe bytheauthor instructions given with inmaythe only bemade part accordance Copyright in the text of this thesis rests with the Author. Copies by any process, either in full or Statement of copyright i CEU eTD Collection attempts of attempts imposingof ameaningful in presence city’s the public space. betterin emphasize toRomanians’ city order the throughout center staged and processions Municipality, members of the local elite and different associations. Finally, I look at ceremonies Romanian identity local mainly was shaped level suchat byactors as Bishopric, Cluj Orthodox embodying monuments meaningof these symbolical the that Iargue process, centralization in acknowledging shapingof importance of policies aspart cultural the Although agendas. divergent sometimes and of different asparts areadvertised monuments capable urban identify of shapingthe how two the mainpublic actors the spaceand observe I monuments, spaceandpublic nationalism, public on Using theories city.the appearance of Hungarian) (i.e. “foreign” the counterbalance thus and center city the on identification Romanian by local atthebeginning of imposing agenda elites an ambitious a 1920saspart the of of for wereinitiated Avram projects Both Cathedral Iancu. monument and the namely Orthodox the Analyzing theexampleof unofficialCluj, the focusTransylvanian capital, on two case I studies, space. urban overthe andimpose control adominantdiscourse create aimed to local elite groups how toobserve in look at publicspaceorder policies precisely,More I ). Greater (i.e. nation-state into of a new framework the andintegrated context Habsburg) a post-imperial (i.e. interwar In comingan Istudy from provincial process nationalization thesis the of this city of ABSTRACT ii CEU eTD Collection BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 150 ILLUSTRATIONS...... 130 CONCLUSIONS...... 126 CLUJ CHAPTER 4 – LOCAL ORNATIONAL HERO? PROJECTS FOR THE STATUE OF IN CHAPTER 3 –CONSTRUCTING THE ROMANIAN CITY CENTER: THE ORTHODOX CATHEDRAL ORTHODOX CENTER: THE ROMANIAN THE 3 –CONSTRUCTING CITY CHAPTER CHAPTER 2 – THE CITY OF CLUJ DURING THE INTERWAR DURING – CITY OFCLUJ THE 2 PERIOD THE CHAPTER CHAPTER 1 – THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK – 1 CHAPTER THEORETICAL 4 ...... INTRODUCTION II ABSTRACT...... 4.5. 4.4. 4.3...... 101 1924) 4.2. A 4.1. 3.6. 3.5. 3.4. 3.3. 3.2. 3.1. 2.4. 2.3. 2.2. C 2.1. 1.3 1.2 1.1. LUJ BETWEEN LUJ VRAM F P ...... 95 ...... T A L I D O T T A T N N R R T N RAMEWORKS OF UBLIC ANCU OR OCAL HE HE HE WO HE OMANIANS AND OMANIANS THE OMANIAN VRAM RAWING THE RTHODOXY ATIONAL ATIONALIZING THE ATIONALIZING P LACE FOR THE I C C P A ANCU UNTIL ANCU “R ROJECT OMPETITION IN OMPETITION ONSTRUCTION OF ONSTRUCTIONTHE OF USTRO S I OMANIAN I NITIATIVES ANDNITIATIVES PACE AND PACE ANCU M I A 1867 DENTITY AND DENTITY ATTHIAS , -H DMINISTRATION AND DMINISTRATION C R P B OMPETITION UNGARIAN OMANIANNESS ANDOMANIANNESS ORTRAIT OF ORTRAIT N AND ECOMES I 94...... 95 1914...... ” NTERPRETATION INTHE NTERPRETATION O ATIONALISM P C RTHODOX UBLIC S ? ATHEDRALS IN ATHEDRALS 1926. C 98...... 37 ...... 1918 PACE T ITY HE N O C ATIONAL RESPONSES L A ...... 48 ...... F FFICIALLY - HURCH T ...... 76 ...... O EGACY “ IRST CTORS M HE THE RTHODOX C ARKERS OF ARKERS ...... 18 ...... ATHEDRAL IN F I AILURE THE OF H NITIATIVES OF THE NITIATIVES OF U A : TABLE OFCONTENTS TABLE P ERO OF THE ERO OF ...... 22 ...... C L RBAN RCHITECTURE IN RCHITECTURE UBLIC LUJ OCAL N ATIONAL C ? S ATHEDRAL R T S TUDY OF TUDY S A OMANIANNESS EARCHING FOR EARCHING RANSFORMATIONS DURING THE RANSFORMATIONS PACE ...... 18 ...... DMINISTRATION AND DMINISTRATION C : LUJ THE R : P OMANIANS THE : ROJECT iii ...... 68 ...... S M P TAGING 12-93...... 81 (1923-1933)...... C G REPARATIONS FOR REPARATIONS C ONUMENTS AS ONUMENTS OMMITTEE FOR OMMITTEE REATER ENTENARY IN ENTENARY ...... 121 ...... 54 ...... A ”. O LTERNATIVE T FFICIAL R HE IDEA OF A OF HE IDEA OMANIA U RBAN N 94...... 116 1924 A C ATIONAL EREMONIES VRAM A ...... 36 ...... 60 ...... S VRAM D OLUTIONS I NTERWAR EVELOPMENT IN M I ONUMENT IN THE ONUMENT ANCU S I ANCU YMBOLS ...... 87 ...... S ...... 64 ...... P TATUE IN C ERIOD ENTENARY ...... 28 ...... K ...... 44 ...... OLOZSVÁR C M LUJ EMORY OF EMORY ...... 110 (1921- . 60 ... / CEU eTD Collection http://www.cdep.ro/pls/legis/legis_pck.htp_act_text?idt=1517 2 Cultura Na “national, unitary and indivisible” which as itself of itsa state In context the its population. proclaimed andtripled surface World atthe endof War,Romania First the andTransylvania doubled , Bucovina 1 1918. in following a normal Unification step the nationalization of was the cities that the suggested series thebook aninformative purpose, Althoughwith published be cities reinforced? inhabited byan majority overwhelming of couldHow peasants? the Romanian in presence relationship building between and in nation Romania,urbanization acountry Greater was the What [Romanian]? “ours” really were thesecities what extent To inter-connected: further questions in ethnicalidentity “historical which and rights” over the territory were implied cities about information distributing and acquiring of necessity the on argument surroundingthe areawas by villages. Bianu’s covered Romanian-speaking predominantly non-Romanian being inhabitedorigin, bycitizens ofvariouslanguages and while religions, were foreign citiesBessarabia, Bucovinaandtowns andi.e. heemphasized, , of of “new”in mostly regions and the Moreover, minorities. by ethnic were “controlled” problem was that they were composed mostly of , while cities, according toBianu, the of country; the structure demographical the massesdominating were rural only that of the most publication the of series a book “Our called providemonographs aiming Cities”, to illustrated important urban INTRODUCTION centers of . Constitu Ion Bianu, “Biblioteca “Ora “Biblioteca Bianu, Ion In 1923, university Ion professor Bianu,member of Romanianthe Academy,initiated Ġ ia Romaniei din 1923 Titlul 1, Art. 1, accessed on Ġ ional ă , 1923), 2. ú ele noastre” (“Our Cities” Library), in Victor Laz Victor in Library), Cities” (“Our ele noastre” 2 , cities not proved issue.Evidence remainedaproblematic 4 1 After having incorporated ă r, Clujul (Cluj) (Bucure ú ti: CEU eTD Collection 21 (1924): 324. 3 the smallest religious community in the city. The second one was a statue of Avram Iancu, the actually represented Greek-Orthodox the factthat the despite thecityscape, would dominated that building monumental a as constructed and planned was inCluj, Cathedral Orthodox situation. political into urban the in function inserted landscape landmarks to new the as symbolical of order monuments, statuesand arelatively reduced numberofnew buildings could beefficiently Therefore, built. densely already were they as centers city the in changes architectural urban landscape.however, Practically,not much could be produce to done in significantorder of efforts be visiblyhadconquering territory inthe reflected to the newconfiguration the of they had been “foreign”in had origin,but a“foreign” they also appearance. Theoretically,the suffer in Transylvanian seemto Kingdom,sin: notonly a capital of the cities newcontext, by requested municipal Romanian representatives. weresupport the creation Romanian middle-class in repeatedly a stronger to of order measures economic special of implementation and fields all in protection State one. dominant a to Romanians aimedreversing theposition urban of from at Bucharest that coordinated policies centralized of requirements the with character multi-ethnic cities’ the reconciling of develop modesthad in local strategiesrelatively to presence The theauthorities publicsphere. economics, theirlower demographic proportion, theirbackwardness cultural and their city the in position marginal in their manifested was cities the within element Romanian Romania of fragility Romanians alike.The indiverseparts andothers the Greater of by topic debated municipalities andcentral authorities, politiciansintellectuals, and “Congresul Uniunii Ora In this thesis I will discuss the case of two such monuments. The first one, the in Old the theircounterparts urbanized than andbetter moremodern Although hot a became ones, Transylvanian the of especially and cities, the of Nationalization ú elor” (Cities’ Union Congress), 5 Revista Administrativ 3 ă (The Administrative Journal), Administrative (The CEU eTD Collection emphasizing the interactions and interconnections between them. Before 1918, it can be stated actors, various between differentiate Iwill therefore Cluj of too. urban space conquer Romanian block wasby meansno united homogeneous, and or attempted others that to the that fact the awareof fully Iam Cluj, of elite is newRomanian the focus primary beto afor engaged various the groupsof challenge Although in actors my process. this monumentsasin ratherthese works final progress than products. see to intend I elite, cultural and administrative religious, ethnic, diverse its between contest in the city and the largerconflict itethnic ona how elucidated significance and their political much revealssoabout monuments about these discussion because contemporary the precisely previous Hungarian rulers of city,the it and soin did a very visibleMoreover, manner. from urban toconquerthe ofClujasforeign, Romanian elite space, perceived the attempted new the their through that construction, Iargue politics. of power as arepresentation beseen in space can public the group a certain absenceof presence or is the that premise basic andMy Romanianness, perceivedbyalargerpublic. intended astheybytheircreators were symbolism. in rich and therefore Corvinusof and KingMatthias Hungarian the statue Renaissance 4 Square Main the counterbalance to specifically landmarksmain of Square,the Cuzadesignedthe Voda newRomanian center, city differentpolitical situation of Romania. Both monumentspost-1989 were designed as the statue failed atthat time,it and was revisited only inrecently,in the 1990s, an entirely however, Iancu by the 1933, achieved largely was construction Cathedral, whose Unlike the Transylvanian leader of Romanian 1848 the envisioned in Revolution, samethe square. Former MainSquare (Fö tér), renamed Unionthe Square in 1919. Perceived as a “national mission”, the construction of a Romanian city center proved center city a Romanian of construction the mission”, a“national as Perceived of embodiments as monuments these analyze to is aim my thesis, this In 6 4 comprising the comprising 15 th century Gothic Church century CEU eTD Collection continued its activity also during the interwar period. important cultural associationof Transylvanian Romanians during the Austro-Hungarian period. The society 7 Unification, 1926). a series of laws promoting centralization were adopted (e.g. the Constitution in 1923, the Law forAdministrative problematic impact of the unification process as directed from Bucharest in new the from Bucharest as directed process of unification impact the problematic importantly inMost my for towards thisthesis, Livezeanu’spurposes the analysis pointed financial and industrial oligarchy, party the leaded by I.C.BrIon 6 1926, in order gain to representation at national level. Austro-Hungarianthe period. Leaded by during 1920s,the the party united with the Peasant Party in 5 book, cultural policies in interwar Romania. Iwill In this regard, use Irina seminal Livezeanu’s implementation of thenational unification project on local level, with a special emphasis on aims. pursue their to inorder strategies different andadopted interests were animatedbydifferent actors these Cluj, of city Hungarian in apredominantly Romanian presence more consistent Romanian intellectuals movedCluj to in 1919.Although they were allaiming establish to a dynamics the of feature interesting an aspect, last this with is connection In in Bucharest. government the presence the and Municipality of local the interests diverging i.e. divisions -periphery of centre the of the thirdassociations (e.g. ASTRA center,local various in membership their to according ,Greek-Catholics), and (Orthodox affiliation from which Party (-Peasant) National a significantinfluential number in Cluj publicpossibilities offered by newpoliticalthe configuration. interwar Therefore, Romanian actors of space can be divided Greater Romania, context of theirindividualspost-1918 given some reevaluated options, the according to political in the However, ASTRA. a cultural one, and Party, National the Romanian political one, lines (members organizations-diversetwo a of that gatheredunderthe umbrella Romanians Transylvanian of the ASTRA, or the Association forRomanian Literature and the Culture of the Romanian People, was the most The National Liberal Party was one of two traditional political groups from the Old Kingdom. Supported by a during Romanians Transylvanian representing group political the was originally Party Romanian National The Cultural Politics Romania, in Greater The topic of this thesis can be integrated into the larger frameworkinto of larger the the The topic be of can integrated this thesis 7 5 , the Society of Orthodox Women). Moreover, one should be aware , the National Liberal Party as a starting point and a basis of my discussion. my of basis a and point starting asa 7 ă tianu goverened between1922 and 1926, when 6 and the People’s Party), religious CEU eTD Collection 10 9 10. Pascu. heavily affected by the infusion of ideological commitment. To put it simple, this period is period this simple, it put To commitment. ideological of infusion the by affected heavily 8 can interwarbe period integrated. in the occurring in changes which the the context traces process modernization part of the as of urban structure the transformations analysisthe on illustrated richly Agachi’s century. Hungarian is period work byMihaelaon Agachi’surbanization inoffered Cluj the during 19 complementary reading to this volume on the architectural transformations during the policiesAustro- canbein tool showing architecture how of ameaningful dynamics the urban observing and analyzing Theatre. andthe Clinics, University the waysof his argumentin he whichuses the In support during the Austro-Hungarian period. created wasactually capital Transylvania of following theexamples: the identity turn the of by sponsored governmentat theBudapest profile asacultural century, the city and University, the University focused buildingthe programs Gheorghe on According study the of region. Vais, who to Library,of a the city of the center administrative and cultural unofficial asan Cluj was perceived period, interwar is being shaped. cultural institutions” and elites urban towns, of “nationalization the A policies: cultural government’s Romanian basis the the of constituted have pillars thatshould inter-connected three Livezeanu identified book, her of introduction the In context. political new in the cities of importance special provinces.Focusing oneducation strategies inrural both and she urban areas, revealed the Gheorghe Vais, Gheorghe Irina Livezeanu, Irina ù tefan Pascu, tefan 10 To a greater extent than any other Transylvanian city in the Austro-Hungarian and Austro-Hungarian the in city Transylvanian other any than extent greater a To The most famousThe most monograph and consistent of city the was edited in 1974 by constitutesVais’s book tothe a valuable contribution history HabsburgCluj, of Although the book is very informative, the pages dedicated to the interwar yearsare interwar tothe dedicated pages is the informative, very book Although the Istoria Clujui Clujul eclectic Cultural Politics in Greater Romania 8 . (The (The History of Cluj) (Eclectic Cluj)(Cluj-Napoca:UT Press, 2009). 9 (Cluj, 1974). 8 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press,1995), 8, ù tefan th CEU eTD Collection 13 Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2006). 12 11 by Pascu edited also city, the of heritage architectural the to referring volume complementary The strikes. workers’ of of a series presentation the to reduced his numerous achievements. Two books have to be mentioned here. The first one is a one first The here. mentioned be to have books Two achievements. numerous his and describes personality the the which of praises followpattern a similar approaches these Church, Orthodox the of discourse official the Representing moments. anniversary with inbishop Orthodox various especially werepublishedon occasions, Cluj connected dates, number of articles and booksabout buildingthe itself and its founder, Nicolae Ivan, first the a religious building in still use today, Cathedral the was more privileged in A this regard. in As an landmark certain of historiography.attention city the Romanian the architectural and specific city space.claimsthrough onpublic the of identity the on discourses Hungarian and Romanian competing the and Cluj interwar backgroundinvestigated in firstthe partof bookthe offersinsights into relevant contextof the exploring ofthese policies the reception The among historical groups. various ethnic space, urban on the policies nationalist of impact the micro-level the research on to order Brubaker is certainly most significant. the addressingin mannerpertinent relevanttopics such as attemptsthe of Romanianizing the city. avoid narratives these importantly, more and Moreover, inconsistent. and fragmented is sources from rather secondary various information The imageone by consulting can obtain in Cluj. period interwar the regarding knowledge of lack is aclear there city, the of history the on work scholarly well-documented more recent a of absence the In analysis. consistent city’s main buildings, styles and architects. Yet, the book is too descriptive and falls short of a Rogers Brubaker, Rogers Brubaker, ù tefan Pascu(ed.), Both the Orthodox Cathedral and the project for the Avram Iancu statue enjoyed a enjoyed statue Iancu Avram the for project the and Cathedral Orthodox the Both In what concerns the Western scholarship on Cluj, the contribution of Rogers Nationalist Policies and Everyday Ethnicity in a Transylvanian Town Clujul istorico-artistic Nationalist Policies and Everyday Ethnicity inaTransylvanian Town (Historical and Artistic Aspects of Cluj) (Cluj-Napoca,1974). 12 13 Brubaker thecase chose of Cluj post-1989 in 9 11 , is an overview of the , 97-101. (Princeton and CEU eTD Collection 17 Iancu)(Sibiu, 1972). 701-710 and one book :Paul Abrudan, in Memory), Iancu’s ofAvram Defense the for Fight (The Iancu” Avram lui memoriei 16 Archbishopric of Vad, Feleac and Cluj)(Cluj-Napoca:Editura Arhidiecezana, 1998). 14 collection of studies and documents edited by Nicolae Vasiu and Ion Bunea. 15 EpiscopiaOrtodoxa aVadului, Feleacului si Clujului, 1985). Moraru ofinformation for source authoredvaluable by The researchers. second book, Alexandru a represent material) speeches,archival (correspondence, articles, book the second halfof offer imagea comprehensive of life,while Bishop’s the documents the incomprised the Campeni designedin Târgu-Mure Cluj, forstatue unveiled story interwarthe of endthe placehero’s 19 intendedthe of grave at onthe to students some funeral wreath modest from the Avram for Iancu story monument the of a reconstruct WorldSecond War. investigated theinitiatives of thecommemorating revolutionary leader from his death until the andhero in of interestthe memory the particular showed Abrudan Paul An officer, army during revolution the in occasion on the 1848 exploded of Centenary the hisof deathin 1972. exclusively on is publishedthis sources, only the in publishedmonograph lastthe decades. jury during several stages of the competition, art historian S historian Nicolae of stages jury competition, art the several during photographs of gypsum models statue’s the memberofthe byCoriolan preserved the Petranu, is state the often missed by Starting author. the from Abrudan’s andwork using the role the of policiesor urban with The connection lack seems to contextualization. approach if victory. itsheavyideological charge, the carried on disregards final one the Even until and enthusiasts nationalist of generations new by over taken is stick the in which race relay Small town in the , one of Avram Iancu’s headquarters during the 1848 Revolution. 1848 the during headquarters Iancu’s Avram of one Mountains, Apuseni the in town Small Abrudan published the ofresults investigationhis inone article PaulAbradudan, “Lupta pentru apararea Nicolae Vasiu, Ion Bunea (eds.), Alexandru Moraru, Alexandru 15 The literature on Avram Iancu, the leading figure of Transylvanian Romanians Transylvanian of figure leading the Iancu, Avram on literature The 17 , offers a rather modest presentation of the history of the Cathedral. Based almost in 1940. The flowsstory from uninterruptedly beginningthe until like end,the a Catedrala Arhiepiscopiei Ortodoxe a Vadului, Feleacului si Clujului 16 Inspired by a strong nationalist enthusiasm, Abrudan aimed to aimed Abrudan enthusiasm, nationalist astrong by Inspired Episcopul Nicolae Ivan (1855-1936) Pentru un monument lui Avram Iancu 10 (Bishop Nicolae Ivan) (Cluj-Napoca: (For a Monument ofAvram a Monument (For th ăEă century to the agitated ú and finally movedto and Studii, u provided acritical (The Cathedral of the 25,nr.4 (1972), 14 Thestudies CEU eTD Collection 20 1945 19 for the the for equastrian statue of Avram Iancu in Cluj(1924-1926)) “thatwould appropriation cathedrals, “Romanianizing” the of signify newly-Romanian the values of inRomanianness. However, casethe of Transylvania, Augustin Ioan speaks of vocabulary the couldand of and express architectural absence that a well-defined unitary predominanceDobrogea: various groups ethnic emphasized ofOrthodoxy to among related following incorporation and Romania.into major Transylvania, their Two aspectscan be provided byAugustin discussed whoIoan, the building of churchesOrthodox in Dobrogea nation. Romanian simultaneously religious places and monuments of Romanianness, builtfor the glory of the Transylvanian Orthodox cathedrals had the symbolical function of mausoleums, being argues that also cityscapes. the churches author The dominated Protestant which and Catholic the with visibility for competing thus and environment, a “foreign” into placed ofpower asstatements inTransylvania cathedrals Orthodox perceivesthe Popescu Carmen 18 book well-documented her In phenomenon. European-wide of presentnational a style Romanianthe Augustin aspart aimto as and Popescu Ioan Carmen historians such byarchitectural years.interwar contributions Recent style thenational during frame my analysis. The of projects. the qualities aesthetic more the objectivea perspective Orthodox Cathedralstudy.Moreover, rather than using the nationalistic discourse of the period, he discussed from case in asaseparate Cluj statue of Iancu’s isstory the whoanalyzed scholar first the Sabau was a clear exemplification analysisstylistic ofbetween presentedbyvarious sculptors projects the 1924 and 1926. of the Romanian CarmenPopescu, CarmenPopescu, Nicolae Sab (Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes; [Bucharest]: Simetria, 2004). Simetria, [Bucharest]: Rennes; de Universitaires Presses (Rennes: A relevant comparison on the nationalizing practices of the Romanian state was state of Romanian the practices nationalizing the on comparison A relevant Several recently on published interwarworks Romanian andmonumentsarchitecture ă u,”Câteva proiecte pentru statuiaecvestr Le style national Roumain 20 Le style nationalLe style Roumain. Construirenation une atravers l’architecture , 211. 11 ă a luiAvram Iancu la Cluj(1924-1926)” (Some projects . Acta Musei Napocensis Le style national roumain 18 (1981) 661-679. . 1881- 19 18 , CEU eTD Collection 22 House, 1999),24. 21 contribution manner of recent Bucur. until the Maria comprehensive andactors. conflicting programs sometimes and diverse between level local at interactions the show to plan I Bucharest, on focusing than Rather in cities. Transylvanian process explore beginning nationalization the the of aimed to inof and amoreestablishing validapproach representing center periphery, the attempt the actors various between negotiation of objects as them analyze to and policy planning urban “Romanianizing” in monuments from interwar Transylvania perspectivethe a conscious of of problem the narrow to Iplan Conversely, consideration. into taken rarely are actors other while force, almighty and be active the seems to state the of power, equation this In country. creating identity asenseof among indiscriminately common the Romanians throughout monuments asmeansof and thearchitecture useof through Bucharest, underof control the as evolving regarded and is oversimplified local process level.The whole on engendered actually changes these analyzing responses thepossible without center, the from as imposed theyboth perceivehistoriography, theonly national style a new inRomanian art perspective opened Although approaches inthese Cathedral Cluj. theOrthodox such religious edifices as with associated rhetoric nationalistic politicized the emphasizing my of research, point identity”. territory, whereChristianity Orthodox appeared asan ingredientessential of national urban and rural areas. Although the statue of Avram Iancu was notdirectly connected with the in both communities local by assumed was initiative the Therefore, dead. war the of memory in monuments the of theconstruction lackedregarding strategy aclear state Romanian commemoration practices after the world two wars, Maria Bucur argued thatin the 1920s, the Maria Bucur, Augustin Ioan, The issue on interwar public monuments in Romania was not discussed in a The arguments presented by the two architectural historians constitute the starting 21 War and Victims Power, Play and National Identity (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2009). Press, University Indiana Indianapolis: and (Bloomington (Bucharest: Romanian The Cultural FoundationPublishing 12 22 Focusing on the on Focusing CEU eTD Collection state policy. Rather, the responsibility for the success or the failure of these projects was projects these failure of the or success for the responsibility the Rather, policy. state andconcrete well-coordinated aconsistent, of result the not was intervention this monument, government providedsome even financialsupport, if varied support that from monument to emerged as a resultand appliedonlocal level governmental through and municipal theseauthorities, projects of the effortspractical view, point of in analyzing them work progress.Althoughas by developed state the of a broader spectruminto the official discourse under the umbrellaof of Orthodoxy. actors. both integrated Therefore, Cathedral the of cultand the were AlthoughAvram Romanian square. Iancu the basically identifyingexcluded from central themselves with newpublicspacethe of new the in than Cluj, Orthodox were the morewho were twice numerous Romanians, Catholic Greek- Therefore, Orthodox. was religion whose Romanians those only by counting further, thisnumber narrowed even a mere practices down of Cluj one official thirdpopulation, the united alltheterritories inhabited Even byethnic Romanians. represented though Romanians that state national of a framework in the salvation brought that and apresent state oppressive Romanians, whichreunitedinjustice a of sacrifice,of sufferingpast inthecontext and an they imagined asvisualexpressionsofthe on were official Transylvanian discourse were both Avram perceived ofRomanianness. words, statue Iancu asembodiments Inother from and, projects Cathedral Orthodox these of argue thatthe and the view,point this I of meaning symbolical the analyze to Iaim developments. as practical and representations symbolical as processes, as and projects as both monuments these studying in interested practices. War commemorative One World post the with connected extent an to was symbolism whose monuments, of category memory war,Iwillthe of argue thatcould this project beincluded inacomplementary The second perspective I will focus on will approach the two monuments from a since Iam lines,complementary followingtwo develops my of The thesis argument 13 CEU eTD Collection corroborated with the economicadministration, such as urbanization and the housing crisis. All crisisthese local circumstances were at the end of and Cluj structures. national Municipality confronted withwas also issues pressing localof the 1920s and the political local both instability Political affected new aworking for the framework state. create order to problems at recover the war after solve. develop in Romania hadissued integrativepolicies and to to to Romanians’ presence in the public sphere in a city in which they represented a minority. of reinforced local of national branches the state realm,and the support official the and hence cooperation forlocal approval obtainingneeded theright the of thisthe toconstruct on space, government was also necessarycommittees thetwo members of the Municipality, the of theproperty newsquare was the on local level. Finally, could legal financial only andneededandthat provide. support Since state the Cathedral the what concerns statue the for committees local hand, other the On own. their with myth imperial the Habsburg public Romanians, of but newthe Monarchy obtaining popular consensus.of Addressing themselves mainly to also to the on need elucidated the monuments with these differentceremonies associated to government minorities,power. InRomanian addition, the itspresence thatwould monuments with represent mapTransylvania legitimacy of territory and the Royal of the RomanianFamily its claims of reinforce needed to newstate the hand, one On the Royalcollaboration. successful attemptedFamily and of the members to of replacethe projects. two of the failure the or in thesuccess most the counted determination and persuasion of their power Therefore, of achieved.having theseauthorities projects the only andpurpose civil society,the with both wereaddressedto Their requests support. necessary receive the to inorder authorities on whichputpressure non-governmental by individualsultimately or associations taken over At the same time, both the state and more samethe practical Atand pressinghad state both Municipality the the time, ina interests had projects their of local andthese the promoters state the Both 14 CEU eTD Collection published in 1921 as part of inpublishedof 1921aspart fund the raising campaign for statue the them, I have Among my sources. complete cities) primary of Transylvanian nationalization processof the to mention Avram debating the volumes conferences, andIancu, of monographsCathedral of city, of the the bookletjury,interwar Numerous Coriolan Petranu. books published during the interwar period (e.g. on the life of Avram Iancu that was provided by art historianwas providedby Sab art Nicolae ofthecompetition stages different the material documenting visual developed. The campaign raising fund the how example for explain not do but information, additional offer Will) (The newspapers such as such newspapers documentscan befound is inClujArchives while Fund Archives scarce, ASTRA in atthe the Sibiu only the planned statue for Avram Iancuthe was the most difficult reconstruct. to The information that implicationandin also monographsthe of monumentpublishedthe in the interwar period. The story for of this Association in the story of the statue. Local 23 Bishopric, the of journal official in the found be can monument entries, kept in the competition plans two of the the for However, missing lost. Museum are or plansthe of Cathedral, the of the Cathedral, such as a partof documents, the Here also, Cathedral.of process building the theconcerning are available. Additionalprovided bylocal The Archivesnewspapers. in Church Metropolitan Cluj offer arich material informationinformation of basis the the on reconstructed bepartially can government local the of activity on this Nationalthe Archives in why], many interwarSince Cluj. documentsarelost [footnote the published Theactivity works. is Municipality the of by documented existing registers the in initiators coulda project. successof the commitment of the guarantee national level following the death of King Ferdinand in1927.In context, this only the Al. Ciura, This thesis is based on a series of archival materials, periodicals, visual sources and sources visual periodicals, materials, archival of series a on based is thesis This Povestire pe scurt a vietii lui Avram Iancu Patria (The Homeland) ă u, who “inherited” them from u, who member of the the , Infr 15 (Short Story of Avram Iancu’s Life) (Cluj: Ardealul). ăĠ irea (The Fraternity) Renasterea 23 . Thislittle which book , Clujul, (the Renaissance), and Voin Ġ a CEU eTD Collection actors in Finally,actors Iarguethat project. supporting processions this the andceremonies competitionin the participated that projects main the discussing After Municipality. forlocal with conflict the constructioninitial the and Cathedral the of placement the concerning debates the analyze will I Then, of the Cathedral, aminority. represented confession of this members the where inacity Bishopric Orthodox I emphasize successfulthe of Moreover,motivation founding Idiscuss achievement project.the of an the the motivations around instructured involvement the activity Bishop Nicolae Ivan,givenhisof extraordinary of various from encouraged center. the wasalso which process, nationalization the in concerns attitude what moderate a rather show aimsduringlandscape. This to localchapter that manifested 1920s,the the government city,the identifying themain markers spatial that implied thenationalization of urbanthe of topography atthe look will Finally, I thecity. of character the about Romanian discourse administration in Cluj and themain it urban policies during developed this andperiod, the following aspects:the Austro-Hungarian legacy, installation the of Romanian the statue in the context of interwar monuments. of construction the space through Cluj. Given amethodology notionsfor these and studyingof nationalization the create urban public the the complexitydefineis monuments public chapter Thepurposeof to this andurban actors. space,public of thisnationalism, nationalizing as such analysis, and topic,my research for relevant concepts several I focus on the a in create theoretical framework I discusswhich myargumentcould Therefore, be integrated. starting point of this thesis. antiquarian, the by friendcuriosity was boughtoutfrom of apoor a constituted sheer actually The third is tothe Orthodox dedicated chapter Cathedral.is Thispart inevitably In the second chapter, I frame my two case studies, the Cathedral and the Avram Iancu am to I interested In theoretical the infourchapter, chapters. isdivided This thesis 16 CEU eTD Collection emphasize the Romanian presence in interwar Cluj. ininterwar Romanian presence the emphasize managed to such projects failures, eventual anddespite even inthese circumstances argue that I However, failure project. of the formain the reason was the local government from interest lackof the committee, of statue the president determined a more of absence in the opinion, my In reality. become to project this prevented levels national and local inFinally, coming supporting the project. factors acombination Iarguethat from both of ceremony laying of in of foundingthe stone 1924, Iidentify motivations the of various actors competition While of and the andits threestages sculpture the discussing the sculptors. itsCorvinus challengingboth on wasparticularly initiators MainSquare,this the project for KingMatthias Cluj-born representingthe because statuary group impressive that the of hero’s thecult 1920s, during occasion the on Also, I argue Centenary the of Iancu’s birth.of in is the by years. transformations framed the approach My interwar the during become reality city center. with from identifying newRomanian the wereactually Greek-Catholic themselves excluded though that this specificdesign of publicthe spaceunder umbrella the the Orthodoxy, of city’s public space and impose the presence of the Orthodox as a dominant one. I also suggest orchestrated by Bishop Ivan throughout the city were aimed create a strong impact on the The last chapter analyzes the story of the Avram Iancu Statue, a failed to that project Avram Iancu Statue, the story the analyzes of chapter The last 17 CEU eTD Collection debates concentrated firstly on defining the concept of nation. Is the nation a reality deeply areality nation Is the nation. of concept defining the firstly on debates concentrated academic The scientists. political and anthropologists sociologists, historians, by contributions from the results research of area tothis dedicated literature of body vast decades. The 1.1. Nationalizing Nationalism monuments integrated in publicthe space asvisual expressions of national identity. shapingthe of urbanpublic local spacebyvarious andand national theimportance actors of linkingtheoretical coordinates aspecific by ofnationalism type embraced elite, cultural the the trace attempt to will thislike chapter Cluj. byHungarians, Therefore, culturally dominated through construction monumentsthe of thatwould embody identity in Romanian the acity in of publicandexpressed rulingspace the design RomanianTransylvanian cities elite groups by new the was adopted discourse how nationalizing the show Iwill provinces. Then, acquired innewly character Romanian the on discourse cultural a specific of creation the determined that factor main as the Romania interwar the in nationalism nationalizing consider the influencing of urbanpolicies.Iwill capableurban of the shaping actors making level municipal process of on typesand between the established variousrelationships decision- the on focus will I Moreover, policies. cultural nationalizing of context in the Cluj- in statue Iancu Avram the and Cathedral Orthodox the in- interested Iam casestudies two Second, my aim isconstruct to amethodological approach that would allow me analyzeto the my nationalism, and urbanmonuments. actors, thesis: nationalizing public space, public indentify, concepts between several fundamental andestablish define connections for are that nationalization of public space trough the construction monuments.of First, Iam interested to 1 CHAPTER – THEORETICALFRAMEWORK Nationalism has been one of the most frequent historiographical topics of the last few for discussing a create I willframework the theoretical to In thischapter attempt 18 CEU eTD Collection in reality in East Central or elsewhere- the nationalizing state asarather appears state nationalizing the elsewhere- or Europe Central in in East reality exist -an doesnot itspractically ideal structures and overall dominance its that type ensures apparatus thestate nationappropriates homogeneous insuccessfully ethno-cultural which one term state introduced of nationalizing with newly the nation-state the contrasting distinction, hebasic offers conceptual a Therefore, 25 of Nations University Press, 1992), and the ethno- symbolist approach in the work, of AnthonyHobsbawm D. Smith, Imagined Communities : reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism Gellner, by Ernst represented 24 19 the with as compared different are period interwar Brubaker that typesdeveloped argues during the the context. projects nationalizing of various living ethnic groups in largely heterogeneous these states emerging ina post-imperial by developed national projects interactions the competing between explore aimsapproach to His War.World end First atthe of the Central Europe of East configuration geo-political Nationalism Reframed, created after the dissolution of the Russian, Habsburg and Ottoman Empires. In his book nationalism”, referring precisely to the interwar “nationalizing as period introduces and the Brubaker contextRogers what of namely the successor nationalism, of type statesspecific in a Iaminterested Moreover, term. of the interpretations a discussion of into the proceed historical period. identifyingnew manifestations more of nationalism, carefully on grounded a specific research, on of basis empirical the new wereproduced theories Moreover, explored. the interdisciplinary proved topic morepreferences, recentapproaches isfarfrom fully being substance? Although constructivistthe interpretations seemed prevail to in historians’ gained gradually aform that rather or manipulated by elites, the in anartifact rooted past, the Rogers Brubaker, Among the most relevant, already classical studies on nationalism, see the modernist/ constructivist approach Although nationalism is one of the basic concepts of this research, I do not intend to intend not do I research, this of concepts basic the of is one nationalism Although ( Oxford: Blackwell, 1988). Nations and nationalism since 1780 : programme, myth, reality Nationalism reframed 24 Brubaker focuses on the role of nationalism in the context of the new the of context the in nationalism of role the on focuses Brubaker Nations andnationalism (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press,1996), 63 25 . While the “nation-state” implies a completed project, implies acompleted “nation-state” the . While ( 19 Oxford : Blackwell, 1983), Benedict Anderson, th century nation-building processes. nation-building century ( ( London :Verso, 1983) Eric Cambridge Cambridge: The Ethnic Origins CEU eTD Collection 31 47. 30 IN : Purdue University Press, 2001) in 29 28 27 nationalizationimposing means national and, meaninga certain overagroup, byextension, nationality. particular one to tied necessarily been have not might loyalty their although identification, ethnic a single choose to obliged beginning of 20 the 19 the of half second the between sometime that, Kingargues century, 19 in the Monarchy of Habsburg the Analyzing thecase category analysis. of accurate of “identity” concept of the critique Brubaker’s identification. or consciousness national/ ethnic in the context ofconsciousness is by provided definition the of Jeremy King,whosuggests nationalization that the turn of the century East Central Europe means to assume a certain 26 consciousness. animated bynational inamass movement of ‘people’” the crowd “chaotic of the define transformation the to order inwere hithertoownership, private that of properties bythestate appropriation nation”. state-bearing political demographicculture, position, flourishing, or economic hegemony of nominally the it what state the is properly legitimately be,and destined by to promoting the language, ‘unrealized’ painful withprocess Thenationalizinguncertain results. is state defined byBrubaker as“an processes. Inhisbook, state-building nation- and the to isrelated directly in athat sense concept the use I will Rogers Brubaker and Frederick Cooper, “Beyond Identity”, 123. Jeremy King, “The Nationalization of East Central Europe”, Central ofEast Nationalization “The King, Jeremy George Mosses, George Rogers Brubaker, Rogers Brubaker and Frederick Cooper, “Beyond Identity” , Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary Habsburg Central Europe, 1848 to the Present Although the term “nationalization” conventionally refers to the transfer or to the to or transfer the to refers conventionally “nationalization” term the Although nation-state”, in which the elites aim to “remedy this perceived defect, tomake in“remedy defect, thisperceived aimto elites whichthe nation-state”, The Nationalization of theMasses Nationalism reframed, th century; century; inhabitantsthe of this multi-cultural foundregion themselves 26 The Nationalization of the Masses,The Nationalizationof , 112-113. 63. 28 (Cambridge University 2008),Press, 946. A similar emphasis on the idea of acquiring anational ideaacquiring of the on emphasis A similar Maria Bucur and Nancy M. Wingfield (eds.) (West Lafayette, (West (eds.) Wingfield M. Nancy and Bucur Maria (Ithaca : Cornell University Press, 1991), 2 20 31 30 Therefore, according to this interpretation, according this to Therefore, 29 , replacing it with “identification” as a more a as “identification” with it replacing , In framing In hisapproach, King relies on Staging the Past : the Politics of Theory and Society George Mosses uses the concept in concept the uses Mosses George , 29, No. 1 (Feb., 2000), 1- th century and the 27 Commemoration in this thesis inthis th CEU eTD Collection 35 subchapter. following of the framework 34 between these three factors, he often neglects and oversimplifies some aspects concerning the concerning aspects some andoversimplifies he neglects often factors, three these between “homelands”. and external national states, newly nationalizing minorities, including national concepts which ofa involves triad of states, successor ininterwar developmentnationalism of the the of the state in order to fulfill its interests. lacked support nation the the core was tobecome that nationality specific when a period this “repair” timing to injustices past, the then of the aiming asacompensatory project developed are policies nationalizing Second, discourse. legitimating a of the creation through state the of owner rightful the presents itself as that nation core the of weakness the emphasizes author contexts. other applied to be also could ashe that, suggests, concept of the sevencharacteristics Brubaker identifies 33 state. of the umbrella the 32 one. only the not but player, important an remains state the words, other In state. the of involvement the imply necessarily not does significance its King for nationalization, to the conventionalrelated issomehow term of this definition a Brubaker’s If certain state degree. only to to the is interpretation, connected nationalization In King’s group. space by the over one controlled meaning that presumes the state’s central role in the process of are of major interest for this thesis. In one of the theoretical of essays for of theoretical majorone In the interestthesis. this are of in involved of process nationalization the of public space.the as of one actors the state identifying the thus urbanpolicies, levellocal the nationalization at observation is importanceof for purpose of particular the this thesis, which will discuss Rogers Brubaker, the in bediscussed will by Brubaker, mentioned also organizations, non-state and agencies ofstate issue The Rogers Brubaker, under places he of actors number extended the through shift this anticipates Brubaker that seems it Actually, The concept of the “nationalizing state” is just one component of Brubaker’s theory on Nevertheless, several aspects in Brubaker’s conceptualization of the nationalizing state nationalizing of the in conceptualization Brubaker’s aspects several Nevertheless, 35 However, starting from a broad perspective and focusing on the interaction the on focusing and perspective broad a from starting However, Nationalism reframed Nationalism reframed 33 Among these, two aspects are of particular importance. First, the First, importance. areofparticular aspects two Among these, , 4 , 83-84 34 21 Nationalism Reframed 32 This , CEU eTD Collection situationof the otheronthe minoritiesperception their in and the contextRomanians] of case, the this official [in nation core nationalizing ofthe policies. self-representation the is in interested I am what Moreover, chapter. this of purpose the beyond remains minorities national and state nationalizing 36 structural modifications in the city. In this subchapter I will attempt to discuss thenational and local areinvolvedactors concepts in decision-makingthe aiming processes produce to of of aseries andtherefore community local the for importance major an issueof constitutes landscape The urban shapingthe influenceof depending andpower. actors, on their Actors Public and Space 1.2 Public these policies on the local level leaves numerous possibilities for the negotiation of roles. of implementation the discourse, in official the one nationalizing itself asa presents state the of the dominant nation? As my interests promotes only the thesis state nationalizing the under circumstances, all that demonstrated aims to show, this was notitbe Can clearly of debate. amatter nation core are again the given to “privileges” always the case. Although national minoritiesinin should practice beopenconflict, negotiate. The they to would have the and state nationalizing the officially Although minorities. national the of representatives with the collaborate and solution amiddle-way can choose state the In these circumstances, nationalizing thesuccess project. of professionalsensure the orthe infrastructure would that the means, lacking theeconomic one, a mightremain weak state the Moreover, a reality. could benot of but In matter weakness of state only the addition,a perception, the be adopted. Accordingly, they would promote different visions of the meanings and strategies that should political or religious views and may therefore indulge in more than one single such project. to according be divided can nation thecore of representatives the in fact, when, project; nationalizing coherent one of existence the he assumes example, For policies. nationalizing Although theoretically relevant for the topic I am researching, the discussion on the relationship between the between relationship on the discussion the researching, Iam topic the for relevant theoretically Although On local level,nationalizing policies are negotiated and implemented by various 22 36 CEU eTD Collection 42 41 Anthony M. Orum, Zachary P. Neal 40 39 performance of rituals, defined through meanings forthecommunity”.“shared of definedperformance through rituals, the and usage) (practical aspects functional the community), the of life (social element social capable framingof the structure and usage of spacepublic within agiven community: the andindividual conceptions perceptions. subject tocontinuous redefinitions in tolegalrelation limits, political decisions, social members“public to becomes a restricted of space” concept “public”.In the this regard, politically and be culturally can space urban the of use the since significant, also is “public” traditionally in aspublic spaces.defined humandimension of The the concept defining 38 LowSetha (eds.) (New York : Routledge, 2006), 5. for asasite function itcan that mentions Neal P. Zachary space, public uses of multiple the in practice.” necessarily are open alland members accessible to of publicin the ina society, principle not through use and ofindividual types behavior. and collective usually defined in contrast to those of the private space, in terms of access, control, rules of 37 upon stage which dramathe of life unfolds.” communal the “the represents publicthe thatspace Stephen Carrargued hisbook, introduction In of the processes. and economic cultural, political various social, with interacts of nature space the geographers. Sociologists and areparticularly anthropologists interested in public the way the and sociologists anthropologists, architects, planners, of urban interests areaof in the in areinterconnected. thetwo which inemphasizeof public publicurban actors spaceand context the aiming to policies, ways the StephenCarr, Zachary P. Neal, “Locating Public Space” Public “Locating Neal, P. Zachary Zachary P. Neal, “Locating Public Space” Public “Locating Neal, P. Zachary Neil Smith and Setha Low, “The Imperative of Public Space”, 3-4. Stephen Carr, Neil Smith and Setha Low, “The Imperative of Public Space”, in Space”, of Public Imperative “The Low, Setha and Smith Neil In the most simple and conventional definition, public space includes “all areas that The first concept relevant for this discussion, public space, can be thematically placed be thematically space,can public forrelevant this discussion, concept The first Public Space Public Space. , 26-27. (Cambridge University Press, 1992), 3. 40 Outdoor areas such as streets, squares are as streets, andsidewalks areas Outdoor such ( eds.) (New Routledge,York, : 2008), 1. , , 2-4. in Common Ground: Readings and Reflections on Public Space 41 Stephen Carr identifies three cultural factors 23 39 The Politics of Public Space, 38 Moreover, its characteristics are its characteristics Moreover, 42 Neil Smith and Referring to , 37 CEU eTD Collection 1 47 inin while society, 17 the 46 gounderstanding-“to inparticipate out to at meantpublick” institutions newthe of 18 the In everyone. scrutiny of “public”,how its showing meaning inwas identified 15 the property. type of state nounthe contrast, citizens. In community the of to also but and squares, asstreets such public spaces 45 adjective, as an Accordingly, andpublic. private of realms opposite the citizens and of body thecollective state, between relationship the of conceptualization localthe community. The Latin etymology conceptthe of of“public” reveals ambiguous this and bythemembersof also by controlled state, isit shapedand the fact that simultaneously indicators of ownership anddisposition, reflecting mechanismsthe freedom of and control. andpublicvalues. its private 44 43 use. spaceforthe their personal negotiations among the claimsmade by various andgroups individuals appropriate wanting to by restricted visual barriers,whileandphysical, symbolic the freedom of action requires right belonging to every member of the community. However, the freedom of accessone can see and becan seen, or where onebe could express his own identity. where as aplace andperformance, theatre for art, as astage alsobut andresistance, power James Van Horn Melton, Stephen Carr, Stephen Carr, Stephen Carr, 5. Space”, Public “Locating Neal, P. Zachary Richard Sennett follows inthe understanding of Richardproduced chronologically Sennett changes the A problematic issue in the discussion of the concept of public space results from from the of public space results in of concept the issue discussion the A problematic In democratic societies, the use of public space is in asabasic spaceis conceived use the public principle societies, In democratic of publicum Public Space Public Space Public Space made reference to the political domain, being used in order to define to any inorder domain,being political used tothe made reference 47 The Riseof thePublic in Enlightenment Europe , 186. ,22. , 185-186. th 45 century century its understanding was with associated openness tothe Therefore, infunction changes the its as settings usagecan and 44 Most of all, public space is the product of society, reflecting th century, “public” encompassed new spatial newspatial “public” and social encompassed century, 24 th century with the common good common the with century (Cambridge University Press: 2001), 43 publicus would refer to 46 CEU eTD Collection 51 50 1993), 20. 49 Publishing, 2002), 345 48 strangers. sociability,includein mightthat friends anenvironment but and acquaintances,also complete theoretically controlled by controlled state. the theoretically was that space a public of in theshaping society civil the representing actors non-state will use Habermas’s theory in order to observe the relationships established between state and alternative public spaces by the development of new institutions of sociability. In this thesis, I created also it while spaces, public official over state control of the traditional the contested Thenew notion space” wasredefined. public “public the of press.In the this context, public autonomous areas, own its establish to aiming field, inthis authority state’s challenges society, civil as labeled individuals, sociable of community the when meaning asecond acquires notion The the undisputed property. state’s traditional and constitutes the public realm meaning, of the meanings closely relatedmajor two the between dissociates sphere public the of conceptualization Habermas’s with the Latin etymologyto critical of reflection the were the conditions notion for the formation of a true public of opinion. “public”. and improvement, whileattitudes and education produce spreadofinformation the subjected In its primary generate aimedto network acommunication as emerged sphere public the Consequently, the motivationdevelopment of trade capitalism and the spread theof andpress were decisive factors in providing the means bourgeois17 of context publicsphere in the the for the emancipationis provided byJürgen The Habermas. German discussestheemergencephilosopher of the of the public from the state realm. Jürgen Habermas, Jürgen Jürgen Habermas, Jürgen Jürgen Habermas, Jürgen Man”, Public of the Fall “The Sennett, Richard One of the most important theoretical contributions to the study of the public domain public the of study the to contributions theoretical important most the of One 48 The StructuralTransformation of thePublic Sphere, The StructuralTransformation of thePublic Sphere The StructuralTransformation of thePublic Sphere 51 such as salons, various associations and societies, and the realm of The Blackwell City Reader City Blackwell The 25 th and 18 , 66. , (Cambridge (Mass.) : MIT Press, 30. th centuries, showing how the how showing centuries, (Malden, MA : Blackwell 50 49 CEU eTD Collection 54 53 52 19 decision. final in tohave certain actors adecisive role centers the andhierarchies, enabling of create power legal inwhich legal framework takes Theseplace. decision-makingthe process dispositions consideration. into betaken havefactors to variety subjective largeof havesince a had, influence onecould the weight to and position every of importance the appreciate to difficult is it historian for the However, actors. between various established relationships power observe the urban elites are influence. Asthe two authors argue, themainto methodological in steps study the rulingof establish their and followthat manage interests similar place to their in of representatives positions character, facilitated isto betweengroups by constitution coalitions often of decision-makingthe process identify the members of each group and to volumethe study of Intheintroductory investors. and private societies, and organizations various state, the municipality, local such as the actors, of series challenged by newcomers that acquired wealth and position in a short period of of period intime. wealth ashort and position by newcomersacquired that challenged is elites” “traditional of role the Sometimes, education. and wealth through themselves not always identical with the social, cultural and economic urban elites that differentiate andelite groups.” cultural political social, various economic, between “interplay an of result arethe inacity changes main the that argue authors two the level, municipal on process decision-making entire in the shaping of urban policies. Rejecting the assumption that a monolithic group controls the between elites therelationship andand the distribution power of Robert Beachy discuss urban Who Ran the Cities?, Who Ran the Cities?, Who Ran the Cities?, th century social, along elites.couldpolitical Distinctions century confessional and betraced urban As Ralf Roth shows in the German case, fragmentation was the main characteristic of As mentioned above, configuration the of urban the public spaceis determined by a 54 Still, urban regulations adopted at both national and local level constitute the constitute level local and national both at adopted regulations urban Still, Ralf Roth and Robert Beachy (eds.),xviii-xx. Ralf Roth and Robert Beachy (eds.), xvii. Ralf Roth and Robert Beachy (eds.) (Ashgate, 2007), xxiv. 52 The political elites represented in themunicipal government are 26 Who Ran theCities? Ralf Roth Ralf 53 The CEU eTD Collection Center Press 2003), 165-91. the Constitution of Civic Identities, 58 57 56 55 associations cannotbeindependent andfoundations neglected. andlines, reformed Also, between elite groups traditional of role the political bodies. and the connections established between them. between established and connections the ininfluencing influence the they shaping of publicspacedependson the degreeof the acquire actors these of capacity the Moreover, itspower. political of a statement ultimately represents planned Jan Hus memorial. monuments aimed defineto the identity of the city and the nation, the Marian Column and the two of significance the over fought was space” public battle for “the case of Prague, the In nation. the of interests the represent to claimed each that groups of number a among themselves. Sharing different political, religious and aestheticviews, the Czechs were divided between notmight butamongof Czechs expect, asonedispute and Germans, Czechs separately from state the is civil the society constituted organizations. non-state through through the activity isimplemented project nationalizing the where settings of specific one the represent streets”) of a variety can in Rogersactors publicbe (“the Brubaker period. interwar observed arguesthat the spaces of players, such as state agencies and officials, but also square of Prague at the beginning of 20 of beginning the atthe Prague square of among the representatives of the same nation. Cynthia Paces shows in her work on the central various degrees. actors to be bydifferent embraced can project nationalizing the Moreover, divergent. are major actors of two these purposes the Cynthia Paces, “The Battle for Public Space on Prague’s Old Town Square”, in Jürgen Habermas, Jürgen Rogers Brubaker, Who Ran the Cities?, The existence of a nationalizing project does not exclude the appearance of notdoes of exclude conflicts project appearance nationalizing the The existenceof a Nationalism reframed, The StructuralTransformation of thePublic Sphere, Ralf Roth Robert and Beachy (eds.), xxvii. 58 John J. Czaplicka, Blair A. Ruble, Lauren Crabtree (eds.) (Woodrow Wilson In this regard, the presence of one group in space presencethe In one group public the of regard, this 56 Therefore, despite Habermas’s assertion that the realm of realm thatthe assertion despite Habermas’s Therefore, 84. th century that this public space became an object 27 57 , this does not necessarily imply that imply necessarily not does , this 19. 55 A similar division between division Asimilar Composing Urban History and CEU eTD Collection (Hanover, NH : University Press of New England, 1994), xvi 62 61 60 signs that embodies a number of cultural values specific to a given historical context. of asasystem is interpreted of art work the expression, an aesthetic than Rather mimesis. as art of perception classical the challenges art, of work of the interpretation semiotic 59 means visualizingillustrating,for or instance byusing examples.” public buildings AsAllanand monuments. mentions,Ellenius “the Latin word a incorporate specific isoften theirstyle architectural to designed message. in order tofulfill aHowever, constructed function. since publicedificesareprimarily practical different, is slightly monuments architectural of case The message. symbolic a embodying of objects art arerather others while fountains), such as utility of objects public function (e.g. have apractical can monuments Some symbols. religious national or commanders, military meaning, monuments While a of public spaces, suchas symbolical certain squares centers. embodying city the function also as elements Symbols National as intheStudyofMonuments ofInterpretation 1.3 Frameworks of urban design, representing rulers and persuatio, visual or conceptual image. Its significance can be closely associated a with of the principlemeaning of symbolical or metaphorical the to specifically refers “representation” word Ellenius calls “ calls Ellenius Allan that environment in asymbolic staged power, political of display visual in the embodied metaphors of study the to applied specifically are images rhetorical the cases, In many Norman Bryson, Ann Holy, Keith Moxey, Allan Ellenius (ed.) Allan Ellenius (ed.) Allan Ellenius (ed.) The concept of representation is essential is essential forThe conceptof an of meaningrepresentation the understanding of major in located usually being landmarks, urban important constitute Monuments leading to the interpretation of images as forms of legitimation. and images asforms propaganda of the interpretation leadingof to the ceremonial space. the ceremonial Iconography, propaganda, and legitimation Iconography, propaganda, and legitimation, 3. Iconography, propaganda, and legitimation ” 61 The notion of representation,presupposes a which Visual Culture. Images and Interpretation 28 ,3. ( Oxford :ClarendonPress, 1998), 2. 59 InEnglish usage,the representatio 62 60 CEU eTD Collection representative buildings can be interpreted differently class,ethnicity, to one’s or according interpreted be can buildings representative 68 67 division. of or issueunity urban the designconcerns to connected aspect important anequally Therefore, and monument to the its perception. public attributed elites. of initiative buildings, are significant symbols of a shared past and a common future, being designed at the them. objectifies can incorporates it messagehardly be the ignored. Therefore, visiblythat the producing alters majorenvironment, a in landscape. change the urban interact with the building. the with interact in life that everyday people ordinary of and perception the architect the vision between of the from results isa negotiation main thattheworks meaning of author’s argument architectural intendedcreator(s) convey to it through a simple and singularstraightforward meaning. The itsmeanings through iconography, allowing a thus variety of interpretations, evenif its expressmetaphorical or elements, its structural through functions practical to make reference 66 65 64 63 reference.” “mediated “denotation”,“expression” and canbe“exemplification,” architecture interpreted: read and symbolizes in some way.” the author states that “a andplace, physical infunction. practical relative environment Moreover, permanence a stable building is a work of art afixed on location scale, large characteristics: of aseries through art of works onlyother from insofar as it signifies, means, refers, NelsonGoodman, “How Buildings Mean”, 5. Nelson Goodman, “How Buildings Mean”, 3. NelsonGoodman, “How Buildings Mean, 650. NelsonGoodman, “How Buildings Mean“, 644. Murray Edelman, “Space and the Social Order,” Social the and “Space Edelman, Murray Mean”, “How Buildings Goodman, Nelson As Murray As Murray Edelman the space simplyargues, not does convey meanings, but According to Nelson Goodman, representative public buildings can be distinguished 66 Representative architectural works, such as governmental religious such or governmental as works, Representative architectural 67 In many cases, there is a difference between the initial meanings initial the between difference is a there cases, Inmany 64 A building can contain pictorial representations and symbols; it can it symbols; and representations pictorial contain can building A 65 63 According to all these considerations, a building is an element Therefore, Goodman identifies four headings whichthrough Critical Inquiry JAE 29 32 No. 2 (Nov. 1978): 2 11 No.4 (Jun. 1985):642-643. 68 Monuments and Monuments CEU eTD Collection which seek to inculcate certain certain inculcate byrepetition, ofbehavior andnorms which values which seek to normally governed by overtly or tacitly accepted rules and of a of and rules accepted tacitly or overtly by governed normally traditions canbedefined Hobsbawm,invented “aof Accordingtradition”. to as set practices of “invention the of concept the introducing by barriers temporal across associations people.” the of consciousness in the symbols and myths national the “anchor to aimed landmarks permanent as constructed were mortar” and in stone monuments “national centuries, 70 69 larger Mosse,According nation-building projects. George to during 19 the simplypast notonlyinglorify legitimize to ruler, orto ruleof order or current the butaspart values of the the to reference ceremonies madefrequent of andtheperformance monuments shape theirmeaning, andless on by their reception local the community. andinfluence their design able actors to the between negotiations taking place and on the idea national the of embodiments as conceived were monuments which in way the on more relies interest my thesis, in this Anyway, ways. in different monument the perceive etc. status members of the urban community,according totheir ethnicity, political views, religion, social the hand, other the on options; several among design particular one choose to entitled are andthat process decision-making are of the part that theactors between of debate matter highlyisbeing complex, at negotiated various levels. On meaning one hand, a the constitutes alienating while certain groups, reinforcing others’ the experience of power. design can its specific everyone,is open to space public generateAlthough the background.theoretically cultural cohesion or disunity among the members of the urban community, George Mosse, George 6. Mean” “How Buildings Goodman, Nelson The English historian Eric Hobsbawm demystified these symbolic, yet artificial yet symbolic, these demystified Hobsbawm Eric historian English The In the modern period, the display of political power through constructionthe In themodern through display of power the period, political of monumentby certain toa groups question of meaningattributed the the Furthermore, 70 The Nationalization of the Masses, 8. 30 ritual orsymbolic nature 69 th and 20 th , CEU eTD Collection 73 72 Cambridge University Press, 1992), 1. rather than traditions. than rather identities of visions collective be perceived as should styles national of architectural products historical identity Although of nation.the of“invented”, preserving the these attribute the embody would that buildings creating architecture, vernacular or medieval of elements inintegrating efficient wereespecially national styles In this regard, visual discourse. morphological or decorative traditional buildingof reinterpret stylea can example, architectural the For traditions. elements, thus connecting with whilebeingassociated collectiveceremonies identity, conceivedas and invented rituals the present and the visions as of be can of a forged visual prevailing monuments expressions interpreted past in symbolic traditions, properly than Rather relevant. partially isonly terminology Hobsbawm’s for this study, feeling of astronger belonging. However, common because they can create charge, symbolical and emotional an have that elements those are tradition of creation 71 specificvalueimpose system or conventions of behavior. community,imagined real/ a those of cohesion social the symbolize to legitimizingattempting those overlapping: authorityflexible sometimes and arequite categories mentioning these that traditions”, “invented or a certainof types main three status,identifies Hobsbawm analysis, his In present. the of and requirements the those aiming to promote“largely factitious” a periods not continuity is two because the between the only problematic, becomes present and past between relationship the circumstances, In these actions. present’s legitimating for needed elements which past, those of offer the can period aspecific reference to as adirect past.” the with continuity implies automatically Eric Hobsbawm and Terrence Ranger (eds.), 9. (eds.), Ranger Terrence and Hobsbawm Eric Eric Hobsbawm and Terrence Ranger (eds.), Ranger Terrence and Hobsbawm Eric Eric Hobsbawm and Terrence Ranger (eds.), 72 , butis to due tothefact the, that also reshapedhistorical according past The Invention Traditionof The Invention Traditionof 31 71 Moreover, the new tradition is established newtradition the Moreover, , 2. (Cambridge [Cambridgeshire] : 73 Of major importance in the importance major Of CEU eTD Collection University Press, 1997), 40. 75 Verso, 1991), 6. represent.” they dioceses and thecities of memories of centuries up gathering past, the of “repositories Memory, of Realms elements shaping the identity of cities. In European a study included inone volumesthe of of 20 the before art theRomanian of landscape visible architectural very inthe Althoughin not Europe. architecture on cathedral literature Cluj. In my search of theoretical and methodological approaches, I have looked for the exiting in central the ininterwar belocated created square whichanewly to weredesigned statue, were negotiated by content actors. various works notof as art endsbutas inthemselves, processes duringtheirform whichboth and 74 monuments, religious were France] northern [in “cathedrals that who argued Violet-le-Duc, providedfamous by French the the and of architect pioneer movementEugene restoration mannerininis whichcathedrals wereperceived also Romanian the context definition the through the alliance of monarchy and religion. In my opinion, of major importance for the community.” political “imagined of an space representative a wouldfunction as that overasquare identification national impose asense of aimed to visual various andand rhetoric, discursive groupsof national state non-state, localand actors cultural policies ofnationalization of publicAlso, space. I suggest that through typethis of visual monuments andlanguage of associated with publicceremonies of partthe them as the though expressed as identity national about discourses at looking am I specifically, More in constructed andpublic monuments space. a particular with time identities areassociated Andre Vauchez, “The Cathedral”, in Cathedral”, “The Vauchez, Andre Benedict Anderson, My subject matter focuses on two specific urban constructions: a cathedral a acathedral specificand focuses matter urban constructions: on two My subject of collective inventedvisions inin interested which theway am I In this thesis, 75 The cathedral was always a strategic place associated with power, being built Imagined Communities : reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism André Vauchez describes the medieval cathedrals of France as medievalof cathedrals the describes André Vauchez Realms of memory, 32 Pierre Nora (ed.) vol. II, (New-York: Columbia th century, cathedrals represent important represent cathedrals century, 74 Furthermore, I perceive these ( London : CEU eTD Collection 78 Press, 1994), 292-334 constituted the Romanian tradition, they generally considered that the essence of essence the that considered generally they Romanian tradition, the constituted what on view homogeneous a sharing not Although civilization. material the over culture and Orthodoxy” and By contrast,traditionalists defined as Romanianness a “fusion Romanian the of rural world basisRomania. the in modern of constitute should creation intellectuals the bourgeoisie and Therefore, Lovinescu similar believedlevel thatRomanian West. as developmentof the Western institutions and values, Romanian culture and civilization could hope to reach a meaningpattern of development, and industrialization By adopting urbanization. consciously and it partof Europe followagrarian shouldcountry, Romania was Western therefore the synchronism summarized themain of argument firstthe group: although a predominantly 77 76 beingperiod, by defined Keith as“theHitchins grand debate”. in interwar the intellectuals Romanian among polemics of intense topic the became character national the of definition very The symbols. nationalizing into cathedrals Transylvanian these edifices as sites of memory, embodying the continuity with a historical past. presented discourse official the accidentally, Not times. medieval to references clear made in “invented” and be that Therefore, Orthodox Orthodox. a style constructed cathedrals hadto inis nor period, interwar preservedtothe this MiddleAges, the territory wasneither on existed mighthave architecture sacral medieval aswhatever constructed, be first to needed cathedrals Orthodox unity”, national of “symbols and edifices” “national such becoming achieve unity.” to attempt powerful most and first the and nationality, French of symbol the edifices, national also were they but Keith Hitchins, For a more elaborate discussionof the topic, see KeithHitchins, 58. , Cathedral” “The Vauchez, Andre in Quoted The specific association between Orthodoxy and Romanianness interwar transformed betweenand Orthodoxy Romanianness The association specific before context, Transylvanian specifically more and Romanian in the Ironically, Rumania 1866-1947, 78 . Inspired by German romanticism, they believed in the superiority of superiority the in believed they romanticism, German by Inspired . 299. 76 33 Rumania 1866-1947 77 Eugen Lovinescu’s theory Eugen Lovinescu’s theory of ( Oxford :Clarendon CEU eTD Collection 81 1998), 80 [2004]), 211. was in 19 developed Michalski traditionalthe states, of type representinghistorical monumentpublic personalities memory and the national past. about embody to a discourse meant were in Transylvania cathedrals Orthodox Therefore, symbolizing Romanianness, embodied the of becausethey buildingsessence preferred overother precisely also the survival of the nation in an environment that was often hostile. 79 culture. Romanianness. of monuments and places religious in time same the were period interwarin the constructed itself regenerate rediscovery the though itsof matrix. spirituality authentic and cultural Romania wasTherefore, Church. destined Orthodox Eastern the with connected intimately was Romanianness to follow a different path of development and, first of all, it had to bourgeois political culture. bourgeois political by being appropriated the spaces andcourts, gradually such ascastles aristocratic private monarchical escape confinement andto this to tended genre sculptural victory of Lepanto, in inhonor of inMessina of Austriaisthe erected Don Juan of space, thatthestatue 1572 symbolic figures in the city’s past. Moreover, monuments played an important role in the in role important an played monuments Moreover, past. city’s in the figures symbolic around identity common acertain of existence the and patriotism local time same in the suggesting personages and important tocommemorate public events, constructed monuments Sergiusz Sergiusz CarmenPopescu, 7-8. The second notion I am concerned with is the public monument. AsSergiusz publicmonument. is notion with the The Iam concerned second As Carmen Popescu states, in the context of Transylvanian cities, Orthodox cathedrals Orthodox cities, Transylvanian of in context the states, Popescu As Carmen 80 Since the appearance of the first figural monument designed especially monumentfigural fordesigned especially apublic Since of firstthe theappearance Michalski, Michalski, 79 Inorder to visibly mark conquering the of Transylvania, cathedrals were Le style national roumain Public Monuments, Public monuments, th century Western art as one of the characteristic forms of urban of forms of characteristic the as one art Western century 81 During 19 the : 8. Art inPolitical Bondage, 1870-1997 (Rennes : Presses universitaires de Rennes ; [Bucarest] : Simetria, : [Bucarest] ; Rennes de universitaires Presses : (Rennes 34 th century, urban increasingly urban century, communities (London :Reaktion Books, CEU eTD Collection 84 83 82 level. local on implemented as project nationalizing the of efficiency the appreciate to and Cluj on perception elites’ Romanian of the coordinates the totrace aim Iwill publications, of andtypes other books newspapers, monuments.of By analyzing of as the discourse inevery reflectedgroup speeches, version on definitionthe Romanianness of itsand visual expression constructionthe through interests variousof supported their representingthat groups own negotiations between actors of interwarin center the anewsquare of creating the efforts will perceive I perspective. interdisciplinary Cluj not my asmethodological approach will andcombine discourse visual from analysis an an end in itself, but is importance person’s (variously) constructed.” as a process culturally death theway but to andestablished relations through a specific through dead that presupposedseen through their cultural dimension, and therefore where a theseries monument would place specific tothe areclearly related statue iconography a of the through by group a certain beof located. More significantly, advanced claims the since beings”, human “the bronze of interpretation in Verdery’s concept the political transformations marking space,whileincorporating the values. asetof cultural are by visibly landscape stability the ensure the of Therefore, they are aimed to political order. Dead Bodies of book, her In Verdery. Katherine anthropologist American the by provided formed one of the most essential aspects of the self-representation of the nation.” nation- and state-building processes. According to George Mosse, “national monuments Katherine Verdery, Katherine Katherine Verdery, Katherine George Mosse, George Taking into account the concepts discussed above and the connections between them, between connections the and above discussed concepts the account into Taking is monuments public as statues of meaning the of analyses relevant most the of One The Nationalization of the Masses , Verdery argues that statues are connected to a specific environment anda a specific statues areconnected environment to Verdery , argues that The Political Lives of Dead Bodies, The Political Lives of Dead Bodies (Ithaca : Cornell University 1991),Press, 46. 35 84 27-28. (New York :Columbia University Press,1999), 6. “ a dead body is meaningful not in itself, not meaningful is body a dead 83 The space becomes a key The Political Lives 82 CEU eTD Collection 89 88 87 86 85 signed. was treaty peace final the until administration current the of maintenance the stipulated treaty 1918 24, December city on entered the Romanian troops participation, large popular a registered population Cluj Respondingof organized several toone suchmanifestation protests. that PERIOD THEINTERWAR OFCLUJDURING 2 –THECITY CHAPTER refusing to recognize the authority of Directing authority Council.the the refusing torecognize government, Hungarian the to loyalty declared they in which document a signed servants administration. Romanian the of heads new the name to entitled was Sibiu in Council Directing infrastructure. administration inleadership local assumed the the Romanians weeks before passed was occupied by a body of Romanian soldiers, whose captain asked the heads of the theheadsof whosecaptain asked by soldiers, Romanian a body of was occupied Octavian Buzea, Gheorghe Iancu, Gheorghe Administra Administra Administra 85 , in a symbolical gesture of , ina of intopossession takingsymbolical gesture conqueredterritory.the Several 88 Following dismemberment the Austro-Hungary of endat the of war,theHungarianthe OnJanuary 19, 1919Mayor GustavHaller andcivil one hundredthirty-eight Ġ Ġ Ġ ia româneasc ia româneasc ia româneasc 86 87 As a regional executive body representing the government in Bucharest, the in Bucharest, government the representing body executive regional Asa Clujul The Ruling Council. However, the city government refused to resign, arguing that the armistice the that resign, arguing to refused government city the However, (Cluj) (Cluj: Ardealul,1939), 63. ă ă ă în jude în jude în jude Ġ Ġ Ġ ul. Cluj ul. Cluj ul. Cluj (Cluj-Napoca: The Romanian Cultural Foundation, 1995), 102-103. ,33. 33. (Romanian administration District).(Cluj, in Cluj 1937), 32. 36 89 Consequently, the City Hall CEU eTD Collection ethnic or national connotation. However, as a simple convention, in this paper Iwill refer to it as Cluj, without associating this name with any 91 Administration inCluj-Napoca). (Cluj-Napoca:Redac 90 Development inKolozsvár/Clujbetween 1867 and1918 andUrban LocalAdministration Legacy: 2.1. TheAustro-Hungarian in existing cityscape. the intervention an representnot aggressive public space did the nationalization of the few exceptions, with context, political new the representing markers spatial of series a imposed administration and bynationalist future intellectuals. Romanian Finally, Romanian Iarguethat although presence in the city, emphasizing the creation of a specificnarrative on the city’s past, present a politicalispublic Romanianthe agenda.Asubchapter spacesrespondingto to dedicated representative of creation and nationalism modernization, between relationship the on also specifically,focus local I on administration, urbanization and architectural but development, attempt of establishing lines of continuity and discontinuity in thehistory of city.the More during thefollowing Idiscuss both chapters. Austro-Hungarianthe and interwar period inthe period,in order tocreate aframework for the discussion of the twocase studies I will analyze interwaris sketch theCluj during profilethe of to chapter this of The purpose political order. adaptation, during whichthe city itsand had inhabitants tocome in withterms new the followedWhat wasa of and institutions. local period the forced occupation of administrative as mayor. newthe Iulian Pop which elected council, city new a named prefect the on, Later offices. their quit to administration Hungarian the 12 the As a multi-ethnic city, Cluj was known in different periods according to one or more of these names. Dan Bruda th The city of Cluj/Klausenburg/ Kolozsvár/ Claudiopolis intervention military Romanian protests, local with began Cluj interwar of history The century on the place of the ancient Roman municipium Napoca, on the right bank of bank right the on Napoca, municipium Roman ancient the of place the on century ú cu (ed.), 80 de ani de administra Ġ ie româneasc 90 Ġ ia publica 37 ă la Cluj-Napoca Ġ iilor Primiilor ă riei Cluj-Napoca,riei 1999), 19-20. 91 , Vol. 1.(80 years of Romanian years 1.(80 Vol. , was founded at the end of CEU eTD Collection quarter of the 19 of the quarter 96 97 space. public representative 95 Military the was material this from Headquarters . constructed buildings major the of One persons. private or entrepreneurs The material resulted from Tower. the demolitions Tailors’ the with wastogether either used preserved, were by city of the municipality expansion the or for sold to variousinconveniences corporations,major create not demolition of the medieval city walls was nevercompletely achieved. Those parts of the fortifications that did 94 square. main city’s the in families Jósika and Bánffy by the constructed were palaces three squares:connecting north-south, oriented center the elongated an around developed onecity the of pattern of the old town comprising 15 the 93 Press, 2004), 37. walls. city medieval of demolition the initiated government local the works such works bridgesas theconstruction androads, of also railways,but of supporting 1876, alocal Administrative was Committee founded with purpose the of supervising public In in Budapest. and government the local administration between the of city the was divided axis. west east- the this alignment of squares with two parallel18 streets crossing the perimeter of the inner city on 92 city. century, many members when of Transylvanian nobility the Hungarian tothe transferred 18 the during appearance its city the transformed andfortifications, guilds stone houses, importance in the city. A rather typical Central European medieval city, with Gothic churches, 13 the hereduring settled Some Originally called “Nagy Piac” (The Great Market Place), due to its usage as a space for commerce. In the last In the commerce. for aspace as usage its to due Place), Market Great (The Piac” “Nagy called Originally M. Agachi, Better-known “ovár as “during 19 the M. Agachi, Mircea Toca, Mihaela Agachi, th century Jesuit Church. Jesuit century 93 ú River. Its urban character was shaped by the German artisans and merchants who merchants and artisans German the by shaped was character urban Its River. The first signs of modernization of the urban landscape became visible in 1791, when in 1791, visible became landscape urban the of modernization of signs first The During the second half of the 19 Clujul modern Clujul modern th Clujul baroc century, its name became Fö tér (The Main Square) after this area was systematized as a as systematized was area this after Square) Main (The Fötér became name its century, Clujulmodern. Aspecte urbanistice. th century century Gothic church Michael and asmallersquareinfront of the , 99. , 48.Although theworks advanced gradually,lasting more than acentury,the (Baroque Cluj) (Cluj-Napoca:, 1983), 78-83 th 97 century, The city center was basically constituted from the intersection of intersection the from constituted basically was center city The th century. 92 but gradually the Hungarian community gradually butHungarian alsocommunity gained the 95 th near the Dominican Monastery, the main square main the Monastery, Dominican the near century, the task of modernization task the coordinating the century, 38 (Moderm Cluj. Urbanism Aspects) (Cluj-Napoca: UT Two of the most impressive most the of Two 94 The19 th century street century 96 th CEU eTD Collection 106 105 104 103 102 101 100 99 Factory. Workshops theRailway and Matches the 1,000), by employed(over Factory Tobacco the 98 agriculture. to attached was traditionally influencethe who nobility,the of during Some explaineddue to thiswas thisvoices period. semi-periphery and the periphery, whose limits were always undefined and shifting. walls, the fortification former bythe areaenclosed the to corresponding city theinner zones: local in municipality 1882, 1899,1911and1916,all dividingin city 1879, of them the three and industrial development education. and matches. candles,engines shoes, gas,paper,alcoholic beverages, soap, bricks,were producing beer, local factories of turn Atthe century, the industries. materials of construction development engines. steam modern new in factories Cluj last the decadeof during the 19 issuedby in governmentthe in Budapest 1890facilitated the1881 and foundation of thirteen (Nagyvárad) Budapest. and was constructionthe of raillinethe between1868and 1870,connecting Cluj, scientific andartistic University. life the around developed become a city with multiple functions; its administrative role would be completed by the M. Agachi, M. Agachi, Stefan Pascu, Stefan , Gh. Vais, Stefan Pascu, Stefan Stefan Pascu, Stefan M. Agachi, Vatasescu, Ioan Stefan Pascu, Stefan Unlike Timisoara, Arad and Brasov, Cluj was not to become a major industrial city industrial major a become to not was Cluj Brasov, and Arad Timisoara, Unlike One of the most important measures aiming to encourage the modernization of the city 106 Clujul eclectic Clujul modern Clujul modern Clujul modern 104 Istoria Clujului, Istoria Clujului, Istoria Clujului, Istoria Clujului In 1910, the proletariat counted workers. counted over proletariat7,000 In1910,the Calauza studentului la Cluj. , 24-29. , 58-59. , 55. , 127. 103 The intensive activity building in the the city encouraged 102 ,292-296. 309. 288. 287. Furthermore, several laws encouraging industrial development 98 (Students’ Guide Cluj)in 100 Several urbanization plans were elaborated by the Other opinions emphasized that Cluj was meant to 39 th century and their endowment with 101 (Cluj: Ardealul, 1928),16. 105 Most of them were 99 CEU eTD Collection 110 educational, commercial and cultural educational,institutionsand cultural werebuilt commercial 1880andbetween 1915:the administrative, innovation. Numerous for left few place that vocabulary artistic a conservative prescribed authorities version, Hungarian its under even Secessionism, impose to attempt any forms by architectural historicism andan language. Allergicdominated decorative to eclectic includedmonumentality, of the list requirements Therefore, prestige the state. of the Hungarian Thenewgovernment. publicbuildings weredesigned embody to authority the and intervention.founding, Initiative, and all professionals, were generously by provided the Budapest’s of result was the of century the turn at the landscape city’s the of transformation buildingsponsored modernize aiming campaign to the city. by demonstrated Gheorghe Vais, these architectural changes largelywere a statedue to recently was itAs city. modern an essentially into town medieval predominantly servants. Romania, theimmigrated inhabitants) city’s the 7,800 to countries, population other as (about such United Statesimmigrationinfluenced also thedemographical of dynamics city.Aroundthe 1900,16%of or Germany.in 37%of factories,the constituted population. However, group that overall the asocial 1890 The majoritymigration that city to the large insured of masses forof force necessary the working peasants of of surrounding Industry confirmedCommerceareas. Thereports of and Chamber the rural them were daily workers and 109 108 149. approximately inhabitants. 60,000 107 20 the of beginning the until tripled almost by demographic dynamics. If in 1857Cluj had apopulation of almost 23,000 Gh. Vais, Stefan Pascu, Stefan Recensamantul din 1880, Transilvania. ( Recensamantul din 1857, Transilvania During the dualist Cluj period, itsradically changed appearance, transforming from a The economic developmentin the last two decades of the 19 109 Clujul eclectic Istoria Clujului, , 5. 307. 108 (The (The Census in 1857. Transylvania) The CensusThe in 1857. Transylvania) (Bucuresti:Staff, 1999), 248. Population growth was due especially to migration from th century. In 1910, the official official registered census century.In 1910, the 40 110 In other words, the radical the words, other In . (Bucuresti: Staff, 1997),148- th century is reflected well century 107 , the number , the CEU eTD Collection rail line, determined the urbanization rail urbanization of line, determined the this area. city. axis,incorporatingin 1895the Romanian village M 118 117 hill. Citadel the on while extended other the Theatre, just the behind wassituated one city center: the semi-rural eastern areas. eastern semi-rural and industrial the with contrasted part western the of high-standards the unequally: developed center the surrounding areas the periphery, the for plan systematization a of absence the in Kós projected aCalvinist in Church 1912. 116 Károly for Doctor villaLechner Lechner designed hisuncle, 1900, Odon a of structure city.the on In architectural the impact stylehada national Hungarian reduced of the urban landmarks representatives inCluj.important The becameoneof most Theatre the 115 114 112 111 Fellner & Helmer. itwas commissioned factthat to the due The of caused aseries inClujandBudapest, project Hungarian debates Theatre. National Hotel. New-York the and College Unitarian asthe such of projects, with a series entrusted was also Palace of Justice, the ChamberPalace ofof CommerceCluj County, and Industrythe Franz etc. Local University, architect thePákei University Lajos Clinics and Library, the Cluj”, in Cluj”, company. Viennese the of 113 projects major other with perspective comparative in presented is inCluj Theatre ù M. Agachi, M. Agachi, M. Agachi, Gh. Vais, Vais, by Gh. ismade Theatre Hungarian the of analysis detailed and Apertinent Gh. Vais, Gyorgy Szekely Sebestyen, “Limbajul architectural al lui Odon Lechner. Exemplificare: villa Lechner din Lechner villa Exemplificare: Lechner. Odon allui architectural “Limbajul Sebestyen, Szekely Gyorgy tefan Pascu, tefan 117 111 In addition, the concentration of industries in the northern part of the city, along the along city, the of part northern the in industries of concentration the addition, In The resulting building structure appearedas a mix buildingstructure medievalThe resultingof modern. However, and Logia Of major importance for the cultural profile of the city was the construction of the Clujul eclectic Clujul eclectic 116 Clujul modern Clujul modern, (3), 2000: 48-52 Clujul modern Istoria Clujului, During the second half of halfof During 19 the the second 112 However, its construction However, was achieved between 1902 and1906 the , 81. , 87-118. 115 136. 55. 167-170. Also, two poor districts developed chaotically in the proximity of 290. by the prestigious, yet non-Hungarian company prestigious, Viennese the 114 41 th 118 century, the city expanded on the east-west ăQăú tur, situated in situated tur, western the part of the Clujul eclectic 113 , while Károly while , , 287-340., The CEU eTD Collection 125 systematizationwastheir indispensable. Therefore, center. city the into integrated structurally were they demolished, were walls the After forbidden. 124 123 122 121 120 119 political areaembodying into space arepresentative from a commercial square central near banksof the Some itbecause ofaccidents produced. numerous the 1902 until only functioned it however, center; city the to Station Railway the connecting represented themain means of public In1893,municipality transportation. a introduced tram Plant following was followed the year. by aqueduct andtheWater the inintroduced 1827, lightening electricitystreetsewage andpublic was water, system, The transportation. running known at the middle of the 19 place as the main of city.market the waspreserved Széchenyi only the of turn Square while the century, the at campaign building Hunyadi, theLondon Squareswereradically intensive during transformed and Bocskai functions. of economic spaces,deprived public into representative transformed be tendedto markets hay and wood cattle, bythe areasoccupied the Moreover, places. these for regulations issuedsanitation periodically who administration, local the of preoccupation a swimming pool for soldiers, and apavilion especially for music designed performances. by municipality incomprised 1838.It not only for spaces arena,but promenades, asport also M. Agachi, was activity building the where spaces in gates, medieval the of vicinity the in developed markets These M. Agachi, ù ù ù M. Agachi, tefan Pascu, tefan Pascu, tefan Pascu, tefan Another importantAnotherurban landmark parkconstructed wasthe city on a swamp field The modernization of the city meant also providing modern facilities, such as a The main target of the public space nationalizing policies was the main city square, wasthemaincity policies of spacenationalizing public The maintarget the amajor The markets innercity in situated proximity the of constituted the Clujul modern Clujul modern, Clujul modern Istoria Clujului Istoria Clujului Istoria Clujului 119 electricity in 1906 ú River. Initiated by Women’s Association, the project was takenover project by Association, the Women’s River.Initiated , 101. , 48. 122-126. 313. 311. , 313. th century simply as “Nagy Piac”. “Nagy as simply century 120 , while the sewage system was built in 1887 and 42 122 125 However, transforming the transforming However, 121 In this period, cabs Inthis period, 124 Thenew 123 CEU eTD Collection 129 128 127 Romanian and Hungarian both gathered movement Memorandum the Joseph, Franz Emperor Romanian nation, by signed of and addressed to leaders Romanian the the Party National with Memorandum the trial. Originally a petition demanding equalrecognition for the inconnection especially end century, the the towards of arouse conflicts nationalist However, and Greek-Catholic. Orthodox Romanian-speakingRomanian benefitedof community two the onlythesupport Churches, smaller much comparatively the that mentioning while sphere, public Hungarian a strong of emergence the emphasized He state. Hungarian the by implemented policies nationalizing the celebration. anational of proportions the took unveiling of festivities designed was In by János of in statuary placed The Fadrusz group 1902, the church. the front competition for representing amonument Hungarian KingMatthias the Corvinus. Cluj-born Michael’s Saint announcedasculpture authorities were demolished. Central Church 126 institutions. local control for the face not struggles century space or anyinterethnic public of Cluj did European cities in Habsburgthe Monarchy,such Prague,PressburgorLemberg,as 19 unlike Central that other Brubaker stated Significantly,environment. Hungarian-speakingthe encouraged government integration the residing movingof Romanians toor in city the into the15 Millennium the surrounded shopsandhousesthat celebrations. small The important mainthe in Transylvaniancity behad in most square redesigned to contextthe of function. commercial traditional its preserve should square thatthe claiming interference, resist governmental tried to space the of owner legal the as Church Catholic the and municipality the Both problematic. was connotations Rogers Brubaker (ed.), Rogers Brubaker (ed.), Rogers Brubaker (ed.), M. Agachi, Rogers Brubaker discussed this period in Brubakerdiscussed Rogers this period history the of city from the of perspective the 129 Clujul modern, Clujul In other words, the Hungarian hegemony over the city hegemony theHungarian city the was undisputed. words, Inother over National Politics and Everyday Ethnicity in a Transylvanian Town National Politics and Everyday Ethnicity in a Transylvanian Town National Politics and Everyday Ethnicity in a Transylvanian Town 114-116 128 Inaddition, by assimilation policies promoted Budapest 126 43 In the opinion the government in Budapest, 127 , 96. , , 95. , 91. th century th CEU eTD Collection 131 130 military mobilization general the when But Council. theDirecting of authority the recognizing written declaration was ordered forsign a to infrastructure the administrative inlocal their positions preserve to interested those intervention in Hungaryof allegiance to the , the new prefect accepted a compromise solution, asking pledge oath an refusedto servants civil Hungarian-speaking the while lackof the personnel, with confronted was Municipality Since Cluj. in administration Romanian the of beginnings Period Interwar the during Transformations andUrban Administration 2.2. Romanian Hungary on Transylvanianthe border. Austro- Hungarian elites, World First amplified duringRomania War,after attacked the and Romanian the between tensions further engendered This celebrations. Millennium in nationalism the with Hungarian relation reinforcedthe of asaconsequence intensified mutual Thisatmosphereseveral culminating of distrust imprisonment participants. of with the placenationalist The stagedagainst in trial enthusiasts. in took the petitioners 1894, Cluj Interwar years were generally characterized by political instability, following the changes of changes the following instability, by political years characterized generally were Interwar context. speak education, withnot languageof the did wereunfamiliar local majority, and the the lacked Romanian servants public arguedthat claims,Among other protesters commissions. Allies’ of the representatives the to weresend petitions while city, organized inthe declared that they cannot betray their country and resigned again. Numerous protests were Administratia romaneasc Administratia romaneasc Tensions as the ones presented at the beginning of this chapter were inherentto the were of beginningthis chapter atthe presented ones as Tensions the Despite this tensioned atmosphere, the Romanian administration remained in place. in remained Romanian administration the atmosphere, this Despite tensioned 131 ă ă în jude în jude Ġ Ġ ul. Cluj ul. Cluj , 36. , 38. 44 130 , Hungarian employees Hungarian , CEU eTD Collection 137 138 136 135 Transylvania). 134 councils. Civil the municipal in Work. be elected not and could tenants and Industry entrepreneurs servants, of Agriculture, Chamber the from representative and Works, Public and Agriculture but also the central power, through the nominationof ministries’ delegates: Public Health and Social Protection, 133 132 MeteLiberals Petru Party. (Romanian/1926) Peasant) basedNational (from Transylvanian the belonged to somedivided: Liberal weremembersof Oldthe other Kingdom-based National Party, and the City Council, was heldgenerally byTransylvanian Romanians, who werepolitically local head andthe administration. of of central power the representative the simultaneously Romanian. in majorthat such stated specifically cities be Cluj by a this as occupied would position would in be also city the represented councils by bepopulation. local elected councilorsthe would by wouldbe representativesof central the appointed the government councilors local the 40% of Accordingly, governments. majority local the within absolute gaining from non-Romanians prevent would that measures stipulated law administrative requirementsleaded ahybridcombing1926, Transylvanian were according to principle, the districts of Bucharestin Law Administrative new the of implementation the until Moreover, power in Bucharest. with remnants of the Hungarian pre-war system. councilors were appointed. councilors women five and men twenty while elected, were thirty members, fifty-five of number 100,000 inhabitants, the composition municipal the of council was asfollows: from a total Virgil Pan “Noua lege administrativ lege “Noua V. Pan V. Pan churchmen), (teachers, community local the of interests the represents to designed were members Appointed Revista adminsitrativ Administratia romaneasc During the 1920s, the leadership of local Prefecture the bodies, administrative two During leadershipof the 1920s,the the ă ă , , Minoritari Minoritari 137 ă , (Târgu-Mure Minoritari Minoritari On the top of the administrative hierarchy stood the prefect, who was ú ú ă i majoritari în Transilvania interbelic i majoritari în Transilvania interbelic ú 21(1925): 322-323. (1920-1923)and Septimiu B.Mure ú i majoritari i ú ă ă , 2005), 102. The women’s number oscillated, according to the city’s size. city’s the to according oscillated, number women’s The 102. 2005), , ” (The New Administrative Law) NewAdministrative ” (The în jude 136 Councilors were entitled to elect the mayor, although it was it although mayor, the elect to entitled were Councilors Ġ ul. Cluj , 100. , 41. 45 135 . In the case of Cluj, a city of approximately of city a Cluj, caseof the . In ă ă Revista adminsitrativ , (Minority and Majority in Interwar 102. 134 Thelaw also specified that women ú anuandAdam (1923-1926) Popa 133 ă 21(1925): 322. , and only 60% of the 132 The new 138 CEU eTD Collection 145 144 239. Trasilvania însecolele XIX-XX. Studiide demografie urban 143 142 140 141 developed along Pata street and the rail line, in the northern part of the city. 139 coexisted Hill Citadel the as such spaces 110, 000in 1941. whileinhabitants theurban from 100, 000in in 83,000 population grew 1920, to 1930 and from (1928-1931) National-Peasantthe Party regional values traditionally by defended Romanians’the party in Transylvania. colleagues of promoting other interests (i.e. forced centralization), different from the local and based parties furtherengendered tensions, thesepoliticians beingby accused theirformer fact some The that “solidarity” of Romanians. of Transylvanian joinedthem Kingdom- Old the broke united UnificationRomanian Party, underthe of National the umbrella the mayors. important asmost be listed 1927- 1931) Party, MihaliTeodor 1926, Liberal Party, (National Peasant 1923-1926), Octavian Utalea (National (Romanian National 1919-1923), Party, Pop 1920s, whileIulian city surface increased four times as compared with the last decades of decades 19 the of last ascomparedthe with four times city surface increased butachievements, also tourbandiscrepancies problems the inCluj. related development The policies. urban local changes of loyalty multiplied political often number andthe of shaping motivations the actors Victor Laz Victor Victor Laz Victor S. Bolovan, I. Bolovan, “Popula From554 ha in 1880,it reached 1813 ha in 1940.According to Octavian Buzea, Octavian Buzea, Irina Livezeanu, Irina Virgil Pan Among the new neighborhoods surrounding the city center, two working class districts If the Austro-Hungarian during the period Romanian elitepolitical wererelatively The new administrationRomanian installed in in city the 1919inherited the ă ă ă , r, r, Minoritari Minoritari Clujul Clujul Cultural Politics in Greater Romania, Clujul 143 , 21. , 20-21 and Octavian Buzea, Octavian and 20-21 , , 108. ú i majoritari i Ġ ia ora , 40. ú ului Cluj în secolul al XX-lea”, in S. Bolovan, I. Bolovan (eds.), Clujul, 145 46 139 with new districts of villas such as Andrei villas suchas of withnewdistricts were the heads of the Prefecture during the 134. 74-76. ă . (Cluj-Napoca, Presa Universitara Clujean Clujul , 110. 144 Poor, marginal Poor, th century ă 141 , 2005), 140 The can 142 CEU eTD Collection beginning of beginning1920s. the of in firstceramics the factory wasfoundedor modernized. Iris, atthe created Romania, New factoriesworkers. engines, industrial producing beer, soap, bricks andfurniture were Renner Company, in specialized leatherproducts, which employed more than one thousand factory the was largest larger The into incorporated units. were or factories disappeared hundred industrialyears. Although duringHungarian approximately werefollowed theone interwar period units were for actually ahouse. financial constructing resources registered land, received of some lacked although aplotof remained since they unclear, them the in Cluj, employees state average the situation of the Apparently, political both camps. addressed from the general solution problem were this the of of regarding accusations corruption Reciprocal debates. tendencynumber of The provision workers. of housingforadequate civil numerous servants raised was facilitated or loans for building individualhouses, that smaller their employees, for collective houses constructed some Although factories local government. from also cities for in OldKingdom caused major the concerns and the Transylvania other issue for Municipality the interwarduring period. Migration from countrysidethe area,but construction regulations. volumes of successive of several theelaboration through control building activity to the strived Municipality the of service the in working Commission Technical the period, interwar 146 Mure 149 148 Regulations for the City of Cluj)(Cluj: Minerva, 1933), 3-4. 147 150 Octavian Buzea, Octavian Buzea, example Seefor ù Administratia tefan Pascu, tefan ú eanu and Grigorescu. eanu and Economically, the patterns of industrial development established during the Austro- the established during industrial development of patterns the Economically, increasing housingacritical forremained city’s population the Providing adequate Istoria Clujului, (The Administration) 15 (1926): 1 Clujul, Clujul, Regulament de constructii si alinieri pentru municipiul Cluj 234-235. 75-76. 150 147 The Tobacco Factory, the Railway Workshops and the Matches the and Workshops Railway the Factory, Tobacco The 385-386. 146 Although no systematization plan was conceived during the during conceived was plan systematization no Although 47 149 148 these measures affected areduced affected measures these . (Construction Alignmentand CEU eTD Collection 152 museum, noalsoin library poorly sphere: therewasRomanian thepublic just represented or lawyers. Only40Romaniansin livingin commerce. Cluj were engaged ClujRomanians were for five thelocal fifteen judge,one reduced: also civilservantsworking administration, instudents Cluj were Romanians. The numberRomanians in employed of was public service church. thousands10% among Only the approximately middle elementary three and school city had onlyone primary school, by which was financially supported Greek-Catholicthe illiterate. and wereyoung of ,most them for a search were employed asservantsand daily Comingworkers. from neighboringthe villages in inAcademy ,around 1900,the majority living of Romanians (i.e. 2,500) around inCluj public life. According to the memories of Stefan Ro 151 asethnic 25% of . Romanians wererecorded the notproved only Jewishthe that population was included in category, firstthe butalso that declared themselves of Cluj whilepopulation was Hungarian 9%), (82, only asof inhabitants city’s12,3% the Romanians. However, the numbers showing the religious City andthe 2.3. Romanians affiliation less represented than population.10% of the Factory monopolies. state continued city’s activity their as workers In1938,the 9,000 153 Brubaker (ed.), Rogers to According religion. ancestors’ their preserved persons these assimilated, linguistically although ethnic identification. The Jewishpopulation numbered 4,730 individuals. As Rogers Brubaker also observers,“Romanian “churches, only 6,039 individuals the to among them were belonging recorded asRomanians members in the in8,000 thecensus by approximately registered census the although Therefore, Greek-Catholics. 7,208 religion affiliationcensus, from a total population of 49,295 inhabitants, in citythe werethere 968 Orthodox and See ù Patria, tefan Pascu, tefan www.kia.hu/konyvtar/erdely/erdstat/cjetn.pdf In addition to their demographic inferiority, Romanians had little impact in the city’s the in impact little had Romanians inferiority, demographic their to addition In At the turn of the century, the official census showed that the overwhelming majority overwhelming the that showed census official the century, the of turn the At June 13, 1928. National Politics and Everyday Ethnicity in a Transylvanian Town Istoria Clujului, 391. , nationality as compared with religion. According to the 151 48 ú ianu, Professor at the Greek-Catholic 153 152 The Romanian community in community TheRomanian the , 95. CEU eTD Collection 159 158 instead. ones “national” some wear and elements ofHungarian costumes their According to Lazar, the Association should take measures in order to persuade Romanian peasants to “purify” 157 156 Despartmantul Cluj, fila 3. 155 154 far as1903. published as in was Romanian written newspaper first the while romana”, “Casina society, cultural one decision naturally attracted the protests of the Orthodox. The Orthodox. the to compared as numerous more times eight was which community, entrustmoneyfinancial ASTRA the contributions, decided to Greek-Catholicthe to fund for building a school for girls. Although Romanians of both confessions provided wasthe dispute of reason one example, For communities. Orthodox and Greek-Catholic the speaking villages Feleac speaking villages and M formerthe Napoca of area in continuity the ancestors’ for Romanians they argued city, the origins of andLatin injustify past toRomanians’ of “conquering”Emphasizing thecity. Dacian the rightorder customs. had a mixed population, far communities, along separate manyvillages However, being ethnically from constituted rural the a Hungarian population countingwas also numerous, 15,000individuals. around situation The Cluj whichregion was indeed inhabited by a Romanian majority of approximately 26,000. Yet, was alsoRomanian monograph city,of the can be this by argument supported only evidence.partially reflectedRomanian-speaking majority. in peasants’ predominantly Hungarian-speaking city and asurroundinginhabited countryside bya costumes and Victor Laz Victor Napoca was the Latin name of the city in the Romanperiod V.Laz Rogers Brubaker, Arhivele Na Patria, Interwar Cluj Romanian monographers were meant to create a narrative on the city’s the on narrative a create to meant were monographers Romanian Cluj Interwar Scholarly work on Cluj, Rogers Brubaker included, emphasized the contrast between a ă 157 June 13, 1928. r, Clujul: ă r, Clujul, Ġ ionale Cluj, Fond ASTRA, Pachetul 2, Coresponden 69-73. Laz 69-73. National Politics and Everyday Ethnicity in aTransylvanian Town 158 12, 26. 12, , supposedly demonstrated by , supposedlymajor existencethe demonstrated of two Romanian- 154 ă r complained about this situation, requesting the intervention of ASTRA. intervention the requesting situation, this about complained r Even in these circumstances, numerous rivalries existed between existed rivalries numerous circumstances, in these Even 156 ăQăú According to Victor Laz Victor to According tur, situated in tur, vicinity the Cluj.of 49 155 ă r, the author of the first interwar first of the author r, the Ġ a adresat 159 ă , 92. Asocia Furthermore, these Furthermore, Ġ iunii ASTRA, CEU eTD Collection Cluj), 164 163 army army Cluj],in 161 institution that would contribute to the national education of national tothe wouldinstitution population. Romanian education the that contribute of The authoritiesin The in Theatre. Directing 1919 Sibiu Council decided September had theaccompanied duty to nationalize by seriousfor the Romanian state representatives, students and professors. thetensions. Hungarian place” and“makesome authorities with state rather collaborate but newcontext; the political One ofTheatre the most and disputed transform buildings it into wasan the National 162 160 professor GheorgheBogdan-Duic university Fellow Citizens”, toOurHungarian Word Addressed “A entitled anarticle life. In new administration were enthusiast about the city’s transformation into a center of Romanian interests. state in beingbetrayingimprisoned Cluj accusedof intellectualsafter were teachers and , when many WorldWar, First the entered Romania after worsened The situation nationalists. Romanian against in Cluj staged trials political numerous the to due was memory Romanians’ city.of the perimeter the within churches and Orthodox Greek-Catholic the denieduntil 18 basically the been had city the to right Romanians’ that was authors these by forth set claim Another dominantrole inthe beencity and gradually had by assimilated Hungarian the community. theirlosthad town medieval the of founders of the descendants The Saxons. the of example using emphasized assimilating ethnicauthors groups, the of Hungarians’ tendency other Justin Ceuca, G. Bogdan-Duic Octavian Buzea, Victor Laz Victor Victor Laz Victor Patria As one might expect, the seizure of the most important Hungarian institutions was institutions Hungarian important most the of seizure the expect, might one As In 1919, the Romanian elite that transferred to Cluj following the installation of the of installation the following Cluj to transferred that elite Romanian the 1919, In imagein had the city acquired negative the that explained The same authors 161 (1919) ă ă Patria r: 19; “Un an de la intrarea armatei romane în Cluj” [A year since the entrance of the Romanian ofthe entrance the since year [A Cluj” în romane armatei laintrarea de an “Un 19; r: r, 162 Zaharia Bârsan Clujul ă Clujul , “Cuvânt c , 245(1919); Octavian Buzea, 26. , 47. ă . (Cluj-Napoca:. Dacia, 1978), 103 tre concetatre th century, when the city council first allowed the construction of construction the allowed first council city the when century, ă advised Hungarian inhabitants advisedfeel in by Hungarian Cluj not threaten Ġ enii maghiari din Cluj”(To ourHungarian Fellow Citizens from Clujul 50 , 51. 163 164 161 that Romanian 160 CEU eTD Collection 169 168 170 accusations were directed against the government’s economic policy, that naturally supported naturally that policy, economic government’s the against directed accusations were interests. Romanian of asabetrayal interpreted were Romanians, to were given by 39 Municipality, released certificates among172industrial the as the in1923,when one state often by“alienatingofficialsindustry”favoringnon-Romanians accused of of years. along city modest the theinterwar remained cultural through policies. newthe constitute in urbanelite andbeactively involved process Romanianization the Livezeanu, 167 166 season], theatre new of the opening the at Cluj in Theater [The stagiuni” nouei staged by Hungariancounterparts.their Regarding this aspect, Na see plays “Teatrul the of level artistic the reach to was aim their that declaring company, theatre Hungarian the of superiority Despite these ambitious purposes andthe self-proclaimed tradition, Romanian actors acknowledged the Cluj alMinisteruluiJusti Pu as Sextil such Professors Romanian from constituted was newfaculty the circumstances, In connotations bythese royal Romanian and government. dynasty the attended University was on re-opened February during aceremony2, 1920, with obvious political nationalized Cluj in Szeged.The border crossedthe andopenedanewUniversity students and Professors Hungarian of body the of part significant a Park, nearthe situated Theatre Summer the of building in the shows its staging city, in the remain to chose company theatre University in Cluj becameofficially Romanianon October 1, 1919. the compromises: any beyond went issues, education on representative Council Directing the Ghibu, Onisifor of attitude The University. the of takeover bythe created was situation 165 teach audience languagethe a of any Romanian purified foreign words. theatre, stated the same authorities, mustinspire “the love for the people and the country” and Octavian Buzea, Octavian V. Delacara, “Propaganda minoritatilor” (Minorities’ Propaganda), (Minorities’ minoritatilor” “Propaganda Delacara, V. For the role of Romanian intellectuals in the nationalization process in Transylvanian urban areas, see Irina areas, urban Transylvanian in process nationalization inthe intellectuals of Romanian role the For Irina Livezeanu, Irina Arhiva Teatrului Na Clujul ú cariu, Gheorghe Bogdan-Duic cariu, Gheorghe Although Romanians public dominated institutions, impacttheir ontheeconomic life , .31(1923) Cultural Politics in Greater Romania, Clujul, Cultural Politics in Greater Romania, Ġ ional din Cluj-Napoca,Dosar 3,1921/1922, Adresa dinpartea Directoratului general din Ġ iei [Archives National ofthe Theatre Cluj-Napoca,File 3,1921/1922]inibid, 71. 219. 167 ă , Silviu Dragomir and Ion , SilviuLupa Ion Dragomir and 183-187. 51 218-227. 168 Clujul Nationalist Romanian local press local Romanian Nationalist , 4 (1924). Patria ú Ġ ional. Cuprilejul deschiderii , who were expected to , whowere 120 (1926). 165 166 An dramatic equally If the Hungarian 169 . Situations 170 Similar CEU eTD Collection Problem of Romanianizationof Transylvanian Cities), 175 174 173 172 171 in misery. living intellectual contrastedfurther constructed richthe non-Romanian merchant poorRomanianto the “the powerful” urban elements, namely the non-Romanians. The stereotype image that was Hungarian newspapers to those from from newspapers tothose Hungarian OldKingdom. the Romanian. in only two Transylvania, thirty-one wereHungarian and55 dailynewspaperspublished 1925. His municipal meetings authoritieswith revealed the embodiedambiguities in this in Cluj an visited that Englishmen Heathcote, of notes Dudley inthe reflected project are Theatre. people from OldKingdom the not attend languageand do Romanian spectacles at the refused to integrate into the Romanian public sphere: they do not read Romanian press, avoid Codarcea,they background, stated their Despite ethnical […]” half Hungarian. Romanian, themselves in the caves of dark coffee houses, play pool or cards, speaking a slang that is half “[…] close Romanians who attitude of the Hungarian-assimilated towards was highly critical city the was expressedinfrom by Thejournalist 1926 authored an Codarcea. article Corneliu and nation”. of the state the prospering, butthey foreignwere also“supporting a culture, apress againstinterests the of of nationalthe was idea.not It only banks that andfactories ownedby non-Romanians were in detriment the interrelated were andpropaganda cultural power economic complained that Corneliu Codarcea,“Kolozsvár-Cluj: Problema româniz “Minorit “Ardelenii “Ardelenii “Minorit din ora “Românii The public sphere was equally dominated by a bya The wasequally dominated among the sphere press: public Hungarian The paradoxes engendered by the city’s adaptation to the Romanian nationalizing Romanian the to adaptation city’s the by engendered paradoxes The of in nationalization step the asafirst Romanians” “Romanianizing of The necessity 175 ăĠ ăĠ i” (Minorities), 172 i” (Minorities) i” ú i ziarele” (Transylvanians and Newspapers), and (Transylvanians i ziarele” Inaddition, evidenceaverage that showed Transylvanian preferredRomanians ú ele din Ardeal”, (Romanians from Transylvanian Cities), Transylvanian from (Romanians dinArdeal”, ele Rena Renasterea 174 171 ú terea 7(1924). 7(1924). ğ 52 ara Noastr ă Clujul, rii ora rii ú 1 (1924). ă elor dinArdeal” (Kolozsvár-Cluj. The 26( 1926):736-738. 173 Radical Romanian nationalists Romanian Radical Clujul 32(1924). CEU eTD Collection social status. their improve and preserve to in other government Romanian with cooperate and realities new the Hungarians should adaptto auseful strategy; Kiss opportunism that was believed ofhis race” byhis“a Application Law. Considered traitor of co-nationals Agrarian the Kiss, was actuallyleader,preserve their Mr. Theirwith position. privileged Liberalsinorder to Romanian the one of the richestnegotiated had elite Hungarian the somemembers of that wasinformed Heathcote minorities, men in Cluj due to his position at the Court for the 181 176 spectacle by mixed audience.an ethnically opera the menu to in from dishes the the city, the to was characteristic and Hungarian Romania. of Greater representatives the were they showing French, to switched officials Romanian clients, Hungarian with crowded restaurant best city’s the at dinner official like the formal occasions, on However, placeinand language officialsother German, took “theyall a spoke perfectly” that city was language.Ininformal situations, hisconversations with mayor, Romanian the prefect indicator thechanges for to thenewForHeathcote, of important adaptation one in context. the develop strategies had despitetransition the population ethnicity, to city,the of when period, 180 ofRomanians”. sprinkling considerable Hungarian play was performed by a Romanian company,“while the house was crowded with Magyars with a “Hungarian nights”. mixture The of Romanian Hungarianand was somehow striking for the Englishmen: a organizing periodically was House Opera Romanian the Heathcote, to According 1919. in administration Romanian by the seizure its since overcame partially) least (at been had Theatre nationalized ofthe situation the 179 Hungarian, ”with a sprinkling of Hungarian, andGermans” ”with asprinkling of Romanians 178 city. of the elite Hungarian the from themselves differentiate audience, while in private conversations they used Germanshows that this attitude was self-imposed inorder France. The to fact that they switched to French only in a public place dominatedsister”, “Latin by its a Hungarian-speaking and Romania Greater to but Empire, Austro-Hungarian German-speaking the to connected Romanian protagonists of the story aimed to emphasize the new political order, in which Cluj was no longer foreign language used by the Old Kingdom elites was French. By switching from German to French, the 177 Dudley Heathcote, Dudley Dudley Heathcote, Dudley Dudley Heathcote, Dudley Heathcote, Dudley Dudley Heathcote, Dudley the However, schools. German and Hungarian in educated traditionally were elites Romanian Transylvanian 181 MyWanderings in the Balkans MyWanderings in the Balkans MyWanderings in the Balkans, MyWanderings in the Balkans My Wanderings in the Balkans. 177 Although the city’s elite seemed to be mostly 89. 91. 88. 92. Heathcote’s account shows that the tensions related to 179 53 (London: Hutchinson & co, 1925), 87. Especially concerned with the situation of 178 , a strange mixture of Romanian of mixture a strange , 180 176 , . CEU eTD Collection Insurance Society newspaper local In1924,the “Generala”. Insurance Society stylein was city the forcenter buildingthe theheadquarters designed of Romanian the in published list the to According Transylvania. from was None city. capital the except else somewhere living were domination of professionals living in Bucharest. Among the 166 members mentioned in a list from 1925,only 17 182 “formodern aspect “aCluj” imposed andRomanian the of constructed building capital city. the from specialists to entrusted usually was buildings public commissioned state of design the representative buildingsin landscape. the urban Similarly with Austro-Hungarian the period, century, Cluj didcity center many notoffer for insertion the possibilities newof commemorative plaques and monuments functioned as visualnames, representationsstreet new of architecture, power. extents, different To city. the throughout staged markers aimed to emphasize the Romanian claims on the control ofRomanianness Space-Markers 2.4. Nationalizingthe of the public space were sphere/ economic life. in public the dominant remained Hungarian-speaking the population Despite theseefforts, newcomers. Romanian for the “make someasked place” to not or werekindly/ Hungarians in in apresentassimilation,has which to the city been whichRomanians’denied, to right propaganda/ “historical right’based on foundations Latin the of city the and Hungarian imposedto nationalization the from city,of the distant Romanian remaining cultural “Magyarized” Romanians who did notfeel touched by the attempts of the new Romanian elite Significantly, the list enumerating the members of the Society of Romanian Architects shows the strong Architectura Since the city’s architectural profile had installation Followingspatial administration, theanumberof Romanian of the been already defined at the turn of the and nationalism radical between in Cluj: Romanians of attitude radical The , (4), 1925:55-56 182 During the 1920s,the only presence significant of Romanian nationalthe 54 Patria proudly reported that the that reported proudly CEU eTD Collection subordinate, and Ioan Negrutiu andIoan subordinate, Suceava, his Teodor Ciortea, service, chief the of the namely Victor Municipality, few Romanian house owners were precisely the members of the Technical Commission of the Surprisingly the not, Kiss, or Scheukeretc.). Keresztes, Fleisher,Ludovic Gheorghe Gustav Kos, Elemer Moll and Kornel Viola continued to work in Cluj after 1918, but intheir Clujafter Kos, Elemer 1918, activity andKornelViolatowork continued Moll herebuilt between 1923 and 1929 Andreiexample of Mure districts were themembers sold to of urban ethnicbackground.the elite despite Asthe invilla two plots the elite, new city’s for Romanian the exclusively “reserved” theoretically members of the Romanian elite who wanted to emphasize their patriotism. Although constructed in Andrei newconstructed Grigorescu districts Mure and the Popescu. Anton architect Ion of designs Bucharest building center was inExchange, modernistthe Stock of the 1930after the constructed (Cluj-Napoca,1999), 40. (coord.), Brudascu Dan Service- Technical ofthe members the of 189 the 1930s, according to Gh. Vais, “Cluj. Cronologie selectiva”, 188 strazilor, p.86-87 and III/10. Evidenta constructiilor, p.7 187 185 184 183 House andInsurance Social the near University the Colegium the Academic Cristinel, designed Cathedral, George Orthodox of architect the For example,the connotations. national of deprived style in themodernist being mostly inconstructed Bucharest architects 1930s, the commissionedto buildings were inspiration the grey dominated façade three-storey this of importantbuilding. public Other Cluj the on city center”. 186 Arhivele Statului Cluj, Fond Primaria Municipiului Cluj-Napoca, of end 1/5, file the at III/9, Cluj p. in 86, confronted with High-School the listIleana Princess ofthe building the designing for known is Negrutiu F. Ioan Arhivele Statului Cluj, Fond Primaria Municipiului Cluj-Napoca, Serviciul Tehnic 1/5, file III/9. Evidenta Gh. Vais, “Cluj. Cronologie selectiva”, ù Patria, Patria, tefan Pascu, tefan During the 1920s, a significant number or villas in the neo-Romanian style were style neo-Romanian in the villas or number a significant 1920s, the During September 6,1924. September 6,1924. Clujul istorico-artistic 183 ú eanu Street itself eanu the majority Street new fifty-sevenproves, houses of the Widely decorated columns, friezes and balustrades of Byzantine of balustrades and friezes columns, decorated Widely 188 184 , 210-212. , architect. Another representative architectural landmark of city the landmark of architectural representative Another Logia 187 were owned by Hungarians and Jews (e.g. Iosif 7( 2004): 52. 189 55 Local Local Hungarian suchasKároly architects 185 Logia 80 de ani deadministratie romaneasca laCluj. 7( 2004): 52. ú eanu, 186 being owned by being owned CEU eTD Collection Ferdinand [King Ferdinand]. 191 190 Maniu and Ion I.C. Br Iuliu interwar The leadersmost Romanian parties, Maria of important Mary]. the [Queen wasrenamed Regina former Deákutca, Ferenc main city’s avenue, Mary war,the the during Pet example, For streets wereimportant most the of parallelingnames new the Significantly, Dynasty. Romanian the of members the Romanian andnamed afterHungarian important historical personalities- national heroes, politicians, intellectualspantheon and were center in city the streets The Theatre. the accommodating in square the of one Hunyadi of great men the replace to chosen was Great (and the Stephen voievode Moldavian women). the of name the region, Cluj the in Bishopric Orthodox first the founder the yet unity, Romanian of a symbol Not 1600. in countries Romanian three the time first the for “united” that voievode Romanian the of name Moldaviabecame in SzechenyiSquare Square,receiving the Viteazul Mihai 1859, while the renamedAlexandru after protagonist Ioan Cuza, the of unification the of and became Pia Mathias] Square [King kiraly Matyás former the symbolism, Hungarian strong its Despite process. Unification squaresmain The three center. city naturally, the was, process re-naming of the target The main of Cluj receivedMikes. Alfred and Moll Elémer Bubelini, Samoil as such specialists by conceived all names Commission. Technical connectedHungarian and Jewish remainedarchitects particularlyinfluential as members of the administration, in Still, municipal commands. the private with connected was mostly with different stages in the Romanian 1923), 6-8. 192 Gh. Vais, “Cluj. Cronologie selectiva”, Paul Mihnea, Paul Monitorul municipiului Cluj One of the first indicators of the new political context was the change of street names. street of change was the context newpolitical of the indicators first the of One Tabloul locuitorilor ora Ę fi utca was renamed Avram Iancu, while Franz Joseph ut. becameRegele Joseph ut. Franz while Iancu, Avram fi wasrenamed utca ă tianu, “received” the streets that paralleled on the left and right the 190 (The Journal of the Cluj City) 19 (1927). For example, in 1931, the new urban regulation plan was 192 Ġ a Unirii [The Union Square]. Then, Bocskai Squarewas Then, Bocskai Square]. Union [The a Unirii Recognizing the importance of Recognizingby the importance of roleplayed the Queen ú Logia ului Cluj 7 (2004), 52. (Table ofthe inhabitants of Cluj) (Cluj: Tipografia Bernat, 56 191 CEU eTD Collection government were invited, ceremonymore like looked were the an government local of event importance, central of the representatives Since no wasactually placed. statue where the square, delegationan constituted opportunity for staging animpressive in ceremony the city’s main 197 She-Wolf statue on Campidoglio. the end of September, a group of Italian students Romanianthe in a letterMayor ambassador to sent Iulianhim announcing at Pop, that would come to Cluj to bring a copyprivileged relation with Romeancient important was betoo neglected.to of OnAugust 30,1921, the and Germans became an important part in the Romanian legitimizing discourse. part in Romanianlegitimizing important became the andan Germans had founded ancestors city the arrivalRomanians’ years the a thousand before of Hungarians the that idea the However, legacy”. Latin “the of basis the on city the to right Romanians’ emphasize visually to order in in Cluj initiated were excavations archeological no nationalists, Street]). [Elisabeth became Calea Elisabeta utca Erzsébet (i.e. figures Hungarian and Romanian both with be associated could personality historical name a of the of translation the Sometimes, Street)). (Happiness Fericirii becameCalea utca Boldog (i.e. from Hungarian translated simply itwas significance, carry any symbolical not name did street the cases,when In many 196 Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-8-923, doc. 6741-933. 195 Names of Streets the inCluj) (Cluj:Tipografia Corvin, 1923). correspondence. and include eventually Romanianthe to both and Hungarian denominations in official changes 193 leaders Vasile political or such Lucaciu intheAustro-Hungarian as period, mainreceived marginal thenames boulevard. streets More of Romanian Transylvanian 194 Vasile Lechin Vasile Victor Laz Victor See forexample the letterof sculptorsthe Bauer Nagyand workedthat for Orthodoxthe Cathedral in 1933 in Paul Mihnea, See for example Seefor Although the Dacian and Roman past of the city was often featured by Romanian 194 193 , it is, it likely Hungarian the speakingthat use population oldthe continued to names Although authorities informative listing published bilingual booklets these ă r, Ġ Clujul, Tabloul locuitorilor ora an,, 195 Calauza Clujului-Denumirile vechi si noua ale strazilor din Cluj Primaria clujean 11-12, Buzea, ă Clujul, înperioada interbelic ú 197 uluiCluj For the Romanian authorities, the arrival of the Italian 36-38. ,6. 57 ă , 31. (Cluj Guide- Old and New ù tefan tefan Ciceo-Pop. 196 The CEU eTD Collection 202 651. Press, 1992), University Columbia Minority under Hungarian rule 1867-1918 and ofthe Hungarian Minority under Romanian rule. ancestry. paternal Romanian King’s Romanian studentstook decisionthe installingof aplaque,whichwouldemphasize the manifestany intentions of thestatue of removing inKing Matthias, 1932 agroup of local for concern nationalists. Romanian relations. new power city the emphasized significant part of the audience. Moreover, gun fires and the military aviation flying above the territory” the returnhademperor that conqueredDacia,including thecivilizedinto it world. “proclaim Destined to of TransylvaniaCity of Cluj, Mother the (To di Cluj Roma Madre” “Allacittà inscription socle- on the Above the public space. to Rome),its authoritiesorigins aimingthus diminish to Hungarian thestrong connotations tothe city’s associated main insisted andthe monument of Kingto Mathias,symbolize symbolically placeemphasizing the Roman origins of the city and the effigy ofthe , the Roman 201 fourth chapter of thesis.this 200 199 198 of initiative inscriptionthe a group not removedof by students, was enthusiast Municipality. in nation” 1467Moldavia. only“by its added thatheown defeated was historian whichNicolae Iorga, although apparently thegloriouspraising battles of King, the D Elie Catholic thevoice Greek- the of audiencethrough to the addressed The “Church” guests. official further organized inCluj,invited Orthodox the of representatives the Church not as were events Romanian similar other with As compared Pop. Iulian Mayor the by orchestrated Rogers Brubaker(ed.), I discuss the claims advanced by Romanian nationalists regarding the statue of Matthias Corvinus inthe Corvinus ofMatthias statue the regarding nationalists Romanian by advanced claims the discuss I Infratirea, Infratirea, Sandor Biro, The Hungarian appearance of the city’s main square constituted, however, a matter of amatter however, constituted, main square city’s the of appearance The Hungarian 199 September30, 1921. September30, 1921. , the statue was unveiled during a ceremony in which the Army constituted a constituted in wasunveiled the Army aceremony during which , the statue The Nationalities Problem in Transylvania 1867-1940. ASocial History ofthe Romanian ă ianu. 198 National Politics and Everyday Ethnicity in aTransylvanian Town The statue was placed in the Hungarian center of in frontof city, of the center Hungarian in the wasplaced The statue 201 The inscription was a quotation from Romanian 200 Since during the 1920s Municipality not did 58 return of our rule return of 202 Although private a , 99. (New-York: inthis CEU eTD Collection traditional delimitations. traditional escape to whoseidentities tended andinterests various groups between interaction space of opened an remained city the all, of Most level. local on applied when intentions original the image of adistorted sometimes homogenization reflected and unification, of centralization, policies government’s Central it. criticizing were themselves Romanians while government, always “unusual”situations in prevail, resulting which Romanian the supported Hungarians not did interest national However, anti-Semitism. to large tolerance from varied groups other the towards attitudes city in the where multi-ethnic a negotiation and of adaptation strategies develop to attempted They context. newthe to according priorities and interests their be in aperiod and groups which redefine individuals had to theiridentities, and restructure providedwas frequently criticized Romanians.The provedsupport to lack for to the 1920s of Municipality local interests, national promoting policy official the Beyond control. Jewish Hungarian and the life under remained on while economic cultural sphere, concentrated the efforts Romanian strongly byHungarians. dominated demographic structure the altered from OldKingdom the also but from countryside, the local Migration educated elites. better and numerous more the of resistance the with confronted were interests national Romanian of of Romanianization be likeCluj cities Transylvanian quite a to proved complicated one. Despite great hopes and high ambitions of achieving significant changes, the process the changes, significant of ambitions achieving high and Despite greathopes 59 CEU eTD Collection 204 The Romanian File 203 in Transylvania the Romanian population was religiously divided. In the case of Cluj, as far as inhabitants by and not onlybyRomanians,of Greek, Bulgarian Russian origin the butalso embraced being religion, dominant the was Orthodoxy in Dobrogea While enclave. Catholic in characterizing Romanians Oldthe Kingdom was complicated by Greek- Transylvanian the at expressing any specific ethnical or political statement. aim not did ofthese churches architects the inDobrogea, as extraction Byzantine languageof Metropolitan in Cathedral Although Sibiu (1902-1906). same mixed using the architectural religiousimportant edifices,like the Orthodox Romanian church in Brasov (1893) and the formsneo-Classic influences and strong from vernacular architecture. could that express values the of neo-ByzantineRomanianness: elementsmixed were with vocabulary and be partof asbeing hardly unitary coulda well-defined churches perceived 1878. changethe in of multi-ethnic acquired power in province Congressof after the this Berlin inexpress to order worship places wereconstructed whereOrthodox spacethe inDobrogea, inGreaterRomania ChurchArchitecture 3.1. NationalIdentityand ORTHODOX CATHEDRAL THE CITY CENTER: THE ROMANIAN 3 –CONSTRUCTING CHAPTER 205 AugustinIoan. Augustin Ioan, Power, play and national identity 203 In the context of Greater Romania, the identity between nationality and religion and nationality between identity the Romania, Greater of context the In some constructed communities Romanian Transylvania, thecentury of turn In the nationalizing means asof firstlychurch architecture madeuseof state The Romanian While their symbolic function was politicized, the architecture language of language of architecture these While the function was politicized, theirsymbolic Power, play and national identity Power, play and national identity. Politics of Modernization inCentral and East-European . (Bucharest: The Romanian Cultural Foundation Publishing House, 1999), 16. , 17. , 18 60 204 Architecture. 205 , CEU eTD Collection 210 Simetria, 2004), 205-282. period. See Carmen Popescu, birthday. 209 of his occasion the on Ivan Nicolae congratulate Ministerof Cults Octavian Goga and the president of the Unification Commission in Cluj, TheodorMihaly to 208 Heaven: YaleCenter for International andArea Studies, 1995). Katherine Verdery (ed.) 207 XCIV. Romania1930], vol.II, Neam, limb 206 half of and, the second 19 since the However, as the Constitution 1930, only represented22%. whileGreek-Catholics 11% of population the was Orthodox, stated, Orthodoxy was the dominant religion of the Romania searched through a “pilgrimage to the medieval medieval sources”. the “pilgrimagea to searched through chosen becometo the symbols of the Romanian power in the Transylvanian city centers, were traditions and land” politicians “the stated, Church was theshield that preservedlanguage, along the centuries our of Asagroup Transylvanian communities. local leadersRomanian became also thenatural of 19 the until elite political Romanian of absence defined that Romanian character. of elements bestthe the the the Byzantine prototype had also a very practical advantage for the architects: itoffered architects: for the advantage a very practical had also prototype Byzantine the itself heirs. Moreover, itslikeas one , legitimate justof or considered proudly always asa perceived source of political andreligious powerin Balkans,andthe Romania, style. national Romanian the of significance symbolic the through territory the “conquering” churches in the new provinces was seen by the Romanian state as a means of visually Ioan Augustin, interwar the during style national Romanian of the evolution the chapter consistent a in discusses author The Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, Telegram addressed by State the Minister , Keith Hitchins, Keith “Orthodoxism: Polemics OverEthnicity andReligioninInterwar Romania” Recens 209 As Romanian Orthodoxy originated in Byzantium, the models for the new cathedrals, new the for models the in Byzantium, originated Orthodoxy Romanian As In the case of Transylvania, the role of Orthodoxy was even more significant. In the ĉ mântul general al popula Power, play and national identity 208 National character and national ideology in the interwar Eastern Therefore, after the First World War, the construction of Orthodox Le style national roumain ĉ matern Ɯ iei României 1930 th century, nationalists strongly argued that it was also one ĉ , religie [Nationality, mother tongue, religion], (Bucuresti: 1930), , 20. , 61 (Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes; [Bucuresti]: Rennes; de Universitaires Presses (Rennes: th century, the members of church hierarchy [TheGeneralCensus of thepopulation of 210 207 The Byzantine Empire has been has Empire Byzantine The , in IvoBanacand Europe . (New 206 CEU eTD Collection 214 landscape. city’s onthe influence limited a rather had by Kos led architects of group The historicism. was century of the turn at the constructed buildings the of majority the for state Hungarian by the chosen style architectural dominant the demonstrated, architects leaded by Károly Kos. However, this statement is not applicable to the case of Cluj. As Gheorghe Vais 213 212 215 216 211 cities. of Transylvanian appearance Hungarian) “foreign”(i.e. the counterbalance emphasize the“re-conquest” of a symbolical territory for the Romanians, but also to thevisualconsiders language thatthrough theaimed Romanian of architecture, to state being simultaneously religious places and commemorative monuments. “cathedrals” Orthodox stated that Popescu were tobeplaced.in urbanareasthese Cathedrals for the were necessary which monumental scale models, which missingalthough in medieval Romanian the architecture, address one important aspect: the construction of these churches was not initiated by the state, initiated by notthe was churches these construction aspect: of the important address one map in thenational manner a very visible territory. weredesignedto since cathedrals “Romanianizing” these thearchitects, for importance major of became monumentality The issue wasweak.of presence Romanian in cities the where identity aspecificonnational promote discourse butalso to definenot only Romanianness, to aimed buildings religious these of style The connotations. political strong carried provinces AugustinAccording duringinterwar to built churches the Ioan, period inthenew the Christianity. Eastern to the attachment Romanians’ translated legacy,Byzantine which the offered resources the designed exploited cathedrals that these architects the Furthermore, imposingof cathedrals wastheequivalentof the nationalization of territory.the construction the identity, national their of symbols visible most the of one as when Romanians have Orthodoxy history major role to inthe was considered a of Transylvanian played CarmenPopescu, of generation new the of style Hungarian national the to reference makes Popescu Carmen case, this In dimensions. monumental their to due cathedrals as perceived often were churches These CarmenPopescu, Augustin Ioan, Ioan Augustin, Discussing theimpressive building church in activity interwar Transylvania, Carmen Although I agree with the observations listed above, I argue that these authors failedargue to authors I these listedthat above, Iagreewith observations the Although Power, play and national identity Power, Play and National Identity Le style national roumain, Le style national roumain, 211. 255. , 20. , ,23-24. 212 62 shared the hybrid function of sharedthehybridfunction mausoleums, of 216 Moreover, she Moreover, 211 213 Since 215 214 CEU eTD Collection româneasc 217 unity religiousand this that unity was always revolving Orthodoxy. around Wallachia.historical Thenew narrative religious that had suggested political unity anticipated a point of historic unity among allRomanians livingin Transylvania, Moldavia and became now religion Besides Orthodox language, in be newnation shouldthe state. remedied Church,i.e. Orthodoxy Greek-Catholicismand suggestedthat wasa schism temporary that leadersOrthodox beganemphasize to belonged Romanianshad all that “originally” toone Transylvanian Romania, Greater of framework the in However, emancipation. for efforts definition? Before 1918,representatives of both confessions had been involved in Romanians’ these confessions problem was confessional the between divide Orthodoxy and Greek-Catholicism. Could both be identified of a newchurch was ameansfor achievingthesegoals. However, obvious ideological the as Romanian? Or lifecity’s For public andtocontrol infrastructure. local them,the construction institutional the were the Romanianlocal On hand, other presence the toestablishaimed also in Romanian elites aconsistent the people Orthodoxlargegathered masses, popular offering useful for opportunities official the of display power. by churches of the consecration the at organized ceremonies The edifices. religious of specific theby “Romanianattachmentimage values” the construction to with associating their public the central government. on initiators many support for the pressures thisby projects, these waslargely of made due to local the financial provided the If state the suggest. andIoan asPopescu from center one coordinated history of their construction is much more complex than a conscious building campaign lobby sponsored, were Even the local state these projects butby when individualsor groups. For a general overview onthe discourse about Romanians’ unity, see Lucian Boia, Both the royal dynasty in showBoth the royal their aspired and central the dynasty Bucharest government to ă (History Mythand in Romanian the Consciousness)(Bucuresti: Humanitas, 2006), 214-250. 63 Istorie 217 ú i mit în con ú tiin Ġ a CEU eTD Collection 220 124. 219 time – a but rather, and much more importantly, for accommodating official ceremonies that ceremonies official for accommodating importantly,and more much time –abutrather, Greek-Catholicbelievers – the Orthodox constituted amere 11% of the city population at that by much larger practical necessity the and places for of offering Cluj’sof worship Orthodox needed necessarily Cluj that argued nation their representing equally were Greek-Catholics the and Orthodox the both that 218 in found themselves a similarsituation. in“Romanian” two Cluj the Churches beginningof the 1920s, atthe and Greek-Catholics the place.market asa used atthat time being free was space constructions, of it, since this building for Square MihaiViteazul the indicated andspecifically city incenter, cathedral the bodies: the administrative local all to Municipality,addressed demand similar very a formulated Church Catholic the City Council and the Prefecture. there. Cathedral an Orthodox construct to in center order They alsoits he yet, headin toyieldappointed local appealed tothe empty city an the government plot aspired to have a legally been Bishopricnot had nor nor had founded, Ivan been recognized, officially would administrate the region of Northern Transylvania. that Even Bishopric though at Orthodox thatan time founding of the task the with Synod Archdiocesan by the charged was Cluj. submittedConsistory in one in numerous his theMunicipality Cluj written of requests to Solutions SearchingforAlternative inCluj? “Romanian”Cathedrals 3.2. Two The two churches were built at end of the turn of the 19 Arhivele Nationale Cluj, Fond Primaria Municipiului Cluj-Napoca,Resgistre intrare-ie Arhivele Nationale Cluj, Fond Primaria Municipiului Cluj-Napoca,Resgistre intrare-ie 218 Given the small size of the available places of worship that belonged to the Orthodox Greek- the of representatives the 1922, on February years request, this Two after Recently arrived in the city as a delegate of theOrthodox the of Metropolitan president the time that at Ivan, Nicolae Bishop 1920, February In Church in Sibiu, Ivan two cathedrals two 220 Those local Romanian nationalists who believed . Itis likely that this demand was motivated notso 64 th century in a similar, simplified Baroque style. ú ú ire, I/ 262, filele 115- ire, I/253, fila 31 219 CEU eTD Collection faith in the city. the in faith Christian and life Romanian the of reinforcement the to contribute would edifice religious this November churchwasofficially the declaredoccupied 8,1926,who byGreek-Catholics, that building of Franciscan formerthe builtat the beginningof Monastery 19 the the in Transylvania Church Metropolitan Greek-Catholic tothe donated the , 222 221 Vatican. with their connection given in strategy, successful more this were for Greek-Catholics city use. The their own the in existing already buildings religious the of one claim to attempted they example, for well, as solutions temporary about Churches thought both of representatives the Therefore, works. requirefunding, time consistent let and alone of initiating theefforts andcoordinating the monumentwould architectural a large of war.Theconstruction the after country recovering provincial capital still by dominated Hungarians and Jews”. ancestors’ faithour be butrulingalsowould testimonies of worshipped, our presenceinthis not would since only become where places both Catholic begin also soon, would Cathedral budget. Following a similar political agenda, it was hoped that “the construction of the Greek- in state the included were already Cathedral of Orthodox theconstruction the for funds special agenda. of a largerpolitical apart clearly therefore was Cathedrals the capital. Constructing inunofficial Transylvania’s occasions numerous on would organized be 225 224 1924; in articles the example See for interfere. to entitled was Cluj in authorities local the nor state, Order. The entire Franciscan procedure the to belonged was had that in factproperties another internal with together affair edifice, of the religious Catholic the obtaining in Church,Catholics inwhich nor the Romanian Greek- of success the and process negotiation on the reported newspapers Local Cluj. in Church Greek-Catholic Greek-Catholic Metropilitan Bishop Vasile Suciu made several requests to the Pope,presenting situation of the continuity, Szikra agreed on donating the building of the monastery to Vatican.order In was theserepresented by one monk only,circumstances,father Leonard Szikra. Since the Franciscan Order inCluj thelacked 223 The Franciscan Monastery was just one of the Catholic churches in Cluj. At the beginning of the 1920s, the Clujul, Patria Patria, Patria, Patria, Building the Cathedral was not an easy task given the financial difficulties of the of difficulties financial the given task easy an not was Cathedral the Building April 23, 1923. 2 nr. 10(1920). November 8, 1926. 8, November June 26, 1926. November12, 1926 and November24, 1928. 225 223 Therefore, in after negotiations successful 1924, with the 65 222 221 On April 1923, th Clujul, century. June 15, 224 On CEU eTD Collection by Nicolae Ivan to the King in 1930 (doc. 7355-930). 7948-924 (letter from the Ministry of Cults andArts). The debate culminated withelaborated an letter addressed Ministrythe of Cults and Arts),doc. 3856-924 (discussions in the ChurchSynod on thesame problem), doc. concerning the legal history formerof the Jesuit Monastery),doc. 1711-924 (letter addressed by Nicolae Ivan to 21-920,doc. 1509-923 (the conclusions of the investigation bymade Alexandru Dragomir and ValerMoldovan 103. See also documentsthe referring to this issue that can be found in Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II- Orthodox Bishopric of Vad,Feleac and Cluj) (Cluj: Tiparul Tipografiei Eparhiei Ortodoxe Romane,1930), 100- local the specifically, More mapping theterritory. of in attempt marker Romanianstate’s the a than more was monument this that showing actors, local the of perspective the from Cluj in Cathedral Orthodox the of case the analyze I architecture, church in style national Romanian the of manifestations on the currentdebates the point Taking asastarting monument. local intellectuals on had other, the differentvisions concerning the meaningof this involvedin building process, the stateonone the side, by and supported Bishop the of a group founding andconstruction Cathedral inof Orthodox the Cluj,main thatthe two arguing actors renounce the idea of constructingChurch. Catholic a prudent inattitude adopt thisregardand the buildingconsidered as aproperty the of the to Cathedral.decided government Romanian The Cluj. in Bishopric Orthodox the to favorable not was This decision thefinal government, central the community to Orthodox bythe petitions numerous chapter discussesrights and yield theit property claim to theoretically could administration Romanian the Therefore, state. Hungarian thestory Orthodox ofChurch the thehad itCatholics, wished to do Ghibuso. aimed to demonstrate that the building was the legal property of the 227 Cultural Politics in Greater Romania, ofthe behalf the on Romanian University state,of the advocatingtakeover the a during radical solution. Forprotagonist main his activitythe was he at theCluj, beginning In of the 1920s,Transylvania. see Irina Livezeanu, Directing Council. A fervent nationalist, Ghibu was entrusted with the nationalization of schools in 226226 University Church, originally builtin 18 the OnisiforOrthodox Diocesan Councilentrusted Ghibu Sebastian Stanca, Sebastian Born near Sibiu, Ghibu was in 1920working for theDepartment of Public Education andReligionof the Although petitioning for obtaining the University church, Nicolae Ivan did not Although Ivan for did church, the obtaining Nicolae University petitioning Similar attempts were made by the Orthodox Bishopric of Cluj. Starting in 1920,the ofCluj.Bishopric made were Starting bytheOrthodox Similar attempts Episcopia ortodoxa romana a Vadului, Feleacului si Clujului (1919-1929) 133, 155-161, 219-227. th 66 century century by Although Jesuitthe order. used by 226 to investigate the legal history of the history of thelegal investigate to 227 However, despite the (The Romanian (The CEU eTD Collection concerned their congregation only, Greek-Catholics failed to create an impact on animpacton city’s the create to failed only, Greek-Catholics congregation their concerned building carried By nosuch symbolical connotations. concentrating on issues practical that conventlate-Baroque in located anadapted identity, church Greek-Catholic Romanian the of landmark undisputed an became style national current in the built Cathedral Orthodox the belong rightthe to tothevery same nation they aspiringsupportandwere to represent. While from Romanians) non-Orthodox other (and Greek-Catholics the deprived thereby Orthodox however,the offensive, means of such strong the Via their to congregation. “historic justice” an spatial aggressive aimingconquerpolitics to the from city religionscenter other anddo in involved leadersCluj of local Orthodox the frictions, these because of perhapsprecisely or point of view of the local Orthodox elite. the from i.e. above from framed is still my perspective actors, local on focusing although Dragomir, Sextil Puscariu or work for the local administration (i.e. Petru Metes). Silviu Marin Stefanescu, Bogrea, Vasile Lupas, Ioan (i.e. newUniversity atthe toteach order in Cluj to transferred laymen these of majority The Assembly. Diocesan the of members the from constituted Cathedral the of was forachievement thesuccessful important particularly as AlexandruOctavian and Lapedatu, Goga, Alexandru-Vaida Another Voevod. group 229 during the 1920s. 228 government Averescu or Liberal in both ministers Transylvanian-born activity the of to authoritiesdue waspartly by state central the financial support of the city. Finally, Iwill show that the successful completion of the project and the consistent with monumentthe history, thespecifically with past was connected and moreTransylvania’s of significance the describing narrative main The past. the of injustices the “repair” to aimed perceivedOrthodox Romanianin it elite a“Transylvanian affair” involvedthisproject as Sebastian Stanca, Sebastian prime-minister and Party People’s of the leader the Averescu, Alexandru ofGeneral name the to Referring Irrespective of such frictions with the religious and political authorities inBucharest, authorities political and the religious with such frictions of Irrespective Episcopia ortodox ă român ă , 36. 67 228 in Bucharest, such in Bucharest, 229 Therefore, CEU eTD Collection 230 “the he emphasized Cluj, to directly Referring provinces. acquired newly in the policies upon newthe political contextandpointed thenecessitytowards nationalizingpromotingof touched argument Moldovan’s Furthermore, Great. the Stephen of past the heroes national Romanianimportant Transylvaniamost ofone and through Moldavia initiative the of the connected becausethis betradition emphasizedneeded especially to remarkable past villages 15 during the in these Orthodox two of activity the to referred documents Medieval Feleac. and thesponsored construction invillages churches parish of namely near two situated Cluj,Vad voievodeMoldavian Steven domains two Greathadthe Corvinus received from Matthias and Transylvania going backas faras MiddleAges.the In 15 the in of i.e. roots Orthodoxy the basedtradition historical on the newbishopric the of necessity Valer Moldovan, church councilor andof Nicolae supporter Ivan’sinitiative, expressed the headed group by formulated Ivan.Nicolae requestthe during In from the SynodApril 1919, initiative an by significance symbolical aheavy by enhanced were reasons administrative left a sumhad who of Saguna, Andrei money Bishop Metropolitan of testament the on based for were discussions The the founding of two new reasons. in from administrative Cluj purely a bishopric of thenecessity had Church discussed bishoprics. 3.3. APlacefortheOrthodoxCathedral inCluj Orthodox. by the initiated that to similar symbolism identity national of display well-orchestrated a though space public Sebastian Stanca, Sebastian After the end of the First World War, the Synod of the Transylvanian Orthodox Transylvanian the of Synod the War, World First the of end the After Episcopia ortodox th and early andearly 16 ă român th century. Moldovan argued importance century. Moldovan the that such of a ă , 22-29. 68 230 After 1918, these practical these After 1918, th century, he stressed, century, CEU eTD Collection 234 233 inevitable rivalgroupswithin quarrels between the church,Ivan won majority the votes. of Although the elections for the leadership of the new religious institution were marked by denomination, while the figure of Steven the Great was represented on the Bishopric’s seal. Bishopric of Vad, Feleac and Cluj”.postponed until July1921,when the “re-establishment promulgated a royal decree of the The names of the two villagesAlthough Ivan leftfor Cluj in autumn the the of 1919, actual foundation bishopricthe of was were kept in the official there. from Bishopric Orthodox new the of organization in onthe his andfloor main second of started work the a building square situated city’s the aroom at rented he space, inthecity community Orthodox the of new place the emphasize city’s had nosignificantperiphery and architectural properties.and Asif symbolic to province:the Iulia inAlba-Iulia, in Vatra Cluj (1907) and Lumina in (1910). Sibiu was importantequally asthe spiritual foundedone, he also small banksin thelarger in cities emancipation economic the that Convinced of ASTRA. Committee Central member of the 1898 from and Sibiu in Council City the of member a became Sibiu, in Cathedral Orthodox the of works construction the of management the in involved was He councilor. a as then 232 journal religious local at the an editor as first inSibiu Church Metropolitan hisbegan he was carrier asaschool already In Orthodox employedteacher. bythe 1890, inBorn at village in nearSibiua small the age 1855,Ivan chose priesthood twenty-five and 231 strong city Transylvania,our of which is today still estranged” national mission of our church of contributing to the conquest and transformation […] of a Sebastian Stanca, Sebastian Sebastian Stanca, Sebastian Sebastian Stanca, Sebastian Sebastian Stanca, Sebastian The construction of a Cathedral in Clujwasalsodecided July inSibiu, on 20, 1919. at the Church situated Orthodox was hemet asituation a small his when Upon arrival, When Nicolae Ivan arrived in Cluj in October 1919 from Sibiu, he was already 64. Episcopia ortodox Episcopia ortodox Episcopia ortodox Episcopia ortodox ă ă ă ă român român român român ă ă ă ă , , , , 42-43. 33. 51-53. 27-28. 69 233 231 . Telegraful Roman Telegraful 232 234 , CEU eTD Collection ú of Vad, Feleac and Cluj. Studies Documents)and (Cluj: Editura Arhiepiscopiei Ortodoxe a Vadului, Feleacului 240 Romania. into Transylvania 239 Vasiu, 238 Feleacului 237 located. was Great the Steven of grave where the inPutna in Monastery Cluja Bishop to with Bucovina, were concluded ritual pilgrimage 236 235 walls of Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity publicceremony broad with intended by participation as organizers. the showedlack and discord of for a support public new Orthodox bishopric ratherthan grand Prefecture. by the well, havemissed as to seems was Greek-Catholic, who Pop, Iulian Mayor The Bishop. Orthodox new the to congratulations official send they attend, although not clergy did members of Greek-Catholic the the community. Importantly, Catholics. Lutheran, Calvinist and Unitarian churches were all represented, as was the Jewishrepresentatives and Metes, the Petru by Prefect, the ceremonywasattended event. The important this witness should community, Orthodox the only not city, whole The residence. his to of allparticipants would city the including mainthe cross center, accompany square,and bishop the other in all which aprocession to organize insisted city, periphery the atthe Ivan of church situated religious placein the Since in religioustook service Orthodox ceremony public space.the the city’s communities,His installation as ina Bishop 1921wasthefirst December opportunity stagingof an notably with the exception for the Ruling Council oneletters: addressed the hetwo to forJanuary wrote cathedralbuilding.On 26, 1920 the i Clujului,i 1985), Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond V-11-919, doc. 47-920. of integration gradual the insure to aiming agovernment, as functioned that body administrative Regional Nicolae to According installation. of his occasion on the speech Ivan’s inNicolae included was reference This Nicolae Vasiu, Ion Bunea, His presence is not mentioned in the accounts of the event. of the accounts in the mentioned not is presence His Infr Episcopul Nicolae Ivan, ăĠ irea, Meanwhile, comparing his mission to that of the Prophet Nehemiah who built the built who Nehemiah Prophet the of that to mission his comparing Meanwhile, ú i Clujului. Studii nr. 493, December1921. 83. 239 , and the other to the local Municipality. 236 The symbolical gestures connected with the installation of as with of connected installation the ThesymbolicalIvan gestures ú i documente 82. Episcopul Nicolae Ivan (Bishop Nicolae 1855-Ivan 1936. Founder of revivedthe Bishopric 70 1855-1936. 238 235 Ivan focused hisefforts on finding a place 237 while the official organized whiletheofficial was dinner Allininauguration all, ceremony the Ctitorul reînviatei Episcopii aVadului, 240 Although were Although requests the CEU eTD Collection and purpose and were demolished, a cattle market was organized here. At the turn of was of the here.At the organized andturn market a cattle and weredemolished, purpose builtthison At space. beginning the of 19 the was previously nothing thecity, of with defense the connected reasons military of Because medieval city walls. in former the vicinity of immediate a place on the arranged situated public space thatwasalso usedfor all of kinds public ceremonies. authorities would have agreed on placing twomonumental churches in a relatively limited Union Square already strong Hungarian connotationscarried and itlocal wasdoubtful that be his placed in clearly church, with wanted cathedral avisual Catholic dialogue to the some deliberation, however, his final suggestion was the first option. Even though Ivan street from the Catholic Cathedral Carmen Popescu, Carmen Cathedral Catholic the from street 243 242 241 in andthe Union the vicinity church. Catholic one Theatre, the other the of Square, of National the front in park wasthe locations: one different abouttwo hadthought Bishop The cathedral. the of placement the regarding Ivan’sconcerns alsoreflects letter this draft of Council, and the indisposal fromof a plot city the center Municipality.the handwritten This belongings andfortunes. financial Ivan from requested therefore support Directingthe influence in thelost now city Hungarians if even contrast, By administration,humiliation. signified city the of periphery the “their churches” (i.e. hidden” “stood small Orthodox religiouschurch the incity. factthat confessions at The the Catholics) preserved most andofillustrativetopography relations the ofthe existingbetween was ethnic power groups their in meekplaces.” the andraise their from their thrones “I leaders shall the Gospel of them political contemporary order: Luke andrelated the to push symbolical versefollowing the by be summarized could which and same the was argumentation the Ivandifferent, chose as a motto to his letter that referred to the words of the Asimilar undertaking occurred in Alba-Iulia, where Coronationthe Church was constructed just across the Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond V-11-919, doc. 47-920, fila 5. The quotation is from the Gospel of Luke, chapter 1, verse 52. The new Cuza Vod ă (former Bocskay) Square in front of the National Theatre was Le style national roumain, 71 th century, when fortifications lost their function 241 In Ivan’s opinion, the urban the opinion, Ivan’s In 212-213. 242 243 After the CEU eTD Collection Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond V-11-919, doc. Ministerului Agriculturii siDomeniilor, nr. 40348-1920. 245 244 Theatre. National the Commerce and of Chamber the Justice, of Palace the as such there buildings cultural and administrative important andconstructed newcity center this spaceasapotential chose authorities century, this type of rhetoric were eagerly understood. However, things became complicated on the on complicated became things However, understood. wereeagerly of rhetoric this type by local at where constructed level adopted center, theadvantagesdiscourse the soon of was authoritiesthe failed respond tohis to for provision the requests of additional funding. This when andparticularly used many by were later, on occasions Ivan meaning of Cathedral the Cathedral. Orthodox the of construction the support should state the that believed Ivan reasons, these all For event. inbecommemorating Unification the itsconstruction 1918,since possiblewould duetothis during their toCluj. travels monument In was alsoaddition, this be supposed to visititbe bound would to representatives Kingandgovernment as Cathedral with the this image associated family become of would and of government Romanian royal central the the the city, the in non-Romanians the For confessions. religious other of churches large the with space, whichcould compete behad an successfully to architectural equally representative building its therefore and provinces new inthe state the representing was Church the argued, Ivan institution, life. than a religious More of Romanian a center become city the should that insisted and Transylvania within Cluj of importance symbolical the to referred Bishop The Cathedral. the of building the sponsor to necessity of the state convince the to meant rhetoric This second location was what Ivan had inmind for Cathedral.the empty. remained one other while the areas, oneof these on constructed was Theatre National of the building The parks. as small arranged were street by the separated plots rectangular See forexample this letter addressed tothe Minister of Agriculture on September20, 1920; in Arhivele Vais, Gheorghe These arguments, which became part of a well-articulated discourse on the national on the discourse of a well-articulated part became which These arguments, addressedIn his letters tovarious central institutions Clujul eclectic , 85. 244 In the middle of the two “twin squares”, two 72 245 , Ivan employed nationalist employed Ivan , CEU eTD Collection no interestno for public sanitation visited[being] only in the evening bypersons without reasons about the true behind journalist, decision,as according“this this tothe parkrepresents of of objected. engineers, associated to the Municipality, namely the Secretary of Public Sanitation and the commissions bodies local administrative twoother However, bythePrefect. confirmed was further square and moral where. tothe referred of churchinmodern the Therole or society decision the of improvement aesthetic the as such issues the he emphasized mayor, city a responsible of worthy decisions making of logic general a with in line Instead, mentioned. even not were planned any national words“Cathedral” the with “Romanian” Cathedral claims. or Moreover, monumental building” monumental a of construction the “the through space beautification of to public the would contribute the constructionof a Cathedral would constitute a threat to public health. community in the city did not Orthodox need the such a number, monumental reduced its of religious because that edifice. believed Otherwise,commissions itis of these difficult members the to that explainsimply why 249 248 Orthodox Greek- of the construction the for Bishopric Orthodox the isto yield Cuza VodaSquare which according Thespecific documenta to Mayor signed the purpose. plot.” yielding the on agreed commission the side, from our long After persistence place. see the 247 246 3 onMay which acommission, appointed Municipality “the Cathedral: the councilorBishopric inhis Orthodox the of wrote to Sebastian monograph Stanca dedicated future negotiation, the this Awitness of Consistory. of the with negotiated representatives the that a commission named government local the 1920, May in Finally, Consistory. Orthodox local levelastheMunicipality yielding the repeatedly the of decision postponed theparkto The documents of Orthodoxthe Bishopric do not mention the reason behind this decision. One might suspect Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920,copy of the document- nedadat Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond V-11-919, doc. Prim Sebastian Stanca, Sebastian 246 On May 8,the Local Council finally theapproved free concession forof this plotthe church ” Episcopia ortodox 247 in the hope that it would bring “moral benefit to Cluj inhabitants” and it and inhabitants” Cluj to benefit “moral bring would it that hope inthe 248 249 . The Greek-Catholic mayor of the city avoided to connect the connect to avoided city the of mayor Greek-Catholic . The The local liberal newspaper liberal The local ă român ă , 74. 73 ă riei 1487-1920. Infr ăĠ irea expressed serious doubts part of the park in the rd came with us to CEU eTD Collection 255 254 253 1920. 252 251 250 occupation and housemaids”. approve the yielding of the park to the benefit of theCathedral benefit the of park to yielding the approve the of the interdiction of constructing a monument of Romanianness in the city. and construction of a Greek-Orthodox The of importance. account, because into onreasons based they secondary taken are be not will engineers of commissions the and Sanitation for Public Secretary the members of represent:by authorities “The privilegeopinions claimed expressed to theirthe exclusive central the that of nation” interests the “best the against be raised could bodies administrative the Ministry of the Interior left no place for further contestation as no decision of the local cathedral there. cathedral the space in front of the National Theatre to the Orthodox Bishopric in order to build a and 1920 Municipality with central donated the orders 10, complied of city.”the October On the north andnot the east as was the age-old religious custom of the Orthodox. In addition,he in location of face because would ifconstructed altar building tradition,this the Orthodox placing Squaremeantdisregard Puscariuin Voda Cathedral arguedthat the to Cuza the The in was discussedof April1922. proposal Synodsthe Bishopric, the one during of pride”. “monumentnational of for place constructing amore this appropriate would constitute university andmemberprofessor Assembly,when Diocesan the of suggested Citadel the that Orthodox Cathedral,the whichcontinued duringnext years. the Sextil two Puscariu, Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 2039-1922. Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 2650 My emphasis. Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920,Copie dupa ordinul Ministerului de Interne 5340-10070/nr. Infr Infr national ăĠ ăĠ irea, irea, Only the intervention of Bucharest authorities finally forced the local administration to local finallyforced the administration authorities Bucharest of Only theintervention However, this decision putnotdid thisHowever, an theright decision placeendfor concerning debates the to September26, 1920. September26, 1920. 253 necessity. Therefore, we believe that it should be constructed in very heart bethe constructed it that we believe should Therefore, necessity. 254 250 The journalist believed noreasons that couldjustify infact Romanian 74 cathedral in Cluj represents a cultural, religious 252 . Apparently, the letter from letter the . Apparently, 251 255 CEU eTD Collection approved the construction of the Cathedral on the basis of the report sent by the Ministry of Ministry the by sent report the of basis the on Cathedral the of construction the approved government the on place.July 1922, thatbe On 1, for constructed the Cathedral would except be Furthermore, clearly themunicipaldemarcated. authoritiesno insisted that buildingother provideBishop to aprecise groundplan Cathedralthe of in its dimensionswhich outer would Catholic Catholic and Orthodox groups within the city. Greek- the between tensions of the beanindicator might This church”. “the as simply itappears 1920s the of beginning the at Municipality ofthe inthedocuments or“church-cathedral”, “cathedral” as construct to aimed Again my emphasis on theword ‘church”. Although the Orthodox always described the religious building they 257 256 for the construction of the Greek-Orthodox limited] [read territory asthethey “appropriate of deemed what Bishopric representatives the win aimed competition. the to that project context, monumentality and aheight of leastat 50 meters were strongly recommended for any sinceandhad be thebuildinga prestigiousinto to centrality. Moreover, inscribed architectural accessibility be to decided visibility sacrificed would experts that the options, analyzing both where. and when Cathedral the for plans the selected that jury the of members incidentally were the also Nicolae who Ghika-Budesti, architect Marcuand engineer Dumitru top of a hill andincreasebecomecould thecosteven problematic would further. the to materials construction the of transportation the while financially, afford to able be to greatdimensions thecommunity that Citadel for the Cathedral of location too a would require he argued Furthermore, center. city in the place the obtain to order in made had he efforts the citing objected, Ivan building. new the for visibility greater provided it that was Citadel the of buildings. advantage The important crowded with too squarewasalready thatthe stresses Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920,doc. 4242-1922, doc.Primariei Orasului Cluj nr. 6064-1922. Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 2230-1922. Finally, a Municipality newappointed the negotiate commission with to the opinionthe for experts, The membersof finallyappealed Bucharest of Bishopric the 75 church ” 257 . The local government asked the 256 After CEU eTD Collection Vlad (En tuto nika,Timisoara Vladtuto (En jury: of atthe end. projects fulfilledproject, the Victor following requirements The the eight Ciortan (Bucharest) andG. Maller and Marcel I. Strenzel (Noiemvrie 1921, Sibiu), Károly Kos (Byzantion, Cluj), Constantin Pomponiu and PomponiuConstantin Kos Cluj), (Byzantion, Strenzel Károly 1921,Sibiu), (Noiemvrie Timisoara) from Simu Dumitru wrote that specialists to Ivan information further requesting Károly Fényes from were Arad Bucharest as well as Hungarian, Romanian, Jewish and German architects. Among the 267 266 265 264 263 262 Roman Telegraful 261 260 259 Ministerul Cultelor si Artelorsub 34670-922.nr. 258 Consistory published official the in announcement newspapers:three first deadlineJuly established was to postponed1, being toNovember1921. The 1, Competition 3.4. TheProject lei. million 1.6 namely financial providing constructionArts, Cults contribution the ofthe first Cathedral, and the to Motto of the competition entry and city of residence of the architects. Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 2118-921. Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 2274-921. Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 2118-921. Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 1854-921. Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 1742-921. Vasiu, Cluj. in Party Liberal National of the newspaper daily The Sibiu. in Church Metropolitan Orthodox of the journal official The Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920,Copie dupa Jurnalul Consiliului de Minstri inregistrat la The competition attracted the interest of many architects from from manyand architects Transylvania of theinterest The competition attracted The for competition project building oftheCathedralwas the opened in1921.The Episcopul Nicolae Ivan, 259 from from Sibiu and 258 102. 267 263 ), Nicolae), (Nihil Simtion Deo,Sibiu),Sine Buermes and , Marcel Maller (Bucharest) Maller Marcel , Înfr ăĠ irea 76 260 from Cluj. 266 . However, none of them submitted a 261 264 , Karl Ballereich (Sibiu) Ballereich Karl , Argus from from Bucharest, 265 262 , , CEU eTD Collection Transylvanian architect of Transylvanian of architect Hungarian andapromoter origin of Hungarian folkloricistthe style project was completely Romanian, with no foreign elements. ofhis character style the and declared that architect the elements, all Given these project. advantages of the greatest tobethe spacewereconsidered the of acoustics and special the mix of oriental and occidental elements, the use of Curtea de Arge The with anddevelopment. combination basilica cross a longitudinal of Roman the Greek the a was plan the author, the to According style. national Romanian the of promoters while usually arches in used by structure anarchitectural employing Stravopoleos, the twisted towers from the incentury constructed historicistromantic tradition. church in Curtea de of international Romanianthe pavilions at duringthesecondhalfexhibitions 19 the of Arge reminded façade The andMoldavia. Wallachia from churches medieval late several of cross inCluj. Cathedral Orthodox the perceived traditions architectural from different coming wayarchitects for the representative followingmade aspecial Bishopric tothe of request askingthereturn their competition Inthe entries. paragraphs, I will discuss four of the projects, which I believe were also romana din Cluj, doc.3529/921. 270 of Romanianness by mixing architectural elements from the most famous Romanian monasteries and churches.exhibition from 1867 is maybe the most characteristic representationof the tendency of constructing the identitatiiimage nationale 269 of the Cathedral). construction the for submitted plans ofthe authors (The Catedralei” zidirea pentru inaintate planurilor “Autorii 268 Lothariu (Nihil Sine Deo II, Cluj) and Sterie Becu (Bucharest, IRIS) George Cristinel (INRI, Bucharest), Ioan Pamfilie (Acustica, Sibiu), Ioan Alexy and Zoltan Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 3529-921. Proiect pentru biserica Cathedrala ortodoxa For the Romanian participation in Parisian international exhibitions, see Laurentiu Vlad, mention the with envelope bigger a in preserved simply being file, the in registered not are envelops The One of the perhaps surprising presences in the competition was Károly Kós, alocal Károly inthe Onewas competition surprisingpresences of perhaps the The project entitled Acustica and authored by Ioan Pamfilie from Sibiu looked like looked entitled by a from The andauthored Pamfilie Ioan Sibiu Acustica project architects Some were preserved. competition in the participating Few designs the of (Images of National Identity)(Ia ú i: Editura Institutului European, 2007). The pavilion at the 77 ú 269 with the orientalizing entrance on ogee This architectural hybrid combined the 270 ú as a source of inspiration 268 . Imagini ale th CEU eTD Collection 276 tuto nika”, filele 1-6. proiectelor de concuren de proiectelor 275 tuto nika”, filele 1-6. dome of the Cathedral wouldthe that be suggested he placed Although dome. inthe and plan the axisGreek-cross the with of IuliuOrthodoxy associated Maniu Street in Square Rome” Peter like byinthe chose model bepreceded Saint“colonnades the would a monastery,which of proiectelor de concuren de proiectelor 274 catedraleunei ortodoxe înCluj. Motto: Byzantion, fila 2. concrete be material would reinforced still the used although missed byKós. not wasintentionally or “target” symbolical the Therefore, square. inaparallel situated church the Catholic visual with “dialogue” suggesta was to 273 1. fila Byzantion, Motto: Cluj. în ortodoxe catedrale unei edificarea pentru 272 271 under titleFor his Byzantion presented the project, in architecture. interested to place the Cathedral was not soplacemuch CuzaVod to the interested was not the Cathedral was Bishop the in which context the showed, previously have I as However, Theatre. from the opposite just street, the to aposition closer chose andtherefore Theatre National with the be in“dialogue” should placed Cathedral the that considered Hungarian architect Byzantium.” from in likeancient “just Greekchurches can observe the one interior, the for mosaics and marble and exterior the for bricks and stone as such materials, traditional use ByzantineUnlikesemi-domes architects, alsoreminded other Kósaimedto examples. of of asuccession by adome and building of covered the structure architectural The compact Sophia”. in Hagia world, the Cathedral “thegreatest ofinspiration was the source words, Late-Antiquity church,Byzantine cross-shapedhis adeveloped Greek plan.According own to Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 3589-921. Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 3010-921. Memoriu tehnic curpinzand descrierea Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 3010-921. Memoriu tehnic curpinzand descrierea Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920,“Descriere tehnic Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 3002-921- “Descriere tehnic Cathedral. of the Museum the in preserved Kosare by Károly authored plans The Other architects had more ambitious plans. For example, Victor Vlad from Timi Ġă Ġă pentru zidirea catedralei Greco-ortodoxe române din Cluj si înaintate sub mottoul “En mottoul sub si înaintate Cluj din române Greco-ortodoxe catedralei zidirea pentru pentru zidirea catedralei Greco-ortodoxe romane din Cluj si îinaintate sub mottoul “En mottoul sub si îinaintate Cluj din romane Greco-ortodoxe catedralei zidirea pentru 274 . However, the Byzantine style of building the would bepreserved, 78 ă a planurilor deconcurs pentru edificarea 275 ă Square itself. Square challenge The . Like most architects, Vlad. Likearchitects, most 271 , Kos chose the plan of a ă aplanurilorde concurs 276 , thus openingthe , thus 273 ú The oara 272 CEU eTD Collection topic. However, they do not miss addressing the importance of the Cathedral in Cluj. in Cathedral ofthe importance the addressing miss not do they However, topic. book Orthodox church architecture constructed during the interwar period, they dedicate afew pages only to this 279 Cuza Vod explained cupolabe thatthis in would which placed the axisof ManiuIuliu Street, connected architects In a manner, the very of building. explicit the bewould main the characteristic nave believed the dome toRomanian above thatthe entrusted specialistsonly. authors The be should Cathedral the as such monument national a letter: motivation this to added also Probably anticipating competition the non-Romanianof a xenophobic architects, was touch involved “animated declaringgot by competition inthis they feeling”. that a patriotic project, forthe a basis as “moral considerations” some identified architects the competitions, in the presented projects other the Unlike chosen. solutions the motivated they in which letter Pomponiu from Bucharestemphasized the nationalist since rhetoric thebeginning of their 278 277 Budesti, the two of the most famous representativesin Londonthan a to traditional church.Byzantine Cathedral Paul’s Saint and Pantheon Parisian the as such models occidental ofmore resembled the Romanian nationalPopescu style of the Carmen as since, thedome, was precisely context Byzantine from the “foreign” strangely traditional triconch explain specific tomedieval Romanian churches. The element that was longitudinalthe used,whileapses,the lateral axis although was the diminished, alludedto on emphasis an with plan cross-shaped familiar churches. The two the compare and could see mentioned. was church theCatholic with relationship symbolical clear no square, parallel the towards perspective Augustin Ioan, CarmenPopescu, Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 3588-921. The jury was constituted by Bucharest architects Petre Antonescu by Petre andNicolaeGhika- The jury architects Bucharest constituted was INRI, entitled theplans of The authors 278 ă and Augustin andIoan Augustin Square with the Union Square. Therefore, anyone walking on anyoneIuliu ManiuStreet on walking Therefore, Union Squarewith the Square. Power, Play and National Identity, Le style national roumain, 279 pointed out, with its pointedout, gallery on open columns, thedome 255. 30. Althoughboth architectural historians discuss in their 79 277 architects George Cristinel and Constantin and Cristinel George architects CEU eTD Collection that would be given to the Orthodox Church. According to the representatives of the of representatives the to According Church. Orthodox the to given be would that andplot exact establish the project toanalyzewinning anew the which appointed committee Pomponiu. The competition could notend without anotherintervention by Municipality,the Bishop, emphasizing all the inconveniences that could resultfrom the designs by Cristinel and Marcu accused the winning project of of plagiarism project winning Marcu accusedthe while “Byzantion” and“In nika” tuto receivedmentions. second prize, the with was awarded This project motives. decorative the of simplification with the connected especially suggested, changes were A series of style. monumentality and recommended the designed project by and Cristinel because of itsPomponiu fitting jury the However, churches. Orthodox Romanian “authentic” from different too unity. majority of the plans: the lack of a Romanian character and the absence monumentalityof and the of rejection the main motivated reasons Two be awarded. prize would firstandno sendplansBishopric to to toBucharestfor thefinal evaluation. it travelargued thatin they was impossiblefor them to the Therefore, province. asked the arrive in January Cluj on 19, 1922, 286 they were collaborators of Duliu Marcu ( Arhivele Mitropoliei when Dudu Clujului,Madona Fond for II-23-920, doc. façade the 1608-922). designed have themselves they plagiarism, any from far that replied architects two The Craiova. from Dudu Madona namely designed, he churches ofthe ofone façade the copied having 285 284 283 282 281 280 of Ivan. collaborator a close Marcu, Dumitru andtime, engineer Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 1392-922. Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 227-922. Duliu Marcu accussed Critinel and Pomponiu of Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 868-922 Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 868-922 Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 127-922. Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 9-922. Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 3613-921. 283 The results of the competition aroused tensions among participating architects. Duliu architects. amongtensions aroused participating The of competition the results According to their opinion, none of the projects completely fulfilled the requirements The project submitted by Kós was appreciated as a valuable work, butits design as byKós was was The a valuable work, submitted appreciated project 281 the two architects blamed the unfavorable weather and weather unfavorable the blamed architects two the 80 285 , while Vlad while , 284 282 286 280 wrote a long letter to the Although supposed to CEU eTD Collection 289 12 million lei, winningproject the envisioned abudget of 36 million. Bank. National the of Governor the Ferdinand,members anddiscussed the prime-minister, the issuewith and of governmentthe visited King delegation of construction The Cathedral. the the for financial resources provide innecessary toconvince to Bucharest authorities the central traveledorder to (1923-1933) Cathedral of theOrthodox 3.5. TheConstruction cityscape that the Bishop also hadin mind was by speculated architects. two the Catholic from church Unirii Square. This of “competition”element for domination the of the in ita visual expression ofRomanianness, the but adialogue with that beplaced should also bebe not Cristinel constructed. was only buildingthe had to and understood to Pomponiu that where context Cathedral tothe with the was invested a symbolic meaning,clearly connected Pomponiu and Cristinel by signed project the jury, the of requirements the completely almost fulfilled that designs of the qualities artistic the In my besides sources. tothe opinion, return suggest something more winning the hadto than a simple project Byzantine architecture, Transylvanian cities andBucharest. Although from specialists Orthodoxy all associated with various comingfrom architects numerous interest of inthe Cluj Cathedral attracted 288 287 utility. Municipality, the local government would like to use the rest of the space as a public Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 868-922. Sebastian Stanca, Sebastian Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 1148-922. 287 As I showed in this chapter, the competition for the construction of the Orthodox the of construction the for competition the chapter, in this showed I As Although the Bishopric in Cluj claimed that the cost of the project would not exceed In March 1923, a delegation composed of Ivan, Ion Lupa Episcopia ortodox ă român 288 ă , 77. 81 ú , Vasile Duma and Petal 289 Thefund raising ă CEU eTD Collection Official Gazette of the Regional Commissionof Unification), 294 63. bani, cinemas on the whole territory of Transylvania. Although the cost of the stamp was of only 50 museums, houses, opera institutions such astheatres, in cultural pricetickets entry the all of issue Ministry Finance would approvedIvan’s aspecialstampproposal of to be added that to individuals tofund contributed for example, theCathedral.For in December 1920,the least. Ortodoxe din Cluj, fila 1; published in 295 Catholics Greek- including cults, non-Orthodox the favoring of government the accused Orthodox period in the Party.that Although by werecontrolled National-Peasant the governments 293 292 1924, doc. 41672-1924, doc. 2580-925. various governments. See forexample Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-8-923, doc. 14481-March24, 291 290 Bishopric. the of initiatives different through raised was rest the and budget, local the from came lei reached 9million lei, among which8million was the contribution of government,the 500,000 fund in Cathedral 1929,the For example, andlocalauthorities. central contribution on of the of for of works the imageconstruction. Theprovideanapproximate documents Bishopric the budget yearfrom every local the allocated money amount acertain of was these documents, contributed Cathedral to the funda smaller even campaign raising if to extent. Bishop, yet itcould provide onlylimited amounts offunding. million crowns. campaign began with initial the donation of Directingthe Council in 1920,consisting in2 Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920,Regulament reativ la timbrul cultural penru cladirea Catedralei Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-8-923, doc. 8037-927. Numerous letters from the part of Ministry the of Arts and Cults document the financial support offered by Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 1458-1921. Renasterea Actele Adun 295 the measure was never applied because of the protests raised by the groups perceived raised by groups the protests because the of never applied the measure was and associations variousinitiativesprivate other organized bytheBishopric, Other 294 293 , these numbers show that such claims might have been exaggerated in the very in the exaggerated been have might claims such that show numbers these , (The Renaissance) (The ă The numbers are significant because in 1929 both the local and the central the and local the both in 1929 because significant are numbers The rii Eparhiale pe anul 1929 ( 290 The government usually responded positively to the requirements of the , February 24, 1929. Gazeta Oficiala a Comisiunii Regionale de Unificare din Cluj The The Documents of the Eparchy’s Assembly on1929) (Cluj, 1929), 82 June 23, 1921. 291 Local Municipality also Municipality Local 292 According to (The CEU eTD Collection 305 304 303 302 301 300 Bucharest promised toprovide acompensation 2 million lei.of were cancelled because of bad of weather. because were cancelled Although Ivan received the approval of Prefectthe andtheMayor moneycollect tosupportthemselves,inbut alsoin forCathedral. the order to theCity Park patronize number to celebrations some popular journalists decided of unemployed Romanian construction of the Cathedral, with an automobile as its top prize. fundscollect for the aimedto lottery it a even organized andPrefecture, the Municipality Cathedral. bells pay the of of for one the agreed to manifestations by Bishopric. Cluj organized the belimited cultural tothe stamp of the to usage the andrecommended initiative renounce this such as concerts, theatre plays, and conferences. and plays, theatre asconcerts, such cultural events, campaigns andall of kinds Cathedral byorganizingfundraising patronizing Stanca, Sebastian to According Cathedral. ofthe works construction the means by all supported and charity in involved Rosete Petala. Gathering the wives of the male members of RomanianOrthodox elite in Cluj, the association got 299 298 297 and tensions. discontent created that adecision impose and policies local in interfere to able actually was state the extend what refused to pay for astamp destined exclusively for the benefit of the Orthodox Church. This example shows to 296 Church.” [Orthodox] our of “enemies as Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 3083-1922. Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 2901-1922. Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 2901-1922. Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-8-923, doc. 6628-925. The Society of Orthodox Women in Cluj was founded in 1921 by the wife of ArhiveleGeneral Mitropoliei Clujului, FondNicolae II-23-920, neinregistrat. Petala, Miss Stanca, Sebastian Sebastian Stanca, Sebastian Renasterea Renasterea Episcopia ortodox The Society of Orthodox Women Other types of events were organized as private initiatives. For example, in 1922, a , May 26, 1929. , January 6, 1924. Episcopia ortodoxa romana, Episcopia ortodox ă român ă , 72. ă român ă , 75. Most probably, Transylvanians of other confessions ofother Transylvanians probably, Most 75. 75. 305 296 299 Average people from the parishes all over the over all parishes the from people Average 83 strongly supported the construction of the of construction the supported strongly As a consequence, the Ministry decided to 300 297 At the request of the Bishop, the Society 301 Later on, the Ministry of Culture in Culture of Ministry the on, Later In 1929, with of support the localthe 298 302 304 , some of these festivities these of some , 303 CEU eTD Collection 309 Population of Romania in 1930, 2 1930, in of Romania Population General al Popula Recensamantul General alPopula Orthodox population of city. According to the census in 1930, in Cluj there wereparticularly almost 12,000small, it Orthodox.is probable See that the Bishop advanced his claims having in mind the number of the entire 308 Rena Clujului, Fond V-11-919, doc.2398-1920, while Romanianthe National Bank offered 1million lei-see 307 306 to my best do still will I , native my from myself emancipate to tried Ihave Although of for somePatriarchy Cluj. becomes provide branch, sort it since always hasto support […] newspaper believers.” 300humble yearscanhardly accommodate for that ten parish church understandingand “forced andsupport us Orthodox(i.e. the stay inRomanians) to small this himlack their of to demonstrated according which local accused thecentral andauthorities, 307 broughtBishopric theirmodest contributions also Bishopric, to which belongs also my native village, Topli village, my native also belongs which to Bishopric, an end, Cristea comingnew from construction came funding In1933,when requests Ivan. works the close to wrote of became wary Cristea Miron tosuch astheRomanian collaborators, close Bishop’s Ivan the following:”Despite allliberatedbelong Transylvania”a parishan butnot or tothe eparchy, to my gooddoes […] war world the of battlefields the on died who those of willmemory in the constructed toward theinvoking Cluj sensitiveinfluence Newspapersgovernment. triedthe to both public by opinion and the government, issues central the to when addressed especially it hadin mostof cases effect, the and employed, such wasoften monument the with associated rhetoric nationalist as the donations, encourage the memory of the war. “This monumental work […] For example, the Marmorosch-Blank bank from Bucharest donated 50,000 lei – see Arhivele Mitropoliei see Arhivele – lei 50,000 donated Bucharest from bank Marmorosch-Blank the example, For Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-8-923, doc. 13-920, 231-921, 74-921, 470-921. Patria Patria, ú terea As late as however, and1929, Ivan lack of the publicinterest directly complained As the construction works prolonged unexpectedly over and over again, even the even again, over and over unexpectedly prolonged works construction the As , June , June 8, 1928. May 1, 1929. Although a church that can accommodate 300 persons cannot be described as , August 31, 1924. Patria Ġ iei României pe anul 1930. vol.II- Neam, limb in 1929. nd Ġ iei României, 1930. volume- Nationality, mother tongue, religion], Bucure 84 Vol. II- Neam, limb 306 , bankswhilemade significant donations. ă matern Ġ ă ă a, I have the feeling that the that feeling the have I a, , religie materna, religie, [General Census of the 309 ú ti, 1930, xciv. Recens , wrote the Cluj 308 In order to ă mântul CEU eTD Collection 315 314 1718 and 32-923. detailed offers also are to be found Arhivelein Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 1712, 1713, 1714, Român pentru construc Negru F. engineer 313 312 311 310 Cluj, of by Prefect the supported was offer this therefore and Ieremia engineer liberal the Cathedral Orthodox had astrongpolitical background. The winning company was by owned with the construction thecompanythe of entrusted concerning decision-making process executor of Cluj commands.” the Patriarch, “Miron, in thesameregister: wassigned letter The yourhelp Bishopric.” into discussion. company in Coronation hadbuiltthe that Alba-Iulia, church Bucharest of the theoffer chose and renegotiations, price after also probably options, the situation. concerning this provideforced explanations to to “non-Romanians,”Several voices claimed that the constructionand of the Romanian Cathedral could notbe entrustedthis company was owned by two Germans and a Jew, Ivanproject. was was signed.contract By Cristinel 1924, only full committed remained to the the realization of Cristinel number of Amongproblems. them important mostthe one was a splitbetween Pomponiu and of the Bishopric to choose the company in company the Cern choose to of Bishopric the companies from different regions of Greater Romania presented their offers. These companies were: Edilitatea from Bucharest, the Technical Bureau ofl.Boh Bureau Technical the Bucharest, from Edilitatea were: companies These Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 2951-924. Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 3252-922. Letter writtenBucharest, in on July 8, 1933,published by Vasiu, Clujul Clujul, ă de Intreprinderi from Bucharest. According to Sebastian Stanca, toSebastian According Bucharest. from Intreprinderi de Beside financial issues, the construction of the Cathedral was accompanied by a by accompanied was Cathedral the construction the of Beside financialissues, 312 , 8 iulie 1923 June 17, 1923. 17, June 311 Second, the choice of the construction company also proved problematic. Seven problematic. alsoproved company construction the of choice the Second, the two architects who had won the competition and with whom the initial Ġ ii si lucr Ġ iu from Cluj, Intreprinderile Generale Tehnice Tiberiu Eremia from Bucharest, Societatea Bucharest, from Eremia Tiberiu Tehnice Generale Intreprinderile Cluj, from iu Patria, ă ri subterane Cern the newspaper of the National Romanian Party, wrote that the that wrote Party, Romanian National the of newspaper the 310 ăXĠ i, engineers Bozsik and Szömörkényi from Arad, and Societatea 85 ăXĠ i caused negative reactions in thepress. i negative reactions caused Episcopul Nicolae Ivan, 314 When the Bishopric reevaluated Bishopric the When 315 Eparhia ortodox political political aspects werebrought ăĠ iel and F. Koncz in Cluj, in Koncz F. and iel ă român 247-248. 313 Thedecision ă , 77-78. The CEU eTD Collection however, when Ivan asked the Coronation Commission to donate the wooden skeleton already skeleton wooden the donate to Commission Coronation the asked Ivan when however, from Bucharest.” “thecomes light wouldthat this symbolize gesture that arguing by Cathedral the to crown royal the of shape in a chandelier, main the donate to II by requested In1933,Patriarchsupport Ivan wasoften rejected. Miron convinced KingCarol Cathedral was sometimesministries. various from or transportation useful, but in many cases practical motivations includesworkers an equal number of Hungarian Romanianand names. prevailed and the Nagy sculpted the stone decorations following the Byzantine tradition Byzantine the decorations following the stone Nagy sculpted Ro Orban and Vasile Theodor Seltenhofer Workshop. tothe in Ivan theCathedral’sfour bellsand Sopron, personallychosetoorder workshops. engineer Tiberiu Ieremia, a series of other works was entrusted to differentsmaller companies involved in thebuilding in mix. activity facta complete was Besides the society by owned both the Bishop and by featured thediscourse nationalistic the Despite began. works construction the arenaafter the local Romanian press, the actual composition commitment”. Christian of the professionals Railway Company, asking for a dediction of 20% from the transportation price for raw materials. raw for price transportation the 322 from of 20% a dediction for asking Company, Railway money. 321 this from families their support to have that a petition in which they complain about a deduction of the salaries, explaining they are only seasonal workers 320 319 318 Hungarian and Jewishcompanies wrote in Romanian, some used also Hungarianor German. back of each letter, the Bishop wrote the draft of the answer using the same language. also with allthe othersAlthough that worked had forthe Cathedral wasmost carried in the oflanguage used sender.the by the On the 317 316 Petru Mete Letter writtenBucharest, in on July 8, 1933,published by Vasiu, Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-8-923,doc. 1503-924. See forexample this request to the National Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-8-923,doc. 7598-1928. The names of workersthe appear at endthe of Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-8-923, doc. 6741-1933. Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-8-923, doc. 4496-1933. Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-8-923, doc. 5454-1925. The correspondence with thiscompany, but Patria, The Bishop made efforts reducethecostsby materials forfor discounts raw The Bishopmadeefforts to asking Ethnic tensions seemed to have ceased their existence once the new companies newentered companies the have once their existence to ceased seemed tensions Ethnic June 20, 1923. ú , also amember of the Liberal Party, who aimed favorto it motivated by a “strong 317 316 Other local specialists were entrusted with different commands: different with entrusted were specialists local Other ú ca collaborated for the electrical installation for theelectrical ca collaborated 321 86 The national rhetoric associated with the Episcopul Nicolae Ivan, 322 320 On another instance, another On 319 , while the list of 248. 318 , Bauer and, Bauer CEU eTD Collection 324 323 the Orthodox clergy and communityleast one of the two following processions in was theirtaking place: the crossingway of the fromcity center and at filled streets, the villages neighboring from of invited; largethe crowds were peasants by the small parish church to the place emphasized, reinforcing Romanian elite’s claims on the control of the public space. in bebetter Romanianpresence could city the the during ceremonies, these Moreover, thesymbolical meaningof into itappropriate Cathedral and integrate the their agenda. own importantconstituted moments for observingvarious thewayin aimed which actors to ceremonies these that Iargue by various personalities. and delivered speeches the center, city the crossing processions the to audience, from chosen the significance, symbolical strong require order to additional financial All support. elementsthe of these carriedceremonies a wereprogressing; construction the hand other works on the he in usedtheseasopportunities that show to interested he was hand, On one Cathedral. the to public attention attract means to wereused place Ivan by moments as Cathedral 1933.These Nicolae 1923 and between took Ceremonies Space: Official Staging andPublic 3.6. Orthodoxy,Romanianness Romania and the Cathedral in Cluj was missed. Greater Kingand Queenof as crowned were Mary Ferdinand and where between church the used for constructionofthe the inchurch Alba-Iulia send to Galati, a city byaflood. Galati,affected acity send to Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 1260-923. Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-23-920, doc. 874-923. These ceremonies followed a similar pattern: local and central authorities political local central and pattern: asimilar followed These ceremonies Several ceremonies connected with the consecration of different elements of the 324 Therefore, any Therefore, possible symbolical connection 87 323 , he was refused and the materials were CEU eTD Collection citizens, Carol inhabitantscitizens,insisted of should thatchurches symbolize Carol allthe peaceamong the the construction of an imposing religious edifice. However, as future king of all Romanian of a church.Similarly, Romanian victory in GreatWarbe the the had remembered to through foundation victory military the with whichmarked every Great, the such as voievodes Steven Pimen. declared independencetowards it and guiding in remain idea should the thefuture, of society the people Romanian the leaded had Church The Orthodoxy. and nation the between connection strong the expressed Church Orthodox the Pimen, Metropolitan Moldavian the of voice national significance, being reflection aconscious Romanianthe of identify. Through the neighboring villagesstood in back. the from coming peasants the square,while both the on sides of wereposted students School Women. Orthodox of Society the of members the namely “ladies”, for one third the and for for guests:one andforeign authorities arranged the onefor ministries, clergy guests and Maniu, Emil Maniu, Ha Iuliu as such Party, National theRomanian of leaders Greek-Catholic yet Transylvanian, 327 325 Cuza Vod attendingmainIn the was theceremony. guest the followed. Carol prince Crown above wascarefully described pattern The 7,1923. on October same tothe Station CuzaVod Railway the from officials Bucharest of road andthe was constructed, Cathedral where the Party’s official newspaper, whose chief-editor was a Greek-Catholic. a was chief-editor whose newspaper, official Party’s Orthodoxy” ,equaling Romanianness with Orthodoxy, was published on the front page of the National Romanian newspaper of the Orthodox Bishopric. See 326 the in Cluj. Yet, their names are omitted from the account published in published account the from omitted are names their Yet, Cluj. in Party National Romanian the Patria Patria Patria In his speech, Prince Carol integrated himself in the line of Romanian medieval Romanian of line in the himself integrated Carol Prince speech, his In As the newspapers explained, the ceremony carried a historical, political, religious and The first of these ceremonies was the laying of the founding stone, which took place which stone, took founding layingof the wasthe of ceremonies The first these , October9, 1923. Please notice that this article, authored by R. Dragnea and entitled “The Call of , October5, 1923. , October 5, 1923. The presence of these politicians among the guests is mentioned by the newspaper of newspaper by the mentioned is guests the among politicians ofthese presence The 1923. 5, October , 327 Ġ ieganu and Romul ieganu andBoil Romul ă Square. Rena ă ú terea, . 326 325 88 October14, 1923. The ceremony was attended also by the by also attended was ceremony The ă Square, three pavilions were Square,three Rena ú terea , the CEU eTD Collection 332 331 Arhidiecezan Feleacului 330 329 wise man who built his house on the stone so that nothing could demolish it. was compared with the new Sion, while, using a Bible example, Ivan portrayed himself as the Romanian culture, a center of light and shining sun”. The Cathedral that was to be constructed “Today Cluj ceased Carpathians. In his speech, Ivan emphasized the aspect bymakingof apowerful statement: being the Golgotha the across livingRomanians to salvation brought that sacrifice soldiers’ will the and of our sufferings, Cluj has becomeis God us.” that with and accept a center of possibly non-Romanians tothe referred livinginthe city:you “Nations, should understand Orthodox the Liturgy, pronounced words the Bishop by when the was foundingthe laid stone 328 foreign from rule.“ brothers for theliberation their greatwarof the August “theVirgin,inbegancelebrated on Motherlandthe daywhen 1916 armies 15,the of the of Assumption tothe wasdedicated Cathedral the Therefore, war. the during soldiers Romanian of sacrifice with the Great the Steven of legacy the connecting of Cathedral, the meaning symbolical the summarized document The church.” holy the of construction the for worker dedicated most andthe initiator as “the emphasis, particular received Ivan of Nicolae name The Church. Orthodox the of clergy high the and government the of members the Carol, Orthodoxy. Carol’sinterpreted as words an invitation addressed toGreek-Catholics ofjoining country,brothers” promoting “understanding among In Romanian: “Neamuri, în “Neamuri, Romanian: In For a copy of the commemorative act, see Alexandru Moraru, Alexandru see act, commemorative the copy of a For Rena Rena Rena ú ú ú The narrative on the Romanian unification was reduced to two elements: the divine The commemorative act put on the founding stone carried the signatures of of Prince signatures carried the put on founding stone the act The commemorative terea, terea, terea, ú i Clujului ă 329 , 1996), 253. October 14, 1923. 14, October October 21, 1923. 21, October October 21, 1923. 21, October (The Cathedral of the Archbishopric of Vad, Feleac and Cluj)(Cluj-Napoca: Editura Cluj)(Cluj-Napoca: and Feleac Vad, of Archbishopric of the Cathedral (The Ġ elegeti elegeti 331 ú i v ă pleca Ġ i, c i, ă ci cu noi este Dumnezeu.” este cu noi ci 89 328 Catedrala Arhiepiscopiei Ortodoxe a Vadului, . Significantly enough, the Orthodox the enough, Significantly . 330 Although from taken 332 CEU eTD Collection 337 334 336 edifice. lasting a for requested sacrifice human the constituted nation Romanian of the “martyrs” the all that argued Ciorogariu after he agreed on building in its walls his wife Ana. The parallel with the Cathedral in Cluj is significant, since 335 333 withhells andpurgatories.” threaten seems to cross was a symbol of forgiveness, theOrthodox while the that wrote newspaper one However, same. the one approximately was edifices of “the black cathedral (i.e. the both of height Catholic since the church, Catholic the made with be could comparisons Cathedral, the church) Prefect.in the Once includingRomanian Mayor society the Cluj,was placed cross and the on Although not an officialOn BishopJuly 6,1926,the which consecrated cross the abovethedome.was placed ceremony, it was attended by thenation”. most Romanian the of sufferings the of cross “the important was Cathedral the members of one the stone, founding their had churches all If sacrifice. ofwithout theconstructed be can Referring legend war. during the Monastery the Arges to of Hungarian regime- the protagonists of the Memorandum trail and those who were imprisonedwith memory the allof Transylvanian those Romanians whowerepersecuted during the of andsuffering for theirin asking of new solidarity the framework the state. Mayor Octavian Utalea followed the same lines, emphasizing Transylvanian Romanians’ past the building efforts. Diocesan Lapedatuasked Synod, royalthe house andcontinue government the to supporting the cross that was put victory.Cathedral was he symbol founding the By church, explained,Romanians this of took on their grave and raised it above the Cathedral. In the name of the Romanian legend about the necessity of sacrifice- Master Manole could construct the Arge the construct could Manole Master sacrifice- of necessity the about legend Romanian Rena Patria Renasterea, Rena ú ú Two other similar ceremonies were attended by local-basedlimited, audience. a more similar wereattended ceremonies Two other Cathedral the associated clearly of Oradea, Bishop of The speech Roman Ciorogariu, claimed the who that The voicelocal of Lapedatu, wasAlexandru intellectual the elite terea terea, , October9, 1923. , August 15, 1926. October 14, 1923. 14, October October 14, 1923. 14, October 333 Two other speeches, by the president of ASTRA Vasile Goldi 337 90 335 , hearguednothing that lasting 336 334 ú Monastery only Monastery ú and CEU eTD Collection 340 341 Eparhiei Ortodoxe Române, 1933), 10. (November4, 5and 6). The Consecrationof Romanianthe Orthodox Cathedral from Cluj) (Cluj: Tiparul 339 in forfights ourliberation”. andmartyrsthe sacrificed heroes the sacrifice.As Lupasclaimed, foundations the Cathedral of the thewere lying“on bonesof the War One and the fate of the Romanian soldiers were integratedemphasizing theterrible of pastTransylvanian Romanians. Inaddition, story the Worldthe of into the main narrative of the 338 Romanian andelite such as Lapedatu Lupa government. the of contribution construction of the Cathedral were estimated to 67 million lei,from which 54 million were the for the The costs 1933. 4and6November between for days, three lasted Cathedral, which solidarity. Romanians’ of symbol a as invited Association, Women Catholic activitythe described she which in speech, a deliver to invited was of Women Orthodox the of Society her association. Anotherway. novelty was from neighboringthe villages, butalso Army, the who performed military music all along the the participation was moreSquare even visible,not only included since it clergy the and hundreds of peasants of Women This all time, from Cuza and donators. procession Voda the parishthe churchto the choirOrthodox the of Society the Ivan, Nicolae Bishop Ferdinand, King of Cathedral: the for works Greek- the of initiation tothe contributors main fourth the of reminded bells the of inscription The in frontof Cathedral. the flag and with national transported the immediately covered were Zile memorabile (4, 5si 6 Noiembrie).Sfintirea Catedralei Ortodoxe Române din Cluj Zile memorabile (4, 5si 6 Noiembrie) Rena Rena ú ú Naturally, the most elaborated ceremonies were dedicated to the Consecration of the of Consecration the to dedicated were ceremonies elaborated most Naturally, the Although the speeches used the same rhetoric, for the first time the president of the Sopron, from arriving after which, bells, the consecrated Bishop the later, year One terea, terea , April 24, 1927. May 8, 1927. 340 , 19. The speeches by Nicolae Ivan and the members of the local ú 91 were constructed along constructed were the same arguments, 341 (Memorable Days: (Memorable 339 338 CEU eTD Collection 342 before: Romanians should preserve the memory of those who had foughtfor their years delivered with his discourse ten new surprising similarities of speech Kingpresented the organized by in Municipality Memorandum samehall the place. the where took trial continuity. Romanian reinforcing voievodes, intointegrated hisclaimsbeing of ahistorical lineof of heir enthusiast and young a as himself presented Cluj, in Cathedral Orthodox the of front pastthe of Transylvanian was while yearsRomanians, King,who returning in the afterten organized infront of in Cathedral the tobevisible crowd. Ivanorder tothe spokeagain about dressed square, religious filled was service inStudents national the costumes while the in be made entireheard the city ceremony center. the megaphones the technology; modern lines of the audience. The ceremony in front of the Cathedral was orchestrated with the use of first in the were officials local and clergy high Orthodox the Hossu, Iuliu Bishop Catholic members several Greek- generals, the the army of government, Alexandruthe Vaida-Voevod, prime-minister Transylvanian-born station. railway in Cluj arrive to train royal the for waiting today, which is not Romanianized enough.” of wehave one instead the of Cluj, center becometo truthful is meant the wonderful place This Theatre. National the of front in constructed Cathedral Orthodox the one, last the shines hard work of proves Among all these etc. parks sewerage, lighting, public buildings, streets, see you accomplishments: youRomanian Wherever turn, Romanian administration. sealof the the carries today TheClujfrom yearshad ago. 15 we same one the the is not as from “The city today from Sibiu: byajournalist landscapewasdescribed impact urban the on 343 For the symbolical meaning of the Memorandum trail, see Chapter 2. Foaia Poporului, The religious ceremony was followed by a military by anddinner anofficial followedparade a military was The ceremony religious On November 5,1933at10 am, representatives of national localand authorities were Special arrangements were made for the day of the consecration. The Romanian November 12, 1933. 12, November 342 92 343 A CEU eTD Collection Faculty”, whichwas also true, if one would stay onthe northern side. landmark of square, the the Calvinist wrote that edifice the was constructedinfront of building the “of our all otherthe story narrated from Calvinist perspective accountsshows their own point of view on the topography of the city: if in the Orthodox Cathedral Romanian local pride.Although membersof National former the Romanian the Party were is placed in front of the National Theatre, which was the main 346 345 344 in Vod Cathedral Cuza Orthodox victory. The Transylvania’s union with Hungary in 1848 andthe Memorandum intrial 1894. of the proclamation had witnessed samespace the that mentioned He dinner. the of importance hall accommodating about historical the spoke the Alexandru Vaida-Voevod A formermemberParliamentbeforein 1914, tothenationalist Budapest the returned rhetoric. activity. successful Mákkai himBishop Sándor visited and for Ivan and congratulated his achievements Calvinist The solidarity, Christian of name inthe the that emphasized author the Bishopric, Calvinist the of newspaper official the in published account The guests. official only thanks to the donations of all citizens of Romania, irrespective confession or ethnicity. constructed was newCathedral the article emphasized, the its Therefore, for construction. Romanian victory; yet thegovernmenthad paid than more 50 million lei from budget state the to the participation of theUnirea King and the government. The cathedral could be seencountry. a sign of by the attentionemancipation; yet, thegiven members of other religious confessions should not feelto disadvantaged the Orthodox; their ultimate best interest is the interest of their Unirea Zile memorabile (4, 5si 6 Noiembrie), Reformatus Szemle , described the event as a “pompous ceremony” that received national due national as a“pompousreceived ceremony”proportions event that the , described For apart For of Transylvanianthe Romanian elite, this indeedof was the momenttheir liberalHowever might royal the speech wordsof have the sounded, prime-ministerthe the been have to seem Calvinists the communities, religious Hungarian the Among feltThe Greek-Catholics by unmoved this kind Their of newspaper, official rhetoric. 344 (The Union) , nr. 30-31 (1933),, nr. republished in 346 nr. 45(1933),nr. republished in 38. Zile memorabile (4, 5si 6 Noiembrie), 93 Zilememorabile (4, 5si6Noiembrie), ă Square could be considered a proof of Squarecould beconsidered aproof 95. 96. Significantly, 345 CEU eTD Collection and mutual and mutual understanding. with peace connected meaning church, of the other the he emphasized Therefore, Romania. inhabited byamajority of Hungarian speakingnow partof which was population, Greater by forgetnot speculated thecity advantage King.the did he wasvisiting Still, was Carol associationhimself in the line of the Romanian rulers by offounding a church, as in the medieval times. The the Bishopricplacehand, hetheRomanian nationalisttwofold. rhetoricandaimed to supported On one withas muchthe prestige image as possible. obtainin officiallargerhiscould Cluj,Carol visitsensure II triedto popularity. atwo During of Steven Given the themulti-ethnical Great characterwas minority. absolute the represented space of in a city Greek-Orientals the which definitely of the city, his tacticsinBishop didin his toestablish everything power presenceorder an inthepublic Orthodox another was the Cluj, of importance symbolical the Understanding requests. yearsperpetual of three Municipality finally “surrendered” and agreedonyielding the plot the Bishopinsisted onafter appeals.The his repeated at only funds Cathedral for the The government allocated project. thesuccessof this challenging guaranteed that mainreason the was certainly determination him. ansupported Ivan’s that elite Cluj constituted in University the teach at cameto that intellectuals Romanian Cathedral. monumental a constructing and Bishopric Orthodox in first byfounding the history re-write Cluj to was decided with Ivan recipe, a readymade struggles. their of results long-term toseethe content Romanian Churches, at divided by political different among lines and existing between two the separated tensions the least some of the former fighters for Romanian emancipation were Finally, the Royal House was content to associate itself with this new initiative that newinitiative this with itself associate to wascontent House Royal Finally, the The Cathedral also became a personal victory for Nicolae Ivan. Coming from Sibiu 94 CEU eTD Collection hero’s birth centenary: Siviu Dragomir. 348 8, 1924) (Cluj:Ardealul, 1924), 58. Greco-orientale Vidra de Sus, tom. II, p.47, 42,nr. in Ioan Lupa 347 Transylvanian leaders.Romanian in Deeplyinvolved all twiststhe and turns of revolutionthe ’snation. But disappointment among alreadyinMarch decisions 1849 produced armies, they wouldimperial the of side the fought on have Romanians becausethe that, hoped Iancu defeated, obtain the recognitioncooperation withof theirthe parties. Their sidingwith Vienna in however, themfrom 1848, ruling annihilated precluded political nation of therights interestboth region, of of because short-lived divergent the revolution the unsuccessful of and were andthe days early in the Hungarians.elite a better revolutionary Hungarian the along them bringing of Attempts moment. fate When forthe revolutionhis crucial by at that Vienna equal demands for with siding recognition and representation was foster theirinRomaniansRomanian Mountains. the armedused1848to resistance Apuseni be in Iancu became declared the open conflict, Hungarian to the leaderof revolutions, lawyer. asa trained andlater Cluj, Romanians” [Numele, prenumele si ocupatia mortului: Avram Iancu, Eroul Romanilor.]” of the Hero the AVRAM IANCU, dead: the of occupation the and surname “Name, mention, a man Apuseni to Theasfollows: Mountains. referring48 yearsold,went short of villagein the small Sus, a inVidrade Church Greek-Orthodox the of Parishthe Register Monument in theMemoryofAvram until Iancu 1914 of“thea oftheRomanians”.4.1. Hero Theidea Drawing thePortrait INCLUJ AVRAM IANCU OF STATUE FORTHE HERO?PROJECTS 4 –LOCAL ORNATIONAL CHAPTER edin For a typical narrative onIancu’s life, see the biography written by Silviu Dragomiron the occasionof the Actul dedeces aluiAvram Iancu, nr.par. 40-924, Extras din matricula mor a Academiei Born inBorn villagethis in Avram 1824, Iancu receivedCatholic schooling in and On August1872, theRomanian 29, Avrampriest Orthodox inserted arecord in Leahu Române la 8 iunie 1924 Avram Iancu 348 (Avram Iancu. Conference held at the on June on Academy Romanian the at held Conference Iancu. (Avram During the 1848revolution, Romanian the after and (Bucure 95 ú ti: Casati: , Avram Iancu., Comunicare f ù coalelor, 1924). ilorcomunei a biserice ă cut ă în ti 347 CEU eTD Collection sculptural representation of their hero. whocommittee, actually significant encountered problems in selecting the most appropriate However, it is significant that, despitethe project, e.g. thethe fundraising best campaignefforts and the sculpture competition, wereof part practical the The commemoration. Avram Iancu’s with tasks connected initiatives official the of the foundfrom excluded themselves Greek- Party, National and theRomanian played asignificantrole in history the of Transylvanian untilRomanians 1918, namely the thathad actors major someAt same other the time, in project. the involved degrees, different such as localthe Municipality,the Orthodox Church,ASTRA and the government became, to actors other committee, membersof the the answer.Besides hadto of project the initiators the some These that questions the of be wereonly wouldit berepresented? placed? Iancu How meantplayrole Whereshould landscape? in What to for statue wasthe city thisthe purpose. incorporated into Greater Romania, when, at the end of 1920 a special committee was createdCluj. The idea of this monument emerged only century. early the twentieth two years after Transylvania majority of Transylvanian in Romanians subsequentthe decades in of latenineteenththe and was officiallyinconsistencies,is it keepin important to thisis mind Iancu how that was remembered by the this concise lifestory is by clearly nationalista construct the narrative and thusfull of myth. The tragedy though hislife a into Even fighter. prolonged of shadow of Revolution the his he a village wasonly ownwords, villageany Accordingfrom to to without purpose. Romanians, Iancu withdrew into andnever himself left Apuseni the Mountains, wandering situation as a personal defeat. After he realized nothing would improve in the condition of camps in order to “save” the Revolution against the ‘despotic’ Russian and Austrian empires. Austrian and Russian ‘despotic’ the against Revolution the “save” to order in camps violent conflicts during most of this period, in the summer of 1849 attempts at reconciliationwere made defeatedby by Habsburgboththe andRussian intervention. Although Romanians and Hungarians had been involved in 349 and concomitant ethnic-civil warin Transylvania TheRevolution andethnic-civilwar inTransylvania prolonged until summer the of 1849, when itwas In this chapter, I will discuss the projects for a monument to Avram Iancu in interwar Avram forIancu to amonument projects the Iwill discuss chapter, In this 96 349 , Iancu perceived the new political , Iancu the perceived CEU eTD Collection Muntii Apuseni emancipation). For anaccount on Iancu cult published in the interwar period, see Traian Mager, either knew him personally that intellectuals orsimply by Transylvanian used written his articles image as (numerous a press basis written for inthe and constructing Mountains) Apuseni the a discourse about Romanians’ replacement. its for 351 asking voices many debates, and controversies great raised statue ofthis qualities inaugurated in 1993 on the place where the interwar statue was meant to stand. However,failed projects the doubtful of the interwar aesthetic period. Among them, the most important was the statue of Avram Iancu, 350 Cluj. city, Transylvanian important most in the during period interwar the never erected Avram for was Iancu astatue initiators, of the only be remembered as a heroic battlefield fighter and remained associated only with onlywith the associated and remained fighter heroic battlefield asa beonly remembered involved in the revolution, who after 1849 continued their efforts by legal means, Iancu would struggle for and social emancipationpolitical in Unlike Transylvanians Transylvania. other in theirhis in a1848 Romanian defeat contemporaries a trapped of that reminded period memory. in cultdevelopedthe hiswith connection around on space. public claims Romanian in the city reinforce presence the and withconnected itforimportant emphasizing the 1920swereequally during Romanian the argue that even if the project was failure,a the idea itself, and the series of debates and events I Finally, agenda. own her or his with in connection actor each of contribution the emphasize will and I project of the stages practical the Iobserve Second, by actors. various statue to the attached meaning symbolic the on interested Iam First, aspects. complementary focustwo on Iwill adiscourseonthemeanings context. intheTransylvanian created Romanianness of italso but history, in national the place narrative on Iancu’s only not a specific generated of group every interests the between negotiations The divergent. somewhat agendas were their However, actors. the of for each agoal was the city of Romanianization the degree, a different To involved. actors the for legitimacy of symbol a as functioned and being into is this failure alsoone of tasks the of chapter. this The Iancu cult was present both in the oral tradition(e.g. stories, songs, poems composed by peasants from After the 1989 Revolution, the nationalist mayorof the city, Gheorghe Funar, re-considered many of the The story monument be IancuThe story inCluj only plannedthe to properly can understood of In the following pages, Iwill present how the project for the Iancu statue in Cluj came (The Cult of Heroes the inthe Apuseni Mountains) (Arad:Tiparul Tipografiei Diecezane). 350 Identifying some of the possible explanations for 97 351 Mentally, Iancu had remained had Iancu Mentally, Cultul eroilor în CEU eTD Collection 354 figure importantother in thelocal/regional pantheon.Accordinganother obituary, to nation”. Romanian independence of the the Romanianthe nation,andfighter greatpatriot the for autonomy the of forTransylvania and A beloved articlein son. short published samenewspaper Iancu “thethe of described as hero body hermost the dead of around togather allherchildren nation invited Romanian the family.become hero’s the had nation entire the that stated time, the of rhetoric nationalist romantic a of typical obituary, the caseof In the Iancu, of deceased. the by thedearones are usually written announcements Romanianimportant simple, dailyinTransylvania,yet publishedFuneral obituary. atouching 355 situation. this explain can 353 schools Catholic attended he fact the However, Greek-Catholic. as registered was he records school his in since existed, religion Iancu’s regarding disagreements Some 1899. in Catholic, intellectuals. Romanian Transylvanian among strong very still vain.” in been have sacrifices and hopes my all that realize I sadly, now, and success; much without see happiness the my of Nation. Forthis purposeonly foughtI have I until now, have suffered connected with the pessimistic words of his last testament: “The only wish of my life was to 352 both Orthodox and Greek-Catholic writers. history of Transylvanianthe RomaniansTransylvanian history Romanians’ was shared by lackthe ofsupport from Vienna. The consensus on meaning the of personality Iancu’s for the and Hungarians with conflict the both encapsulated figure His nation. whole the of sufferings the tragedy and whocarried inhim the alivingmonument Iancuwas his contemporaries, For nationalist. and centralized more and more turned Monarchy Dual the of half Hungarian events after further in complicated 1848-1849. Thesituation 1867,andespecially 1875,asthe Quoted in Although Iancu was an Orthodox, his first biography was published by Iosif by Iosif published was biography first his Orthodox, an was Iancu Although Gazeta Transilvaniei Gazeta Transilvaniei 353 The funeral announcements published at his publishedThe funeral at announcements deathin Iancu that was cult1872 show Patria , September 14,1922. , September 21,1872. (Journal of Transylvania),September 21, 1872. 354 The metaphorwent juststraightforward: like a mother,grieving 352 355 His image was almost a sacred one, and the one 98 Iancu’s tragic fate differentiated him from himfrom any fatedifferentiated Iancu’stragic Gazeta Transilvaniei terca-Sulu Ġ iu, a Greek- a iu, , the most , the CEU eTD Collection Vajdahunyad castle Budapestin city park constructed for the1896 exposition. 360 1995), 37. national narratives. national both in Transylvania of significance symbolic great the of sign a clear – time the of pantheon as János Hunyadi inis Hungarianhistory, a key alsofigure of Hungarianthe national known half whoin enough,, actually ranking.the of Ironically theappears second national even Iancu drivehistories: contested deHunedoara, by today of disentangling the proves included thelistthat name only one Transylvanian thatname and isheavily itself in during thehalf second characters of famous OldKingdom the 19 historical the side of sideeven of was Carpathians the mentioned. not than Wallachiathan and Moldavia. status sincehad it in participated “another history”, being into adifferent integrated context of Oldthe Kingdom. Although considered Romanian, preserved Transylvania anambiguous in Romanianon works history represented synthetic the as compared territories with other the less was Transylvania period, interwar for the observes Boia AsLucian heroes. remarkable most its of one as Iancu include should pantheon a pan-Romanian that believed nationalists istorice române Brave. the Michael and Great the Steven like fighters independence medieval of figures known better the as place same the occupy should he canon, a pan-Romanian in that arguing nation”, the of Primar Transylvanian Romanians. Therefore, Transylvanian Romanians. Iancuhopes, fights, words, embodied allthesufferings of disillusionments and the 359 357 356 published by 358 The importance of Hunyadi in the Hungarian history is clearly illustrated by the exact copy of Hunedoara / Hunedoara copy of exact by the illustrated clearly is history Hungarian the in ofHunyadi importance The Mirela-Lumini Lucian Boia, Lucian Gazeta Transilvaniei Telegraful Român ă 357 ”(The national Gallery of Historical Characters in History Textbooks for Primary Schools), in However, few apparently only those among enthusiasts Transylvanian Romanian Telegraful Român Telegraful Istorie ti (Romanian Historical Myths), Lucian Boia ed. (Bucure a Murgescu, “Galeria Na “Galeria Murgescu, a (The Romanian Telegraph), September 19, 1872. 19, September Telegraph), Romanian (The 360 , September 14,1872. i mit în con It is telling that Iancu, number one hero of the Romanians on the other the on Romanians the of hero one number Iancu, that is telling It 358 , “his life was the exactmirror of our national life” tiin Furthermore, Lumini a româneasc Gazeta Transilvaniei ional ă de Personaje Istorice în Manualele de Istorie din din Istorie de Manualele în Istorice Personaje de 99 ă ,223-224. Ġ a Murgescu’s analysis on the gallery of considered him to be “the martyr him to considered ti: Editura Universit ă 356 ii Bucure th . In other century Mituri coala 359 ti, CEU eTD Collection Tribuna. duringyears thelast of 19 the inmostly newof emerged newspaperarticles that on discourse personality Iancu’s heroic a type they Moreover, generated nationalists. bytheRomanian published newspapers articles numerous tothe due especially further commemorations, Iancu for context favorable a created trials The Romanians. Transylvanian fervor among nationalist would create placetrialssubsequent took in 1895 and1896Theauthorities’ was thattheissueperception by political and Thefundstrong wasconfiscated authorities several Hungarian connotations. suggestion raisefundsto for amonument constructed on Iancu’s grave was bound have to intellectuals andHungarian inthecontext of authorities 1892Memorandum the trial would grave. be Iancu on the that placed sum amodest wreath a memorial formoney donate to of decided in political Szeged reasons voiced in 1894, when journalist youngthe Romanian Ioan Russu 366 century. of the turn atthe tensions Hungarian Romanian- of the climax the represented trial The of Romania. I, king of Carol intervention the after released political trial ofa which took protagonists the place became in Cluj signatories in the 1894.affair, Some Hungarian of internal the itan accused considered were Emperor the sentencedSince to prison, butnation. finally Romanian the for rights equal for asking Joseph, Franz emperor the to addressed and Transylvania from 365 364 362 361 Clo Horea, inheroes with Transylvanian1938 together such asHunedoara, Bucharest other was depicted, for example, full end the fledgedmemberofnational a pantheon. wasalready He 1930s,Iancu of the on the great fresco of the Romanian Athenaeum inaugurated in 363 (read national) education. the first school with courses taught in Romanian. He is considered the founder of Romanianthe language-based See The Memorandum was originally a petition signed in 1892 by the most important Romanian intellectualsAbrudan, Paul Born and educated in Transylvania, Gheorghe Laz Gheorghe in Transylvania, educated and Born The leaders of peasantthe revoltfrom 1784-1785 in theApuseni Mountains. Lucian Boia, Lucian ú ca si ca si Cri Tribuna The idea to commemorate Iancu through the construction of a monument was first However, the situation was about to change during the interwar period interwar when,towards change the to during about was situation However, the 366 Other trials followed in 1899 and 1900after several students of what university ú (The Tribune), the issues from issues the Tribune), (The an Istorie Pentru un monument a lui Avram Iancu 361 , Gheorghe Laz , Gheorghe i mit în con tiin th ă century for example, the politically activist newspaper r 362 a româneasc andfriend Iancu’s andcompanion, Buteanu. Ioan 25, 29, 30 and 31 December1899. ă 100 r (1779-1821) transferred to Bucharest, where he founded he where Bucharest, to transferred (1779-1821) r ă 364 , 343. (ForMonument a of Avram Iancu) Given the tensions between Romanian between tensions the Given ù irianu,imprisonedfor (Sibiu, 1972), 17. 1972), (Sibiu, 365 363 , the , CEU eTD Collection interwar period. interwar approximately monuments3,500 were raised inthememory of fallenthe soldiers during the experience. war with the associated practices commemorative Remembering the War Dead”, 49-72. Dead”, War the Remembering 370 Identities: Nation and Memory 369 In Târgu-Mure process. initiatethe Romanianization successfully could local administration monuments already populating the urban landscape. Once the space had been “freed”, the new instatues spaces public precededby was sometimes dismantlementthe of Hungarian mannerintegration their into Romania. Transylvanian Greater the In insertion cities, newof monuments embodyingstatues and Romanian thus in its emphasizing avisible character, honor memorytheir in aproper manner. and beloved ones of sacrifice their the commemorate wished to local who of communities during 1920s.Therefore, the monuments emerged themajority initiativesthese of asprivate Romanian government did not articulate any official policy on commemorating war heroesMaria Bucurinher published recently book analyzed one, by first regard.The in be this can distinguished Romania. tendencies Two (1921-1924) Cluj in Statue Iancu oftheCommittee forAvram TheFirstInitiatives 4.2. IancuorMatthias? World War. First until the Iancu continued to monument a of issue the around authorities Hungarian and nationalists Romanian between 368 367 in grave Iancu’s on laid afuneral wreath Maria Bucur, in Romania”, Twentieth-Century in Heroes and Memorials War Past. the of “Edifices Bucur, Maria Maria Bucur, Paul Abrudan, Paul A phenomenon second consisted inmapping the territory of new the provinces with in Greater monuments for constructing yearsfavorable period werea The interwar War and Victims, War and Victims Pentru un monument a lui Avram Iancu 369 Although a number of these war memorials were state sponsored, the sponsored, memorials werestate war of these Although anumber , Maria Todorova (ed.) (New York : New York University Press, 2004), 163. (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2009). Press, University Indiana Indianapolis: and (Bloomington 3, 4. The argument developed inChapter 2,“Mourning, Burying and 370 ğ ebea cemetery. ebea 101 , 42-62. Heroes andVictims 367 In fashion,similar disputes the 368 According to Maria Bucur, to According , focuses on , the Balkan ú , CEU eTD Collection 372 373 betweenthe two communities the parties involved. community. The Romanian monument Hungarian was finally the of placed onrepresentatives the its planned to given and spot, thusbe removed would maintaining stones the that the tensionsordered mayor the Hungarians addressed acomplaint to Ministrythe of Interior, who supported them. However, during the night, same spot and argued that the stones on the place of the former statue still belongeddestroyed, to the Hungarianthem. Consequently, community attempted to oppose the construction of a Romanian monument on ofTârgu-Mure case the the in Târgu-Mure 371 a city in Romanian whichthe barely population 12% reached to the Unknownto the inSoldier 1923. Hungarian andpoet revolutionary Pétöfi Sándor destroyedwas and replaced with a monument was unveiled inNovember 1924with declaredthe “reinforcingof purpose the borders” asNagyvárad known border and awayfrom Hungarian the few justkilometers situated a InOradea,acity strong. particularly was perceived as foreign threat the border, national new of the of proximity the butinbutbecausealso majority, Romanians wereamajority territories where borderland the be inhad a notonly staged population cities the where to non-Romanian actually constituted context of Greater Romania. The semi-centennial of his death, celebrated in was Romania. his celebrated 1922, of of context death, Greater semi-centennial The of Romaniannation. final the for the victory have themselves seen to sacrificed victory were the unifying of elements discourse:both the Iancu andRomanian soldiers were and ideassacrifice of Thecomplementary too. atmosphere War commemorative World One itto thepost- also monument andrelate the contextualize aimed to project with this connected discourse the that I argue new However, territory. marking of the chargedsymbolic nationally Transylvanian city,its unofficial capital,clearly belonged Cluj, tothis second type of sponsored project. the who liberalthe government undisputed symbol Romanian of unity, a Romanian the represented dynasty safe choice for Virgil Pan Clujul, Patria The 1920s represented a favorable decade for remembering Iancu inthe afavorable forIancu new The remembering political 1920s represented decade In these circumstances, a monument to Iancu designed for the most important , November21, 1924. December9, 1923. This kind of violent interventions oftengenerated strong inter-ethnic conflicts. In ă , “Pentru un monument national Avram Iancu la Târgu-Mure ú ), in Marisia, ú , the dispute reached the central authorities. Although the statue ofPet statue the Although authorities. central the reached dispute , the in Hungarian, for example, a statue Romanianof KingFerdinandinfora statue the example, Hungarian, 26 ( 2000): 292. 372 Furthermore, such new markers of the Romanian presence 102 371 ú ” (ForMonument a of Avram Iancu , for example, the statue of the Ę fi had been had fi 373 . An CEU eTD Collection Committee, situated in the Cluj City in City Hall. Cluj the situated Committee, raising list was available at thein Cluj”. be constructed to Clujmonument, hero’s “the for campaign Prefecture, fundraising of bethe aspart sold meantto was brochure the its page, first on stated clearly and also at the office of the Executive 379 supported statuethe project. Transylvania suggests that at beginning of 1920s,the Orthodox and Greek-Catholic intellectuals equally 378 lui Avram Iancu 377 Ardealul), 1. in one ayearlater. Blaj, leastpublishedin at editions: two thefirst in one mostCluj, probably in 1921,and the second Ciura a Greek-Catholic, importantly wider reading public. A journalist, a school teacher and a member of ASTRA a memberof and aschool teacher Ajournalist, wider public. reading the to accessible be easily also would which narrative official an establishing of attempts 376 principal of one of the most important Romanian high-schools inCluj, “George Bari Greek-Catholic Afterpriest.studies Blaj,in Sibiuand Budapest,Ciura became the interwar in period the 375 Society of the Three Cri 374 scurt avie Romanian history were published on these occasions. AlexandruCiura’s booklet, elementin Transylvania. of importance were perceivedthe local hero for Romanian emphasizing the as opportunities important most the commemorating Romania, events the intoGreater integrated was recently equally interestedin the promotion for cultIancu of their theprovince own Since purposes. being Orthodox and Greek-Catholics Transylvanian both with level, local the on initiated was commemoration official his birth. The centenary of by years later the followed two Al. Ciura, in center Greek-Catholic important most the inBlaj, published book ofthe edition ofan existence The The Blaj edition of the booklet was republished by Ion Felea in 2003. Al. Ciura, Al.Ciura, small inAbrud,Apuseni Born townthe a in Mountains, Alexandru Ciura (1876-1936) son wasof the a See the membership list of ASTRA Cluj from 1920, after its fusionwith another cultural association, the Many books and newspapers articles on Iancu’s life and his importance for the Iancu’slifeandhisimportance andMany books on newspapersarticles Ġ ii luiAvramIancu Povestire pe scurt a vie Povestirepe scurt a vie (Short Story of Avram Iancu’s Life)(Cluj-Napoca:Napoca Star, 2003). Rivers, in Arhivele Na 377 The Blaj edition Blaj The (The Concise Story of Avram Iancu’s Life) was among the first ii lui Avram Iancu ii luiAvram Iancu 375 wrote wrote thiswith booklet a very As purpose. particular ionale Sibiu, Fond ASTRA, Procese verbale, III/42, fila 42. 379 103 378 Therefore, at the beginningat the Therefore, 1920s,the the of , 1. was more specific, fundmentioning the wasmore that (The Concise Story of Iancu’sAvram Life) (Cluj: 376 Povestire pe scurt a vie iu”. The brochure was 374 Povestire pe , but also ii CEU eTD Collection 1921-1922, I/ 262, fila 5. 384 2006), 32-35. ai Armatei aVI-a Transilvania senator in the Romanian Parliament. For more details on his career, see Iustin Patc Iustin see career, on his details more For Parliament. Romanian the in senator Army in the 1920 commanderArmy thefirst the and ofin Corpul VIArmat 383 382 editur Dandea. Politics and Administration), Dimitrie Popt faptele sale” (Emil Dandea- the man, his ideas and deeds), in deeds), and ideas his man, the Dandea- (Emil sale” faptele of the statuary group representing the Hungarian King Matthias Corvinus created animposing Kingcreated Matthias Corvinus representing Hungarian the of statuary the group interwar period Dandea the joined during War, World the First liberal ofthe end the camp. at See inTransylvania D. Popt events the in involved deeply Party National 381 Municipiului Cluj-Napoca,I/262, fila 208. Pia staged in the central square wereusually in ceremonies official 1919, power assumed administration After Romanian the of the city, the Main Squarethe statue (F would be placed immediately proved to be problematic for a number of reasons. support for the construction of the monument. the of construction the for support January council madefirst10, the lei the also initial financialof 50,000 donation as an of fundDandeathe coordinator remained background the campaign. raising life whileinfluential in city’scommittee, presidentthe becameof personality public the the appointed by the Minister of the Interior as Mayor of Târgu-Mure Mayor as Interior of the Minister by the appointed 380 in Cluj. Monument Iancu Avram of Construction Clujthe Municipality from 1919 until he1922. In1920, founded the Committee for the by wasemployed Like asalawyer,Dandea trained himself during Iancu period. interwar the December 1922until 1926 A memberand Party Mayor of Liberal the of Târgu-Mure National the significance. also gained thesupportof localthe government. it enjoyed notproject only local but intellectualsof confessions, of both interest the Romanian Arhivele Nationale Cluj, Fond Prim Born inVaslui(Moldova, Born Old Kingdom), Nicolae Petal “Statuia lui Avram Iancu” (Avram Iancu Statue), Iancu (Avram Iancu” Avram lui “Statuia Born in 1893, Emil Dandea studied in Cluj and Vienna. Although initially a memberof the Romanian Ashort entry in the register of the Municipality from December20, 1922 mentions that Dandea was Ġ a Unirii (Union Square). The imposing presence of of imposing The 15 the presence Square). (Union a Unirii ă "Mure The Cluj City The City initiativeCluj inCouncil agreedonsupporting Dandea’s early 1921. On The initiator of the monument project, Emil Dandea was also a local figure of figure local a also was Dandea Emil project, monument the of initiator The ú ", 1996), 8-10. (Commanders of Army VI Transylvania) (Cluj-Napoca: Casa C 380 , Dandea ă ria Municipiuluiria Cluj-Napoca,Registrul Prefecturii ora 381 was to play a key role in the story of Iancu statue ă Înfr ma 104 384 úú ă i Mihail A. Mircea, eds. (Târgu Mure Identifyingin aspecific which space public irea ă ă ma Emil A. Dandea. Politic 382 (1869-1938) commander was the Westernof the (The (The Fraternity) 985 (1924). General Nicolae Petal ú , M. A. Mircea, “Emil Dandea- omul, ideile si . Arhivele Na . Arhivele ă inCluj(1921-1924).In was the1930s, he Ę tér), which was now renamed th century Catholic Church and Church Catholic century ionale Cluj, Fond Prim Fond Cluj, ionale ă , Vasile Tutula, Vasile , ăú i administra ă 383 ăU ú ului pe anul , Casa de , afar more ii de Comandan Ġ ie (Emil A. ă ú ria from iint ă i , CEU eTD Collection between their respect and admiration for “the international art” (i.e. the King Matthias Statue) (i.e. KingMatthias the art” international for “the and admiration their respect between Orthodox Church”. Orthodox like just small withdraw the a side-street, on would to “be forced Avram statue Iancu case, worst the In Library. University the near square in peripheral the George of Saint statue the market,replace oritcould peasant of the innear place Square, in Viteazul Mihai placed listed by journalistthe appearedunworthy for memory the could hero: the of statue the be place in the heart of the city, onits main square, would be denied. The only remaining options appreciated as a great work of art. However, in reality this actually meant that Iancu’s rightful was where it of Bucharest, approval the square under central the dominate to continue would journalist, the wrote KingMatthias, figure of impressive The regarding situation. this 387 military parade, was staged in the Union Square. For the account of the festivities, see 386 festivities, ofthe account the For Square. Union the in staged was parade, military a including ceremony, official The intellectuals. numerous and Army the of representatives the government, occasion, Romanian authorities in the city welcomed the presence of the Royal Family, the members of the 385 King Matthias. A journalistfrom localthe liberal newspaper of was already filled statue the with Main space,the Square, public only truly representative observed that the city centerAvramin square.” to acity’s the Iancu a monument decision erectingof did not seem to offer toofrom many Sibiu, options for example,at that time, its unspecific regarding actual rather inthecity The newspaper place space. simply since wrote the that “the City Council in Cluj took the “alien” symbolism. loaded spacein with other already a place of creation a Romanian(ized) praiseworthy occasion of the gatheredon crowd andthe curious in square the everywhere flags posted Romanian officialnumerous The ceremonies. nationalist new the with in dissonance went that ceremoniesbackground could hardly be sufficient to seriously contribute to the “Iancu sau Matia?” (Iancu or Matthias?), in orMatthias?), (Iancu Matia?” sau “Iancu One of the first examples in this sense is the inauguration of the University in February 1920. On this Foaia Poporului The newspaper articles announcing the initiativeThe newspaper monumentwere announcing articles erecting the the Iancu of , January 16, 1921. 387 Therefore, the journalist urged, the local journalisturged, should decide the the Therefore, authorities Înfr ă irea 105 , September 12, 1921. 12, September , Înfr ăĠ irea expressed his concerns Patria, 386 Local journalists Foaia Poporului February 4, 1920. 385 CEU eTD Collection the moderate stand of attempts moderate the issueon adopted the Finally, bytheCluj this Municipality. Laz considered by respectable scholars suchasthefirst Romanian monographer of city,the Victor itwas because its place was on remained statue why the main reasons the of While one officials simply saw no need to choose between Iancu and Matthias in this particular situation. removing its thestatue “Hungarianof from the local location. king” original The government unchanged for anumber of reasons. First, the Municipality inmade fact noattempts of statue. by be Iancu the occupied to squarewas main in city’s the place members,the committee the supposedly Kingreversesymbolized. statue historic Matthias in To injustice, theview this of the that feelings” Romanian of “defiance the stop to order in intervention its asked Committee only authority was the theMunicipality a museum.into Since transferits immediate andrequested territory” to decide onTransylvania’s character “aHungarian King thestatue imposed of Matthias Committee, on the removal According members the the space. of to public city’s the of itsconcerning administration of a monument initial by support appealed Municipality,the Committee the for amore radical attitude situatedand more pro-active article on behalf of the Iancu Monument Committee. Acknowledgingin the a public place, inbe of marginal terms representation. the mostimportant monuments in the city should be placed in the main square, otherwise it would 390 Infratirea 389 and theirnational feelings. Victor Laz Victor in Iancu), Avram Fighter of the Statue the for Place (The Iancu” Avram luptatorului statua pentru “Locul ă r to be “the most beautiful monument in beCluj” monument “the most beautiful r to 389 However, despite this kind of aggressive newspaper rhetoric the situation remained rhetoric the situation newspaper this of kind despite However, aggressive At end the ofNovember same 1921,the newspaperpublishedless asimilar, emotional , November, 30, 1921. ă r, Clujul (Cluj: Ardealul, 1923), 63. 388 The by sharedopinion of supporters the ideathis was thatthe 106 390 , the second most important reason was reason important most second , the CEU eTD Collection (Bucure People’s Party in 1927. (See IonMamina, IoanScurtu, 1918, Lupa taught at the Orthodox Institute in Sibiu and he was an active member of the National Romanian Party. After 395 394 public feelings as inspiringspace, while functioning of a powerful, example andself devoted 393 392 “Delâng example See for blood. Romanian of purely king a as him presenting ancestry, Matthias’s exaggerate to tended written articles newspaper the However, scholars. history which was and is claimed to be of Romanian origin by the majority of bothHungarian and Romanian 391 Lupa Ioan than to theactualfinding fora practical answer Iancuof problem aplace statue. by enthusiast a nationalist offered solution aradical idealistic seems rather Ciura’s account be byallRomanians. of least known basicfacts the hislifeshould at canon, and national the into integrated be should Iancu that believed clearly he addition, In sacrifice. personal hero’s yetthe upon built world, a better into and placed itsfrom own context diminish the painful memories of the past. In Ciura’s vision, Iancu’s personality was extracted […]in wouldcity’s squares’.” the one of proud Iancu andstatue ’beautiful rise “Avram its in place, well deserved occupy would which culture Ciurastated, Romanian the transformation from a Hungarian city through a gradual by suggested thatthe would pass Ciura, opinions,like oneoffered the to a Romanian town. In the Romanian Clujmonument. the of of preservation in the a role tomorrow,played nationalizing himself KingMatthias byemphasizing hisRomanian origins could havealso emancipation had not been invain. been not had emancipation meaning: both proclaimingRomanians to and“foreigners” thatthe fightfor Romanians’ embodied anobvious statue this of In construction Ciura’s in the opinion, center. thecity would placedmonument, beapublicin a spacemaximum visibility representative situated of Born near Sibiu in 1880, Ioan Lupa Al. Ciura, Al. Ciura, Al. Ciura, King Matthias came from the Hunedoara/ Hunyadi dynasty, one of the most important families in Hungarian A member of the local Orthodox historian Consistory,professor and Orthodox university A memberofthelocal the all radicalnot voicesObviously, Other Romanian immediate solutions. encouraged ti: Silex, 1996), 198). ú became History Professorat the University in Cluj. Close friend of OctavianGoga, he joined the Povestire pe scurt a vietii lui Avram Iancu, Povestire pe scurt a vietii lui Avram Iancu, Povestire pe scurt a vietii lui Avram Iancu, 395 also would thatIancu believed statue occupy its rightful inthe place city’s studied History Latinand Budapest.in Before the First World War, he 393 The achievements of the present were meant to meant were present the of achievements The 107 Guverne si guvernan 5. 3-4. 3-4. ă statuia luiMatia”, statuia 391 i Patria, (Governments and Governors) and (Governments September19, 1919. 392 394 The statue However, CEU eTD Collection initiatives continued during the following year, when sets of by were setsof booklets distributed year,the following the initiatives when during continued benefitthe fund.of statue the Allbrochuressold were alreadyby 9,1921. December lei by be tosend cheap brochures hundred5 one soldto requested of ineach Prefecture the creatingfor project the Cluj alargerpopularsupport OnSeptember 7,1921, Municipality was The brochuresby written adouble with Ciura weresold collectingmoney and purpose: competition. sculpture and the campaign thefund raising such as and issues practical concrete very with confronted also was Committee the be clarified, to need in was that Romanians promises that House the of madeHabsburg supposedly to Romanianthe movementin 1848. believing the of fault of the absolved wastotally tactics, duplicitous Iancu Emperor’s liberty”. the and country the “for but Nation”, the and throne inhistoricallived, whichhenever context Iancu seemedtohave fought “for the [Habsburg] 399 398 397 unachieved dreams” he in which fought hadfor the salvation hisof nation. crown of thorns” from hisin head.TheUnification 1918 had putan end“the to world of 396 Petal According to terms. in any circumstances, the duty towards the nation and country.” accomplish,be to they should alsoprepared but of for knowledge, acquiring acertain amount wouldlike beafire column of for the thousands students Cluj of University.They come here monument “Iancu’s students. the category: a very social specific to he referred monument, projected of the significance on the meditating While nation. sakeof the forthe sacrifice Arhivele Nationale Cluj, Fond Primaria Cluj-Napoca, Registre intrare-iesire, I/259, p. 133. Arhivele Nationale Sibiu, Fond ASTRA, doc. 169/1924. Cultura Poporului Foaia Poporului Besides issues of mythology and symbolic significance of Iancu for the interwar Conversely, Petal , January 16, 1921. (People’s Culture), May 2, 1921. ă expressed the importance of the Iancu monumentin very emotional ă , the martyr of the Romanian nation could finally remove “the finally nation remove could Romanian the martyr of , the 108 396 398 An innocent victim of the 397 Cut out of the of out Cut 399 Such CEU eTD Collection 403 Cluj, Fond Primaria Municipiului Cluj-Napoca, Registrul Prefecturii orasului pe anul 1924-1922, I/ 280,fila 24. 402 401 Cluj-Napoca,Registre intrare-iesire, I/258, 138. of of initiative. the condition of the villages and small towns, who supposedly were the mostfervent supporters officials bank and butstill directors hoped donationsthat would camefrom people ofmodest 404 December22 and from 1922: April 24,May 2 400 Municipality and sold onvarious occasions. other as part of as partfund of the campaign. raising organized lottery were a and even shows, theatre popular celebrations, concerts, conferences, wholefollowingfurther Second, construction. during the years, public events such as diminish the of cost statue,the declaringitwould that notpay more than lei2 million for the to itattempted First, decisions. faced difficult Committee the Therefore, averagereader. the bymembers was it advertised ofCluj lackedstrongly of Romanian actually the support elite, moneycollected Thiswas obviously insufficient. situation illustrates althoughthat projectthe booklet that comprises[…] the novels to sensational have“preferred seemed to thereaders cheap, andbecause such a beautiful page from the history of our national fights” money. Its secretary, Ioan T of amount necessary lei,the of less third than one collect 600,000 hadmanagedto Committee did national authorities themonumentconsider a burning necessity. Until 1924, the Municipality limited its contribution to the initial financial support lei,of 50,000 and neither bronze. of twenty tones statue: forthe rawmaterial the sent War the Ministry that Petal largely due to outcome, significant feed-back. The only expected bishops. However, such calls for donations madeacrossthecountry receivenot did the beingmunicipalities, addressedtoprefects, high-school and bankdirectors principals, “Fondul pentru statuia Avram Iancu”, Avram statuia pentru “Fondul , Statue) Iancu Avram for Fund (The Iancu” Avram lui Statuia in Statue) Iancu Avram for Fund (The Iancu” Avram statuia pentru “Fondul “Statuia lui Avram Iancu” (Avram Iancu Statue), Iancu (Avram Iancu” Avram lui “Statuia The secretary of the Municipality noted some other dates: from 1921: July 21, November 11, November 15, 404 ă ma ú , complained about the lack of interest from the part of the Infratirea, 402 nd Requests for donations were sent all over the country, , December 9 and 13. Arhivele Nationale Cluj, Fond Primaria Fond Cluj, Nationale 13.Arhivele 9 and , December nr.317-1921. Infratirea 109 400 , nr. 985/1924., nr. However, because the brochures were brochures the because However, Infratirea , nr. 985/1924; Arhivele Nationale Infratirea ă ’s intervention, was ’s , 317-1921. 403 401 Cluj the CEU eTD Collection 408 2003), 549. 407 406 mainsupporter of Romanian the cultural became that initiatives.of anassociation framework inthe intellectuals Greek-Catholic and Orthodox both reunited soul “ourof nation’s hero”. After discussions with the villagers, the bishop suggested that the a where he celebrated at Iancu, houseof the hestopped In Vidra deSus, remembered. InMay1922,thebishopvisitedin parish the churches theApuseni Mountains. Committee bishopCentral andCluj, Orthodox the of between Nicolae disputethe Ashort process. Ivan, of ASTRA historicalmore forof image and powerful constructingIancu personality in hisnew, the clarified the reevaluate to possibility the opened new context the However, regime. oppressive injustices alwaysan of the nation deprived of rights, suffering Romanian itself: portrayed the differencesstood closer to a martyr than to that of a fighter. This situation was a reflection of the way the inareas. rural and urban both in level, local on element Romanian the theof visions intoRomania aiming facilitate theintegration importance to andreinforceTransylvania of the how anationalist ASTRA topromote policy newthe cultural context,continued Adapting itself to Iancu ASTRA aspired atconsolidating its position and expandingits influencewas in newthe provinces. to be inSibiu, at the initiative of the Orthodox Bishop Andrei 405 Church and ASTRA hero. Two major new actors got involved in the organization of the ceremonies, the Orthodox for typeof theirbereflectmostwhatwould on commemoration appropriate the Transylvanian and the centenary of his birth gave Romanian elites Centenary Avram Iancu in Cluj, for thePreparations SibiuNational responses: 4.3. and Local Initiatives and Bucharest time to Orthodox religious ceremony for commemorating the dead. the commemorating for ceremony religious Orthodox Valer Moga, Arhivele Nationale Sibiu, Fond ASTRA, Procese verbale, III/42, fila 13. The Association for Romanian Literature and Culture of the Romanian People (ASTRA) was founded in 1861 in founded was (ASTRA) People Romanian ofthe Culture and Literature Romanian for Association The At beginningthe of 1920s,the wasseen Iancu asaregional herowhose image public The succession eventsof dedicated two the toIancu, thesemi-centennial hisof death Astra si societatea (1918-1930) 405 . Placed from 1919 undertheroyal patronage ofKing Ferdinand (Astra and Society) (Cluj-Napoca: Presa Universitar Presa (Cluj-Napoca: Society) and (Astra 110 aguna. During the Austro-Hungarian period, ASTRA 407 parastas ă 408 Clujean for the for 406 ă , , CEU eTD Collection ASTRA objected stating that the Church already had its and martyrs. Iancu was a too its stating wasa already hadsaints Iancu martyrs. and Church ASTRA that the objected But him. sanctifying to close been have to seems Church The other. the or one of favor in simplified be easily could The equation and amartyr nation. of a herothe both considered below Ivan toexploit ambiguities. ambiguitythe attempted image, embodied inIancu’s couldhave impact amajoron way the be wasto remembered, by Iancu isas it illustrated the rejected. idea was the buildingarrange amuseum promptly work, to of same as the attempted wouldmake not aprecedent this time either: when Ministry the Work andof Social Protection Association had rejected the proposal to adapt the building for another purpose before, and addition, the effect. In that in to press the announcements made public lottery and organized a 1849 in Iancu’s house in Vidra de inSus already 1921 and hadmeanwhile published abook, found of aMuseum 1848- theCentral of ASTRA haddecided to Committee straightforward: clearand Ivan’s was offer to response Its his cult. with associated practices the his nameand museum. a than a chapel of idea the support rather would community local the that and house Iancu’s 411 410 409 worship.” of a place hereasto come will Pilgrims sacred place. shouldhouse “in betransformed like achapel, into which masswould becelebrated, the ina mo bylawyer of from letter Chirtop, the Câmpeni, whoarguedthat Zosim supported a certain the was nation. request His the needsof to the better his idea responded believed bishop that the museum, a national into building the transform to planned Association the that fact of the aware was he Although chapel. the arrange to permission for asked Ivan ASTRA, by owned Arhivele Nationale Sibiu, Fond ASTRA, doc. 34-1921 Arhivele Nationale Sibiu, Fond ASTRA, doc. 1302-1922 Arhivele Nationale Sibiu, Fond ASTRA, doc. 851-1922. Ġ ii, i.e.inhabitants of ApuseniMountains,the Although of forgottenAlthough importanceminor atmoment,that wassoon thisdisputethat of The Association claimed having property rights not only on Iancu’shouse, but also on 411 410 111 were never consulted regarding the usage of usage the regarding were neverconsulted 409 Since the building was CEU eTD Collection doc. 169/1924 416 415 414 postponements. dealine continuous in resulting project, ofthe side practical the prolonged beyond the organizers’ expectations. Somehow, their ambitious aims did not always take into account 413 412 delegate in until jury February the wouldthat beconstituted 14. 15,000 lei. 40, 20and of prizes andawardthree theevaluate models to appointed City Council was representatives of the Ministry of Culture and Arts, members ASTRAof and delegates of Cluj 10, 1924.Ajury composedof eleven of experts sculptors, university professors, January ofto modelsshort, submission postponed the further deadline Committee the the too the centenary. Since the available. artists complained, arguing timein intheshortest competition organizeasculpture in a position was put Cluj to that the time span at their disposal was in celebrated Iancu’s housein Vidra deSus. a in mainly consisted commemoration modest the connotations, political any of celebrated by a small religious by ceremony attended a limited numberof Independentguests. framework of Greater Romania’s official past. addition, his personality was part of a history that was just about to be integrated in thebuilt. thenationalist In be onwhich himasonerhetoriccould ASTRA pillars the largerrepresented saint, a than Rather Church. Orthodox the by be appropriated to symbol national powerful when. But the overall impression was disappointing: no particular aesthetic qualities could be could qualities noparticular aesthetic disappointing: was impression overall the when. But inof in ASTRA Cluj, jury. representative asthe the University atthe History Artprofessor Petranu, namedCoriolan Association of presidentthe The handwritten letter draft from February 4, 1924 is preservedArhivele at NationaleSibiu, Fond ASTRA, Arhivele Nationale Sibiu, Fond ASTRA, doc. 169/1924. “Statuia lui Avram Iancu”, Avram lui “Statuia campaign fund raising the fact by the be explained could competition ofthe organization the in delay The Arhivele Nationale Sibiu, Fond ASTRA, Procese verbale, III/44, filele 82-83. However, when the Centenary festivities were approaching, the Monument Committee was 1922anniversary the discourse, thepublic of rhetoric heated the to In contrast The models arrived in Cluj and were exhibited in the Meeting Room of the City Hall City the of Room Meeting the in exhibited were and Cluj in arrived models The 413 414 The firstdeadline for wasestablished September 2,1923,exactly one year before On January ASTRA26, 1924, was askedtodesignate one ofits members as a Înfr ăĠ irea , 985(1924). 412 112 416 415 One week later, the vice- the later, Oneweek parastas CEU eTD Collection 420 Avram Iancu Statue. A Discussion with Sculptor I. Dimitriu-Bârlad), in 419 418 Competition), in 417 three jury.firstof However, proposals the the “Thedisappointed. one,entitled surprised The Unfortunately for thesecond organizers, left exhibition thismembers jury the the of equally dynamism inhistherefore was a requirement representation. compulsory and masses the leading hero revolutionary as now seen was Iancu century, the of turn the at unleashed storm.” since“the waslike of revolution beginning the The lackedenergy an representations fighter. the of courage the and pathos the in embodied personality, Iancu’s of touch Romantic won wereaccusedof sculptors herohaving themartyr.missedthe over Therefore, public representation: correct on Iancu’s hadclearly decided Committee The membersof the static. too considered were they leader, arevolutionary Iancuas models represented awarded for werepresented such competition.”an important sculptures is could “it of few works second the for contest, only painful the that beimproved stage some Although the of from competition. attending famous the sculptors budgetprevented limited the that believed he However, models. the of quality insufficient the about complained interest of Romanian such towards sculptors an important public monument. history as thelack of Transylvania.”, addedthe journalistRomanian of a conclusion, accusing which was supposed to newspaper. give to the city of Cluj liberal from ajournalist local the wrote school”, in avocational a museum impression of the statue of the mostidentified heroic in periodany of the inworks the presented. “The exhibition in the City Hall room gave us the ‘’Statuia lui Avram Iancu. Lucrarile trimise pentru concurs’’, in concurs’’, pentru trimise Lucrarile Iancu. Avram lui ‘’Statuia ‘’Concursul pentru statuia lui Avram Iancu.De vorb in concurs’’, pentru trimise Lucrarile Iancu. Avram lui “Statuia the for sent Models Iancu. ofAvram Statue (The concurs” pentru trimise Lucrarile Iancu. Avram lui “Statuia As a consequence, the Committee organized a second competition May21. on competition asecond organized Committee the As a consequence, The sculptor Ion Dimitriu-Bârlad, appointed as the specialist of the jury, also 417 “We deeply regret the low quality low in quality the models “Wethe of this deeply competition, presented regret Infratirea, 420 Far from the image of the martyr featured by the Romanian nationalists by Romanian featured the of martyr the Farfrom image the 1010 (1924). 113 ă cusculptorul I. Dimitriu-Bârlad’’(The Competition for Înfr Înfr ăĠ ăĠ Î irea, irea nfr ăĠ , 1010 (1924). 1010 (1924). irea 419 Despite the fact that the , 1011 (1924). 418 CEU eTD Collection Editura Opri period, he was also Professor of History at the University in Cluj. For his biography,Party wasand he named the ministry seeof Arts andfor Culture during example 1923-1926 and 1927-1928.Ioan During the interwar 424 423 beginfestivities would atthe end in August of with Cluj, lyingthe of of foundingthe stone The established decided the Carol’s Central thatCommittee Prince under presidency. liberal government Transylvanian-born Minister he of Culture andArts, obtained thefull supportofboth the and of the Royal House. A special organization committee was to be Bucharest central authorities. After discussions with with After discussions authorities. central Bucharest Competition. The Models Exhibited”, in 422 yetsystematized. been not have files these in contained pictures the Unfortunately, 421 celebration”. national significant “a become should shouldmeans bebynoa small limited to elite circle like was the casein 1922; they rather, program of the Centenary festivities. Its president, Vasile Goldi endthe of August. for scheduled were Centenary of the festivities the since Committee, for the situation delicate acclaiming. swords, their raise soldiers tribunes havinggroups werereplacedcaptains by ofmen: by surrounded two left,Iancu the on anumber of two priestswas carefully while imitated, new: wereobviously the Matthias characters andhis Corvinus among monument Hungarian the of structure The square. central city’s in the thembe admired could that advance King Mountains”,the of wasaclose resemblance of statuary the of group CorvinusMatthias towards Iancu, while on the right four Greek hero who bridles hishorse. who bridles hero Greek a naked, portrayed in Iancu sculpture as 1784.Finally,athird leaders peasant revoltthe of forhis in fight Romanian predecessors Closcaemancipation: andCrisan,the Horea, all the Born in Transylvania, but educated in the Old Kingdom, Alexandru Lapedatu joined Arhivele Nationale the Sibiu, FondNational ASTRA, doc. 431-1924, filaLiberal 1. ‘’Statuia lui Avram Iancu. Noul concurs. Machetele expuse’’ (The Statue of Avram Iancu. The new The Iancu. ofAvram Statue (The expuse’’ Machetele concurs. Noul Iancu. Avram lui ‘’Statuia 253. file Fotografii, ASTRA, Fond Sibiu, Nationale Arhivele at preserved is model ofthis photo A , Alexandru Lapedatu în cultura româneasc In March 1924, the Central Association ASTRAdiscussed the Committee In March Central of the 1924, the tiin ific ă , 1996). Înfr 422 ăĠ irea, None of the models impressed the jury, creating a 421 ă Another model represented Iancu accompanied by Iancuaccompanied model represented Another Maz 21, 1924. (Alexandru Lapedatu in the Romanian Culture) (Bucure 114 423 Therefore, Goldi Therefore, ú , believed, that the ceremonies ú appealed to appealed 424 , the , ti: CEU eTD Collection fornumber wouldFirst, a of thesquare statue reasons. wherethe befound, placedwas or idea of Romanian dominance of the city,if only for one day. Hungarians, they tocancelpreferred plannedthe ceremony which wouldhave reinforced the disgrace of the than enduring risking Rather perspective. from delicate a long-range exposed to daily encounters with their Hungarian fellow-citizens, the situation appeared rather laying the founding stone on the occasion of the Centenary. For the local intellectuals in Cluj, Romanian Prime- Minister Ion I.C. Br I.C. Ion Minister Prime- Romanian wouldbe unveiled. any Therefore, that he festivities shouldsuggested place of kind only take when statue the resolveda problem. not werestill aspects financial while of competition, the stages two Romanians there.Hearguedthatthejury had notidentified model appropriate an during the of the publicimage would the afailure damage feltinhe such the city, predominance that aware of the importance of this event for the Romanians in Cluj and, given the Hungarian that the failure of mean failure would the disgrace.Undoubtedly, that of projectthe a public Centenary festivities. Centenary renounce in idea ofincludingthe connectedwith Cluj the manifestations official the 427 Clujean June 12, 1924, itsMarin June president 12, 1924, of Association on the Committee Central the to addressed letter In a ininvolved project. the activity during 1920s,the see ValerMoga, onASTRA’s account detailed a For initiative. this objected society of the president the culture, Romanian of to transfer the Central Committee of the Association to Cluj, which was becoming the new Transylvanian centercity situated in theproximity of Romanian the border. Althoughduring the interwar period proposals were made 426 425 and and Avram wouldIancu statue further inthe continue Apuseni inMountains, Câmpeni, Vidra Arhivele Nationale Sibiu, Fond ASTRA, doc. 1023/ 1924 ASTRA was founded inSibiu(Germ. Hermannstadt,Hung. Nagyszeben) and it had its headquarters in this Arhivele Nationale Sibiu, Fond ASTRA, doc. 431-1924, fila 2-3. ğ ebea. ă , 2003). All All The news raised growing concerns among the Cluj branch of ASTRA, directly ASTRA, of branch Cluj the among concerns growing raised news The 425 ù tef ă nescu’s attempts of either avoiding or postponing the ceremony were in vain in were ceremony the postponing or avoiding either of attempts nescu’s ù 427 tef ù ă nescu asked the president of nescu askedtheof president ASTRA discussto thisissue with the tef ă nescu asked for a more moderate and realistic attitude, fearing moreand moderate attitude, a realistic askedfor nescu ù Astra si societatea (1918-1930) tef ă ă tianu, and convince him to abandon even the idea of idea the even abandon to him convince and tianu, nescu attempted to convince the leaders inleaders toconvince Sibiu nescu the attempted 115 (Cluj-Napoca:Presa Universitar ù tef ă nescu was 426 ă to CEU eTD Collection representatives to the centenary organized in the Apuseni Mountains. Delegations of of peasants Delegations Mountains. Apuseni inthe organized centenary the to representatives sendits to was asked “nation” whole the Parliament, the members of and government the event in 1924 modest requiem celebrated at the house in Vidra deSuswas wasattended by a limited audience literally meant to be a national one. Besides the Royal House, the Avram Iancu” organized at the Royal Palace in Bucharest on July 1 July on in Bucharest Royal the Palace at Iancu”organized Avram National Hero Great the of Birth since the years 100 of Commemoration forthe “Committee 4.4. OfficiallyNational: AvramIancuBecomes theCentenaryin1924 prepared for the visit of Kingthe aspart of Iancuthe Centenary festivities in 1924. of least ensemblethe Atpaper, the on waspreserved. new Romanianin square Clujwas buildingthe would andthe statue enjoy maximum ofvisibility,the themonumentality while both thespace.Inthis illusion way, lawnsa larger of by thatcreated surrounded concentric frontof church,the atadistance of a about hundredmeters from building,the being in be placed wasto The monument Cathedral. for the perspective awider create space and in-betweenbeing situated relatively highTherefore, buildings. Cristinel attempted to open the design. review Architects, an intelligent of Romanian the of solution Society the proposed urban of the new square to Ivan. square to newthe Cristinel, the architect of the Cathedral.On August 22, 1924, Cristinel submitted the plansfor George and Ivan, Bishop with agreement in well, as monument Iancu the accommodate hadin stone of beenlaidto Cathedral specifically Orthodox 1923, wasdesigned the 430 429 Square Voda Cuza of the plan detailed 428 in meantime. new The CuzaVod the more correctly, created Arhivele Na Arhitectura Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond II-8-923,doc. 5405-1924. George Cristinel’s letter isaccompanied by a 429 A detailed program of the Centenary was established during the meetings of of wasestablished meetings the the A detailed Centenary the during program of According tohis letter, mainthe of squarewasitsthe problem reduceddimensions, , 9(1930), 19. ionale Sibiu, Fond ASTRA, Procese verbale, III/44, filele 82-83. 428 The architect’s sketches, also published in publishedalso The sketches, architect’s 116 ă inSquare, thefounding which st , 1924.Whilein 1922 the Arhitectura, the official 430 , CEU eTD Collection 435 434 433 Iancu. AHundred Years since Birth),his 432 “the martyr of “the national of martyr freedom” our a comprehensive version of for Although hero’sportrait. the Transylvanians he would remain to become a full right member of the national pantheon since, according to Transylvanian to since,according pantheon thenational member of fullbecome right a to of G top memory the on was placedonhis crucifix andatthe that house yearnumbers the Iancu’s death: 1872. the of together, two composed the battlefields of the First World War: eighteen on the left and seventy-two on the right. Read purposefully by exhumed, andtheir was whohad remains taken the of place soldiers diedon Official Program of the Festivities),in 431 For example, memory.in the In cemeteryaddition,Iancu’s to – Church Orthodox the and ASTRA Monarchy, –the actors main the connect this inmemory was also associated palace.” the to hut the from nation, with Romanian entire the by war celebrated was hero “the plans, commemorativeCommittee’s practices.same feeling and the same logic: hadbeen the injustice corrected”. mystical, the by]piety, almost same crowd [motivated the made by“the devoted pilgrimage” finally postponed for the last day of the celebrations, namely September 2 visit of royal the family in Cluj andthelaying of foundingthe of stone was Iancu statue expected to attend the from Wallachia,every Moldavia, of district Bessarabia, Bucovina Transylvania and were event. A small, yet significant change appeared in the schedule: the “Sarbatorirea memoriei lui Avram Iancu, 284. Iancu, Avram lui memoriei “Sarbatorirea “Sarbatorirea memoriei lui Avram Iancu287-288. , 283. Iancu,” Avram lui memoriei ‘’Sarbatorirea “Sarbatorirea memoriei lui Avram Iancu- 100 de ani de la na la de deani 100 Iancu- Avram lui memoriei “Sarbatorirea “Comemorarea lui Avram Iancu. Programul official al serb al official Programul Iancu. Avram lui “Comemorarea The numerous speeches addressed by various celebration participants atIancu’s grave, participants speechesbyvarious addressed celebration The numerous The in celebrations Apusenithe Mountains werein described press the as “a national 433 The festivities comprised a number of symbolical ceremonies, aimed to aimed ceremonies, symbolical of number a comprised festivities The Înfr Transilvania, ă ğ tirea ebea, all the bodies buried around Iancu’s grave were 435 , August 19, 1924. , in the context of Greater Romania Iancu was meant was Iancu Romania Greater of context in the , 117 55,8-9 nr. (1924):281. ă rilor” (The Commemoration of Avram Iancu. The Iancu. ofAvram Commemoration (The rilor” ú terea lui’’ (The Commemoration ofAvram Commemoration (The lui’’ terea 434 432 ă nd ina Mountain inatraced Mountain According to the . 431 CEU eTD Collection the Commemoration of Avram Iancu), in Iancu), of Avram Commemoration the postpone, eventually took placeinstitutions, 2. Thelocal on September eventually took postpone, administrative policy. government’s against the form protest asa of use thefestivities Maniu to Bucharest, decided determined.Although he beenhad aTransylvanianthat by again felt event confiscated organized by governmentwouldthe be avoided. ceremony orofficial reception any of attendance the Parliament, of the and representatives the party members would in meeting participate ASTRA’s the andwould salutethe House Royal tomakeorder political propaganda andgainpopularity Althoughamong Transylvanians. the use in‘Transylvanian imagethe Liberals In the of theiropinion, toin Iancu affairs”. aimed interference aclear as Centenary with the festivities connected the orchestrate to Liberal Party the members theTransylvanian-based initiative of National Romanian Party the perceived of meeting the memory inCâmpeni.wouldIancu inThe of organized celebrate a separate 439 provinces. 438 new ofthe integration aforced promote to aimed were opinion in their which government, Liberal new by the imposed measures centralization the with dissatisfied were Party Romanian National the of members the Generally, government. Averescu by the dissolved unexpectedly was Party, National Romanian for administrating Transylvania’sespecially created body gradual integration administrative aregional into Dirigent), Romania and constituted (Consiliul Council Directing mostly the In 1920, from . members Bucharest of the 437 436 festivities. and in his importance national history,the whileit gave also adetailed of account the celebrations. likeinjust Romanian 1922,the participate Party National inthe refused to official aftergovernment, the Coronation Ceremony for Kingin the held1922in Alba-Iulia. In 1924, major thesecond by patronized eventIancu’s Centenary was symbolical Liberal the by His Majesty [Ferdinand I]”. historian Lupa Ioan “Partidul National siSerb National “Partidul from promoted policies integrationist the to connected was party Transylvanian-based of the protest The 341. Iancu, Avram lui memoriei “Sarbatorirea Patria, The had localthe in ASTRA triedCommittee invain that ceremony to Cluj, the one August 27 and 29 and September 2and 3,1924. 438 437 In a letter addressed to all party members, Iuliu Maniu declared that the RNP the Maniu declaredthat allmembers, addressedto In Iuliu party a letter The Party’s newspaper innewspaper Cluj, The Party’s ú , “the was , 1848Revolution emancipationthe warcarried preludeof the ă rile de Comemorare a lui Avram Iancu” (The National Party and the Festivities for Festivities the and Party National (The Iancu” Avram a lui Comemorare de rile 436 Patria , August, 26, 1924. 118 Patria, 439 The tone of the letter was sober and published life extensively on Iancu’s CEU eTD Collection Iancu was seen to become the symbol of peace and accomplished justice. Such justice.optimistic Such andaccomplished symbol becomepeace of tothe seen Iancu was lifetime, his during emancipation national for fight the of A symbol past. unfavorable its throughthat monumentthis Romaniannationthe in Transylvania finally totermscame with which had preservedhis soul untainted. nation, victory Romanian the the of Romanian represented Lapedatu,the square According to the monument would be fact of wasaguarantee the the that royal minister stated King, the patronage presence of the unveiled the In resistance. inheroic the and faith the Orthodox] [read sameChristian the Transylvania: in survived time with the consecration arguing they that symbolized thetwo elements whichthrough Romanian the people had of the Cathedral. meaningthe monuments ofthe pairing of nation the two Romanian in the same square, emphasized Lapedatu theothers”. all above resist could people our which sacrifices through the and virtues the praise to designed [was] monument the faith, ancestor’s our of church of the “in shadow the Placed Iancuwasestablished. of memory the and Orthodoxy between a clear association Moreover, city. of the new character express this to designed monuments wasforthe him of one Iancustatue The life”. cultural Romanian of a center [here] Bishop of the Army. 441 343-344. 440 Nicolae B Iancu. A religious serviceassembly moved to the front of thewas National Theatre,celebrated near the place reserved for the statue of foreignby the Orthodox guests,clergy:Family a.m.arrived inCluj at10:30 met representatives and the of all confessions,religious the Metropolitan and various controlled bythegoverning Liberals, of theorganization festivities. assumed TheRoyal the Bishop associations in the Festive Hall of the Prefecture. Then, the “S ‘’S ă ă rbatorirea memoriei lui Avram Iancu , 343-345. rb The second speech, which concluded the ceremony, was held by Petal by held was ceremony, the concluded which speech, second The founding “theof praiseworthy efforts Lapedatu appreciated minister In hisspeech, ă torirea memoriei lui Avram Iancu- 100 de ani de lana de deani 100 Iancu- Avram lui memoriei torirea ă lan, Bishop of Cluj the Nicolae Ivan, theBishop of Chi 440 441 119 terea lui’’ in lui’’ terea Transilvania ú in ă u Gurie Grosu andu Gurie Grosu the 55, 8-9 nr. (1924) : ă who believed who CEU eTD Collection the King,the but also crowds the of from neighboringpeasants filled villages thestreets that on journalists emphasized the presence of the representatives of all religious cults at the arrival of Mountains Apuseni on in the organized festivities the detailed accounts newspaper presented Habsburg Serbs, partly Romanians, of 1848-49. Slovaks) Hungarian revolution and warofindependence (including the ethnic-civil wars with pro- of the leader renowned the Kossuth, himandLajos between of reconciliation of attempts the Furthermore, celebration. Romanians’ the into interfere not would they that declared they revolution, 1848 the during army Hungarian with for Hungarians,was associated negative sincehehadfought connotations the against Iancu of memory the Although events. the of overview a down-to-facts presented journalists Hungarian remarks, nationalist from or criticism any Far ceremonies. the on accounts in new province. of the the on territory legitimacy of claims the reinforcing by Monarchy, andthe appropriated to betransferred could partially Romanian the popularity army. Therefore, by enjoyed amongIancu Transylvanian Romanians andthe warfoughtby Ferdinand tothe was implicitly a hero due into martyrfrom a Iancu 445 444 442 The sacrifice was there, laurel wreath. by hero’s histhe death after replaced his lifetime wasfinally had but during carried so was the victory. As religionPetal “born in blood and tears”. national arevived of prophet the was Iancu martyr, a than More personality: historical couldnotavoidwords connotations touching upon religious the embodied inIancu’s 443 “S Keleti Ujság, Keleti Ujság, Keleti Ujság Keleti Ujság ă rbatorirea memoriei lui Avram Iancu,345-347. Hungarian press also recorded the celebration of the published celebration of the Centenary. articles The recorded Hungarian press also 444 (Eastern Press) (Eastern and dedicated two pages two the and visitto the Royal dedicated Cluj. inFamily of September 3, 1924. September 2, 1924. (Eastern Press) (Eastern , September1, 1924. , 442 the mainthe newspaperHungarian in Cluj, gave detailed Symbolically speaking, the “crown of thorns” that he that thorns” of “crown the speaking, Symbolically Keleti Ujság 120 ’s frontpage article on Iancu reminded ă suggested, The transformation of 443 In the following days, the days, following the In 445 Hungarian CEU eTD Collection revolutionary idea journalistsinrevolutionary by from embodied 1848.The Iancu that the main fault of the models presented so far was their failure in representing the 1848, cannot be represented calm and distant, holding a sword or a binocular, just likejust abinocular, aking holding be or distant, 1848, cannot asword representedcalmand thisfrom revolutionary the Romanianthe view: “Avram Iancu, supported Party, National the newspaper the disarm disarm intentionsthe under of Committee the presidency the Petal of 4.5. in1926.TheFailureoftheProjectThe Competition admire thefirst Romanianized piece of public in space city.the park. However, Romanian attendingelites the eventcouldlookbeyond appearancesand likea neglected looked still of officials the departure the after which square, new Romanian of the with appearance messy contrasted heavily ceremony the of importance symbolic the official organizedbyMunicipality.dinner A neutral the observer mighthave that remarked was registered from part the inof andJews livingHungarians indifference. Cluj,sober only the planned monument well. monument planned the received newsabout Cluj’s the groups that ethnic alsoreported other Romanian newspapers in described laconic neutral any equally and without terms, additional commentaries. 448 447 446 in modelsinthe presented May. competition the critiqueabout art adry wrote the samepublication statue, the concerns what In this occasion. Clujul, Înfr Keleti Ujság, ă The failure of the first two sculpture competitions for the Iancu statue in Cluj did not 2with an on army September the parade and festivitiesconcluded The Centenary irea, June 7, 1925. September 3,1924. May 22, 1924. Clujul announced the opening of the third stage of stage of third competition.the openingof announcedthe the 447 Therefore, it can be assumed that no official negative reaction negative official no be that it assumed can Therefore, 121 446 The laying of was foundingthe stone Patria ă and, on and,on June 7, 1925, , the newspaper of newspaper , the 448 It stated CEU eTD Collection the revolutionary hero as his only hope for liberation. The idea of peasants’ liberation. hero Theideaof Romanian as his for hope revolutionary the only his indicatingIancu, clearly the servitude turned headtowards chained symbolizing peasant by Amonga them, ofsecondary of figure a series characters. Iancusurrounded the portrayed whowas by schooled sculptor inBudapest, Medrea,authored Cornel aTransylvanian-born improved versions of their while works, new joined the artists competition.A submission in stagespresented previous hadthe already that participated sculptors the Someones. of statue. of Culture Ministry the andCluj, in University before: Arts,as institutions same the representing ASTRA, members, seven the Municipal Councilvisit exhibitionthe before winner the would be decided. Thistime, jury the of composed was and the Executive Municipality the inCluj,and exhibited encouraged intheCity to Hall thepublic while was Committee for the by belei. collected would projects award asingle The of 50,000 it prize therefore, decided to injury interested find forand, model onethingwas anappropriate statue to the only: 450 449 providednow by duePetal Committee to the was which stone), and (broze material raw the for except lei, million 2 unchanged, remained monument of the cost The i.e.1848. awakening” national of “era for the characteristic inspiration.popular andexisting tradition visual material heroas for different source representing the If projectthe inIancu of representingrelying yearsan on equestrian statue the 1848-1849, the sculptorpresent wereaskedto Thesculptors of requirements. by aset conditioned was participation wanteditself.” revolution the toof add secondarylike just agitated, the idea Avram agreat bearmy Iancu can represented or only commander. figures, they would have to be ‘’Statueta lui Avram Iancu’’, in Clujul, 450 Perhaps surprisingly, 1926competition was more the successful than the previous The jury The jury January decided foron newdeadline26, 1926asthe competition. the The June 7, 1925. 449 Patria, February 3, 1924. 122 ă ’s efforts. After twofailedthe ’s efforts. competitions, CEU eTD Collection 452 in Târgu-Mure Committee The city. his in competition similar a organize to decided Committee, Monument was easily protagonist recognizable. and therefore by forceseem jury,not transmitrequested didand the While the tension sculpture to the the did not fitdressed likein famousthe painting by Barbu Iscovescu from yearsthe of revolution.the the competition’sDimitriu-Bârlad portrayed Iancuin a manner, idealization: avoiding realistic onhishorse, Bârladmain was awardedrequirement, the first prize. A mediocre artist, the yet a whoembodied favorite “the hopesand the destiny Transylvanianof Romanians.” character of the Ministry of War, hero, of the in express thetension personality the succeeded to artist the addition, In qualities. of Iancu its aesthetic andgreater bymonumentality models, characterized different each two submitted asculptor in born Schmidt, Czechthe Landswho in settled inRomania 1901. Schmidt Equestrian Statue of Avram Iancu), of Avram Statue Equestrian 451 Given delays the on constructionthe of Orthodox the Cathedral in model winning,Cluj, the not, Dimitriu-Bârlad competition this too. or won was recordedbytradition. Surprisingly revolution the behis figure andportray of asit Iancuduring a hero-martyr the representation should statue the weresimilar: requirements other high. The meters three more than measure Cluj was meant tobe littlea bigger than normal size, the one in Târgu-Mure Sab historian Nicolae servitudecrashed the liberated awoman, andfreedom. art thesymbol of to According emancipation was represented also by another participant, Mihail Cara. In his sculpture, Iancu Nicolae Sab Nicolae Nicolae Sab Nicolae Meanwhile, Emil Dandea, the new Mayor of of newTârgu-Mure Mayor the Emil Dandea, Meanwhile, Ion Dimitriu-of ironicallymember jury,the sculptor the former However, enough, ă ă u, “Câteva proiecte pentru statuia ecvestr statuia pentru proiecte “Câteva u, u, “Câteva proiecte pentru statuia ecvestr statuia pentru proiecte “Câteva u, ú had even less funding, yet it had lessyeteven morestipulated ambitiousin funding, aims: if statue the ă u, however, the best work in the competition belonged to Johann to belonged in competition the work best the however, u, Acta Musei Acta Napocensis 123 ă a lui Avram Iancu din Cluj”, 667-668 Cluj”, din Iancu Avram alui ă 18(1981) 665-666. a lui Avram Iancu din Cluj” (Some Projects for the for Projects (Some Cluj” din Iancu Avram alui ú and former secretary of the secretary of former and 451 ú was designed to 452 CEU eTD Collection consecration until 1933, the transfer of of Petal transfer the 1933, until consecration its for theCathedral unexpectedly down crisisand postponed works thatslowed the of inspiration for a monumental statue. revolution,in whichthefigureof Iancu appearsfragile, perhaps rather the best not source was the years of the during Iscovescu by Barbu depicted Iancu.Theportrait of representation my bythe absence pictorial thisopinion, pressurewasaggravated of an appropriate jury, since the Iancu statue hadbejury, themonument. Iancu to evenimpressive more statue than since Fadrusz’s decision the the of squares complicated between two the monumentality for “competition” in project Târgu-Mure Thefrom press of sculptor. thisthe issue,whileinitiators silentremained regarding the monument to Iancu in Cluj Transylvania. in institutions cultural churches and toall parish the Iancu, which were distributed BishopricCathedral fund printed illustrations campaign. portraying TheOrthodox raising benefitthe to the of herofigure the use the of to idea andattempted promote the continued to Iancu” (The Portraits of Avram Iancu), 459 458 456 Arhivele Mitropoliei Clujului, Fond V-759-924. 455 454 Iancu), Avram of and families of was unveiled onMay10,1930by Bishop Nicolae Ivan, members with of Iancufamily the 457 453 inof Municipality Târgu-Mure tothe cast bronze in1927,wasoffered For a presentation of Avram Iancu’s pictorial representations, see Ioan C. Bacil C. see Ioan representations, pictorial Iancu’s of Avram a presentation For Several letters and lists of subscribers from various villages and cities in Transylvania are preserved in preserved are Transylvania in cities and villages various from of subscribers lists and letters Several Virgil Pan ap pentru “Lupta Abrudan, Paul Voin Foaia Poporului, Cuvântul Liber A series of other reasons contributed to the failure of the projectin Cluj: the economic Although in 1929 Petal Although in Clujthe the project attention 1926,Ivan given diminishedto after a Ardealului ă , “Pentru un monument al lui Avram Iancu”, 291-297. 455 Studii mo (Free Word), May 11, 1930. Theillustrations were sold between 1924 and 1926,enjoying asmall success. October27, 1929. Ġ (Transylvania’s Will) i (Studies), tom 25, nr. 4,1972, p.706-707. (mountaineers from from (mountaineers Apuseni) in the attendance. ú were animated by sprit. practical animated a more were 456 ă , no attempts were made in weremade, noattempts toactually statue the order demand rarea memoriei lui Avram Iancu” (Fighting for the Defense of the Memory the of Defense the for (Fighting Iancu” Avram lui memoriei rarea ă Transilvania declared that 5 million declaredthat lei had been forcollected the , November 27, 1924. 27, November 459 4 (52) 1921, 228-241. 124 ă from Cluj, the choice of the same sculptor for same sculptor the of choice the from Cluj, 457 In Cluj,the problem of the 454 ă , “Portretele lui Avram lui , “Portretele ú . 453 The monument The 458 In CEU eTD Collection engagement inengagement Romanianizationthe of publicthe space. them standwhenit nationalism,from determined serious moderate came to any prevented mayors. problems Practical urban administration of and instability, political bya doubled theinterwar for anyof a major concern not was center Romanian an appropriate constructing majorMunicipality havebecome could the of supporter initiative, issuethe the but of local the circumstances, these in of In Ferdinand thedeath 1927. a political after alsobut one converged with their own aims. monumentMonarchy of their Houseofferedsupport aslong astheRoyal purpose the The end of the the 1920s Church, Orthodox the ASTRA, brought territory. Transylvanian on nota Romanian for raised only the economic crisis, Ceremony in Alba-Iulia.in Themonument was Cluj beplanned to firstthe equestrian statue symbolicalintegration ofTransylvaniainto the Romania, completed which Coronation new a as be read could pantheon, national in the integrated officially and emancipation a herofigure,local martyrinto with associated of process a long-term Romanian from a Iancu transforming of process whole the center, the of perspective the From in Cluj. personality Avram of playedIancu role animportant inemphasizing theRomanian presence Mayor of Mayor of Târgu-Mure as buthisappointment person, become have that Dandea could its achievement. project until in would engage the that of person an influential commitment determined lackedthe clearly in Cathedral, statue the the andeven with Târgu-Mure As with compared Theatre. National the and Cathedral the between space the better fitwould between the already planned statue and amonument of Latinity of smaller dimensions, which the statue in statue the Târgu-Mure However, and with during all 1920s, the about debatesconnected the statue the the ú meant also the histransfer of initiative from Cluj Târgu-Mure to ú and the indecision of the Cluj Municipality, wasoscillatingindecision Cluj of the who andthe 125 ú , the project of the Iancu statue in project of Iancustatue Cluj the , the ú . CEU eTD Collection Budapest was aimed to both modernize the urban fabric and create a visual discourse onthe fabric a visual discourse modernize andcreate both theurban Budapest wasaimed to in by government initiated andsponsored central the structure architectural in city’s the turn the of intervention shaped At aradical the Austro-Hungarian century, the during period. and OldKingdom. the of hadbeen Theprofile city center andas cultural administrative the area Sibiu from mostly here transferred elites, Romanianizing the for challenging particularly city centers. inmeaningful the presence andestablishingdiscourse a attempts ofcontrolling dominantthe partial tothe elites’ Romanian successof idea contribute could Romanianness, to the all of the various actors, political struggles at local or national levels, divergent meanings between associated collaboration of lack or tensions funding, insufficient extents, various To cityscape. the of configuration on the limited impact arather would determine reasons a number of Practically, order. political new the reflect symbolically would that interventions immediate to statues, monuments, churches publicbuildings.or Theoretically, space this could besubjected markers such bynon-Romanian was spatial as squares urban representative populated already since sensitive, spacebecameparticularly of public Thequestion andthe terms. practical urban areas andimposing amore substantial Romanian in presence public cities’ the life. actors wereinvolvedaprocessof“conquering” andinto the numerous non-state state 1919, beginningof administration Followinggovernment. atthe ofthe installation Romanian the constituted one major duringissues debated period the by interwar Romanian the elite and CONCLUSIONS Due to its symbolical role as unofficial capital of Transylvania, the city of Cluj was symbolical both in conceived was cities the in visibility Romanians’ context, this In cities Transylvanian non-Romanian predominantly the of nationalization The 126 CEU eTD Collection difficult situation after the war etc. Although the Monarchy did not openly promoted a radical openly theMonarchy Although not thewaretc. did after promoted difficultsituation the crisis, economic instability, political cities- of nationalization the concerning policy itprevented limitations from with that awell-coordinated developing was confronted a setof Romania. state Simultaneously, the in existing Greater already frameworks corresponding integration both of nationalTransylvanian hero local and Orthodox church hierarchyinto the power that would ensure them legitimacy in the new territories. Therefore, they advocated the agenda. The Monarchy and the central government attempted to create a popular basis of their own their into landmarks urban important these integrate to aimed actors various community, Rather than promoting vision aunitary meaning of the monuments for Romanian the of these plusgotinvolved local andtheRoyal intheseHouse projects. thecentral government actors, monumentdedicatedmost toTransylvanian Avram belovedRomanians’ hero, Several Iancu. a and Cathedral Orthodox an 1920s: the of beginning the at launched were initiatives afew Two of in eastwards. squaresituated Romanianness hundredmeters the parallel values the reflecting discourse visual a create to aimed also elites Romanian square, city main elites. Romanian inhabitants showed little interest towards nationalthe advocated by offensive the Cluj press,average by Romanian local vociferated the nationalist rhetoric Contrasting the 1919 pointed towards necessitythe acquiringdominantpositionof a in city’s the life. public discourse the Therefore, articulated environment. Hungarian-speaking predominantly the into assimilated bypartially the Romanian nationalizing elites transferred markets. former place the on of were created in the city as soon as national symbolism chargedof spaces public Moreover,representative of state. power the Counterbalancing the Hungarian nationalist rhetoric staged through the design of the of design the through staged rhetoric nationalist Hungarian the Counterbalancing Meanwhile, Cluj Romanians were poorly represented in the city’s public sphere, being 127 CEU eTD Collection meaning of the two monuments. Iancu was integrated in the war commemorative discourse as discourse war commemorative in the integrated was Iancu monuments. thetwo of meaning hero. national the to church national the associating Romanianness, on rhetoric visual a illustrate to in order Cathedral, Orthodox the of front in beplaced wasmeantto hisstatue Cluj, In pantheon. national into the integration Iancu’s “negotiated” of Romanians ASTRA, main the Transylvanian emancipation.society cultural by narrativeappropriated historical fighting asa dominant the heronational Romanians’ for local hisfigure of of importance birth,until was year 1924, the Centenary Iancu the of A actors. local central and of amultiplicity of interest the attracted similarly period, interwar of fromparticipation local urban dwellers. these festivities remains a question, since none of the accounts emphasize asignificant degree by students, peasantsandtheArmy. Therefore, thedegree of popular consensus enjoyed by mostly attended ceremonies orchestrated havecarefully been to seem events these However, emphasize Romanian supposedly Orthodox’s importance in growing urbanthe space. public the city meant by occasions throughout processions Bishop were to differenton organized the of joy in the of a past suffering andapresent national the witnessed about style, Cathedral Romanian the history Orthodoxof the Transylvanians local of asavictory Cathedral the of construction thesuccessful perceived Ivan by BishopNicolae rather Orthodox than an achievementOrthodox were community. benefittingof the the direct Romanian support of the state. However, the Orthodoxstate. elite Transylvanian leadedhistory, time in sincetheir first forthe of power, aclearstatement represented Constructed The in numerous ceremoniesnation. ceremonies by the organized dominant country’s the and itself itto associated spaces, cities’ public the of Romanianization the concerning discourse The memory of the war important played also an important role in shaping the The monumentforprojects for Avram which Iancu, not builtactually was during the The construction of an Cathedral by the city’s most insignificant religious community 128 CEU eTD Collection complicated andcomplicated more much gradual than they initially had expected. more farof was nationalization process the actual showedthat practice 1920s, the in theearly nationalists by Romanian featured city the of “conquer” the on discourse radical the despite Therefore, center”. city “newRomanian the with themselves identifying from associated squarepreventedRomanian with Orthodoxy,of design Greek-Catholics the a Romanian identification of the new square. Moreover, though its religious connotations it this capableofimposing bethat not onebuildingcould was stated monumental appearance, Cathedral’s the Despite itspurposes. it own to whileadapting thelocal agenda, supported often state the thecenter, belong did not to monuments such of constructing initiative local However,although of public space dependedmostly the commitment promoters. on the city’s in the landmarks urban as identification national of symbols visible stage to aiming expected. have might nationalist enthusiast some as Romanians, for privileges any of nationalization. policy aggressive an promote to interested being than rather parties Even political between rivalries in the economic sphere, local authorities did notHungary on Transylvanianthe border. intend to provide the Assumption, armyhad15 represented whenRomanian Austro- August attached day of ’s the thefestival War.Besides Great inthe sacrifice soldiers’ Romanian the to festival was dedicated theCathedral’s for unity,a forerunner Romanians’ of war while the In this circumstances, the successful achievement or the failure of such projects such of failure the or achievement successful the circumstances, this In beHowever, Cluj Municipality concerned to proved bureaucratic with issuesand 129 CEU eTD Collection Source: Buzea, Octavian. Source: Buzea, period interwar the during city the Plan of 1 Plate ILLUSTRATIONS Clujul: 1919-1939. Clujul: (Cluj: Ardealul, 1939), 274. 1939), Ardealul, (Cluj: 130 CEU eTD Collection Source: Agachi, Mihaela. Agachi, Source: 19 the of middle the during center city Cluj 2 Plate 119. Clujul modern. Aspecte urbanistice. th century 131 (Cluj-Napoca: UT Press, 2004), Press, UT (Cluj-Napoca: CEU eTD Collection Town, Source: Brubaker,Rogers ed., The present-day citycenter 3 Plate Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2006 Press, University Princeton Oxford: and Princeton National Politics andEveryday Ethnicity in aTransylvanian 132 Courtesy of the “Octavian Goga” Cluj District Library, Cluj Library, District Cluj Goga” “Octavian the of Courtesy The Bocskai (later Cuza Vod Cuza (later The Bocskai 4 Plate ĉ

CEU eTD turn-of-the-century. square, ) Collection 133 Courtesy of the “Octavian Goga” Cluj District Library, Cluj Library, District Cluj Goga” “Octavian the of Courtesy Hunyadi (later (later Hunyadi 5 Plate b tefan cel Mare) square, around 1890. around square, cel Mare) tefan

CEU eTD Collection 134 CEU eTD Collection Source: Monument. Iancu the and Cathedral Orthodox the with center city new the illustrating Cristinel byGeorge designed Project 6 Plate Arhitectura, 9 (1930): 19. 9 (1930): 135 CEU eTD Collection Source: Cristinel George and Pomponiu by Constantin plans Original street. Maniu Iuliu from Cathedral-view The Orthodox 7 Plate Arhitectura , 3(1924) 136 Courtesy of the Archives of the Metropolitan Bishopric of Cluj of Bishopric Metropolitan ofthe Archives of the Courtesy Theatre. National the with dialogue visual in a of theCathedral Placement Cathedral. theOrthodox for project KárolyKós’s 8-A Plate

CEU eTD Collection 137 Courtesy of the Archives of the Metropolitan Bishopric of Cluj of Bishopric Metropolitan ofthe Archives of the Courtesy Károlyproject Kós’s for the Orthodox Cathedral. 8-B Plate

CEU eTD Collection 138 CEU eTD Collection The Orthodox cathedral as prokected by Kós, ground plan. ground Kós, by prokected as cathedral The Orthodox 8-C Plate 139 CEU eTD Collection Courtesy of the Archives of the Metropolitan Bishopric of Cluj of Bishopric Metropolitan ofthe Archives ofthe Courtesy Sibiu. from Pamfilie Ioan byarchitect cathedral the for The project 9-A Plate 140 CEU eTD Collection The façade in the project by Ioan Pamfilie. by Ioan project the in The façade 9-B Plate 141 CEU eTD Collection Courtesy of the “Octavian Goga” Cluj District Library, Cluj Library, District Cluj Goga” “Octavian the of Courtesy 1928. around construction, under The cathedral 10 Plate 142 CEU eTD Collection Courtesy of the “Octavian Goga” Cluj District Library, Cluj Library, District Cluj Goga” “Octavian the of Courtesy 1933. after consecration, the after The cathedral 11 Plate 143 CEU eTD Collection Barbu Iscovescu: Portrait of Avram Iancu, 1849 of AvramIancu, Portrait Barbu Iscovescu: 12 Plate 144 Courtesy of Prof. Nicolae Sab Nicolae ofProf. Courtesy Model for the Iancu monument, by I. Iord I. by monument, Iancu forthe Model 13 Plate

CEU eTD Collection ĉ u, Babe u, Ɣ -Bolyai University, Cluj University, -Bolyai ĉ nescu (1926). nescu 145 CEU eTD Collection Courtesy of Prof. Nicolae Sab Nicolae ofProf. Courtesy Mendrea. by Cornel statue Iancu Avram model of Gypsum 14 Plate ĉ u, Babe u, Ɣ -Bolyai University, Cluj University, -Bolyai 146 CEU eTD Collection Courtesy of Prof. Nicolae Sab Nicolae ofProf. Courtesy Schmidt. I. by statue Iancu Avram of Model 15 Plate ĉ u, Babe u, Ɣ -Bolyai University, Cluj University, -Bolyai 147 The monument of Avram Iancu, by I. Dimitriu-Bârlad, in interwar Târgu-Mure interwar in Dimitriu-Bârlad, I. by Iancu, Avram of The monument 16 Plate

CEU eTD Collection 148 Ɣ (contemporary postcard). (contemporary CEU eTD Collection before the cessation of Northern Transylvania to Hungary). to Transylvania Northern of cessation before the Târgu-Mure from moved was (it în Câmpeni today monument, The same 17 Plate 149 Ɣ to Câmpeni, in 1940, in toCâmpeni, CEU eTD Collection Patria Monitorul municipiului Cluj Keleti Ujság Înfr Gazeta Transilvaniei Regional Commission of Unification), 1921 Gazetaa Comisiunii Oficiala Regionalede Unificare dinCluj Foaia Poporului Cuvântul Liber Cultura Poporului Clujul Arhitectura Newspapers Clujului Mitropoliei Arhivele Arhivele Na Arhivele Na Arhivele Na Arhivele Archives sources Primary BIBLIOGRAPHY ăĠ irea (Cluj),1921-2 (The Homeland) (The (TheFraternity) (Review Architecture) of Ġ Ġ Ġ (Eastern Press) (Eastern ionale Sibiu, FondASTRA ionale Cluj, FondASTRA ionale Cluj, Fond Prim Fond Cluj, ionale (Free Word) (The Daily Daily People) of (The the (People’s Culture) (People’s (Journal (Journal of Transylvania) (Official gazette of Cluj), 1927 ă ria Municipiului Cluj-Napoca Municipiului ria 150 (The Official Gazette of the CEU eTD Collection Bernat, 1923. Mihnea, Paul. Mihnea, Mountains). Arad:Tiparul Arad:Tiparul Mountains). Tipografiei Diecezan Traian. Mager, 1924. (Avram ConferenceIancu. held at the Romanian Academy on June 8, 1924).Cluj:Ardealul, Lupa Laz Heathcote, Dudley.Heathcote, Mure Francu, . Francu, Dragomir, Silviu. Dragomir, Ardealul.Cluj: Life). Iancu’s Ciura, Alexandru. Names in Cluj). Cluj:Tipografia Corvin, 1923. &ăOă Buzea, Octavian. Administra .Cluj, 1929. Actele Adun Sources Primary Published Voin Tribuna Român Telegraful ğ Revista administrativ Rena ara Noastr ă Ġ r, Victor. r, uza Clujului- Denumirilevechi si noiale str ú ú ú a Ardealului , Ioan, terea : Tipografia Municipiului Târgu-Mure (The Tribune) (The Ġ ia româneasc (Rebirth) ă ă Avram Iancu. Comunicare Avram Iancu.Comunicare f rii Eparhiale peanul1929( (Our Country),1926 Tabloul locuitorilor ora Clujul. Pentru memoria lui Avram Iancu luiAvram Pentru memoria Cultul eroilor înMun Clujul: 1919-1939. Avram Iancu. Povestire pescurtPovestire avie (Transylvania’s Will) (Transylvania’s (The Romanian Telegraph) My WanderingsintheBalkans. ă Cluj: Ardealul, 1923. (The Public Administration Review) Public (The Administration ă înjude Bucure Ġ ul Cluj (Cluj: 1919-1939) Ġ ii Apuseni ú ului Cluj ú ti: Casa ă The Documents of Eparchy’sthe Assembly on 1929) (Romanian administration in Cluj District). Cluj, 1937. Ġ cuta însedin ii lui Avramii lui Iancu ú , 1935. 151 ă (The Cult of the Heroes in the Apuseni (Table of Cluj Inhabitants). Cluj: Tipografia . ú ă (For the Memory of Avram Iancu). Târgu- coalelor, 1924. coalelor, zilor din Cluj London: Hutchinson & 1925 Co., Ġ a Academiei Cluj: Ardealul, 1939. (The Concise Story of Avram (Cluj Guide- Old and New Street Române la8 iunie 1924 CEU eTD Collection Consciousness) Bucure Boia, Lucian. Romanian rule. Romanian Minority under Hungarian rule1867-1918 andof theHungarian Minority under Biró Sándor. no. 52(1921):228-241. Bacil nationalism Benedict. Anderson, Napoca: UTPress, 2004. Agachi, Mihaela. the Memory of Avram Iancu) in Abrudan, Paul. “Lupta pentru ap pentru Abrudan, Paul. “Lupta 1972. Paul. Abrudan, Secondary sources Cathedral from Cluj). Cluj: Tiparul Orthodox Române,Eparhiei Ortodoxe 1933. Romanian the of Consecration The 6). 5 and 4, (November Days: (Memorable Zile memorabile(4, 5si6 Noiembrie). Sfin 1928. 9ăWăú forcode in municipalitythe of Cluj). Cluj: Minerva,1933. Bucure Regulament deconstruc Romania, 1930), vol.2: Neam,limb Recens Staff, 1999. Recens Staff, 1997. Recens ă escu, Ioan. escu, , Ioan C.. “Portretele lui Avram Iancu” (The Portraits of Avram Iancu) in ă ă ă ú ti: 1930. ti: mântul general alpopula mântul din1880,Transilvania. mântul din1857,Transilvania. . London: Verso, 1983. The Nationalities Problem inTransylvania 1867-1940.A Social History of the Istorie New-York: Columbia University Press, 1992 Pentru unmonumentalui Avram Iancu &ăOă Clujul modern. Aspecte urbanistice. Imagined Communities : reflections ontheorigin and spread of ú uza studentului laCluj. i mitîncon ú Ġ ti: Humanitas, 2006. ti: ii sialinieri pentrumunicipiul Cluj ă Studii, ú Ġ rarea memoriei forrarea theDefenselui Avram (Fighting of Iancu” iei României 1930 tiin ă matern Ġ a româneasc 25, no.4 (1972): 701-710. (Population Census of 1857. Transylvania).Bucure (Population Census of 1880. Transylvania). Bucure Ġ irea Catedralei Ortodoxe RomânedinCluj ă (Guide for the student of Cluj) , religie (Nationality,mother tongue, religion). 152 ă (History and Myth in the Romanian (The General Census of the population of (Modern Cluj. Urbanisation Aspects) Cluj- (For a Monument of Avram Iancu) . (Construction and systematization and . (Construction . Cluj: Ardealul, Cluj: Transilvania ú ú Sibiu, ti: ti: 4, CEU eTD Collection Hitchins, Keith, 1993 Jürgen. Habermas, Goodman, Nelson. “How Buildings Mean”in Gellner, Ernst. Gellner, Ellenius, Allan ed.. 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