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Enclave Empires: Britain, France and the Treaty-Port System in Japan, 1858-1868

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Enclave Empires: Britain, France and the Treaty-Port System in Japan, 1858-1868 The London School of Economics and Political Science Enclave Empires: Britain, France and the Treaty-Port System in Japan, 1858-1868 Scott W Gilfillan A thesis submitted to the Department of International History of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy London, September 2016 1 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copy right of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 131,086 words. 2 Abstract This thesis will present a comparative and internationally contextualised history of Anglo-French relations in Japan between 1858 and 1868. It will introduce the concept of ‘enclave empires’ to describe the conduits for Western informal imperialism that were created in Japan by the imposition of the treaty-port system in 1858. It will aim to address longstanding gaps in the historiography by assessing that system as a multinational construct that depended upon the cooperation and collaboration of each treaty power operating within it. At the same time, it will show how the management of the Japanese treaty-port system was increasingly dominated by the British Empire and the French Second Empire, the two most powerful Western trading nations in Japan during the 1860s. It will examine how global contexts impacted upon British and French foreign policymaking during this period, and how this catalysed an increasingly bitter Anglo- French struggle for control over the ‘enclave empires’ in Japan. It will also seek to broaden the scope of the historiography beyond the sphere of diplomatic relations by considering the perspectives of prominent non-diplomatic British and French actors whenever relevant. Finally, it will address significant historiographical oversights in the use of relevant primary source material through the critical appraisal of contemporary private paper collections. By adopting this four-pronged methodological approach, this thesis will demonstrate that Anglo-French relations fundamentally defined the process of creating and developing informal ‘enclave empires’ in Japan in the decade between the conclusion of the ‘unequal treaties’ in 1858 and the Meiji Restoration in 1868. 3 Acknowledgements This study was inspired by the wonderfully engaging lectures and seminars that my supervisor Antony Best delivered on the knotty subject of East Asia in the age of imperialism as part of my Master’s programme at the London School of Economics and Political Science. I had long been fascinated by the events leading up to the Meiji Restoration, but it is doubtful that this thesis would ever have been conceived without Dr Best’s incisive and accessible appraisal of what is a highly complex period of Japanese history. After inspiring me to embark upon this study, I could not have wished for a more supportive and patient mentor to supervise it. My heartfelt thanks therefore go to Dr Best for ensuring that this work always remained on track, and for improving every page of it with his insightful comments and suggestions. This project would not have been possible without the generous support of the London School of Economics, the British Association for Japanese Studies, and, above all, the Great Britain Sasakawa Foundation, which saw fit to award me one of their first Japanese Studies Postgraduate Studentships at a time of acute financial difficulty. I would also like to thank the Great Britain Sasakawa Foundation and the Japan Foundation Endowment Committee for furnishing me with the funds necessary to embark upon a lengthy and highly productive research trip to Japan in the summer of 2014. I am further indebted to the Suntory and Toyota International Centre for Economics and Related Disciplines and the Department of International History at the London School of Economics for helping to make my regular research excursions to Paris possible. I am truly grateful to each of these esteemed organisations, and I hope that this thesis will justify a little of the faith they put in me. My interest in all things Japanese dates back to my stint as an Assistant Language Teacher on the JET Programme, and I will be forever grateful to those who organise and administer the programme for giving me the opportunity to uncover that hidden passion. I would also like to thank all those who made my four years in Japan so unforgettable, especially the friendly and welcoming people of Tokushima and Nagano prefectures. Since then I have had the great fortune to encounter several esteemed Japanese scholars, many of whom were kind enough to offer help and advice during the course of this study. Special thanks go to Naraoka Sōchi, Kumamoto Fumio, Oyama Mizuho, Morita Tomoko, Dōsako Shingo, Nakatake Kanami, and all the helpful staff at the Yokohama Archives of History, Yokohama City Chūō Library, Hagi Museum, the Nagasaki Museum of History 4 and Culture, and the Kagoshima Prefectural Centre for Historical Material. I am equally grateful to the dedicated staff at the archival repositories and libraries I visited in the UK and France, as well as to Jardine, Matheson & Co. for allowing me to consult and publish extracts from the Parkes Papers held in the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford. There can be few better places to study history than at the LSE, where some of the best scholars in the world are on hand to offer friendly advice and constructive criticism. During my time at the School I was fortunate to receive guidance and support from Professor David Stevenson, Professor Piers Ludlow, Professor Janet Hunter, Professor Alan Sked, Dr Paul Keenan, and Dr Angela Romano, and I want to thank them all for helping to improve this thesis in their own way. I am also deeply grateful to Dr Dayna Barnes and Dr Robert Barnes for their words of wisdom on funding a PhD, without which it is doubtful that this study would ever have seen the light of day. Further thanks go to Professor Thomas Otte and Dr Andrew Cobbing for their meticulous appraisal of the thesis, as well as to my fellow historical journeymen Cees Heere, Jin Li Lim, Oliver Elliott, Yamamoto Takahiro, and Suzuki Yu for sharing the ride – we got there in the end! It is friends and family who invariably shoulder the greatest burden of supporting doctoral candidates on the winding path to completion, and those closest to me were no different. I could not have finished this study without the steadfast support of Bridget Phillipson MP, who went out of her way to accommodate my erratic research and writing schedule while working in her Westminster office. Thanks also to Justin Gelzhiser for helping me to see the big picture and realise my full potential, and to Stephen Armstrong for being there when pub-related light relief was in order. Last but not least, Dr Svetozar Rajak has been a superb mentor and an even better friend over the years, and I will always remember our lengthy historical discussions over a whiskey with great fondness. Above all, I want to thank my family for all their love and support since I embarked upon this endeavour. My sister Laura was always on hand to offer encouragement and reassurance, while my brother Stuart imparted the sound advice and expert knowledge befitting a scholar of his calibre. My enduring love and thanks go to my parents Vicky and Matt for always pushing me to do better, not least by painstakingly reading and critically appraising every draft of this thesis. I owe my interest in history in the first place to my grandparents Jack, Frankie, Bill, and Rebecca, whose first-hand accounts of wartime Britain, Ireland, Iceland, India, and Burma inspired pride and fascination in equal measure. Sadly, only Granny Rebecca saw this project started and finished, but the others 5 will remain forever in my thoughts. My final and deepest thanks go to my loving and long-suffering wife Xin, who had the misfortune to meet me during the first week of this project and has patiently endured all the trials and tribulations that have arisen thereafter. Despite them all she never stopped believing in me, which is why I dedicate this thesis to her. 6 For Xin 7 Table of contents INTRODUCTION 9 CHAPTER 1 44 Terra Incognita: The Treaty-Port System Comes to Japan, 1858 CHAPTER 2 75 Contention and Coercion: The Opening of Japan, 1859 CHAPTER 3 101 United in Adversity: The Challenge to Collective Diplomacy, 1860-1861 CHAPTER 4 128 Compromise and Concession: Alcock, Bellecourt and the London Protocol, 1861-1862 CHAPTER 5 152 The Expulsion Conundrum: Bellecourt, Neale and the Richardson Affair, 1862-1863 CHAPTER 6 182 Expedient Alliance: Alcock, Roches and the Shimonoseki Expedition, 1864 CHAPTER 7 213 New Beginnings: Roches, Winchester and the New Anglo-French Relationship, 1865 CHAPTER 8 244 False Friends: Léon Roches and Sir Harry Parkes, 1866 CHAPTER 9 270 Competing Visions: Parkes, Roches and the Collapse of the Tokugawa Shogunate, 1867 EPILOGUE 298 The Meiji Restoration and Beyond, 1868 CONCLUSION 303 BIBLIOGRAPHY 319 Primary Sources 319 Secondary Sources 330 8 INTRODUCTION On 8 February 1861, the British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston wrote a private note to Lord John Russell, his Foreign Secretary, outlining Britain’s relations with France at the time: The real truth of the relations of England to France is that the whole drift of our policy is to prevent France from realizing her bust scheme of extensions and aggression in a great number of quarters, and of course our success in doing so must necessarily be the cause of perpetual displeasure to her Government and people.
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