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The European Sky-God

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Folklore ISSN: 0015-587X (Print) 1469-8315 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rfol20 The European Sky-God. Arthur Bernard Cook To cite this article: Arthur Bernard Cook (1904) The European Sky-God., Folklore, 15:3, 264-315, DOI: 10.1080/0015587X.1904.9719411 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0015587X.1904.9719411 Published online: 06 Feb 2012. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 4 View related articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rfol20 Download by: [University of California, San Diego] Date: 25 February 2016, At: 14:53 THE EUROPEAN SKY-GOD. BY ARTHUR BERNARD COOK. IN a series of six articles contributed to The Classical Review, 1903-1904, under the title of " Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak," I attempted to determine the original character of the chief Graeco-Italic deity and the nature of his cult. The materials that I accumulated for this purpose, when pieced together, formed a reconstruction so unorthodox in its outlines that I should have hesitated to publish it, had I not found that in several important points it agreed well with the main argument of Dr. Frazer's Golden Dough. Encouraged by this support I pushed on ; and further study has convinced me that my conclusions with regard to Zeus and Jupiter hold good for the corresponding gods of the Celtic, the Germanic, and the Letto-Slavonic peoples, if not for those of all branches of the Indo-European stock. I must, however, at the outset frankly confess that beyond the limits of the classical field I have no claim to speak as an expert. Scholars who have specialised in any of the mythologies of northern Europe will, I doubt not, find much to criticise in my remarks. Indeed, it is precisely in order to "draw the fire" of such criticism and thus to test the validity of my hypothesis that I have ventured to put pen to paper. I propose, first to restate (with some modifica­ tions) my general conclusions with respect to the ancient Greeks and Italians, and then to deal with apparently similar phenomena among the Celts, Germans, Slavs, &c, in each case considering how far cults evidenced by the literature or the monuments or both afford a real analogy to Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 14:53 25 February 2016 the results obtained in the Graco-Italic area. The European Sky-god. 265 THE GREEKS. The supreme deity of the Greeks was essentially a sky- god.1 As such he was called the " Bright" One, his name Zetie being referable to a root that means " to shine " and implies the " daylight."8 Thus—to give but one example —the Iliad links together " the clear air and the rays of Zeus," where, as the scholiast ad loc. observes, by "the rays of Zeus" the poet means the sky.8 Empedocles* speaks of elemental fire as Zeii<s apyiji, i.e., " Zeus the brilliant" ; and it is probable that Argus, a hero who figures largely in Greek mythology,6 was at bottom none other than the " Brilliant" sky-god.8 This primary conception of Zeus as a sky-god developed in two secondary directions. On the one hand, the sky is 1 See eg. Preller-Robert, Griechische Mythologie, p. Its ff., Gruppe, Grie. chische Mythologie u. Religionsgeschichle, p. liooff. a O. Schroder, Reallexikon der Indogermanischen Altertumskunde, p. 670, K. Brugmann, Kurse vergleichende Grammatik der Indogermanischen Sfrathen, P- 313, alii. Two misleading explanations may here lie noted, (J) E. II. Meyer, Germanische Mythologie, pp. 182, aao, holds that Zt&t denotes properly the "hurlcr" or "discharger" of rays (cf. II. Grassmann, WSrtcrbuck turn Rig. *>eda, p. 600, s.v. div) and infers that he must have been the lightning-god, not 83 is commonly supposed the god of bright daylight. But the frequent use of the word dyaus in the Rig>veda for " sky " or " day " (A. A. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, p. 31) and the existence of the Latin dies beside Diespiter are conclusive in favour of the common view. (3) Against Dr. Frazer's sugges­ tion (The Golden Bough,1 iii. 456 f.) that Zeus was named " Bright" as being the oak-god, i.e. god of the tree whose wood was used in fire-making, I have elsewhere protested (Class. Rev., xvi. 373), as has Gruppe (of. cit, p. 1100, n. 3), Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 14:53 25 February 2016 * ll-, 13. 837 with schol. B. * "Emped.frag. 6 Diels. ' Argus the builder of the ship Argo is identified With Argus U*rirms, the eponym of Argos, by Jessen (Roscher, Lexikon dor Griechischen u, RSmischen Mythologie, iii. 1549) and Wernicke (rauly-Wissowa, Real-encyclopddit der 'lassischen AUertumswissenschaft, ii. 797 f.). ' Class Rev., xviii. 75, 83, The adjective ipyh denotes " brilliant," 266 The European Sky-god. not always bright and brilliant. As the rustic Corydon puts it in an idyll of Theocritus :7 %u> Z(i)C iiWoica fiiv iriXei aWpiog, itWoKa i' vu. Ay, Zeus is sometimes fine and sometimes wet. Hence the Greeks at a very early date extended the notion of Zeus as a bright sky-god to cover that of Zeus as a weather god.H The man in the street said : " Zeus rains," " Zeus snows," " Zeus sends the hail." 9 The minstrel in the palace-hall was ready with high-sounding epithets : " He of the dark clouds " (<ce\aive<pii<}), " He that rumbleth aloud" (epvySown-os), "He that hurleth the thunderbolt" (repmKepavvo<;). In various localities Zeus was worshipped under special weather-titles, e.g. Zeus "the Thunderer" (Hpovr&v), Zeus "of the Fair Wind" (Euai/e/xo?), " Zeus of the Rain " ('Teno?).*" Marcus Aurelius 11 has preserved the Athenian equivalent of our prayer " In the time of Dearth and Famine " : it runs as follows:— vaav, iaov, S> <j>l\e Zsv, icari riji Apoipac n/c 'A6t\valuiv ical rSiv mtiiav A'ain, rain, dear Zeus, On Athens' tilth and Athens' plains. The same conception found an expression in art. On the Athenian acropolis PausaniasV1 saw " an image of Earth praying Zeus to rain upon her." And a bronze coin i Theocr., 4, 43. • rreller-Rubert, pp. 117 ff.; Gruppe, pp. mo ff. j L. R, Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, i,, 44 ff. » Eg. 11., 12. 25 f., it S' ipa ZiAc I avv«xk; Babr., 45. 1, ivtiptv i Zeic; Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 14:53 25 February 2016 Eur., Tro., 78 f., Kal Zsic bpfipov ml %a\ayav Hantrov j ff^ifet tvoQutn r' alOtpoc Qvatiuara, »° On Zeus Upavrtiv of Phrygia, Galatia, Sc., see Cumont in Bauly-Wissowa, iii. 891 f. On Zeus UWVJ/JO* of Sparta, Frellcr-Robert, p. 118. On Zeu 'Xinoc of Lebadea, Argos, Cos, &c„ Gruppe, p. mo, tt. a. " Marc. Aur., 5. 7. ,a Paus., 1. 24. 3, with Frazer's n. The European Sky-god. 267 of Ephesus13 struck under Antoninus Pius shows on its reverse side Zeus 'Te'no? enthroned on a rocky summit (Trachea) and pouring from his raised right hand a shower °f rain upon a recumbent mountain-god (Pion). Now in polished classical times the thunderbolt was commonly regarded as a weapon flung by Zeus.11 But in by-gone animistic days Zeus had been identified with his own bolt." Similarly in the historical period rain was " water from Zeus," or " the shower of Zeus."18 But there were not wanting expressions that hinted at a closer connection. Matron, the parodist of Homer, dubbed rain " the child of Zeus";" Orphic writers spoke of it as "the tears of Zeus " ;18 Aristophanes more sua as the water of Zeus.19 Indeed.it is probable that Zeus had originally been thought to come down himself in the form of rain. This belief may underlie the usage of ffiviov or $vtov &$ap, i.e., "Zeus- water," as a term for rain-water in magical formula).80 It would account for the extraordinary significance attached 11 Brit. Mus. Cat. Gk. Coins Ionia, p. 79> pl> >3, 9- Eumelus (frag. 18 Kinkei) ap. Lyd, de mens., 4. 48, states that on the top of Mount Tmolus was a place called originally Toval At&c 'Ysriov, later bevaiov. 14 On Zeus Kepavvoj36\ac, lyxiutipav»os, l\aaijip6vTns, &c, see the references collected by Gruppe, p. 1111, ». 3. " See Farnell, 1, 4S f., who cites the Zeus Kipavvoe of Mantinea, the Zeus Koro(/34r»ic of Olympia and elsewhere, the Zeus Koirirwrac of Gythium, &c. M 'E* £ubc,Mwp Hdt., 3. 13 ; Ap. Rhod., a. ma j Plut. qvastt. not., 3: Ai&c iuPpas, Od.g. in j Theocr., 17. 78. " Matron ap. Athen., 3. 64 c, <2c iv %tp<"p Optyi AiAe wate <S«riroc 18 Clem, Alex, strom., $. 8. 50, 'Enrylvuc Iv Tip repi rijc 'Oppiwc iroijjtfiwc rii Widjovra wap' 'OpiptX UrMpevSe . • • tdicpva Aide rbv fyPpov Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 14:53 25 February 2016 in\ouv. Aristoph. nub., 373, Kai'roi wpinpav rbv At' dXi}0we tpfinv tti nooxivov "bptlp. * Wessely, Griechisthe Zauberpapyrus von Paris u. London, Wien, 1S88, P»p. Paris. 235, lav p,lv T<% litavpavlovs Qtovc *XjfZj? M/nov (.se. fidXi M<u/>)j Wessely, Ncue Grieehische Zauberpapyri, Wien, 1893, p. 41, 630, Znvlov Uarog. 268 The European Sky-god. to a downpour, not only in legends, but in actual life,8 where a sudden storm was called Bioa^la, " a sign from Zeus," and a few rain-drops might suffice to postpone a public assembly.23 It would also explain more than one incident belonging to an early stratum of Greek mythology.
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    L E X I C O N O F T H E W O R L D O F T H E C E L T I C G O D S Composed by: Dewaele Sunniva Translation: Dewaele Sunniva and Van den Broecke Nadine A Abandinus: British water god, but locally till Godmanchester in Cambridgeshire. Abarta: Irish god, member of the de Tuatha De Danann (‘people of Danu’). Abelio, Abelionni, Abellio, Abello: Gallic god of the Garonne valley in South-western France, perhaps a god of the apple trees. Also known as the sun god on the Greek island Crete and the Pyrenees between France and Spain, associated with fertility of the apple trees. Abgatiacus: ‘he who owns the water’, There is only a statue of him in Neumagen in Germany. He must accompany the souls to the Underworld, perhaps a heeling god as well. Abhean: Irish god, harpist of the Tuatha De Danann (‘people of Danu’). Abianius: Gallic river god, probably of navigation and/or trade on the river. Abilus: Gallic god in France, worshiped at Ar-nay-de-luc in Côte d’Or (France) Abinius: Gallic river god or ‘the defence of god’. Abna, Abnoba, Avnova: goddess of the wood and river of the Black Wood and the surrounding territories in Germany, also a goddess of hunt. Abondia, Abunciada, Habonde, Habondia: British goddess of plenty and prosperity. Originally she is a Germanic earth goddess. Accasbel: a member of the first Irish invasion, the Partholans. Probably an early god of wine. Achall: Irish goddess of diligence and family love.
  • Select Passages from Ancient Writers Illustrative of the History of Greek

    Select Passages from Ancient Writers Illustrative of the History of Greek

    UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES CHARLES W. PEPPLER, DUKE UNIVERSITY BURHAM, N. C. NOV 1 1926 GREEK SCULPTURE SELECT PASSAGES FROM ANCIENT WRITERS ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE HISTORY OF GREEK SCULPTURE EDITED WITH A TRANSLATION AND NOTES BY H. STUART JONES, M.A. FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, OXFORD ; LATE CRAVEN UNIVERSITY FELLOW FORMERLY STUDENT OF THE BRITISH SCHOOL AT ATHENS London MACMILLAN AND CO. AND NEW YORK 1895 Ojforb HORACE HART, PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY J7/ TO PROFESSOR PERCY GARDNER 476859 i ." PREFACE THE History of Greek Sculpture, 60x3-323 B.C., forms one of the subjects of examination in the classical school at Oxford. The only collection of ancient authorities on this subject available for study is that of Overbeck (Die antiken Schrift- quellen zur Geschichte der bildenden Kunste bei den Griechen, Leipzig, 1868). Since this work aims at completeness, it contains some thousands of passages which are not necessary for such study of Greek sculpture as is required of Uni- versity students, while, on the other hand, it provides neither translation nor commentary. I have, therefore, at the request of Professor Gardner, selected such passages as appeared from their intrinsic interest or difficulty to re- quire special study by those offering the subject for examination, adding some few to which atten- tion has been called since the publication of Overbeck's work. As a rule, the inscriptions of artists (which may be read in Lowy's In- schriften griechischer Bildhawr] have not been included, except in a few cases where the matter x PREFACE or form of the inscription seemed to make this desirable to those which are ; merely signatures reference is made in the discussions of date which follow each heading where necessary.
  • Iii Polifuncional Panteón Celta

    Iii Polifuncional Panteón Celta

    TREBA Y TERRITORIUM GÉNESIS Y DESARROLLO DEL MOBILIARIO E INMOBILIARIO ARQUEOLÓGICO INSTITUCIONAL DE LA GALLAECIA III. POLIFUNCIONAL PANTEÓN CELTA Señalando la relación del dios de la rueda solar como psychopompos conductor de los muertos en su aspecto decadente o solsticial, “del segundo paso del sol”, estableceremos en el ámbito geográfico celtoatlantico objeto de nuestras autopsias el celebratorio piaculum de la expulsión del invierno en las bandas indoeuropeas. Pero antes tenemos que hablar de la Religión Celta. La divinidad que más veneran es Mercurio. Sus estatuas son las más numerosas, ven en él al inventor de todas las artes, considerándolo como el guía de los viajeros en los caminos y el que tiene el poder para otorgar las mayores ganancias monetarias y favorecer el comercio. CÉSAR B. G. VI. 17. Dumézil observó que los dioses del panteón indoeuropeo reflejan una estructura social trifuncional210. Haciéndose según parece el hombre sedentario en torno a actividades agrícolas y ganaderas, lo que sucede en el Neolítico, cuando por primera vez tuvo algo que guardar, grano o ganado, se hizo al parecer también ladrón y precavido. Surgirían así en las sociedades tres niveles jerárquicos verticales: los que logrando vivir sin trabajar viven del trabajo ajeno, nobles y sacerdotes enseñoreando la ciudad o el territorio; los defensores y ladrones, es decir, los soldados; y los que labrando la tierra y cuidando el ganado alimentan a todos. La religión y los mitos desde el Neolítico corresponderían a esta realidad, con un trasfondo de preocupación de supervivencia después de la muerte para disfrutar de los bienes y de la posición conseguida en vida, o para mejorar esa posición en ultratumba.