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The Uncommon Enemy: First Nations and Empires in King William's War

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The Uncommon Enemy: First Nations and Empires in King William's War The Uncommon Enemy: First Nations and Empires in King William's War By Steven Schwinghamer A Thesis Submitted to Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Nova Scotia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in History May 2007, Halifax, Nova Scotia Copyright Steven Schwinghamer, 2007 Dr Greg Marquis External Examiner Dr Michael Vance Reader Dr John Reid Supervisor Date: 4th May 2007 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Library and Bibliotheque et Archives Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-30278-1 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-30278-1 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives and Archives Canada to reproduce,Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve,sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, preter, telecommunication or on the Internet,distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans loan, distribute and sell theses le monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, worldwide, for commercial or non­ sur support microforme, papier, electronique commercial purposes, in microform,et/ou autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. this thesis. Neither the thesis Ni la these ni des extraits substantiels de nor substantial extracts from it celle-ci ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement may be printed or otherwise reproduits sans son autorisation. reproduced without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne Privacy Act some supporting sur la protection de la vie privee, forms may have been removed quelques formulaires secondaires from this thesis. ont ete enleves de cette these. While these forms may be includedBien que ces formulaires in the document page count, aient inclus dans la pagination, their removal does not represent il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. any loss of content from the thesis. i * i Canada Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The Uncommon Enemy: First Nations and Empires in King William's War by Steven Schwinghamer A bstract King William's War, 1688-1699, is generally described as a North American subsidiary of the Nine Years' War, 1689-1697. However, the North American hostilities started earlier and stopped later than the fighting in Europe. Further, King William's War was not a straight contest between the European powers in North America. It included two parallel fights, one between the English and the Wabanaki, and the other between the French and the Houdenasaunee. The independent local conduct of hostilities between these groups, the neglect of the conflict by European powers, and the internal divisions within the parties to the war, all establish important distinctions between King William's War and the Nine Years' War. May 2007 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table o f Contents Preface i Chapter I: Historiographical Introduction 1 Chapter II: Local Conduct 33 Chapter III: Imperial Neglect 67 Chapter IV: Internal Divisions 111 Conclusion 150 Bibliography 153 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Preface About a century ago, Frederick Jackson Turner offered his collection of essays, The Frontier in American History. Although his argument was quickly synthesized and reshaped by other historians, Turner's work remains a milestone in the historiography of contact and colonization in North America, particularly in the West. However, the body of Turner's collection opens not with a discussion of the West, but with a discussion of “The First Official Frontier of the Massachusetts Bay”. This area, to the north-east of the early New England settlement, was a frontier which has a history well-suited to the richest of Turner's prose - a place of “coarseness and strength” and of “restless, nervous energy”.1 In his turn, Harald Prins describes this same area as a place where “ambiguity reigned supreme” and where “uneasy accommodation could turn quickly into violence.”2 This region, called Wobanakik or the Dawnland, stretched through present-day northern New England and into what are now the Maritime provinces of Canada, as well as into what is now southern Quebec.3 Wobanakik was home to a number of First Nations - Mi'kmaq, Wulstukwiuk and Wabanaki - who together comprised a loose polity called the Wabanaki Confederacy. Their geography suggests their situation: they were literally between the colonial centres. Caught in the midst of the contest for colonial power and set in competition with other native groups, the Wabanaki leaders were manoeuvring to 1 Frederick Jackson Turner, The Frontier in American History (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1962), 2. 2 Harald E.L. Prins, “Chief Radawandagon, Alias Robin Hood” in Robert S. Grutnet, ed., Northeastern Indian Lives. 1632-1816 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996), 94. 3 Frederick Matthew Wiseman, The Voice o f the Dawn: An Autohistorv o f the Ahenaki Nation (Hanover: University Press ofN ew England, 2001), 195. This study uses a narrow geographical interpretation of Wobanakik.. For a discussion of the eastward extension of the Wabanaki community in the late seventeenth century, see Bruce J. Bourque, “Ethnicity on the Maritime Peninsula, 1600-1759”, Ethnohistory 36, No. 3 (Summer 1989): 256-284. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. maintain primacy in Wobanakik by the end of the seventeenth century. Part of their response to the situation was military: the raiding now recalled as King William's War. King William's War was fought on land in North America between 1688 and 1699. Although it overlaps the Nine Years' War in Europe and the Atlantic, it was generally not fought as a direct contest between the two European colonies, but rather as a war with two major fronts: the English fought the Wabanaki, and the French fought the Houdenasaunee. These were campaigns generally waged as petite guerre - raids of relatively small and irregular forces burning supplies, taking prisoners or ambushing the enemy were the mainstay operations of the war. The primary focus here will be on the heart of this irregular war between the Wabanaki and the various English colonies44 at Eastward”. The French-Houdenasaunee conflict and the infrequent direct English-French combat in the Northeast do also feature in this study. Other campaigns in the Americas, such as the English expeditions to the West Indies and the conflict in Newfoundland, do not feature in this study for two reasons: first, they are properly part of the Nine Years' War rather than King William's War; and second, they are at a significant geographic remove from the theatres of King William's War. The distinction used here between the Nine Years' War and King William's War is sharp, and it is based on direct metropolitan involvement in military operations, both in direction and in expenditures. This is a fair standard for the time: the resources of the British and French empires could reach their colonies with substantial military strength, and those evolving empires of culture, environment and commerce could be realized in the tangible presence of external force, as in operations in Newfoundland, or in Fludson's Bay. This was not the experience of colonists either in New England or New France during King William's War. The Nine Years' War made direct combat between the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. colonial powers permissible - it gave sanction to act on local grievances - but such direct attacks were exceptions in the campaign. The Glorious Revolution spawned concomitant uprisings in New England which destabilized the region and made the English colonies more vulnerable to attack. Despite this relationship between the contests, there were significant local elements that distinguish King William's War from the Nine Years' War. The historian J.M. Sosin identified as a troublesome presumption “the primacy of local experience” in historical scholarship.4 With due regard for that caution, there are several suitable tests to establish the local nature of the war: the independence of local conduct of hostilities, the degree of neglect of the conflict by the centres of empire and the presence of internal divisions within parties to the war. By examining these three factors, each as a subsequent chapter, this study will demonstrate the essentially local nature of King William's War and distinguish it from the Nine Years' War. Exposing the local character of King William's War also reveals the strongly independent participation from each of the major parties: the Wabanaki, the Houdenasaunee, the colonial French and the English colonies. There are a few notes to be offered on usage and terminology adopted for this study. The first issue is with the name of the conflict, “King William's War”: as a Eurocentric title long associated with a historiography that diminishes the local context of the fighting, it does pose difficulties. However, it is the conventional name for the war, and so offers immediate linkage to the historiography for historians. Alternative names, such as “Anglo-Wabanaki War”, introduce other problems, not the least of which is proposing a refined definition of the war that merits a new name. Beyond that, any new 4 J.M. Sosin, English America and Imperial Inconstancy: The Rise of Provincial Autonomy.
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