Trails to Tropical Treasures WORLD MONUMENTS FUND US/ICOMOS A Tour of A SEAN's Cultural Heritage

ASEAN: ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM

INDONESIA

MALAYSIA

THE PHILIPPINES

SINGAPORE

THAILAND

AMERICAN! •EXPRESS

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ASIA NORTH AMERICA

AFRICA ATLANTIC O

PACIFIC OCEAN

SOUTH AMERICA

INDIAN OCEAN AUSTRALIA Trails to Tropical Treasures A Tour ofASE AN3s Cultural Heritage ASEAN US/ICOMOS WMF

The Association of Southeast Asian The U.S. Committee of the International Based in New York City, the World Nations is a regional grouping of inde­ Council on Monuments and Sites is one Monuments Fund is the only private, pendent nations comprising Brunei of 65 national committees that form a non-profit organization that sponsors Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, the worldwide alliance for the study and worldwide preservation activities. Its Philippines, Singapore and Thailand, conservation of historic buildings, dis­ goal is to bring together public and pri­ committed to working together for tricts and sites. The committee serves as a vate support to assure the survival of the peace and prosperity in the region. U.S. window on the world by encourag­ world's most outstanding artistic and ing a two-way exchange of information architectural treasures. This work The ASEAN heads of government are and expertise between preservationists in focuses on the restoration of monuments the highest authority and meet as and the United States and abroad. It helps and works of art that are in danger of when necessary to give policy directions preservationists from other nations study loss or destruction. Through funding to the association. U.S. preservation techniques and activi­ from its membership and philanthropic ties, and it facilitates similar understand­ sponsors, WMF contributes technical The annual meeting of the ASEAN For­ ing of experiences overseas. Its inter­ and financial support to help save these eign Ministers, referred to as the ASEAN national programs are carried out under works. WMF also supports research, Ministerial Meeting, is the policy-mak­ cooperative agreements and contracts training and advocacy activities as they ing body of the association. It is assisted with a number of international and relate to the restoration and safeguarding by the ASEAN Standing Committee national public and private organiza­ of monuments and sites. under the chairmanship of the Foreign tions. Minister of the host country. The World Monuments Fund National Secretariat in each member Formed in 1965, ICOMOS is headquar­ 174 East 80th Street country hosts the various meetings and tered in Paris, France. It is a non-govern­ New York, N.Y. 10021 committees of the association. mental, non-profit international organ­ ization of professionals, individuals and The ASEAN Secretariat, formed in 1976, organizations active in preserving and serves as a central coordinating body for protecting the world's cultural heritage. the activities of the association. U.S. Committee, International Council ISBN 0-9627931-1-6 Association of Southeast Asian on Monuments and Sites ©Copyright 1992 Nations Decatur House World Monuments Fund 70-A, Jalan Sisingamangaraja 1600 H Street, N.W. US/ICOMOS Jakarta, Indonesia Washington, D.C. 20006 All Rights Reserved ¡•••••••i Table of Contents

Foreword 4

Preserving a Sense of Place 5

The Responsibility of Cultural Tourism 6

Brunei Darussalam 9

Indonesia 15

Malaysia 21

The Philippines 27

Singapore 33

Thailand 39

ASEAN's Architectural Heritage: 44 Confronting the Challenge

Perils of Architectural Heritage 46

Endangered Sites 48

Preservation Organizations 51

Legislative Overview 56

Major Sites and Attractions 60

Map of ASEAN 65 Foreword

The territory that today comprises the The prehistoric peoples who once inhab­ alone. Governments, private enterprise countries of the Association of Southeast ited these lands have left us drawings on and non-governmental organizations Asian Nations (ASEAN) - Brunei the walls of their cave dwellings, posi­ must work together to shoulder the Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, the tioned megaliths in cosmic terrestrial responsibility at hand. They have Philippines, Singapore and Thailand - locations, and left behind their bones in already proven the possibility: at Boro- has been a crossroads of civilization for sacred burial grounds. Other peoples bodur in Indonesia, at Vigan village in centuries. Our tropical sector of the later set sail from the shores of India and the Philippines, at Ayutthaya in Thai­ globe has never failed to exert a magnetic other moorings to bring Buddhism, Hin­ land, multi-sectoral collaboration has influence, and today it continues to do duism and Islam. Still later, colonizing worked. so as one of the world's major tourist Europeans brought Christianity. The destinations. More than 20 million tour­ Malay and Melanesian, Chinese, Indian Now this collaboration must be ists a year cross the borders of our six and myriad other peoples imbibed these expanded, and it is for this reason that nations and contribute $13 billion a year influences, developed their cultures, and this publication has been produced. to our economies. Tourism has become in the process left behind a record of their It is addressed to a wide public: the our single largest industry. strivings and world views in the buildings casual tourist, the corporate executive, and monuments they constructed. the urban planner, the scholar, the pres­ It is not surprising that tourists are lured ervationist. We aim to enhance your to our shores: we have so many of them, The diversity and depth of the heritage appreciation of our region's architectural washed by warm equatorial waters. to be discovered in ASEAN nations is heritage and to focus the world's Inland are further natural wonders - a truly astonishing, yet presently the safe­ attention on the need to protect and rain forest, perhaps, or a volcano - and guarding and maintenance of these tropi­ preserve it. never too far away are bustling towns cal treasures is a critical issue. Many and cities. Other destinations on the factors are converging to magnify the globe may also have these kinds of threats they face. The climate, as always, Dharmnoon Prachuabmoh attractions, but few have the diverse cul­ promotes the decay of these treasures Chairman tural and historic heritage to be found through the combined effects of heat and ASEAN Sub-Committee on among our nations, a heritage that fills moisture. Yet uncontrolled tourism, van­ Tourism the air constantly with a sense of secrecy dalism, brazen theft and poor planning Bangkok, Thailand and significance. are all accelerating this process of decay that is reversible with effort, attention The breezes carry memories of centuries and concern. of experience along trade routes as old as man, and scattered all around are the Safeguarding these treasures is as vital to more material reminders of the develop­ the economic health of our tourism ment of myriad cultures: works of archi­ industry as work force training and the tecture, both humble and monumental, construction and maintenance of air­ that provide a symbolic narrative of our ports, roads and hotels. No single sector histories. can meet the challenge of preservation

4 Preserving a Sense of Place

"Let us, while waiting for new monuments, preserve the ancient monuments."

Victor Hugo, 1832

What is it that attracts people to the cor­ This book will introduce the heritage tal recollection of how these places used ners of the earth, and motivates millions of a region - the countries of Brunei to be. This book is, therefore, a salute of people a year to travel for pleasure Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, the to the preservationists of the ASEAN alone? To discover the sense of an un­ Philippines, Singapore and Thailand, region. It shows us what they have familiar place and to draw inspiration which form the Association of Southeast accomplished, and alerts us to the battles from the variety of human expression Asian Nations (ASEAN). Whether this they are still afraid of losing. It invites are two key reasons. What does Paris area is familiar or exotic to the reader, us to think of how we can help them, have in common with Beijing; Mexico the book will provide a look at the heri­ and also of what we can learn from City with London; Cairo with Bangkok; tage of these places in a new way. For their example. and Charleston with Jakarta? In all these newcomers to the region, it will answer cities, the character of the place shapes many questions about the area's history daily life, a fact most apparent to the vis­ and peoples and point out the most spe­ Bonnie Burnham itor. Daily life extends back into the past cial places to visit. For habitues of the Executive Director and projects itself forward into a future region, the book will answer other ques­ World Monuments Fund that assumes a continuous sense of phys­ tions. How did centers of civilization New York, New York ical place. Yet places, too, are in a con­ grow up, who built them, how have they stant state of change. survived and who is involved in keeping this history alive today? You will see the What gives a place its special character is tremendous impact of preservation's its heritage: the influence of unique his­ successes on the entire region, and also toric events, the authentic variety of its learn about the monumental challenges architecture, the circumstances and that lie ahead. advantages of its location and its appeal to the senses. Heritage is the backbone Much of the concern for heritage - here that holds together these different levels as elsewhere - can be credited to the of experience and provides continuity actions of private citizens. They have to balance the process of change. When banded together into small groups to this heritage is well protected and pre­ create awareness and define actions to served, the place has an invisible struc­ which their governments have lent sup­ ture that supports it psychologically and port. Thanks to the people who have physically, and the community flour­ made this extraordinary effort, our expe­ ishes. Visitors and residents alike feel a rience of their countries will be richer, sense of well-being derived from a deeper and more pleasurable. place's spirituality, propriety and mea­ sure - qualities that all places with heri­ Without the preservation activists we tage have in common. would have something quite different to write about here: the regret of having lost priceless treasures, or the sentimen­

5 The Responsibility of Cultural Tourism

Never before in the history of human­ If we surrender completely to the imper­ budgets involve government agencies kind have travel and tourism reached ative to modernize and so surrender evi­ responsible for the establishment of pri­ such enormous proportions. A sign of dence of our heritage, we will be orities; the accommodation and circula­ wealth and status and a favorite leisure- impoverished. Our history will become tion of tourists; archaeological and time activity, travel propels hundreds of invisible - only the testimony of the historical research and interpretative millions of people around the globe each written word or the mortal memories of programs for the conservation and resto­ year via every imaginable mode of trans­ eldest generations will remain. We are ration of sites and monuments. A mech­ port to ever more remote destinations. faced with the challenge to preserve, at anism must be created in each country so The economies of whole nations have the very least, outstanding structures that the different agencies involved can come to depend on tourism. Yet along that speak of our heritage, that give a achieve a coordinated program. They both the well-established routes and the sense of depth in time and provide the must work together in planning projects, newly beaten paths, the flow of people keys to understanding and appreciating establishing priorities and avoiding is in danger of becoming an unmanaged the achievements of our forebears. costly duplication. flood. Conservation programs are neither International tourists are, on the whole, One path that leads away from this wasteful nor sentimental nor romantic. quite sophisticated and have high stan­ danger is the promotion and establish­ They can, in fact, provide the underpin­ dards and expectations when visiting ment of cultural tourism. By preserving ning for overall economic development, cultural sites. They expect talks or exhi­ and maintaining the built cultural heri­ especially if intelligently and carefully bitions that provide an accurate synthe­ tage, nations can take pride in their own wedded to a sensitive tourism promo­ sis of the factors that contributed to the history and in the aesthetic and cultural tion program. Among the ASEAN coun­ construction of a monument, the rise achievements of their forebears. At the tries - particularly because of their close and fall of a civilization or the back­ same time, nations will preserve their geographic and historic relationships - ground of a historic neighborhood or unique identities, and make visible and there exists today an opportunity to town. Too frequently, once archaeologi­ tangible for visitors the character of their develop cultural tourism programs on a cal sites and monuments are restored, culture as expressed in architecture. regional scale. A regional effort could their care and maintenance are neglected. promote longer tourist stays and provide Thieves plunder sites for artifacts to be Major cities around the world - whether attractive goals for commercial tour sold through antiquarian shops. The Jakarta, Singapore, Colombo, Marseilles, organizers. Moreover, cultural tourism sites deteriorate. Tourists go elsewhere. Tokyo or New York - have come to tends to attract the types of people who resemble each other in so many ways. would be good visitors. They are indi­ A number of international organiza­ Contemporary buildings of steel and viduals interested in the cultural achieve­ tions, both inter-governmental (IGO) glass speak of a sleek and efficient global ments of others and, in turn, would and non-governmental (NGO), are age. Unless the movement to erect new become good-will ambassadors to prepared to aid programs or provide a buildings in the most current styles is encourage others to come to this region. forum for the interchange of informa­ balanced by the preservation of historic Many factors contribute to the develop­ tion and the development of cooperative structures and areas, little will remain ment of a succcessful program. Ques­ projects. For example, Sri Lanka has to distinguish one city from another. tions of priority and the use of national benefited from both the United Nations

6 We are faced with the challenge to preserve outstanding structures that speak of our heritage.

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Indonesia, was the Dialogue on Architec­ tourism. International institutions and Organization (UNESCO) and the tural Heritage among Non-Governmen­ mechanisms are in place, ready to sup­ United Nations Development Pro­ tal Organizations of ASEAN Countries; port new efforts. The American Express gramme (UNDP) projects in the devel­ the second, held in September 1991 in Company, through its foundation, is also opment of its cultural tourism. The Honolulu, Hawaii, was the Regional showing corporate leadership in pro­ World Bank and the World Food Pro­ Symposium on the Preservation of Cul­ moting awareness of cultural property gram also provide financial aid. Bilateral tural Property in Tropical Environments and providing funds to support historic assistance from other countries can also in South Asia and the Pacific. preservation projects throughout the provide equipment, fellowships, mate­ world. The time is ripe. rial-in-kind or cash contributions. There are other international develop­ ments worthy of attention and support. The International Council on Monu­ Among these is the International Con­ Roland Silva ments and Sites (ICOMOS, a non-gov­ vention Concerning the Protection of the President ernmental organization related to World Cultural and Natural Heritage. International Council UNESCO) is an important channel for This convention, adopted by the on Monuments and Sites the diffusion of cultural heritage infor­ UNESCO General Conference in Paris, France mation and standards. The ICOMOS November 1972, has been ratified by 118 program is carried out through regular countries, which make annual grants to contacts with its 66 national committees. the World Heritage Fund (some of (Presently, only one of the ASEAN which amount to one percent of a coun­ countries - Thailand - has an ICOMOS try's annual contribution to UNESCO). national committee.) Under ICOMOS The fund establishes a World Heritage there are 14 international scientific com­ List and permits aid to member states in mittees devoted to areas of concern such the preservation and development of as cultural tourism, training and historic their World Heritage Sites. The list, towns. These committees bring together which includes natural as well as cultural specialists in various fields from around sites, is important in attracting tourists. the world to review and promote Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and research. The next ICOMOS General Thailand are signatories to the World Assembly, its tenth and the first in Asia, Heritage Convention; the world awaits will be held in Sri Lanka. One of the the nomination of their internationally three major themes for the Assembly significant sites to the World Heritage will be cultural tourism. This conference List. follows two recent landmark confer­ ences that addressed issues of great The essays on the following pages pro­ importance for architectural heritage vided by colleagues in ASEAN nations preservation in ASEAN nations. The give eloquent testimony to the potential first, held in March 1991 in Jakarta, for and necessity of developing cultural

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10 Brunei Darussalam 5,765 sq. km (2,226 sq. miles) pop. 226,000

The Abode of Peace

Brunei, properly known as Brunei Chinese subjects built the stone fort." of Kota Batu and its water villages. Darussalam (The Abode of Peace), is a The mosque Sultan Sharif Ali built was Despite these troubles, Brunei main­ small Malay sultanate in the northwest of Brunei's first, and he also established a tained its independence, although its Borneo, flanked by Sarawak to the west system of justice based on Islamic law. In hegemony shrank. Finally the British, and Sabah to the east. For more than a the 16th century, by the time of the 5th who stood behind James Brooke, the thousand years, this small coastal area at sultan, Sultan Bolkiah, Brunei reached White Rajah of Sarawak, consolidated the mouth of the Brunei River bordering the height of its prosperity. Its powerful their power in the region in the early on dense jungle has invited traders and fleet subdued all of Borneo and much of 19th century. By 1888, what remained settlers to its calm moorings. the Philippines including Sulu, and Bru­ of Brunei - two jungle enclaves - became nei became an important hub of trade. a British protectorate. Excavations yielding Islamic and Chi­ Out of its jungles Brunei extracted cam­ nese coins, shards from Sung and Ming phor, rattan, pepper and sago and traded dynasty ceramics, and wares from Siam them with China and other Southeast Wealth Understated and Annam give evidence of the exist­ Asian nations for porcelain, tea, glass, ence of a thriving commercial center cen­ iron and beads. In 1904, a diligent British civil servant, turies before the establishment of the one Malcolm Stewart Hannibal Brunei Islamic Sultanate in the late 14th Antonio Pigafetta, an Italian chronicler McArthur, was sent to Brunei to compile century. Yet the origin of human habita­ who was part of Magellan's expedition a report and make recommendations for tion in Brunei remains a mystery. No to circumnavigate the globe, landed at the future governance of the nation. He prehistoric remains have been found in Kota Batu in 1521 and found a city of wrote an accurate but rather understated this land covered primarily by rain for­ 25,000 families. "The city is entirely prediction: est. However, at Kota Batu (Fort of built in salt water," he reported, "except Stone), the ancient capital of Brunei, the houses of the king and certain chiefs. "These rough calculations are enough to massive sandstone blocks and other The houses are all constructed of wood show that it could not be hoped that monumental ruins give an indication of and built up from the ground on tall pil­ Brunei would prove self-supporting at the power and influence that Brunei lars. When the tide is high, women go in first, but it does not seem unreasonable wielded in the region at the height of its boats through the settlements selling to suppose that with a large and on the glory. articles necessary to maintain life. There whole peaceably inclined population, a is a large brick wall in front of the King's substantial volume of trade, a fertile soil, house with towers like a fort." and natural and mineral resources hith­ The First Mosque erto hardly tapped, its future would be Pigafetta was describing the water vil­ one of prosperity." The Salsilah Raja-Raja (the Royal Gene­ lages at Kota Batu, which today no alogical Tablet) identifies Sharif Ali as the longer exist. Not long after his visit, Opposite: Aerial view of the Omar Ali Saifuddin third Sultan of Brunei (1425-32). The anarchy and attacks by the Spanish Mosque, symbol of modern Brunei. It is surrounded caused a sharp decline in trade. In the tablet says "it was he who enforced the by its own artificial lagoon in which a replica of a observance of the laws of the Messenger middle of the 17th century, a protracted 16th-century royal barge is moored. In the distance, of God, and erected a mosque, and all his civil war led finally to the abandonment the famous water villages of the capital city. BRUNEI DARUSSALAM

1. Tama, the open-air market along the Kianggeh Mosque rises higher than any other building in River. It gets particularly crowded at night. Bandar Seri Begawan, capital city of Brunei. The 2. View of exhibits inside the National Museum. minaret is 54 meters high. The museum was inaugurated in 1972 by Queen 5. View of the replica royal barge in the lagoon that Elizabeth II. surrounds the Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque, with 3. Interior of the Lapau or Parliament building houses of the water villages in the distance. where the coronation of the present Sultan of Brunei 6. Grand staircases of Brunei's modern ceremonial took place in 1968. buildings call for the longest of red carpets. 4. The gold dome of the Omar Ali Saifuddin

McArthur did not imagine the prosperity Batu have continued over the decades, ticular trade. Kampong Pandai Besi is that would come with the discovery of revealing burial complexes, a man-made renowned for its blacksmiths, Kampong oil in 1929, nor the effect it would have island, a causeway and many kinds of Ujung Bukit for its brassworkers, Kam­ in keeping Brunei effectively indepen­ small artifacts. The conservation section pong Sungai Kedayan for its goldsmiths, dent of neighboring powers. The sultan of the National Museum cares for these silversmiths and weavers, and Kampong previous to the present one - the 28th finds and also assists in continuing exca­ Saba for its fishermen and boat builders. of his line - preferred that his country vation activities. Before Sultan Sharif Ali built the stone remain a British protectorate. In 1971, fort at Kota Batu, the palaces of the ear­ Brunei was granted self-government, Parallel with the work of the museum's lier sultanates of Brunei were built on and in 1984 the country took its com­ conservation section is the work of the stilts as well, as exemplified by the Istana plete independence. Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sport. Sultan Hasan. Entrusted with the task of instilling national feeling among the youth of the The water villages have been given high First Excavations in the 1950s nation, the ministry sees the promotion priority for preservation, and a study is of historic preservation as one important now under way to help plan their future Historic preservation in Brunei is a rela­ avenue for achieving its mission. Aware in a comprehensive manner. To date, tively new discipline. It was not until that understanding of conservation's numerous ad hoc improvements have the 1950s that the first excavations were importance is concentrated only among been made to build bridges between conducted at Kota Batu, and a report a small group, the government instituted houses and provide electricity, drinking written on the findings urged the govern­ mechanisms to support a broader effort. water and telephone service. Garbage ment to establish a museum. In 1965, the collection and a sewage system for the National Museum opened in temporary water villages are also under study. quarters and became responsible for its The Water Villages These changes will help preserve both own administration. Two years later, in the architecture and the culture of the 1967, the nation passed its Antiquities The water villages of Kampong Ayer, water villages. and Treasure Trove Enactment, which set the largest collection in the world, are up a mechanism for the protection and perhaps the greatest surviving marvel of preservation of historic monuments and Brunei's built heritage, dating from the Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque archaeological sites. Planning for the 15th century and still home to 30,000 National Museum and an archaeological people. The houses there stand on stilts In contrast to the water villages are the park at Kota Batu on 120 acres of land above the river and are connected by modern constructions of the oil-rich was also begun. wooden walkways - a communal settle­ nation that Brunei Darussalam has ment pattern that testifies to a uniquely become. Of any structure to be found In 1970 the new museum building was Bruneian contribution to urban design. today, the Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque completed, and in 1972 it was officially is probably the best symbol of the inaugurated by Queen Elizabeth II Traditionally, clusters of houses arose nation. Officially Islamic and blessed together with the Duke of Edinburgh near river mouths and were inhabited by with unusual wealth, Brunei displays its and Princess Anne. Excavations at Kota closely related kinsmen, skilled in a par­ spiritual and material fiber in the mag-

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12 BRUNEI DARUSSALAM

Trading cross­ Islamization Spanish and British Rajah Oil discovered Complete roads from Portuguese in Sarawak independence ancient times Powerful visit but do forces treaties under 1-4. Views of the water villages of Kampong Ayer. maritime not stay on Sultan 29th Sultan Home to more than 30,000 people, the villages are Sultanate of Brunei emerges comprised of houses built on stilts above the river Sultan's influence Becomes Granted and connected by wooden walkways. This uniquely extends to Borneo British self-government Bruneian urban settlement pattern dates back to the and Philippines protectorate 15th century. Efforts to preserve the villages today go hand in hand with measures to improve the standard of living within them through the provision of drink­ ing water, telephone service, garbage collection and a sewage system.

nificent gold dome of this mosque, which rises higher than any other build­ ing in the capital. The mosque stands close to the Brunei River in its own artificial lagoon. Its floor and walls were made of the finest imported Italian mar­ ble, its stained-glass windows were handcrafted in England, and its luxuri­ ous carpets were brought from Saudi Arabia. The per capita income of Bru­ nei's citizens is among the highest in the world, and the mosque, like the nation's other public buildings, displays this good fortune.

The Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque is hardly an ancient structure. It was com­ pleted in 1958. Yet it points to the heri­ tage of Islamic Brunei as the nation travels into the future. The center of the capital, Bandar Seri Begawan, is under­ going rapid development. Institutional and commercial buildings now dominate the precinct. The plan for the area now includes the study of cultural heritage preservation as well. With these efforts, along with those for Kota Batu and the water villages, the government has begun to chart a course for the future of his­ toric preservation in Brunei Darussalam.

After contributions by H. Idris B.H. Abas, architect, Pengiran Karim Pengiran Osman, Director of Muse­ ums, and Haji Mohammad bin Salim.

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14 Ind onesia 1,919,443 sq. km (741,101 sq. miles) pop. 147,383,000 2000 kilometers

INDIAN OCEAN

Kupang Crossroads of Civilizations Since the Beginning of Man

Indonesia is a gigantic nation of equato­ By 2500 B.C. Indonesian life had become Earliest evidence places Islam in Java for rial islands scattered across an oceanic well established in permanent agricul­ the first time in the 11th century, starting span of more than 6,000 kilometers. tural village communities. The people a process of Islamization that would Three of the world's ten biggest islands - knew how to grow rice, irrigate their sweep the islands. Indonesia is one of the Irian Jaya, Kalimantan and Sumatra - are fields, harness a buffalo to a plow and few countries where Islam did not sup­ here. With more than 13,000 others, make huge bronze drums. They left plant the existing religion by military arranged in approximately 30 archipela­ behind megaliths throughout the islands conquest. Islam was radically egalitarian, gos on a stretch of the Pacific bubbling - dolmen, menhir and statues - to com­ promising a direct and personal relation­ with volcanic activity, they constitute memorate their dead. Indonesia's prehis­ ship with God, and this proved irresist­ the dry portions of this nation of equal toric foundations reach deep into the ible. By the 15th century, 20 Muslim parts of land and water. past. kingdoms had come to hold sway over the entire archipelago. Today one of the most populous coun­ During the first few centuries of the tries in the world, Indonesia is also one present era, the islands fell under the The new religion adapted itself easily to of the most ethnically diverse. Waves influence of Indian culture, then at its local conditions. Pre-existing signal tow­ of immigrants from all quarters of the apex. By the 4th century, Indonesians ers became minarets, and native Indone­ globe have settled upon its islands - were using a south Indian script on their sian meeting halls were transformed into Chinese, Indian, Melanesian, Portu­ own Buddhist inscriptions. Temples mosques. Newly built mosques often guese, Polynesian, Arab and Dutch - consecrated to the worship of Shiva and derived from traditional Hindu architec­ and have created a subtle blending of other Hindu deities arose as well. Indian ture. The three tiers of the Mesjid Agung peoples. The influences of the world's language, religion and metaphysics pene­ in Demak, a wooden mosque built in greatest civilizations have washed over trated, too, along with healing practices, 1478, show the direct influence of the them and shaped the heritage visible on astronomy, the potter's wheel, cooking existing Java-Hindu architectural the islands situated at this global cross­ spices, sculpture and monumental archi­ tradition. roads. tecture, creating a vibrant Hindu-Indo­ nesian culture, which would develop and Islam advanced a step ahead of European When much of Europe was still under flourish for 1,400 years. colonial ambitions and captured the ice, homo erectus walked in Java, built hearts and minds of Indonesians. The fires and fashioned crude flint tools. Borobodur, the largest Buddhist monu­ Portuguese, the British and especially Earliest evidence of this dates back 1.9 ment in the world, would rise in the the Dutch, however, captured the million years. The lineage of this human ninth century on Java. The Majapahit island's wealth and left their mark on the precursor became extinct, but the skulls, Empire would come to thrive, too, architectural identity of the nation's cit­ teeth and skeletons of these beings, though only for the span of the 14th cen­ ies and provincial administrative centers. named Pithecanthropus, suggest that tury. But the attempt it made to unify Java was one of the first places where the islands and the golden age it ushered man emerged. The remains of Wajak in put an indelible stamp on Indonesian Opposite: Flower offerings adorn a statue in Bali. The island's vibrant Hindu culture continues its cen­ Man, the earliest homo sapiens to be culture and identity. turies-old dialogue with its heritage. found on Java, are 40,000 years old.

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16 INDONESIA

1. The Mother Temple of Bali, Besakih, lies on the 4. The National Museum was built during an exten­ slopes of Gunung Agung, the island's holiest moun­ sive period of Neo-Classical construction initiated by tain, where all gods and goddesses live. the Dutch during the second half of the 19th century. 2. Amid 1,700-year-old stupas of the world's largest The Dutch turned to this assertive and grand style in Buddhist monument at Borohodur, a Buddha looks Indonesia in a way they never did at home. out over the mist-covered Kedu plain. Comprised of 5. Aerial view of the roofs of Jakarta. more than two million cubic feet of stone, Borohodur 6. The Banten Mosque in West Java, built in 1690, is the largest ancient monument in the southern shows how Islam adapted itself to local architectural hemisphere. influence. The mosque is based on an open-columned 3. Detail of one of the thousands of pictorial relief pavilion central to Javanese style. panels at Borohodur. Architects of the monument 7. The Tanah Lot temple is one of many along the intended pdgrims to enter at the east gate and pro­ south coast of Bali built in homage to the guardian ceed along a five-kilometer upward-spiraling walk­ spirits of the sea. way. The relief panels illustrate stages along the path of spiritual development.

Churches, forts and other buildings It was not until 1931 that the first con­ regional training programs have been came to exemplify an Indies architectural servation legislation was adopted - held there; trained personnel have left to style that adapted European tastes to a called the Ordinance on Monuments - conserve sites not only across Indone­ hot and humid climate. In Jakarta, Band­ and the first systematic effort to docu­ sia's islands, but also throughout the ung, Semarang and Surabaya especially, ment important buildings and sites was ASEAN region. the Dutch colonial pattern can be seen in begun. Since then, more than 3,000 the architecture and town layout. buildings have been designated for pro­ At the same time, historic conservation tection, and more than 1,600 of these of Indonesia's urban areas - which pose Following World War II and the gaining have benefited from some form of con­ a different kind of challenge - has been of independence from the Dutch in 1945, servation or restoration. Local gover­ making progress. Previously, projects Indonesia witnessed rapid urbanization. nors' decrees have aided restoration concentrated on the preservation of indi­ Roads, railroads, waterworks and sewage efforts in different localities. The recent vidual buildings, but now a broader con­ lines had to be laid quickly to accommo­ Cultural Heritage Legislation #5 (1992) cept of urban conservation has emerged. date the influx of people to the cities. has placed upon owners and users of Planners are integrating social and eco­ With this rapid modernization there have designated structures the obligation to nomic development projects with the arisen grave threats to the built heritage preserve and protect them with, if need preservation of the architectural heri­ of the nation. Buildings and areas of his­ be, the assistance of the government. tage. Conservation of historic centers is toric interest are suffering from neglect now carried out with concern for the and decay. Monotonous and incongruent The most significant and far-reaching future. modern constructions have changed the conservation effort in Indonesia, how­ character of city centers. Existing legisla­ ever, has been the restoration of Boroho­ In Jakarta, which has developed an tion protecting the national heritage has dur. Begun in 1969, the restoration urban master plan up to the year 2005, not proved forceful enough. stimulated the development of conserva­ urban conservation is proceeding in tion science, the training of personnel three stages. The first involves the pres­ and the pioneering of new techniques. ervation of monuments. The city gov­ Conservation Begins in Earnest UNESCO supplied the funding, the ernment has been actively involved in equipment and the expertise for the the conservation of 732 buildings - all of The Dutch established an Archaeological effort. Borobodur still functions as an which were documented under the Service in 1913, and they concentrated official conservation training center, and Dutch Ordinance of 1931. The second their work primarily on monuments the government has set up the Borobo­ stage is urban renewal. It calls for the and sites of the Hindu-Indonesian dur Conservation and Study Office. It separation of commercial from residen­ period. Manpower was limited, and also functions as a sub-center for the tial areas. The third stage, urban revital- conservation work was carried out Restoration and Conservation of ization, involves the development of only on Java, though it later extended Ancient Monuments in the Southeast commercial sectors so that they serve as to Sumatra, Ujung Pandang and Bali. Asian Ministers of Education Organi­ centers of cultural and recreational activ­ zation (SEAMEO) Project in Archaeol­ ity for inhabitants and visitors alike. ogy and Fine Arts (SPAFA). Over the last 15 years, more than 25 national and

17 18 1. These temples at Prambanan in Central Java were built between the 8th and 10th centuries. They are INDONESIA part of the most extensive Hindu temple ruins in all of Indonesia. 2. Ruins of a stupa at Muara Takus, Sumatra, thought to have been built by Srivijaya Empire temple build­ |40,000BC I2500BC 1100 1300 1500 1700 11000 11200 1300 11400 11500 11600 11700 11800 11900 11992 ers around 900 A.D. 3. Batak house, Lake Toba, Sumatra. No nails are Wajak Man First Indian Srivijaya Majapahit Founding of Forced used in the construction of these tribal houses which first homo traders and Hindu Empire Batavia by cultivation can last a century. sapiens influence kingdom in Dutch Sumatra Golden Age of 4. Detail of the interior and a man in prayer at the Neolithic Indianiza- Java Dutch control Independence Grand Mosque, Medan, Sumatra. cultures tion of Borobodur Sunda 5. The roofs of the Masjid Agung overlook Palem- Java built First bang, Sumatra, an ancient Oriental trading center Indonesian Bankruptcy of Spice trade that in 1983 celebrated its 1,300th birthday. unification Dutch Trading via Sunda Company 6. Toraja village houses are shaped like ships. Strait Islamization 7. Detail of a Toraja house, Torajaland, Sulawesi. flourishes 8. Sultan's Palace, Medan, Sumatra, was built by an Portuguese Italian architect in 1888 and incorporates Oriental, arrive Middle Eastern and Western architectural styles.

Conservation, Tourism and Urban At the same time, local tourism is grow­ international collaboration and sharing Development ing parallel with national development. of techniques and information. Religious cultural tourism has grown The old harbor of Sunda Kelapa in enormously, especially in Muslim com­ Indonesia, because of its size and long Jakarta is a prime example of the urban munities, as more and more people are and rich human history, has a particu­ conservation approach. In use since the making visits to ancient mosques and larly important responsibility to safe­ 16th century, the harbor still is the main graves of Islam's first teachers. guard its cultural heritage. Certainly, port of call for hundreds of classic sailing more conservation work will be made vessels that ply traditional routes be­ possible with the development of tween outlying islands. With an invest­ Support From All Sectors cultural tourism. Still, because of the ment of US $64 million, the waterfront pace of change and the enormity of the there is being developed. A group of These developments have been sup­ task, cooperation and help within the 17th-century warehouses will be trans­ ported, too, by the invaluable aid of region as well as internationally is essen­ formed to house a three-star hotel, non-governmental organizations, foun­ tial in order to care properly for some offices, shops, amusement centers and dations and foreign city governments. of the greatest of the world's architec­ festive marketplaces. Sunda Kelapa is The Foundation for the Preservation tural treasures. part of a larger Jakarta Heritage Water­ of Cultural Heritage in Jakarta has par­ front Development Plan that aims to ticipated actively and set up a similar After contributions by I. Gusti Ngurah Anom, Uni­ create a more livable city and promote organization in both Bandung and versity of Indonesia, Uka Tjandrasasmita, Univer­ economic growth. Yogyakarta. The British Council (U.K.), sity of Indonesia, and Martono Yuwono, Indonesian National Heritage Trust. The Ford Foundation (U.S.A.), the Tourists are essential to this strategy. In Uberzee Museum (Germany) and the 1991, more than two million visitors Japan Foundation have all lent support, came to Indonesia and spent, on average, and both the cities of Amsterdam and US $900 each. This tremendous source of Rotterdam are helping with heritage foreign exchange will put tourism earn­ preservation in different sectors of ings behind only oil and gas exports. Jakarta. Already, Indonesia is a primary destina­ tion for tourists, not just a transit point. All this puts a great demand on person­ With the improvement of amenities and nel trained in conservation who must services, tourists can be expected to stay have a complex set of skills to meet in Indonesia even longer. Better pro­ fast-growing and new developments. grams at cultural heritage sites - perfor­ Training in conservation skills must be mances, museums, guide services, increased to assure the feasibility of archaeological parks - can also help to projects. This requires a number of con­ attract and hold tourists. It has become vergent factors: a multidisciplinary team clear that tourism and conservation are of instructors, field and laboratory interdependent. research equipment, teaching aids and

19 20 r% Malaysia 329,749 sq. km (127,317 sq. miles)pop. 13,436, 000 ^^A 500 1000 kilometers

• Penang a^k Kota Kin, PENINSULAR

MALAYSIA

Kuala IJMnpur MALAYSIA 1^ SAR

Land of Sultans and Strategic Ports JAVA SEA

Throughout its history, the role of ments that in 1867 became a Crown Col­ terize the Chinese shophouse districts of Malaysia as a major trading crossroads ony. Burgeoning tin mines and rubber urban centers. has greatly affected its built cultural plantations attracted large numbers of heritage. Earliest architectural influ­ Chinese and Indian settlers to Malaysia; The fourth major influence is the Anglo- ences derive from ties with Java and they left a strong imprint on the land­ Indian. British colonists with prior expe­ Sumatra to the south, and with Thailand scape. rience in India brought with them the to the north. However, the dominant Palladian style of Georgian architecture influence has been Islam, which was characterized by symmetry and classical introduced in the early 15th century. Four Styles in Today's Buildings motifs. Government buildings in use The spread of the faith coincided with today in major urban centers show this the establishment of Melaka (Malacca) Today, Malaysia's built environment influence on the grandest scale. as one of the most powerful city-states shows four main influences. First are in the region. Melaka extended its influ­ Malay buildings that have evolved based ence throughout the Malay peninsula, on an appreciation of the environment Grass-Roots Movement and its strategic position on the straits and of cultural and religious practices. allowed it to capitalize on the spice These buildings are mostly of wood, Malaysia's cultural landscape is currently trade. Melaka quickly became a familiar highly ornamented, and built usually undergoing a rapid and drastic transfor­ port for ships from both the East and on stilts above the ground. Malay build­ mation. Skyscrapers, malls and express­ West. ings are mainly dwellings and religious ways have mushroomed and brought structures. with them the problems of urbanization As Melaka's power and wealth expan­ - traffic, congestion, pollution and scar­ ded, Portugal came to desire the city for Southern Chinese buildings in Malaysia city of land for housing, commerce and itself. In 1511, a fleet of 18 ships finally incorporate ornamentation related to the industry. Up to and after independence overpowered Melaka's 20,000 defenders four directions, the seasons, the winds in 1957, government agencies - primarily and their war elephants. The city fell and the constellations - all of which the Museum Department and the to its first European conquerors. The bring luck. In striving for harmony with Department of Public Works - were Portuguese ruled there until the Dutch nature, Chinese architecture utilizes the responsible for the preservation of displaced them in 1641. Both powers courtyard and the roofline which allows archaeological and historic sites. The tried to monopolize the wealth of structural elements to remain exposed federal government took the lead in heri­ Melaka, and the city declined as trade and integrates colors. tage preservation in the 1970s by restor­ slipped away to other ports on the pen­ ing and adapting the historic buildings insula and beyond. When the British A third influence common in Malaysia's around Merdeka Square in Kuala Lum- arrived in the late 18th century and fol­ built environment is the Sino-European. lowed a free trade policy, the virtually Chinese immigrants during the 19th cen­ uninhabited island of Penang became tury brought with them a style of build­ Opposite: The Kek Lok Si Temple in Georgetown sits atop a hill at Ayer I tarn. Its seven-tiered tower rises a thriving port. Together with Melaka ing, known as the Compradoric, which 30 meters. Construction, which began in 1890, took and Singapore, established in 1819, was patterned after the West. Arches, more than 20 years. It is the oldest Buddhist temple in Penang was one of the Straits Settle­ pilasters and colonnades today charac­ Malaysia.

21 11 MALAYSIA

1. The Sultan Abdul Samad building in Kuala Lum­ pur was built between 1S94 and 1897 by the British architect Norman in a Moorish style. Its clock tower rises 49 meters. 2. Aerial view of Kuala Lumpur. In the foreground is the Jama Masjid, and behind, the Sultan Abdul Samad building. 3. The Obadiah Mosque is a few kilometers outside the royal town of Kuala Kangsar in Perak state.

pur. Yet even in the 1970s, countless old tiated an adaptive use project. Today, Buildings. At the same time, Badan buildings continued to disappear. Central Market has become the city's Warisan, together with the National art and culture center and stands as a Museum, is undertaking an inventory of Growing public concern for the nation's model for future commercial rehabilita­ pre-war structures in Malaysia's urban historic buildings gave rise to a grass­ tion proposals. centers. The inventory will serve as a roots modern preservation movement guide for the drafting of legislation and that has been particularly active and The following year, Badan Warisan held for planning. To streamline preservation effective over the past decade. In 1983, its first national conference that has efforts, Badan Warisan and its support citizens banded together and for the first served as a catalyst in the development group this year formed a joint council time succeeded in saving a heritage of preservation strategies. Conclusions called the Majlis Warisan Malaysia. It structure. Loke Hall (1907), a prime of the conference in relation to questions now serves as the decision-making body example of colonial-era architecture, of legislation, planning, documentation for both organizations. today houses the Malaysian Institute and public awareness were submitted of Architects. That same year also saw to the federal government to form the the founding of Badan Warisan Malaysia basis of the National Policy for Archi­ Beach Resort vs. Heritage Sites - the Heritage of Malaysia Trust - which tectural Conservation. dedicated itself to the permanent preser­ Cultural heritage programs are both vation of historic structures important to prospering and suffering from the the heritage of Malaysia. The following Urban Inventory demands of Malaysia's expanding econ­ year a support group of concerned citi­ omy and its growing tourist industry. zens - Sahabat Warisan Malaysia, or the The most recent years have also been On average, six million foreign tourists Friends of the Heritage of Malaysia eventful. The main deterrent to the total visit Malaysia annually and, in 1990, Trust - was established; today it has 200 destruction of pre-war shophouses has they spent US $1.8 billion. As the num­ members. been the Rent Control Act, which is ber of tourists - both foreign and now facing imminent rescission. In domestic - increases, there is of course In 1985, two important sites were saved response, Badan Warisan has pushed for more money to invest in historic sites by persistent efforts. Several years of a new Conservation Act and amend­ and in the improvement of facilities for negotiations with federal and state offi­ ments to the existing Town and Country visitors. More buses and cars, more foot­ cials halted the demolition of the 140- Act to protect these shophouses. Kuala steps treading on old floors and more year-old Gedung Raja Abdullah, a Terengganu is the site of another of garbage, however, all require immediate former tin warehouse in Kelang. It was Badan Warisan's priority projects. Badan attention for the toll they take. restored to commemorate the history of Warisan, working with the local commu­ tin mining and is open to the public. nities, has initiated a conservation pro­ The main thrust of tourist development Similarly, Kuala Lumpur's wholesale posal for the historic city center. has been beach-resort-oriented. More market was saved when vendors moved recently, however, there has been an their operations to the suburbs. Badan At universities, courses in conservation official attempt to attract tourists to Warisan Malaysia rallied to forestall are starting to be offered, and students historic sites and traditional arts and demolition and a private developer ini­ are assisting in the National Inventory of crafts centers. The recognition of history

23 24 1. Christ Church in the main square in Melaka was constructed in 1753 of pink bricks imported from MALAYSIA Holland and faced with local red laterite. Its 15- meter-long ceiling beams were each cut from a single tree.

2. St. Paul's Church in Melaka was originally built by I 10,000BC I200AD I 600 11700 11800 the Portuguese in 1571. It was regularly visited by Francis Xavier, and for a time was the burial place of Aboriginal Under Marco Prince Dutch Rajah the saint's remains. The church has been in ruins now Malay influence Polo Parameswara take Brooke for 150 years. migration of Srivijaya visits founds Melaka and of Sumatra Melaka Rubber and 3. Detail of house tiles in Georgetown. settlement tin boom 4. The Khoo Kongsi, or clan house of the Khoos, is one of the finest in Penang. Here a detail of the building Melaka Islamic Portuguese British Straits that functions both as meeting hall and temple. Straits traders capture acquire Settlements bring Melaka Penang a Crown 5. Chinese shophouses call to mind a remarkable epi­ pirate - infested, new Island Colony sode in Melaka's history. In the 15th century, the sul­ little religion and tan of Melaka married the daughter of the Ming used trade Independence emperor of China. She brought with her a vast reti­ thrives nue, including 500 handmaidens. 6. A busy street in Georgetown.

as a magnet for tourists is expected to inadequate to meet current demand. have a positive impact on both the pres­ Samples of wood, pigment and plaster ervation and the use of heritage sites. are routinely sent abroad for testing. Malaysia's most successful cultural tour­ Materials for the repair of old buildings ism project is Kuala Lumpur's Central sometimes have to be scavenged from Market. Thousands of tourists visit the other structures. two stories of shops and restaurants and enjoy the free public performances of Much of the heritage preservation work dance, music and other arts. in Malaysia depends on the efforts of volunteers. Using simple tools, their own cameras and computers, and space Needs: in their own homes and offices, these Education, Training and Equipment people are the heart and soul of the pres­ ervation movement. They envision Education of the general public and of undertaking monumental tasks. skilled professionals is a priority of the preservation movement. Badan Warisan Over the next two years, Badan Warisan, organizes its own seminars and confer­ together with various government ences on a small scale and sends selected departments, expects to complete an personnel abroad for training. However, inventory of historic buildings. There programs to reach the broader popula­ are plans to produce a major reference tion of engineers, architects, lawyers and work on heritage structures as well as developers are virtually nonexistent. brochures for tourists and historians. An oral history society is presently Skilled craftsmen are also scarce. Many being organized to collect information restoration projects face delays due to about historic buildings from the mem­ the shortage of skilled workers. Badan ory of Malaysia's citizens. Work contin­ Warisan has compiled a list of the ues as well to strengthen protective nation's skilled craftsmen. Still, without legislation, educate children in the a market for skilled carpenters, joiners schools and complete restoration and masons, there is little incentive for projects. Malaysia's past is imprinted young people to study restoration tech­ with the characteristics of many cultures, niques. Training programs have to go and it is these characteristics that inspire hand in hand with an increase in the its heritage preservation movement. number of buildings being preserved. After a contribution by Ungku Suraiya Omar, Equipment needs are also great. A small Badan Warisan Malaysia (Heritage of Malaysia Trust). testing facility at the Museum Negara is

25 26 The Philippines 300,000 sq. km (127,317 sq. miles) pop. 47,900,000

THE PHILIPPIN

LUZON SEA

2000 kilometers

A New Dialect Every Hundred Islands

MINDANAO SEA

The Philippines enjoyed a quiet history caves at the site: stone tools, the bones of burial grounds. The Neolithic Age was during its period of first human settle­ deer, pigs, birds and bats, and bits of giving way to the Metal Age (500 B.C.- ment. Its thousands of islands, visited charcoal from cooking fires. For at least 1000 A.D.). by seasonal monsoons and typhoons, 50,000 years - a span of time hard to were also visited by migrating peoples imagine - Tabon Man lived in the caves The peoples of the islands began to craft who arrived across landbridges, now of this third largest island of the Philip­ ornaments of bronze, copper, gold and submerged, and in dugout boats. They pine archipelago, and held dominion. semiprecious stone. Stone tools were stayed to develop their maritime and replaced by iron tools and weapons agricultural societies in their corner of The remains of Tabon Man provide the manufactured on a forge. Metal imple­ the sea, untouched - unlike other places earliest fossil evidence of modern man ments spurred the construction of dwell­ in Southeast Asia - by the rippling ener­ (homo sapiens) yet recovered in the ings in open air. Rice fields were diked gies of early Hindu, Buddhist and Philippines. Early man (homo erectus) and terraced, most impressively in the Islamic civilization. and prehistoric animals are believed to mountain provinces of northern Luzon. have crossed over to the archipelago on There, the Ifugao tribespeople, over the There are thus no ancient monuments landbridges which connected northern course of centuries, constructed an in the Philippines, but there is a visible Luzon to China, Palawan to Borneo, "eighth wonder of the world" - exten­ cultural heritage of more recent vintage. and Mindanao to the Celebes, but no sive stone-walled terraces with complex Today, living on the nation's 7,000 human remains have been recovered. At irrigation systems. islands are 60 million people of more the end of the last glacial era, more than than 70 known ethnic groups. They 10,000 years ago, the seas rose and sub­ At the water's edge, boats arrived and speak 80 dialects of Malaysian, Poly­ merged the landbridges. By 7000 B.C., departed on inter-island journeys. Trad­ nesian, Chinese, Arabic, Hindu and the archipelago had attained its present ers from neighboring countries began Sanskrit origins, often tinged with surface area and sea level. to bring cultural influences that were Occidental accents from the recent cen­ assimilated into native folkways. Arab turies of Spanish and, later, American Migrating peoples sailed into the islands and Chinese traders had made contact dominion. in dugout boats and brought with them by the 9th century, and formal trade new knowledge and technology: pol­ relations evolved by the 12th century ished tools, spear points, bark cloth and with neighboring nations principally Pre-History: ornaments. They began to make pottery, through Chinese merchants. A consider­ The Peopling of the Archipelago and place the bones of the dead in able trade in porcelain, silk, spices and ceramic jars. By 2000 B.C., they were Philippine natural products flourished. National Museum archaeologists, dig­ growing rice and raising domesticated ging at the Tabon Caves on Palawan just pigs, chickens and dogs. In coastal ham­ 30 years ago, found a lone skull cap and lets they harvested fish and crab and Opposite: Tumauini Church, Tumauini, Isabela. Por­ mandible of a man 22,000 to 24,000 years shrimp from abundant tropical waters. tion of the articulated facade made of numbered old. He and his fellow hunter-gatherers They discovered or learned how to bricks, each specifically designed and installed in its predetermined location. had also left behind further evidence of weave cloth on the back-loom, and the their presence scattered among the 200 caves they once lived in became their

27 : r. > •:-• ' iJBlíí jfc¡ ' »-^¿"ltti.. i , *v id JxiT&lfa •W * 1 LHR£ Eli HKÍ -l^JI'mR^ • jjSVflt *~íT' w 1

fv V>a •^ i ífffc fÜjüc F

28 THE PHILIPPINES

1. Central portion of the facade of Paete Church, known for its elegant period timber architecture. Once Laguna, showing intricate stone carvings. "Paet" is the intellectual and cultural hub of the province, Silay Filipino for chisel, and Paete is known for its excellent City was called the Paris of Negros. carvers. Í. View of Vigan, the best-preserved Spanish town in 2. Interior of San Sebastian Church, Quiapo, Manila. the Philippines. The conquistador Juan de Salcedo The steel structure of the church was imported from planned the layout of the town in the 16th century. Belgium, and the wall surfaces were made of simu­ 6. General Emilio Aguinaldo House, Kawit, Cavite, lated stone blocks. The building has the only all-steel the birthplace of the first President of the Philippine basilica in the Far East in Gothic Revival style. The Republic, is a splendid example of Filipino Eclectic wall cavity is rusting. architecture. The house is a national shrine. 3. Church of Santa Maria, llocos Sur, a Baroque struc­ 7. Church Fortress in Miagao, lloilo, is built of yellow ture built of brick and rubble, here seen from the ochre limestone. Its powerful facade of high-relief adjoining convent carvings depicts the conversion of Filipinos to Chris­ 4. Typical house in Silay City, Negros Occidental, tianity. Stone degradation threatens its integrity.

A Christianity of Stone, Masonry Growing Efforts to Conserve the lation became a tool for preserving and Timber Cultural Heritage monuments and historic sites, and also for commemorating great Filipinos. The In 1521, the sea lanes brought Ferdinand Public awareness of the value of this cul­ nation's first generation of architects Magellan to the islands, and he claimed tural heritage was stirred relatively late. came of age and became responsible for the entire archipelago for Spain. Lapu- The pioneers in the study of Philippine the massive urban development that Lapu, a brave Filipino chief, opposed pre-history were two American anthro­ reached its peak just before World War him, and in an ensuing skirmish, Magel­ pologists, Henry Otley-Beyer and Rob­ II. These architects were indispensable, lan was killed. Yet within another half ert Bradford Fox. Through their work too, in post-war reconstruction efforts. century, Spain ruled most of the islands. and presence, in the 1920s and the 1950s The Philippines became part of the respectively, they became the mentors of With the reorganization of government Spanish empire and was administered Philippine archaeologists. Significant under Marcos in 1972 came the estab­ from Mexico. With zeal typical of Span­ discoveries at Calatagan, Batangas (1958- lishment of the National Historical iards at the time, the colonizers con­ 59), and at the Tabon Caves Complex in Institute (NHI), under whose aegis all verted Filipinos to Christianity. Filipino Palawan (1962-66) kindled the interest matters of conservation were organized. culture had reached its greatest turning of the government and a handful of citi­ At the outset, implementing laws and point. zens. At the same time, illegal digging by decrees proved difficult for both the pothunters and commercial trading in National Museum and the National His­ The missions were quick to build endur­ artifacts proliferated. Archaeological torical Institute. Despite the mandate to ing churches of stone, masonry and tim­ sites throughout the country were preserve and protect, they lacked suffi­ ber. Filipino Indios (natives), together threatened with destruction and pillage. cient administrative support and finan­ with local Chinese and Muslim inhabit­ cial resources. Initial activities involved ants, were forced to help in the building. In 1966, the congress passed the Cultural nationwide educational campaigns and Their skills as craftsmen, coupled with Properties Preservation and Protection the building of a basic infrastructure. In the Spanish roots of the friars influenced Act in response, and put the National 1978, a national registry was created to by Mexican experience, created an eclec­ Museum in charge of its implementation. identify and classify historic sites and tic architectural style known as Philip­ In ensuing years, presidential decrees structures. Restoration of the walls of pine Baroque. The Laws of the Indies, promulgated by Ferdinand Marcos and Intramuros, the walled city of Manila, issued by Spain's Philip II, who inspired later by Corazón Aquino extended pro­ commenced with the aid of a dedicated the nation's name, guided the establish­ tection to specific archaeological sites non-profit organization. Ancestral ment of cities, towns and villages. Bas­ and cultural landmarks and created the houses, forts and churches were also tions, fortifications, watchtowers and administrative apparatus to care for the restored and reconstructed by the NHI fortress-like churches were built to pro­ nation's sculptural treasures. and the National Museum. Government tect the towns and residents from Mus­ scholars and professionals went abroad lim raiders. The last part of the almost Architectural conservation in the Philip­ to study conservation sciences, and for­ 400 years of Spanish rule was marked by pines also owes its commencement to eign specialists came to the Philippines the highest achievements in the arts, American influence, starting at the turn to share their expertise locally. Collabo­ architecture and engineering. of the century. Beginning in 1918, legis­ rations with the International Centre for

29 30 1. Angono rockshelter petroglypbs in Rizal Province, S. Luzon. Ancient rock art on the walls of the rockshelter THE PHILIPPINES are endangered by vandals and natural deterioration. 2. View of houses built on stilts on Basilan Island, south of Mindanao. 20.000BC I1500BC 500AD I 8001900 11200 11300 1400 11500 11600 ¡1700 11800 11900 11992 3. House of a sultan dating from the 19th century in

Marawi City, known for its timber houses of Muslim Tabon Man Migration of Trade with Majapahit Galleon US royalty. living in caves Malayans Indochina influence trade Annexation 4. Pile houses and boat of the Badjao people in the on Palawan and Sung Banaue Chinese Islam on lose Rizal Independence Tawi-Tawi island area, at the southernmost reaches of rice Mindanao the Philippine archipelago. The Badjao are fisherfolk terraces Aguinaldo and traders of these southern islands. Magellan

5. Ifugao Village, Banaue, amid imposing rice terraces Migration Influence Spanish built by Ifugao tribespeople. Known as the eighth won­ from of Srivijayan conquest der of the world, these terraces shaped by hand and Indochina Kingdom Catholicism primitive tools have 20,000 kilometers of boundary walls and a perfectly functioning irrigation system. They are in need of reinforcement and protection.

the Study of the Preservation and the comes from the preservation and pro­ Yesterday's Philippines Tomorrow Restoration of Cultural Property motion of their cultural heritage. In (ICCROM), the International Council response to local initiatives, the National The seed of concern for the Philippines' on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) Museum and the NHI set up local muse­ cultural heritage has germinated both in and the Southeast Asian Ministers of ums and promoted tourism to different government and among the people, but Education Organization Project in parts of the country. Today, the National it has to be nurtured and sustained. The Archaeology and Fine Arts (SPAFA) Museum cares for 14 branch museums National Museum is still seeking greater also provided Filipino restorers with and four archaeological sites; the NHI governmental and non-governmental new incentives for improving existing looks after 27 historical museums and support during a difficult economic time working methods. In 1987, the Japanese shrines. that does not bode well for conservation government donated equipment to both initiatives. Still, a vision is guiding the National Museum and the NHI for At the same time, tourism was used as a national efforts: a network of regional conservation laboratories. tool of economic development. Major and local museums; the training of more resorts and hotels were built, and mar­ conservators and curators in diverse The Presidential Commission on Cul­ keting campaigns were launched. The fields of specialization; the upgrading of ture and Arts (PCCA), created under the Philippines became a venue for interna­ equipment and facilities at existing leadership of Corazón Aquino, drafted a tional conventions and beauty pageants, museums; the acquisition of the most bill, pending ratification, that would and town fiestas and island adventures modern photogrammetric and labora­ reduce the numerous individual preser­ attracted tourists all year round. The tory instruments; the installation of a vation laws into one precept. On April 3, program, however, created unforeseen database management system for docu­ 1992, the Fifth Congress of the Philip­ difficulties: damage to the natural envi­ mentation, inventory, classification and pines passed Republic Act No. 7356, ronment, to historic structures and to registration; collaborations for restora­ creating the National Commission for the cultural fabric due to over-commer­ tions and training with schools and uni­ Culture and the Arts and establishing a cialization. Political turmoil between versities; the inclusion of conservation National Endowment Fund for Culture 1983 and 1986 and the subsequent tran­ sciences in the architecture curriculum; and the Arts, which President Aquino sitional period led to further declines in and increasing public awareness and subsequently signed into law. tourism. Recently, however, a new tour­ involvement. ism strategy has been developing based on the promotion of cultural attractions The list is long and the needs are great, Cultural Tourism: Economic and heritage preservation. Cultural tour­ but Philippine cultural heritage, both Development and National Pride ism is coming to be seen not only as a prehistoric and architectural, is even source of economic growth but also as a longer and greater, and deserves protec­ The Department of Tourism was created means of promoting civic and national tion, study and appreciation. in 1973 and gave impetus to cultural pride. awakening. Not only did the Filipino After contributions by Father Gabriel S. Casal, people see the economic advantages of Director, National Museum of the Philippines, and both local and international tourism; Reynaldo A. Inovero, Chief, Architectural Conser­ vation Division, National Historic Institute. they also understood the fulfillment that

31 32 Singapore 618 sq. km (239 sq. miles) pop. 2,414,000

Singapore City

S T R A '-fc~* F" SINGAPORE

From Fishing Village to City-State 20 kilometers

In 1819, Sir Stamford Raffles landed on ble dwelling-cum-business premises of Still, in 1972, despite prevailing attitudes Singapore and struck an agreement with simple masonry and timber construction in favor of continued development, the its local rulers to establish a trading set­ and eclectic ornamentation. Singapore government enacted the Pres­ tlement for the British East India Com­ ervation of Monuments Act to protect pany. Six centuries earlier, the island had Today, Singapore is still a young city- and preserve nationally significant struc­ once before been an imperial trading state, modern and efficient, an indepen­ tures. In the Singapore context, "preser­ outpost. Its strategic location at the dent nation now for a mere 27 years. In vation" refers to the strict retention of southern entrance to the Straits of Mal­ that short span of time, however, the face buildings in their original architecture; it acca proved attractive to the Sumatran of Singapore has been remade. Most of demands faithfulness to original con­ and Javanese empires that successively the city center was bulldozed to clear the struction methods, details and materials. controlled it then. Yet Singapore never way for glass and concrete skyscrapers. Between 1972 and 1991, 23 buildings developed significantly. It most often The shoreline advanced into the sea as were listed as monuments, most of them sheltered pirates, and remained a barren land was reclaimed to accommodate government and religious buildings. and sparsely populated locale given pri­ highways and an airport. Slums were Basic historical research on these struc­ marily to fishing until Raffles arrived. replaced by public housing impressively tures has been completed, and most are Raffles was a visionary and zealous ser­ and quickly constructed, and a new already restored or are in the process of vant of the British empire, and he was infrastructure was paved and tunneled being restored. instrumental in laying the foundations of into place. Singapore transformed itself the city and establishing it as a free port. into a world-ranking capital of business, Private developers stepped in during this Thousands of migrants, especially from finance and tourism. period to demonstrate a solid economic China, quickly streamed to the island. rationale for broader conservation initia­ Thus begins the history of this colonial tives of great relevance for Singapore. port city built by immigrant Asian labor. Progress and Demolition They showed that individual monu­ ments alone cannot make an environ­ Chinese, Malay and Indian settlers con­ Yet picturesque esplanades and bunga­ ment but that clusters of quality gregated in their respective ethnic quar­ lows of a less hectic past were left buildings can. Selective alteration, ters and shaped the island's distinctive stranded in the new urban topography, rebuilding and contemporary construc­ character. Four kinds of buildings and many older urban areas fell under tion techniques adapted old structures shaped Singapore's built environment the wrecker's ball. Those who protested with a historical ambience to new uses. from its founding to its independence in the sacrifice of Singapore's distinct urban 1965: institutional civic buildings, stately heritage were dismissed as sentimental and grand, that bear a strong European and impractical because, as in most Opposite: Skyscrapers tower behind the Tanjong classical influence; religious buildings, developing countries, conservation was Pagar development (foreground), a restored area of Chinatown that today houses restaurants and such as Malay and Indian Muslim regarded as the antithesis of progress. antique and craft shops. mosques, Chinese and Hindu temples, Old buildings were seen to be financial and Christian churches; bungalows of burdens, occupying parcels of land of the well-to-do built in Art Deco and potentially immense value. Victorian styles; and shophouses, hum­

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34 SINGAPORE

1. Postcard of the Raffles Hotel pictured around the and Theatre, built in 1862. Once the town hall, turn of the century. Featured in novels by Joseph today it is used for cultural events. Conrad and Somerset Maugham, the Raffles was 5. The Palm Garden of the Raffles Hotel. synonymous with Oriental luxury. 6. Parliament House is Singapore's oldest 2. The Raffles Hotel restored to its former splendor government building. It was originally seen from Beach Road at night. built as a private mansion. 3. View of modern Singapore at night. 7. Aerial view of Singapore. 4. Detail of the Victoria Memorial Hall 8. Buildings along the Singapore River.

Beginning in 1981, private developers ments, the government enacted legisla­ Many of these streets are in the ethnic restored two-and three-story terrace tion that has made conservation an inte­ zones demarcated by Sir Stamford Raf­ houses in Emerald Hill adjoining gral part of urban planning procedures. fles himself: the Little India area run­ Orchard Road - a golden mile of shops The new attitude toward the nation's ning off Serangoon Road; the Muslim and hotels. The houses had been built architectural heritage was backed by district of Kampong Glam; Chinatown between 1890 and 1940 in a distinct Per- political will and found its reflection in and other residential districts in the anakan (Straits-born Chinese) architec­ institutional rearrangements and strict older suburbs of Geylang, River Valley tural style, a kind of Chinese Baroque. new requirements. The legislation pro­ Road and Joo Chiat Road; and bunga­ Their unique presence brought an unex­ vided for the appointment of a Conser­ lows along the Mountbatten Road area. pected touch of vernacular authenticity vation Authority, the designation of to the revitalization effort. Peranakan conservation areas, the formulation of Place, as it came to be called - with its guidelines and the enforcement of Economic Incentives Aid new shops and its open-air cafe - proved requirements. The Urban Redevelop­ Heritage Boom to planners and to tourism authorities ment Authority (URA) was made that architectural heritage adds value to responsible for fulfilling these functions Singapore now boasts many examples of the tourist dollar. and integrating them into national plan­ fine conservation and adaptive use of ning procedures. The result has been the its architectural heritage. The Alkoff creation of a comprehensive Conserva­ Mansion, the Empress Place Museum, tion Master Plan. Singapore has become Changing Context Spurs Telok Ayer Market and the National one of the first developing countries to Conservation Museum provide tourists and locals with have such a plan and to be within reach fine restaurants, shops and exhibitions of realizing it. Large sections of the city's Other developments in the 1980s made inside distinctive and historic structures. surviving historic districts have been the climate more favorable for this Yet perhaps the most impressive effort declared "conservation areas" and have broader kind of conservation initiative. has been the restoration of the Raffles been successfully protected. With a large number of building projects Hotel, Singapore's most famous land­ reaching completion, many in Singapore mark. For more than a decade, it was on began to search for quality - for visual In 1991, the Preservation of Monuments the verge of demolition until US $94 mil­ and aesthetic comfort in the new city. Board announced that 60 additional lion was spent to restore and rebuild it. There was now sufficient commercial buildings, including private houses out­ Singapore's architectural heritage has space to satisfy demand well into the side the central district, would be listed become big business - both for the gov­ future, and tourism began to assume as monuments. Only 23 buildings had ernment and for developers. The Raffles greater importance in the national econ­ received such protection in the previous Hotel stands as a significant symbol of omy. Finally, with increasing affluence 20 years. The Urban Redevelopment the new ethic informing the city's came a growing appreciation of history Authority quickly assumed its new present and future growth. and a taste for the expressions of culture duties, too, and placed preservation and identity. orders on the few streets in older urban Part of the methodology behind imple­ areas where about 1,900 pre-war terrace menting the Conservation Master Plan In 1989, as a result of all these develop- shophouses still remain standing. lies in providing economic incentives for

35 36 SINGAPORE

1. House exterior on Arab Street, the Muslim center of Singapore. A number of mosques can be found in the area. Srivijayan and Quiet Sir Raffles 2. Houses on Peranakan Place. Peranakan culture is Majapahit backwater, founds that of Straits-born Chinese who spoke a Malay dia­ trading sparsely settlement Independence lect and developed unique Chinese-Malay customs. outpost populated Chinese, Malay, 3. Serangoon Road is the heart of Little India, settled Pírate - and Indian mainly by Tamils from south India. infested immigration 4. Doorway of a scribe, Chinatown. y The Sri Mariamman Temple is the oldest Hindu Known to British Chinese as free port temple in Singapore. Originally built in 1827, it was Temas ek rebuilt in 1862. Featuring a colorful gopuram, or Straits tower, it is in the south Indian Dravidian style. Settlement 6. Chinatown during Chinese New Year.

restoration initiatives. The government work of uncovering evidence of Sin­ Society is protesting plans to turn the has introduced a number of these. gapore's more distant past continues Convent of the Holy Infant Jesus into an Developing charges are usually col­ apace. The republic's sole archaeological upscale retail center, and is pointing lected from building owners when they dig at Fort Canning revealed evidence of with approval at the decision to make St. alter the use of their property. Similarly, a 14th-century trading settlement. The Joseph's Institution, once a Catholic in new developments, the government entire area has been converted into a his­ school, into a fine arts museum. collects a fee if builders do not provide toric park. The next logical step is to sufficient space for car parking. The extend preservation beyond the central Compared to most other nations of the government has waived these charges area to the rest of the island. The URA world, Singapore is a relative latecomer and coordinates the upgrading of exter­ has initiated such efforts. Conservation to historic and architectural preservation nal environments, road improvements planners are assessing 8,000 to 10,000 and conservation. Yet within a few short and other urban services to complement buildings covering 700 hectares of land. years, Singapore has created a Conserva­ conservation efforts. Rent controls have This represents about 1.7 per cent of the tion Master Plan that is comprehensive also been lifted in conservation areas to total developable land area in the coun­ in terms of its geographical coverage, stimulate owner investment, and a mech­ try, or 1.1 percent of the total land area. its range of architectural and building anism has been instituted for compensat­ types, its assessment method and its ing tenants forced to relocate. implementation strategy. Conservation Debate: Commerce versus Culture is now taken seriously as an integral part The Urban Redevelopment Authority of urban planning, with citizens engag­ closely regulates and monitors all resto­ Ongoing debates over conservation ing in constructive debate. While Sin­ rations. The agency's work begins with issues sometimes concern specific build­ gapore has discovered the potential of meticulous research and documentation ings. Eu Court, a pre-war curved corner making money out of the past, there are that allows for the categorization and building, was restored by its owners, many people, including conservationists, assessment of a building's historic who spent US $600,000 on the effort. who believe that this will also stimulate importance, architectural merit, social The building is nevertheless slated for the creation of a modern Singaporean and cultural relevance and contribution demolition to make room for a wider cultural heritage. Giving Singaporeans to the environment. The URA compiles roadway. Still larger issues are under cultural roots, this school of thought plans, sections, elevations and photo­ more constant discussion, especially the believes, will also result in a more value- graphs of each building under investiga­ profit-seeking that is driving preserva­ added and sophisticated tourist industry, tion and prepares detailed conservation tion efforts. The Urban Redevelopment thus promising a more prosperous guidelines. Building owners purchase Authority routinely leases buildings to future. these guidelines to carry out restoration the highest bidder, who in turn earns the work and receive step-by-step help to right to develop and extract profit from After contributions by Liu Thai Ker, Chief meet requirements and follow proper the site. The Singapore Heritage Society, Executive Officer and Chief Planner, Urban procedures. a citizen's lobbying group, puts eco­ Redevelopment Authority, and Mary Lee, consultant, Singapore Heritage Society. nomic gain last on its list of priorities, In tandem with the task of revitalizing and instead advocates respectful and parts of old Singapore to new uses, the compatible conservation designs. The

37 38 Thailand 514,000 sq. km (198,457 sq. miles) pop. 46,091,000

II 0 400 800 kilometei

ANDAMAN SEA

A Heritage of Movable Buddhist Kingdoms

In 1831 a wandering Buddhist monk on because it carries continuous cultural heart of the country. Hinayana Bud­ a pilgrimage to the ancient stupa at Wat meaning, historical knowledge and sub­ dhism flourished among its Mon-speak- Phra Pathom in Nakon Chaisri provided tle evidence of spiritual and emotional ing people who had migrated south from an uncharacteristically analytical estima­ ideas. China's Yunnan Province. According to tion of the monument before him. "This a prevailing theory, they were the first is the largest and probably the oldest Thais, and it is from this period that stupa in all of Siam," he said. The monk Thirty Thousand Years of most accounts of Thai history begin. also refused to accept the folk legend Human Settlement Dvaravati influence is most evident in concerning the origin of the ancient the central and northeastern sections of pagoda there. Instead he recommended Thailand has known human settlement the country. Unfortunately, most Dvara- on-site research to determine a different for 30,000 years. Its landmass was once vati-influenced buildings were either order of truth. It so happened that this connected to the islands of Java and left to ruin or converted to Mahayana monk was Prince Mongkut - of the Sumatra. Now the sea intervenes. The Buddhist structures when the area fell royal family and destined to inherit the oldest pottery and bronze artifacts date under the control of the Khmer empire throne. He became King Rama IV in from ca. 3600 B.C., unearthed from pre­ during the 10th and 11th centuries. The 1851, and soon after, he ordered the res­ historic sites atop a high plateau to the Khmer civilization brought the second toration of the stupa at Wat Phra northeast in the present-day village of great influence upon the built cultural Pathom. While Thai culture had had a Ban-Chiang. The light of history begins heritage of Thailand. Khmer architects long tradition of architectural conserva­ to dawn close to the start of the Chris­ built travel halts and religious complexes tion, with King Rama IV its rationale tian era when scattered settlements co­ that later influenced the development of broadened and its methods began to alesced into political entities that reached the Thai wat - a Buddhist religious com­ change. out in commerce over land and by sea. pound. By the third century B.C., long-distance It was a well-understood Buddhist idea trade routes had become established and In the middle of the 13th century, two that to build or to restore religious all of Southeast Asia was tied into an Thai lords revolted against the Khmer monuments and places of worship was economic network. Within another cen­ and set up the first independent Thai to acquire spiritual merit. Yet because tury, trade had expanded and reached kingdom at Sukhothai. There the Thai the value of these buildings was seen India, Greece and the Roman empire. alphabet was invented. There, too, devel­ purely in religious terms - and not in The area that is Thailand came to occupy oped the mainstays of wat architecture, cultural, archaeological or historical an important position on a trade route the first truly Thai Buddhist style. The terms - restoration meant, primarily, between India and China. The influence hegemony of the kingdom, however, was rebuilding. Sometimes ancient monu­ of Indian civilization spread throughout short-lived. By the middle of the 14th ments were so completely renovated that the area. century Sukhothai gave way to the sec­ they lost their original style or form. ond Thai kingdom, which arose at Sometimes they were covered by com­ Chinese records and archaeological finds pletely new constructions. It was a mod­ indicate that between the 6th and 12th Opposite: Statue of Buddha at Ayutthaya, an island ern concept that architectural heritage centuries A.D., the Dvaravati kingdom city founded in 1350 and capital of the Thai kingdom deserves preservation in its original form occupied the fertile Menam Basin at the for 400 years.

39 40 1. Wat Arun, or the Temple of Dawn, a religious complex that served as a royal temple during King THAILAND Taksin's reign (1809-24), when Thonburi was the capital of Thailand. 2. Wat Maha Thad in Sukhothai. Sukhothai was the first Thai kingdom, founded in the middle of the 13th century. It flourished for almost two centuries. Today, it is listed as a World Heritage Site and covers |ca.360O BC|600 1900 11200 11300 11400 1500 11600 11700 11800 11900 16,000 acres. Ban Chiang Nanchao Founding of Burmese Ayutthaya 3. Wat Phra Chetupon, or Wat Po, Temple of the pottery Period Sukhothai invasions destroyed Reclining Buddha, was built in the 16th century and and bronze is the oldest and largest Buddhist temple complex in artifacts Migrations of Founding of Chakri Bangkok. It was rebuilt in the 18th century and Thais from Ayutthaya Dynasty South China again restored in the 19th. Founding of 4. Sunet over a temple complex. Dvaravati Khmer Bangkok 5. Wat Phra Keo, Temple of the Emerald Buddha, Kingdom cultural adjoins the Grand Palace and serves as the Royal influence Rama II-V Temple where the king performs his religious duties. Spread of Buddhism Hinduism Contact with West 6. Wat Phra Keo was built by King Rama I in 1782 in imitation of the Royal Temple at Ayutthaya to house Modernization the celebrated Emerald Buddha..

Ayutthaya. This kingdom flourished for Royal Family Promotes Conservation French team introduced the anastylosis four centuries, reaching a population of technique in 1964 in the restoration of a more than a million, until in 1767 it was Prince Mongkut's son and successor, Mahayana Buddhist temple at Phimai. completely destroyed by invading Bur­ King Rama V, had a similar scholarly (Anastylosis is the reconstruction of a mese. The royal palace and religious respect for the works of old. During his monument from fallen parts.) The first buildings were ransacked and burnt to reign, the Temple of Dawn underwent successful anastylosis restoration by a the ground, and the people scattered. restoration, and he gave strict orders: Thai team was carried out soon after, "Do not try to re-touch the old mural beginning in 1971, at Phanom Rung His­ Phraya Taksin, a leading general, finally paintings to make them look new. If torical Park. A 10th-century Hindu managed to drive the Burmese away, and changes are unavoidable, I must be noti­ shrine, listed as an ancient monument in took a band of followers to found the fied." The next Rama - the Sixth - issued 1935 and subsequently neglected, was city of Thonburi on the west side of the Thailand's first conservation law in 1923. carefully restored. Chao Phraya River. In 1782, Chao It authorized officials to select what Phraya Chakri assumed the throne as should be preserved, and to find the While conservators were busy learning King Rama I, thus founding the Chakri means to do so. King Rama VII founded and applying techniques, new ideas dynasty which continues to this day. The the Royal Council in 1926 and made about conservation were being devel­ new king moved the capital across the Prince Damrongrajanubhab, its chair­ oped. In 1961, the city of Sukhothai was river to its east side, and built the city of man, fully responsible for the conserva­ registered and an entire conservation Bangkok on the model of the former city tion of Thailand's cultural heritage. In area was established. The move was an of Ayutthaya. For a hundred years, royal 1930, the prince gathered together the attempt to protect the quality of a group palaces, temples and houses arose, kingdom's provincial governors and of structures within their environment. inspired by the dominant styles of the presented a series of lectures on the con­ In 1977, a further step was taken with earlier capital. Yet Thailand came to be servation of ancient cultural properties. the start of the Sukhothai Historical influenced in the 19th century by West­ Not only did he embrace historic, Park Development Project - a measure ern nations. It escaped colonial rule, but cultural and technological values in his that combined conservation with urban the prevailing styles of the day came to definition of architectural heritage, he development. In 1985, Thailand issued a be reflected in its buildings. During this also provided a methodology and a Charter of Conservation that lays down period, Prince Mongkut came of age and rationale for conservation that demon­ guidelines for practical work on the acquired a knowledge of Western lan­ strated his firm grasp of the accepted model of the ICOMOS Venice Charter guages and customs. From him began a international approach to the field. of 1964. Most recently, with the inaugu­ new concept of architectural preserva­ ration of Sukhothai as a historical park tion that developed over the course of The Conservation Act of 1934 called for in 1988, and its subsequent election as a the subsequent century. an inventory of ancient monuments, and UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1991, by 1938 a number of monuments were both government planners and the pub­ systematically listed for the first time. lic realized the potential and importance Techniques to preserve and consolidate of cultural tourism in Thailand. The structures were introduced by the Ecole logic of modern developments had Franchise d'Extreme Orient, Hanoi. A finally brought heritage conservation

41 42 THAILAND

1. Wat Phra That Doi Suthep in Chiang Mai dates from the 14th century and is one of the most impor­ tant temple complexes in this former capital of the Lanna Kingdom. In the golden pagoda are holy relics of the Buddha. 2. Phra Prathom Chedi in Nakhon Prathom province is the largest Buddhist stupa in Thailand. This Bud­ dha seated in front of the stupa is in the Dvaravati style. 3. The library at Wat Phra Singh, Chiang Mai's most important temple founded in 1345. 4. One of the main towers (Prang) at the Phanom Rung temple complex, a major Hindu shrine built atop an extinct volcano.

and tourism promotion - which had Architecture. The department adminis­ Study of the Preservation and the Resto­ developed independently - together for ters all ancient monument registration, ration of Cultural Property (ICCROM) the first time on a grand scale. six Historical Parks, four Historical Park in Rome, and Silpakorn University is Projects, Historic City Conservation creating a master's degree program in Projects, an Emergency Restoration architectural conservation. More highly Tourism: Program, conservation of ancient build­ trained personnel are needed, for the A Multi-Billion Dollar Export ing complexes, cities and settlements, quality of human resources is the princi­ and the four sites currently on the World pal factor governing successful work. Tourism promotion began in Thailand Heritage List. There is a need, too, for well-equipped as early as 1924. The Commissioner of laboratories for specialized scientific Royal State Railways created a publicity research, and for a well-maintained department to provide receptions for Cooperation Growing Between information center and data base. More visitors and facilitate their travel Government and Non-Governmental research is needed on traditional materi­ arrangements. Today the Tourism Organizations als and craft methods. Authority of Thailand is responsible not only for tourism promotion but also for The Association of Siamese Architects is In 1991 in Jakarta, non-governmental its development and management. In an active non-governmental organiza­ organizations of ASEAN countries met 1960, Thailand recorded 81,000 tourist tion that aids conservation efforts. The to have a Dialogue on Architectural Her­ arrivals; in 1973, one million; in 1990, awards it presents every two years draw itage. Participants saw the necessity of more than five million. Tourism today attention to Thailand's architectural her­ creating a regional effort to safeguard the brings in more than US $4 billion in rev­ itage. Since 1973, the Society for the architectural heritage, and called for the enue annually and has become the first - Conservation of National Treasure and creation of a Federation on Architectural ranking foreign exchange earner. Environment has been preserving and Heritage under the auspices of ASEAN. protecting the Grand Palace compound Through such an organization, the com­ The impact of so many visitors, coupled area in Bangkok. The Southeast Asian bined energy of concerned observers will with social changes sparked by eco­ Ministers of Education Organization gain added force to help preservation nomic reform since the 1960s, has been Project in Archaeology and Fine Art efforts. At the same time, such a body destructive to urban environments and a (SPAFA), an international non-govern­ can coordinate a network of regional and great threat to the built cultural heritage. mental organization based in Bangkok, international historical parks and present In this booming and busy environment, promotes cultural and educational coop­ educational and cultural itineraries to cultural heritage conservation in Thai­ eration among ASEAN countries. From promote quality tourism and greater land is proceeding. 1987 to 1992, SPAFA sponsored training intercultural understanding. programs, seminars and workshops on The Fine Arts Department under the conservation and maintenance of his­ After contributions by Sunan Palakavong Na Ministry of Education is responsible for toric cities and ancient settlements. Ayudhya, Head, Department of Architecture, Silpa­ korn University, and Srisakara Vallibhotama, Associ­ all conservation projects, which it carries ate Professor in Anthropology, Silpakorn University. out through two divisions - the Division Thailand has sent 22 conservators to of Archaeology and the Division of study at the International Centre for the

43 ASEAN's Architectural Heritage: Confronting the Challenge

We are living in an age that, like no other We have been, collectively, rather tors from around the world bring have before it, urgently demands the work ungrateful for and blind to man's inher­ been providing much of the rationale for of historic architectural preservation. ited past, and this century offers a host preservation efforts. Yet while the bene­ Thousands of significant edifices have of developments that might justify these fits of tourism are indisputable, equally been lost in this century, and countless faults: tremendous changes in cultural certain is tourism's ability to overburden others are on the brink of the same fate. habits and attitudes; soaring population and destroy. We face the prospect of losing the tan­ and urban crowding; rapid economic gible evidence of what has been most development; natural catastrophes; The idea of "cultural tourism" as the key meaningful to humanity through the brazen theft; and armed conflict on an to a durable, dignified tourism that is ages. unprecedented scale. They have all taken educational, profitable and ecological their toll, yet ultimately we have allowed seems to provide a way out of this Works of architecture carry a large them to do so. That will be the verdict dilemma. Yet it is an ambiguous term array of meanings. Their creation re­ future generations will pass upon our often too loosely used to justify medio­ quires the greatest concentrations of conduct as they bemoan the paucity of cre ideas and accomplishments. Fre­ wealth, vision and effort that a society their inheritance. quently, "culture" is packaged as a can muster. These structures stand as product for the tourist. We know from potent symbols and reminders of ways The nations of ASEAN - Brunei Darus- experience that an unavoidable by-prod­ of life both past and present. They reflect salam, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philip­ uct of such a system of consumption is a people's concerns, embody the applica­ pines, Singapore and Thailand - are in waste, which in this context can mean tion of particular technologies, demon­ the midst of grappling with the preserva­ the loss of irreplaceable cultural heritage. strate resourcefulness and describe tion of their architectural heritage at this In the context of cultural tourism, it is process. Our architectural inheritance critical and difficult time. Non-govern­ far more profitable and ecological to records a narrative of history. Within the mental organizations from each of these think of the tourist as witness and pil­ quiet immobility of works of old are nations met together in 1991 in Jakarta grim, and to promote the attitudes of embedded the strivings and world views to address the disappearance of buildings reverence and responsibility for culture of civilizations and the marvel of human and environments of historic and archi­ and history as embodied in architecture. ingenuity. tectural merit. They issued a declaration The keys to this lie in the effective inter­ to express their concern and to establish pretation of the actual artifact, building The most accomplished cultures have a mechanism of redress. The Jakarta or site and the curatorial skill required a grand sense of history and destiny, and Declaration called for the creation of an to make both the visible and invisible they build for the sake of eternity while ASEAN Federation on Architectural history of the location speak for itself. being aware of their own mortality. Heritage, an important first step in The buildings they leave behind are acts regional cooperation on this issue. To attract a tourist, a cultural destination of generosity and daring - whether they has to be managed and presented with be the massive works of a theocratic The imperatives of economic develop­ the highest of standards. The allure of state built to impress or the more practi­ ment at the same time are moving these beaches and resorts in a tropical paradise cal vernacular constructions of humble nations to promote and expand tourism, is far stronger than that of sublime and inhabitants. and the wealth and recognition that visi­ immobile buildings and ruins. Thus

44 While architectural preservation is coming of age in these six nations, there is a huge amount of work to be done.

cultural tourism must begin with monu­ • Developing and completing cultural To successfully implement such mea­ ment conservation so that the activity resource inventories, as required, which sures will require perserverance and of conservation itself becomes part of consider all types of architecture, not patience, and to inspire our efforts, here, the attraction. At the same time, tourism just major monuments. finally, a poetic perspective may be in development must be carefully planned order. In Gitanjali, the great Indian poet and gradual. It is a professional business • Developing appropriate, comprehensive Rabindranath Tagore praises the patient best entrusted to experts. Balance and conservation plans which can be realisti­ work of his Creator: "Days and nights restraint are watchwords in this process. cally accomplished for buildings, sites pass and ages bloom and fade like flow­ Finally, cultural tourism must also con­ and towns. ers. Thou knowest how to wait. Thy cern itself with community develop­ centuries follow each other perfecting a ment. The social issues and needs of local • Raising the awareness, interest and small wild flower." communities must be addressed, and the appreciation of both local populations benefits of tourism shared. and visitors to the cultural and The expressions of mankind's creativity economic benefits of conservation. are similarly the patient work of ages. The best way to teach is by example. Imagine a craft: honed over generations, The threats to architectural heritage pose • Augmenting legal protection as may passed from father to son or master to a common danger to us all whether they be required for the protection of historic apprentice, finally finding its perfection arise among the ASEAN nations or else­ buildings, their contents and their and expression - in a temple commis­ where. Governments, non-governmental settings. sioned by the King! Even the most hum­ organizations, private enterprise, the ble constructions thoughtfully created non-profit sector and individuals must • Providing effective cultural resource share in this process. The work of build­ all help in the effort to preserve and edu­ management of listed sites. ing and perfecting is painstaking and cate. Sites do not take care of themselves. slow. Destruction is easy and swift. As Responsible tourism, booming over the • Assuring through the ASEAN commu­ Tagore warns us in the same poem, "We last decade in this sector of the tropics, nity a joint effort to preserve and present have no time to lose... We are too poor can be made to provide direct funding the common architectural heritage of to be late." for preservation. Thus the conservation the region. of these cultural "pilgrimage" sites is ensured. • Furthering the establishment of both World Monuments Fund public and private governing bodies New York, New York While architectural preservation is and, indeed, an ethic among private citi­ coming of age in these six nations, there zens to serve as curatorial managers of is a huge amount of work to be done. ASEAN's significant man-built environ­ Objectives for plans of action to con­ ment. serve ASEAN's architectural heritage should include:

45 Perils of Architectural Heritage

Perils Caused by Man

From the moment a work of architecture tion of stone fabric. Better planning can is completed, it begins to age and bear easily control or reverse this avoidable the impact of myriad influences that form of damage to the world's great threaten its architectural and aesthetic buildings and monuments. integrity. Deterioration and decay are natural and unavoidable conditions of Tourism planetary existence. Everything that man Uncontrolled tourism is posing an makes will require restoration and pres­ increasing threat to nearly all forms of ervation if it is to endure. The list below the world's artistic patrimony as a result delineates the major dangers a work of of wear to building fabric and incidental architecture faces, many of them exacer­ harm which can affect fragile finishes bated in a tropical climate like that of the War and Vandalism and objects on display. These effects can ASEAN nations. Numerous activities of man, ranging be as subtle as temperature and humidity from neglect to the hazards of war, can changes caused by crowds within a cause damage and destruction to historic space, to the occasional touch of a fragile monuments. Vandalism and wanton finish by a passerby. Of even greater destruction result from a lack of appreci­ consequence can be the accommodation ation of man's artistic achievements. The of tourists at or near historic sites. looting of sites for their architectural The provision of safe and convenient ornament and furnishings is on the rise access to and through a site, as well as as markets for antiquities increase. food, water, sanitary facilities, parking and hotel accommodations, can present Pollution sizable challenges to site planners and The destruction of building fabric from managers. pollution in its various forms is on the increase at most historic sites in the world today. The primary damage-caus­ ing agents are airborne sulphates pro­ duced from fossil fuel combustion. These sulphates combine with water in the atmosphere to produce acid rain - a major threat to building stone the world over. The effects of pollution can be merely superficial and result in the sim­ ple soiling of building stone. More likely, however, pollutants initiate a chain of deleterious chemical reactions which can eventually lead to the complete destruc­

46 Perils Caused by Nature

trees, vines and other plants - can The natural weathering of building sur­ threaten buildings in a matter of months faces is inevitable, but its effects can be and, if left unchecked, will engulf and contained if the subject material had destroy entire structures. The process been properly designed in the first place often starts with the establishment of and if thoughtful maintenance of struc­ plant growths in or near water-handling tures is carried out. systems - at parapets, gutters and drains. Degradation of the building system and Natural Disasters its fabric develops progressively; the The hazards of unpredictable occur­ structure may be destroyed in a matter rences such as fires, storms, floods, of a few years. Micro-vegetation and earthquakes and volcanoes are obvious, Water other biological growth on buildings but their disastrous consequences are Water in its various forms - precipita­ such as lichen, fungi, moss and bacteria not altogether unavoidable. Fire and tion, condensation and ice - is the chief pose relatively minor threats to historic flood prevention measures are possible natural threat to buildings, since mois­ building fabric; their effect is primarily to implement. Inexperience in rescuing ture in one or more forms is almost cosmetic. Simple cleaning and the appli­ buildings in the aftermath of a major always present. The problems that mois­ cation of biocides can remove most natural disaster by stabilization and tem­ ture can cause are compounded by forms of micro-vegetation, although porary protection has often led to temperature changes - over the course of recent experience at some sites has indi­ unneccessary demolitions of precious a single day or during the seasons of the cated that leaving structures dirty is not structures. Inexpert restorations have year. In tropical climates buildings are as harmful as it once was thought to be. also taken their toll on too many of man­ subject to extreme exposure to water kind's greatest building achievements. during the monsoon season unlike any Weather other place on earth. Building features Wind and temperature fluctuations cre­ such as roofs and their related water- ate dynamic change to building fabric at handling systems must be well main­ both the surface and structural levels. tained to handle the seasonal down­ Temperature change causes building pours. Proper site drainage is also materials to expand and contract; deteri­ crucial. Moisture promotes the growth oration often results at joints where dis­ of various forms of vegetation which can similar materials meet. Normal wind threaten buildings. Water can also serve conditions can considerably affect tem­ as a vehicle to carry a variety of pollut­ perature and also have a major effect on ants into building fabrics. moisture evaporation rates. The weath­ ering of a building usually refers to the Biological Growths natural aging of its visually accessible Vegetation in all its forms, particularly in surfaces, but the process is a function of tropical regions, can pose significant endless cycles of change in temperature, threats to buildings. Macro-vegetation - moisture content and light exposure.

47 Endangered Sites

"A nation can be a victim of amnesia. It can lose the memories of what it was, and thereby lose the sense of what it is or what it wants to be."

Sidney Hyman, ¡n With Heritage So Rich, 1966

The following list of sites endangered or Istana Darussalam Pura Tanah Lot in need of assistance in the ASEAN re­ Bandar Seri Begawan. This old palace is Bali. This Hindu temple sits on an gion is not all-inclusive. It is representa­ in need of maintenance and is threatened eroded rock off the south shore of the tive of significant cultural property that by the encroachment of new develop­ island. Sea-water erosion threatens its is in need of protection and preservation. ments. survival.

Traditional Houses of Tana Toraja Tana Toraja, Sulawesi. The houses of the Torajan people are shaped like ships and face north, the direction of their legend­ ary origin. These unique dwellings are in need of restoration and conservation.

Banten Site Banten, Java. The historical remains here of the Bantenese Islamic Kingdom rep­ resent the advent of the Muslim religion BRUNEI DARUSSALAM INDONESIA in Indonesia. The ancient city is in need of preservation. Bumbungan Duabelas Sewu Temple Compound Bandar Seri Begawan. This complex of Prambanan, Java. This Buddhist temple Trowulan Site buildings was built for the first British complex built in the shape of a mándala Mojokerto, Java. Trowulan was once the Resident in 1906, and today houses the in the first half of the 9th century is capital of the mighty Majapahit empire. culture section of the Ministry of Cul­ in need of restoration and conservation. The remains of its high brick walls, ture, Youth and Sport. The original roof­ pools, palaces and plazas lie scattered ing has been maintained, but the open Kalasan Temple over a 15-square-kilometer area. verandah is now enclosed to accommo­ Prambanan, Java. One of the oldest Bud­ date air-conditioning. dhist temple sites in Indonesia, Kalasan Sunda Kelapa Old Harbor is a royal mausoleum set in a lush garden Jakarta, Java. This 500-year-old harbor is Kampong Ayer landscape. The temple is threatened by still one of the most important calls for Bandar Seri Begawan. More than 30,000 microbiological attack. sailing vessels traveling the archipelago. people live here in this largest collection of water villages in the world. Houses Jabang Temple Kota or Old Batavia City supported on stilts are interconnected by Jabang, East Java. Physical and chemical Jakarta, Java. This area is the old Dutch wooden walkways. Pollution, over­ deterioration is threatening this ancient section of the capital city. Its many colo­ crowding and fires threaten the survival Hindu temple. nial buildings need continuing restora­ of this uniquely Bruneian settlement. tion, preservation and conservation.

48 Kota Gede Kampung Bahru Jogyakarta, Java. This quiet village was Kuala Lumpur. This neighborhood was once the capital of the Mataram king­ one of the first settled in the city. A dom. Its ancient courtyards, mosques thriving Sunday market keeps traditions and burial grounds are in need of conser­ alive amidst an intact community. Its vation. proximity to the expanding city center exposes it to the threat of demolition. Gresik Inner City Gresik, Java. This old seaport was where Taiping Islamic traders from India first created Perak. A historic tin mining center, an outpost for their religion in Indone­ Taiping has a number of well-preserved THE PHILIPPINES sia. The ancient city is in need of preser­ Anglo-Malay buildings and an old mar­ vation and conservation. ket that are under threat of demolition. Tabon Caves Complex Quezon, Palawan. These caves were Bandung Inner City Melaka used for more than 50,000 years as habi­ Bandung, Java. Formerly a principal Melaka. Long an important trading post, tations and burial sites; they have yielded operating base of the Dutch colonial the sultanate established here was the the earliest fossil evidence of homo sapi­ government, this highland city was beginning of what is today Malaysia. ens. The caves are in need of protection known as the Paris of the East. Its colo­ Buildings 500 years old are threatened from vandals and natural elements. nial and Art Nouveau buildings are in by misguided conservation projects. need of preservation and conservation. Angono Rockshelter Petroglyphs Papan Rizal Province, S. Luzon. Ancient rock Medan Inner City Perak. One of the country's first tin set­ art on the walls of the rockshelter is Medan, Sumatra. Former Dutch plant­ tlements, the town itself is threatened by endangered by vandals and natural dete­ ers' villas in Rococo, Art Deco and Art demolition for conversion into a tin rioration. The site needs protection and Nouveau architectural styles need pres­ mine. access roads. ervation and conservation. Georgetown Alab Petroglyphs Penang. The area is the historic heart of Barrio Alab in Bontoc, Mt Prov, the island the British East India Com­ N. Luzon. Some 200 drawings incised pany acquired from a local sultan in on boulders with a small metallic tool 1786. Intensive modern developments are in danger of deterioration from threaten the colonial-era buildings. vandals and exposure to the elements.

Historic Center, Kuala Terengganu Tau't Batu Petroglyphs Terengganu. A trading center since the Ransang Valley, Quezon, Palawan, 12th century, the city today is moderniz­ S. Luzon. The Tau't Batu people left ing with wealth gained from oil reve­ these anthropomorphic drawings in nues. Historic areas are under threat of charcoal on cave walls and ceilings. redevelopment. Ifugao Rice Terraces Kuching Old Town Kota Bahru Banaue and Mayoyao, Ifugao Prov, Kuching, Sarawak. Kuching 'was the Kelantan. The city is a center of Malay N. Luzon. Referred to as the eighth first major settlement of Sarawak and the culture, crafts and religion, and capital of wonder of the world, these terraces seat of the dynasty of white rajahs estab­ a state that was one of the last to come shaped by hand and primitive tools have lished by British adventurer James under British rule. Many historic build­ 20,000 kilometers of boundary walls Brooke in the 19th century. Many his­ ings are in need of attention, but funds and a perfectly functioning irrigation toric buildings along the waterfront are are lacking for this purpose. system. They are in need of reinforce­ in danger of inappropriate development. ment and protection. Penang Hill Kuala Lumpur Old Historic Center Penang. Rising 830 meters above Geor­ Octagonal House Kuala Lumpur. Intensive modern devel­ getown, Penang Hill is a former British Kalinga, N. Luzon. It is the only remain­ opment of the nation's capital threatens hill station that has been well conserved. ing house of its kind made by the Kal­ the historic center, which contains the It is now earmarked for massive devel­ inga tribe, who, prior to a peace pact, city's original settlements. opment. were known for their headhunting prac­ tices.

49 Torogan House Kamphaeng Phet Marawi City, Lanao. The only remaining This city was originally known as Cha- one of its kind, the house is an outstand­ kangrao, and its large numbers of ruins ing example of Maranao architecture. indicate it was important during the The Maranao resisted all colonization Sukhothai period. On the World Heri­ attempts and developed their culture and tage List, it needs a master plan. religion, Islam, without interference. Torogan House needs immediate resto­ Phuket ration. The largest island in the country and once an important port on an India- Lepa-Lepa Boats SINGAPORE China trade route, Phuket also attracted Tawi'Tawi, Sulu Archipelago, Mindanao. Europeans to its tin industry. Sino-Por- The last four remaining boats of this Eu Court tuguese buildings give Phuket its archi­ kind among the Samal/Badjao peoples, Stamford Road. This pre-war curved tectural character. Today a major tourist fisherfolk and traders of these southern corner building recently underwent a resort, the island needs a master plan for islands. The boats are in need of immedi­ US $600,000 restoration but faces demo­ development. ate restoration. lition due to planned road widening. Lopburi Moro Vinta Boat Labrador Park Important during the Dvaravati period Sulu Archipelago, Mindanao. The only Pasir Panjang Road. This park, which (6th-llth centuries), Lopburi is an remaining boat of its kind, it faces deteri­ played a role in the defense of Singapore ancient city with important structures oration from the elements. during the Japanese invasion in World that span a millennium of building activ­ War II, faces redevelopment. ity. It needs a master plan. Bohol Churches Bohol. The churches in Bohol are among Sri Satchanalai City the oldest in the nation. In the town Founded in the 13th century on an irreg­ of Loboc is the Church of San Pedro, ular rectangular plan, this city was the with a remarkable painted ceiling. The biggest center of the ceramic industry in churches face neglect and damage from Southeast Asia for centuries. It was listed earthquakes and typhoons. as a World Heritage Site in 1991.

Miagao Church Phu Phra Baht Miagao, Iloilo. The carved pediment of This prehistoric rockshelter has geomet­ this Philippine Baroque church-fortress ric designs and human figures depicted depicts the conversion of Filipinos to on its ceiling. There is also evidence of Christianity. Stone degradation threat­ THAILAND later Buddhist influence during the ens its integrity. Dvaravati period. The shelter needs Chiang Mai environmental preservation. San Joaquin Church Founded at the end of the 13th century, San Joaquin, Iloilo. The coral stone of Chiang Mai was a square-shaped walled this church is facing decay and enduring city that served as the capital of the earthquake damage. Its carved pediment Lanna kingdom. Many important tem­ depicts the battle of Tetuan during the ples attract pilgrims from the world over. Crusades. The city lacks a multidisciplinary master plan to guide its overall development. Dumangas Church Dumangas, Iloilo. Earthquake and fire Ayutthaya damage threaten this structure of brick Founded in the 14th century, Ayutthaya and coral stone built in Byzantine and was the capital of Siam for more than Gothic Revival styles. 400 years. It was destroyed by the Bur­ mese in 1767. The island city was placed San Sebastian Church on the World Heritage List in 1991, yet a Quiapo, Manila. The building has one of plan is still needed to ensure its care. the only all-steel basilicas in the Far East in Gothic Revival style. The wall cavity is rusting.

50 Preservation Organizations Related to the Conservation of Cultural Heritage in the ASEAN Member States

"It is better to preserve than repair, better to repair than to restore, better to restore than reconstruct."

A. N. Didron, Bulletin archéologique, vol. 1, 1839

The following public and private organi­ A teaching and research program Association of Southeast Asian zations are either directly involved in the focused on Islamic art, architecture and Nations (ASEAN) preservation of cultural heritage sites in urban design. Publishes scholarly studies Committee for Culture and Information the ASEAN countries or have programs and maintains an extensive library. P.O. Box 2072 and activities that may be supportive of 70-A, Jalan Sisingamanguraja such efforts. Jakarta, Indonesia Asia Society Telephone: (62-21) 716451 725 Park Avenue Facsimile: (62-21) 739 8234 New York, NY. 10021 INTERNATIONAL United States of America The committee responsible for all Telephone: (1-212) 288 6400 cultural heritage activities within the Aga Khan Award for Architecture Facsimile: (1-212) 517 8315 ASEAN organization. 32, chemin des Crets-de-Pregny 1218 Grand-Saconnex An organization dedicated to increasing Geneva, Switzerland American understanding of the culture, The J. Paul Getty Trust Telephone: (41-22) 798 90 70 history and contemporary affairs of 401 Wilshire Boulevard, Suite 900 Facsimile: (41-22) 798 93 91 Asia. It sponsors exhibitions, perfor­ Santa Monica, Calif. 90401-1455 mances, seminars and conferences, and United States of America An international foundation to enhance publishes materials for the media, stu­ Telephone: (1-310) 395 0388 the understanding of Islamic culture dents and teachers. Facsimile: (1-310) 451 8750 through architecture. Its programs include international seminars and an A private foundation that supports some awards program for the restoration of Asian Cultural Council preservation activities through several historic Islamic architecture. Room 3450 operating programs and a grant pro­ 1290 Avenue of the Americas gram. Publishes The J. Paul Getty Trust New York, NY. 10104 Bulletin and Getty Conservation Insti­ Aga Khan Program for Islamic United States of America tute Newsletter, which are available at no Architecture Telephone: (1-212) 373 4300 cost upon request. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Facsimile: (1-212) 315 0996 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Room 10-390 Cambridge, Mass. 02139 An organization that supports cultural United States of America exchange in the arts between the United Telephone: (1-617) 253 1400 States and Asia primarily through a pro­ Facsimile: (1-617) 258 8172 gram of fellowship grants awarded to scholars and artists from Asia to study and conduct research in the United States.

51 International Centre for the Study of International Union of Architects United Nations Educational Scientific the Preservation and the Restoration 51, rueRaynouard and Cultural Organization of Cultural Property (ICCROM) 75016 Paris, France (UNESCO) 13 Via di San Michele Telephone: (33-14) 524 3688 Physical Heritage Division 00153 Rome, Italy 1, place de Fontenoy Telephone: (39-06) 587 901 The only international, non-governmen­ 75700 Paris, France Facsimile: (39-06) 588 4265 tal organization uniting the profession of Telephone: (33-14) 568 4440 architecture through a system of Facsimile: (33-14) 273 0401 An international, inter-governmental national and international committees. organization providing training in the Publishes a member newsletter, main­ Prepares international Conventions and conservation of cultural property and tains a documentation center and Recommendations concerning cultural support for technical missions. Publishes convenes national, regional and interna­ heritage for adoption by the UNESCO an annual member report, maintains a tional meetings. General Assembly and use by member documentation center and convenes a bi­ states. Issues publications concerning the annual members meeting. conservation of cultural heritage. Orga­ Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) nizes and conducts international cam­ Development Committee paigns to protect internationally International Council on Monuments Asia Division Office significant sites. Sponsors conservation and Sites (ICOMOS) 138 Cecil Street training courses. Hotel Saint-Aignan 14-02 Cecil Court 75, rue du Temple Singapore 0106, Republic of Singapore 75003 Paris, France Telephone: (65) 223 7854 United Nations Development Telephone: (33-14) 277 3576 Facsimile: (65) 225 6842 Programme Facsimile: (33-14) 277 5742 One U.N. Plaza An international private organization of New York, NY. 10017 The only international, non-governmen­ tourism-related organizations and indi­ United States of America tal organization uniting the field of pro­ viduals with interests in the Pacific and Telephone: (1-212) 906 5000 fessionals in monuments and sites con­ Asia. Sponsors programs related to the Facsimile: (1-212) 906 5825 servation through a system of national improvement and recognition of public committees and international special and private efforts to conserve cultural An international agency of the United ized committees. Publishes a member heritage sites as tourism destinations. Nations that supports some economic newsletter, maintains a documentation development projects in developing center and convenes national, regional countries, resulting in the enhancement and international meetings. Advises the Southeast Asian Ministers of and protection of cultural heritage sites. World Heritage Committee on nomina­ Education Organization (SEAMEO) tions to the World Heritage List. Project in Archeology and Fine Arts (SPAFA) World Bank 5th Floor, Darakarn Building Southeast Asian Section and International Council of Museums 920 Sukhumvit Road Environmental Division (ICOM) Bangkok 10110, Thailand 1818 H Street, NW Maison de l'UNESCO Telephone: (66-2) 381 1310 Washington, D.C. 20433 1, rue Miollis Facsimile: (66-2) 381 2546 United States of America 75732 Paris Cedex 15, France Telephone: (1-202) 473 3411 Telephone: (33-14) 734 0500 A non-governmental organization that Facsimile: (1-202) 477 0568 Facsimile: (33-14) 306 7862 operates cultural and educational activi­ ties and programs in the ASEAN An international financial organization The only international, non-governmen­ countries. that supports some economic develop­ tal organization uniting the field of ment projects in developing countries, museum professionals through a system resulting in the enhancement and protec­ of national and international specialized tion of cultural heritage sites. committees. Publishes a member news­ letter, maintains a documentation center and convenes national, regional and international meetings.

52 PRESERVATION ORGANIZATIONS

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM INDONESIA

World Heritage Committee Ministry of Culture, Youth Ministry of Education and Culture Centre for World Heritage and Sport Directorate General of Culture UNESCO Museum Committee Directorate of Protection and 1, rue Miollis Jalan Residency Development of Historical and 75015 Paris, France Bandar Seri Begawan 1200 Archeological Heritage Telephone: (33-14) 568 1000 Brunei Darussalam 4 Jalan Cilacap Facsimile: (33-14) 567 1690 Telephone: (673-02) 240585 P.O. Box 2533 Facsimile: (673-02) 241620 Jakarta 10001, Indonesia The international body, established by Telephone: (62-21) 384 8272 the Convention Concerning the Protec­ Facsimile: (62-21) 310 7734 tion of the World Cultural and Natural Brunei Museum Department Heritage, that inscribes properties on the Jalan Kota Batu The national governmental agency World Heritage List, designates listed Bandar Seri Begawan 2018 responsible for the inventory, evaluation, properties as endangered, and adminis­ Brunei Darussalum registration, protection and development ters the World Heritage Fund. Telephone: (673-02) 244545 of the nation's conservation areas, mon­ Facsimile: (673-02) 242727 uments and sites.

World Monuments Fund The national governmental agency 174 East 80th Street responsible for the conservation of Yayasan Pelestari Budaya Bangsa New York, N.Y. 10021 architectural monuments. Indonesian National Heritage Trust United States of America Jalan Prof. Moh Yamin SH No. 46 Telephone: (1-212) 517 9367 Jakarta 10310, Indonesia Facsimile: (1-212) 628 3146 Jabatan Muzlum-Muzlum Brunei Telephone: (62-21) 332 203 Kementerian Kebudayaan Belia Facsimile: (62-21) 513 041 The only private, non-profit organiza­ dan Sukan tion that sponsors worldwide preserva­ Jalan Kota Batu A private national organization having tion activities. Its goal is to bring Bandar Seri Begawan 2018 as its principal purpose to increase pub­ together public and private support to Negara, Brunei Darussalam lic awareness of historic sites as national assure the survival of the world's most Telephone: (673-02) 222952 assets and recognize their role in pre­ outstanding artistic and architectural serving the nation's historic and cultural treasures. The country's national museum, which heritage. sponsors research, collecting, exhibitions and interpretation of Brunei's cultural heritage.

53 PRESERVATION ORGANIZATIONS

MALAYSIA

Ministry of Culture, Arts and Tourism Telephone: (6-03) 293 9860 resources, buildings, traditional art- Museums Department Facsimile: (6-03) 292 8782 forms, folk literary materials, antiques, Jalan Damansara paintings and/or other objects that, 50566 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia A private society that supports the because of their historical association, Telephone: (6-03) 238 0255 efforts of the Badan Warisan Malaysia by architectural features, aesthetic values or Facsimile: (6-03) 230 6294 promoting public awareness of buildings other qualities, form part of the heritage of architectural and historic interest. It of Penang. The national governmental agency does this by organizing talks and visits. responsible for the inventory, evaluation, registration, protection and development of the nation's historic monuments and Majlis Warisan Malaysia sites. Heritage Council of Malaysia First Floor, P.A.M. Building Jalan Tangsi, P.O. Box 11432 Badan Warisan Malaysia 50746 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Heritage of Malaysia Trust Telephone: (6-03) 293 9860 First Floor, P.A.M. Building Facsimile: (6-03) 292 8782 Jalan Tangsi, P.O. Box 11432 50746 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia The Joint Council of the Badan Warisan Telephone: (6-03) 293 9860 Malaysia and Sahabat Warisan Malaysia. Facsimile: (6-03) 292 8782 Formed in 1992, the Council coordinates all the activities of the Badan Warisan A private national organization having as Malaysia and the Sahabat Warisan its principal purpose to promote perma­ Malaysia. nent preservation for the benefit and education of the peoples of Malaysia, of all buildings that, because of their his­ Persatuan Warisan Pulau Pinang toric association or architectural features Penang Heritage Trust or for other reasons, are considered to c/o Muzium Negeri Pulau Pinang form part of the nation's heritage. Lebuh Farquhar 10200 Pulua Pinang, Malaysia Telephone: (6-04) 366 357 Sahabat Warisan Malaysia Facsimile: (6-04) 362 641 Friends of the Heritage of Malaysia Trust A private society formed in 1986 to pro­ First Floor, P.A.M. Building mote conservation and preservation for Jalan Tangsi, P.O. Box 11432 the benefit of the people of Penang. It is 50746 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia concerned with all of the natural

54 PRESERVATION ORGANIZATIONS

(•^^^••••••^•••^ THE PHILIPPINES SINGAPORE THAILAND

National Historical Institute Singapore Heritage Society Ministry of Education Second Floor, National Library Building c/o William Lim Associates Fine Arts Department T.M. Kalaw Street, Ermita 19 Tanglin Road 06-06 Division of Archeology and Division Manila, The Philippines Singapore 1024, Republic of Singapore of Architecture Telephone: (63-2) 590646 / 509952 Telephone: (65) 235 3113 81/1 Sri Ayutthaya Road Facsimile: (65) 733 3366 Bangkok 10300, Thailand The national governmental agency Telephone: (66-2) 282 3767, 224 2050 responsible for the inventory, evaluation, A private national organization having Facsimile: (66-2) 222 0934 registration, protection and development as its purpose to increase public aware­ of historic monuments and sites. ness and understanding of Singapore's The national governmental agency cultural heritage. responsible for the conservation of cultural properties. National Museum P. Burgos Street, Ermita Urban Redevelopment Authority Manila, The Philippines U.R.A. Building Society for the Conservation of Telephone: (63-2) 481427 45 Maxwell Road National Treasure and Environment Facsimile: (63-2) 461969 Singapore 0106, Republic of Singapore c/o Thailand Development Research Telephone: (65) 221 6666 Institute The national governmental agency Facsimile: (65) 224 8752 163 501 Asoke, Rajapark Building responsible for the inventory, evaluation, Sukhumuit 21 registration, protection and development The national governmental agency Bangkok 10110, Thailand of the nation's cultural heritage, includ­ responsible for the preservation of desig­ Telephone: (66-2) 258 9012 ing archaeological sites and ethnic settle­ nated landmarks and conservation areas. Facsimile: (66-2) 258 8010 ments. These responsibilities are conducted through the Preservation of Monuments A private organization concerned with Board and the Conservation Authority. the preservation of the nation's cultural National Commission on Culture heritage. and Arts Casa Blanca, Plaza San Luis Complex Intramuros The Siam Society Manila, The Philippines 131 501 Asoke Telephone: (63-2) 405761 to 65 Sukhumuit 21 Bangkok 10110, Thailand The umbrella organization for govern­ Telephone: (66-2) 258 3491 mental and non-governmental institu­ tions involved in the cultural and artistic development and conservation pursuant to the new constitutional mandate.

55 Legislative Overview

"The basicpurp ose of preservation is not to arrest time b ut to mediate sensitively with the forces of change. It is to understand the present as a pro duct of the past and a modifier of the future."

John W. Lawrence, 1970

The wealth of cultural heritage in the B.E. xx (1972), prohibiting the search for are parties to the Convention on the ASEAN region reflects the rich and archaeological and historical objects in Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the ancient cultures of its peoples; but this areas designated by the Minister of Edu­ Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of very wealth needs protection from the cation; Act on the Control of Auction Ownership of Cultural Property (1970),2 perils caused by nature and man, includ­ Sales and the Sale of Antiquities B.E. which has 72 states party to it. Only ing the pressures of tourism, economic 2474 (1931). Indonesia and Malaysia are parties to the development and insensitive planning. Convention for the Protection of Cul­ One avenue for extending protection to The most recent of all this legislation, tural Property in the Event of Armed a nation's cultural heritage is through the however, is already more than 15 years Conflict (1954).3 These conventions do law. All the ASEAN countries have laws old, and some of it is even older. In provide a framework for the participa­ that address the issue of protecting recent decades, nations around the world tion and international cooperation nec­ cultural heritage: have gained much experience in protect­ essary for the protection of cultural ing their cultural heritage, and have heritage. Further guidance is also avail­ evolved legislative approaches that are able in other documents, such as the ten Brunei Darussalam increasingly effective. The following UNESCO Recommendations, the ICO- Antiquities and Treasure Trove Enact­ information provides an overview of MOS Venice Charter, and national adap­ ment (1967) these developments for consideration in tations like the Burra Charter produced the ASEAN context. The work of in Australia and the Jakarta Declaration Indonesia amending and updating cultural heritage on the Architectural Heritage. Ordinance on the Protection of Monu­ legislation must go hand in hand with ments (1931) planning for future economic growth. Treatment of the Law as a Whole Malaysia Law has an educative function. It Antiquities Act (1976) encourages commitment to social goals When amending legislation, all areas by offering a clear statement of those of the cultural heritage and the linkages The Philippines goals and standards. Law also provides between them must be considered so Cultural Properties Preservation and a framework for administration: citizens that the legislative structure is compre­ Protection Act (1966; amended by Presi­ can know what is required of them, and hensive and logical. Cultural heritage has dential Decree No. 374, 10 January 1974) public servants can know their duty. many aspects: monuments, sites and cityscapes as well as art, music and tradi­ Singapore The ASEAN nations do not fully parti­ tions. These aspects interact and inter­ Preservation of Monuments Act (1970) cipate in the international agreements twine. What happens to a mural when designed to protect cultural heritage. the owner of a building wants to alter Thailand Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and the building's function? If a religious Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Thailand are states parties to the Con­ building is declared a monument, does Objects of Art and National Museums vention concerning the Protection of the this affect its religious function? These B.E. 2504 (1961); National Executive World Cultural and Natural Heritage.1 are questions that the law must be capa­ Council Announcement No. 189, 23 July None of the ASEAN nations, however, ble of answering.

56 Laws seeking to protect the cultural her­ stone, keramat, cave or other structure, Structures and Sites itage need to be as clear as possible in erection or excavation, and any tomb, their statement of rights and obligations. tumulus or other place of internment or Early legislation was primarily prohibi­ Not only must a nation's citizens be any other immovable property of a like tive. It contained only prohibitions made aware of these laws, but visitors nature or any part or remains of the against the doing of certain acts in re­ too must be well informed. It is advis­ same, the preservation of which is a mat­ spect to structures and sites. (The term able to translate cultural heritage legisla­ ter of public interest, by reason of the "monument" will be used in the follow­ tion into foreign languages and provide religious, historic, traditional or archaeo­ ing paragraphs to generally cover struc­ a copy of the laws' requirements with logical interest attaching thereto, and tures and sites.) Penalties for the breach visa applications. Notices can also be includes the site of any monument of prohibitions were stipulated. This posted in airports and hotels. Prohibi­ and such portion of land adjoining such was a negative approach. Now a positive tions and restrictions must be brought site as may be required for fencing or approach is more common - one that home to the tourists so that no argument covering in or otherwise preserving any helps to manage and preserve a monu­ can later be made that the tourist was monument and the means of access ment for the future. not aware of the law. With a relatively thereto." small expenditure of effort at educating Experience in other countries has shown the public and the tourists, nations can The problem with the categorization sys­ that designation of an individual monu­ gain a significant measure of protection tem is that in any dispute it is the court ment for protection is not always for themselves. that decides whether an item is or is not enough. The monument's historical within the protection of the legislation. value may reside not in its individuality Consequently, the definition of what is to but in its being a part of a group of struc­ Identifying Sites and Objects for be protected must be considered not only tures that together form an example Protection from the point of view of the citizen and of an architectural style, or demonstrate public servant but also of the judge who the development of a city, or stand wit­ There are three commonly used means may be required to rule on what it means. ness to a particular historical event. of formulating legislative definitions of An American case illustrates the diffi­ Partial recognition of this appears in the the cultural heritage: enumeration, cate­ culty. In United States v. Diaz* the Filipino Decree No. 374: "A historical gorization, classification. The enumera­ phrase "object of antiquity" in the Antiq­ site is any place, province, city, town, tion system specifically mentions each uities Act of 1906 was held by the court and/or any location and structure which item that is designated for protection; not to include masks made by an Indian has played a significant and important the categorization system provides a medicine man about four years before role in the history of our country and general description to establish what is they were taken by the defendant. This nation. Such significance and importance protected; and the classification system was despite evidence given by an anthro­ may be cultural, political, sociological or requires that objects be individually con­ pologist that an object of antiquity could historical." sidered for protection by a designated include something that was made just person. Each of these systems has its yesterday, if it related to religious or A further feature of modern legislation advantages and disadvantages. For exam­ social traditions of long standing. is the provision of a buffer zone around ple, the classification system generally a monument. Surroundings can consid­ ensures a high level of protection for Assistance can be provided by registers erably affect the physical and aesthetic listed objects, but it often provides little and inventories such as those already value of a monument. To a limited extent or no protection for unlisted objects. It provided for in much of the ASEAN leg­ this form of protection already exists in is, of course, possible to use a combina­ islation. These are particularly useful some ASEAN legislation. For example, tion of these systems. when recording the built environment - the Malaysian Antiquities Act (1976) buildings, monuments, sites. When deal­ prohibits certain activities "in the imme­ The ASEAN countries generally use the ing with the movable heritage, the prob­ diate neighborhood of an ancient monu­ categorization system. Thus, the term lem lies in establishing the register or ment or a historical site" without the "ancient monument" under the Thai Act inventory. The sheer volume of material permission of the Director-General of 5 is defined as "an immovable property to be entered means that considerable Museums. Yet such a provision has only which, by its age or architectural charac­ resources of both money and manpower limited efficacy because monuments can teristics or historical evidence, is useful will be needed. A standard format for be threatened from afar. For example, in the field of art, history or archaeol­ entries must be agreed upon so that an pollution caused by heavy industry can ogy-" object can be described in sufficient detail travel over quite a distance. to distinguish it from others of a similar The Antiquities and Treasure Trove Act type- The protection of cultural heritage needs (1967) of Brunei defines "monument" as: to be integrated into the whole planning "any temple, mosque, church, building, process. Driven by rising populations monument, port, earthwork, standing and the demand for higher standards

57 of living, construction projects, both Buildings themselves can be dismem­ ables, however, the courts of Switzerland large and small, are threatening monu­ bered and disposed of piecemeal or re- would have jurisdiction and would ments worldwide. European ministers erected in another country. The law apply Swiss law under which the pur­ responsible for cultural heritage gave must be examined to understand pre­ chaser would have acquired good title. recognition to this problem in a 1992 cisely what is meant when a monument The decision of the Cour de Cassation revision to the European Convention on is said to be protected. What aspects of it thus ensured that the frescoes would the Protection of the Archaeological can be removed and what aspects can­ remain separated from the structure for Heritage. It drew on such principles as not? What about the furnishings of a which they had been created. "the creation of administrative struc­ dwelling, the machinery of a factory or tures capable of handling development the equipment of a mine? These all con­ Export regulations are found in all the projects involving archaeological data; tribute greatly to an understanding of ASEAN states with the exception of the adoption of legal and administrative the monument itself. Their value to the Singapore. Such regulations are contro­ measures necessary for archaeological cultural heritage as a coherent unit is versial. Some would like to see them data to be taken into account as a matter greater than the sum of the individual disappear. Others argue that they are of course in the town and country plan­ items that compose it. essential for keeping within a country ning process." a representative sample of that country's The answer to this question is signifi­ cultural heritage. Global trade in antiq­ UNESCO recommendations have cant for a number of reasons. First, uities has risen dramatically in recent stressed the necessity for close consulta­ the overwhelming need is to keep the years, the supply originating particularly tion between all parties. Of most direct monument intact. Those in charge of a from clandestine excavations of sites relevance is the Recommendation con­ monument must be able to know what in heritage-rich developing countries. cerning the Preservation of Cultural can and cannot be done to it. Second, These nations do not have the resources Property Endangered by Public or Pri­ damage to a monument may attract a to provide full protection. Export con­ vate Works. This recommendation sets different kind of penalty than damage to trols provide both a psychological and out procedures to ensure that consulta­ a feature of that monument after legal deterrent to the unauthorized trade tion between those responsible for removal. This raises a third issue: What in antiquities. Their existence must be construction and those responsible for happens to a part of a monument once it publicized particularly to tourists, but the cultural heritage begin at the com­ is removed? Is it still legally part of the also to dealers and collectors. mencement of project planning. monument, or does its characterization Regional recognition of this necessity change? This issue can bear directly on Art-importing countries such as the appears in the Jakarta Declaration on the question of ownership, particularly if United States, the United Kingdom, the Architectural Heritage, a document the object has been taken out of the Japan and Germany will not necessarily that emerged from a 1991 dialogue country. enforce the export controls of other among organizations of the ASEAN nations. It is not an offense to import countries. It states: "...the Dialogue also The matter has come before European items into these countries merely expressed its deep concern on the fact courts several times in the past few years. because they have been exported con­ that in these ASEAN countries, build­ The most notorious case involved fres­ trary to another state's export laws. ings and environments of historic coes that had been removed from an Bilateral treaties with the major art- interest and architectural merit are dis­ abandoned chapel in southern France importing states would help to ensure appearing through indiscriminate urban (without the consent of two of the four protection.9 development, neglect, public ignorance owners) and eventually sold to the City and decay. The special character of Museum of Geneva in Switzerland. The The UNESCO Convention on the Means towns and villages is being eroded and issue arose as to whether the frescoes of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit unnecessarily destroyed by inappropri­ were movables or immovables. The Import, Export and Transfer of Owner­ ate construction and development French court of first instance held that ship of Cultural Property (1970) is the activities." they were immovable by nature - a clas­ primary international document in exist­ sification under the French Civil Code. ence which provides a framework for The Court of Appeal of Montpellier controlling the international trade in 7 Movable Cultural Heritage held they were immovable by intention, antiquities. As of January 1, 1992, 72 another classification. The Cour de Cas­ nations were party to it. The only major 8 The concept of a movable cultural heri­ sation held that they were movable. The art-importing country to ratify the tage was once a rather simple matter. issue was crucial to the case. If the fres­ convention is the United States, which Yet today, something long considered coes were immovables, then the French has become a state party in a limited immovable may indeed be movable. courts would have jurisdiction. They form. None of the ASEAN states were A fresco is an integral part of the wall would apply French law under which party to it. Their participation would on which it is painted, yet it can now the original owners would maintain their greatly enhance the standing of the con­ be removed and displayed elsewhere. ownership. If the frescoes were mov­ vention and would increase the pressure

58 on other art-importing states to join the including tourists, to know with consid­ is to provide a legislative framework and effort. The European Parliament has erable precision what is protected, and administrative structure. It can also pro­ suggested that the European Commu­ allows sellers and buyers a means to vide the impetus and the encouragement nity become party to the convention legally engage in trade. The Control List for citizens to appreciate and participate along with its member states.10 is useful for countries that do not have in the preservation of their heritage. The a complete inventory of their movable citizen has to observe the law, not as a The ASEAN states also have a role to heritage. matter of compulsion, but as a recogni­ play in relation to a new project being tion of its role in establishing agreed promoted by the International Institute The Australian act also stipulates that standards of conduct. The citizen can for the Unification of Private Law if an object is unlawfully exported, also act to ensure that others observe the (UNIDROIT). UNIDROIT is drafting title automatically goes to the state. The law. Finally, the foreigner must respect a Convention on Stolen or Illegally moment of export is defined in the act. the cultural heritage of other countries Exported Cultural Property which This allows the Australian government and assist in its preservation by comply­ will be complementary to the 1970 to seek recovery of objects in foreign ing with local law and conforming to UNESCO Convention. None of the countries as owner. It is a provision that good practice. ASEAN states are members of might be considered for ASEAN legisla­ UNIDROIT, but Indonesia, the Philip­ tion. pines and Thailand have attended the Patrick J. O'Keefe drafting sessions as observers. When a Associate Professor draft is finalized, UNIDROIT plans to Conservation Issues of Law hold a diplomatic conference to consider University of Sydney it. At this stage the ASEAN nations Under this heading, it is necessary to could play a significant role. consider responsibility for the cultural heritage. Is the owner responsible? The 1 (1972) 11 International Legal Materials 1358. 2 Current export controls in the ASEAN state? If the state is responsible, what 823 U.N.T.S. 231 3 countries are similar to those promul­ right does it have to take unilateral 249 U.N.T.S. 240 4 499 F.2d 113 (1974) gated in many other countries between action to conserve the cultural heritage? Section 16 1950 and 1975. Objects having a certain If it does take action and expends European Treaty Series No. 66 character - archaeological, historical, money and time on the conservation of Ville de Geneve et Fondation Abegg v. Consorts aesthetic, scientific - are forbidden ex­ an object or monument it does not own, Margad D. 1988.208, note Maury port without a permit. In 1975 the Cana­ should it then have any rights over that Fondation Abegg v. Ville de Geneve D.1988.325, note Maury dian government introduced a new object or monument? These questions See further O'Keefe, P.J. & Prott, L.V. Law and approach to export controls by estab­ involve difficult political and philosoph­ tbe Cultural Heritage: Volume III: Movement lishing a Control List, and subsequently ical issues, but they must be answered if (Butterworths, London, 1990) 668-72 this idea was adopted by Australia in the cultural heritage is going to survive. Resolution on the Movement of Objects of its Protection of Movable Cultural Heri­ Cultural Interest in the Context of the Single Market, 13 December 1990 tage Act (1986). Provisions on conservation can be found in ASEAN legislation. For example, the

Section 7 of the Australian act defines Indonesian Ordinance of 1931 obliges Suggested Reading List the movable cultural heritage as objects the owner or administrator of a monu­ that are of importance to Australia for ment to maintain it in good condition. Bourke, M. Lewis, M. & Saini, B. (eds.) Protecting ethnological, historical, literary, artistic, If the owner fails to discharge this duty, the Past for the Future (Proceedings of the UNESCO Regional Conference on Historic Places, Sydney, scientific or technological reasons. The the state can order the repairs and, if the 22-28 May 1983), (Australian Government Publish­ Control List sets out in more detail what owner does not comply, the state can ing Service, Canberra, 1983) is meant by each of these terms. Objects itself make the repairs at the owner's or are divided into two classes: Objects in administrator's expense. Provisions of O'Keefe, P.J. & Prott, L.V. Law and the Cultural Class A cannot be exported at all; those this type establish a basic framework for Heritage: Volume I: Discovery and Excavation in Class B can be exported subject to conservation; the crucial issue is whether (Butterworths, London, 1984) permit. Thirteen categories of objects they are applied effectively in practice. O'Keefe, P.J. & Prott, L.V. Law and the Cultural were established under general descrip­ Heritage: Volume III: Movement (Butterworths, tive headings: for example, natural sci­ London, 1989) ence objects, objects of decorative art, Conclusion numismatic objects, philatelic objects, Prott, L.V. & Specht, J. (eds.) Protection or Plunder: Safeguarding the Future of Our Cultural Heritage archaeological objects and military Three groups play a direct role in the (Papers of the UNESCO Regional Seminar on the objects. Each category was further preservation of cultural heritage: govern­ Movable Cultural Property Convention, Brisbane, refined using limits such as age, value ment, citizens and foreigners, particu­ 1986), (Australian Government Publishing Service, and rarity. This system allows the public, larly tourists. The role of government Canberra, 1989)

59 Major Sites and Attractions

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM INDONESIA

The following list of major sites and 1 Kampong Ayer 1 Borobodur attractions is representative of places vis­ The world's largest collection of water A colossal man-made cosmic mountain, ited by local and international travelers. villages and home to 30,000 people, its the 9th-century monument is the largest It is not meant to be all-inclusive. houses are built on stilts and connected Buddhist stupa in the world, erected by wooden walkways. over the course of a hundred years.

2 Kota Batu 2 Glodok This ancient city was capital of Brunei Jakarta's Chinatown is now a banking, from the 14th to 17th century. trade and entertainment center.

fP Lapau or Royal Ceremonial Hall 3 Great Mosque of Demak This is the hall where the coronation of The oldest mosque on Java, the wooden the present sultan was held and the loca­ Mesjid Agung was built in the 15th cen­ tion of his gold throne. tury in the city that was the capital of Java's first Islamic kingdom. 4 Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque Completed in 1958, this modern mosque 4 Gresik with gold mosaic and marble finishes is This old seaport is where Muslim traders the symbol of the nation's official religion. from India landed and eventually set up Indonesia's first Islamic outpost. 5 State Secretarial Building Ancient graves are among the oldest Built in the 1920s, this colonial adminis­ on Java. tration building's exterior has been pre­ served in its original state. 5 Kota This small northern area of Jakarta 6 Terindak Island where the Dutch first settled is also A man-made island more than 250 meters known as Old Batavia. A number of square that might have been used as a museums - the Jakarta City Museum, lookout post. Museum Bahari and Wayang Museum - are in this historic district. 7 Tomb of Sultan Bolkiah Brunei's fifth sultan, who extended 6 Merdeka Square Brunei's rule over all of Borneo and One of the largest city squares in the into the Philippines, is buried here. world, it contains the national monu­ ment, presidential palace, national 8 Tomb of Sultan Sharif Ali mosque and national museum. Once Brunei's third sultan, who built Brunei's a vast field, it was a military parade first mosque, is buried here. ground in Dutch times.

60 MAJOR SITES AND ATTRACTIONS

MALAYSIA

7 Prambanan 12 Trowulan 1 Kampung Bahru The most extensive Hindu temple ruins This small agricultural community was This neighborhood of Kuala Lumpur in all of Indonesia lie among villages on once the capital of the Majapahit was one of the first settled in the city. A the Prambanan Plain. The temple com­ Empire that held sway over the archipel­ thriving Sunday market keeps the tradi­ plexes were built between the 8th and ago in the 14th century. Remains of its tions of the community alive. 10th centuries by Hindu-Javanese kings. high brick walls, pools, palaces, plazas and temples lie scattered across 15 2 Kota Bahru 8 Pura Penataran Agung Besakih square kilometers. A center of Malay craft, culture and reli­ The biggest temple or "pura" of more gion, the heart of this east coast city is than 20,000 in Bali, it was built in the 13 Yogyakarta the Istana Balai Besar, a huge timber 15th century. One of the largest villages in the world audience hall used on ceremonial occa­ and Java's cultural capital, it is still gov­ sions. 9 Solo erned by an ancient line of sultans. Also known as Surakarta, it is Java's old­ Taman Sari, an 18th-century water pal­ 3 Kuala Lumpur est cultural center. Sister city to Yogya, it ace, and the kraton, the palace com­ Within this bustling modern capital city is less commercialized, and its two kra- pound of the sultans, are major are streets like Jalan Ampang, whose ton, or palace compounds, are even attractions. buildings were erected by tin magnates. larger and more venerable. Today, embassies and consulates occupy these fine constructions. 10 Sunda Kelapa The warehouses in this 500-year-old 4 Kuching harbor area of Jakarta were recently The capital of Sarawak and the city rebuilt to accommodate shops and res­ where James Brooke, the White Rajah, taurants. The harbor is still busy with chose to settle. This is an historic city sailboats that ply age-old water routes to filled with many buildings, temples and neighboring islands. churches of interest.

11 Tanatoraja 5 Melaka The people of this mountain-bounded Under its sultans, the city was a wealthy plateau on Sulawesi are renowned for center of trade, and its fortunes fluctu­ their remarkable dwellings. Built on ated under Portuguese, Dutch and Brit­ poles and with roofs shaped like ships, ish hegemony. These varied influences the richly ornamented houses all face are reflected in the town's architecture. north.

61 MAJOR SITES AND ATTRACTIONS

THE PHILIPPINES

6 Penang 1 Angono Petroglyphs 8 llocos Churches The island has a rich history and its reli­ The walls of this rockshelter are The Baroque churches of brick and rub­ gious character is diverse. In George­ engraved with ancient petroglyphs. ble were constructed in typical church- town are colonial-era buildings, an convent style. authentic Chinatown, mosques, temples 2 Balanghai Sites and impressive kongsi, or Chinese clan Remains of earliest Filipino watercraft 9 Kabayan Mummy Caves houses. were recovered here. These burial caves contain mummies between 400 and 600 years old, main­ 7 Taiping 3 Bohol Churches tained in situ. This historic tin mining center has a These Baroque churches with painted number of well preserved Anglo Malay ceilings are made of coral stone, and are 1° Malacañang Palace buildings and an old market. among the oldest in the country. The seat of the government for more than a century, the palace was built in 4 Corregidor Island Neo-Classical style with a romantic riv­ Now being developed as a memorial and erside loggia. resort island, it is renowned for its American defense installations from 11 Miagao Church World War II. Built of yellow ochre limestone, its pow­ erful facade depicts the conversion of 5 Fort Pilar Filipinos to Christianity. A branch of the National Museum now occupies this Spanish period fort and 12 Musang and Callao Caves landmark. The Paleolithic habitation sites of the oldest human beings in the Philippines 6 General Emilio Aguinaldo are here. National Shrine Birthplace of the first president of the 13 Negros Churches Philippine Republic, it is the house Three community chapels of extraordi­ where independence was first declared. nary quality and individuality are in Negros Occidental Province: Chapel of ' Ifugao Rice Terraces the Cart Wheels, Town of Manapla; The stone-walled terraces with complex Church of St. Joseph the Worker, Town irrigation systems stretch all over the of Victorias; Virgen sang Barangay mountain provinces of Ifugao, Benguet, Chapel, Bacolod City. Bontoc and Kalinga-Apayao.

62 MAJOR SITES AND ATTRACTIONS

SINGAPORE THAILAND

14 Rizal-Laguna Churches 1 Arab Street W Ayutthaya Baroque-style churches made of adobe The Muslim center of the island is along An island city founded in 1350, it was stones are remarkable for both their Fili­ this street and adjoining roads. The Sul­ the capital of the Thai kingdom for more pino and Chinese craftsmanship. tan Mosque, the istana or palace of the than 400 years. Sultan Iskander Shah, and the Kampong 15 SilayCity Glam area, historic seat of Malay roy­ 2 Chiang Mai A charming old city with elegant period alty, are found in this community. In the north of Thailand, it was founded architecture in timber, it was once the as capital of the Lanna Kingdom in 1296. intellectual and cultural hub of the prov­ 2 Chinatown ince and known as the Paris of Negros. Once destined to be torn down, the tra­ 3 Kamphaeng Phet ditional homes and storefronts have An important city during the Sukhothai 16 Taal, Town of been under restoration in this refuge of period, today it is on the World Heritage The home town of prominent Filipinos, old ways of life. List. it features Victorian and Neo-Classical architecture in ancestral houses and 3 Colonial Singapore £ Khao Kien churches. In the heart of the city are the imposing Prehistoric rock art at this site depicts colonial buildings of the British era, marine life. 17 Tabon Caves Complex including the old Town Hall, the Parlia­ In these caves were discovered the fossil­ ment building, the Empress Place build­ 5 Lopburi ized remains of Tabon Man. ing and others. This ancient city dates from the Dvara- vati period (6th-l 1th century). 18 Torogan House 4 Little India This timber house of the Muslim royalty Along Serangoon Road is the Indian ^ Muang Singh has intricate carvings. neighborhood of Singapore, where A 12th-century temple-city or Pura, this numerous interesting temples arise amid city was built under Mahayana Buddhist 19 Vigan, Town of the markets and shops. Sri Mariamman, influence. This vintage Spanish town with more the island's oldest Hindu temple, how­ than 150 typically robust, plastered brick ever, is in the heart of Chinatown. 7 Phae Taem houses maintains its historic character. Prehistoric rock paintings are at this 5 Raffles Hotel ancient site. Perhaps the best-known hotel in the region, the Raffles is infused with an old 0 Phanom Rung Oriental charm out of the pages of a Here a major Hindu shrine was built Maugham novel. It recently underwent a atop an extinct volcano. massive renovation and still serves its world-renowned Singapore Sling, invented there in 1915.

63 MAJOR SITES AND ATTRACTIONS

9 Phimai 17 The Grand Palace, Bangkok Photographs A Buddhist temple from 1000 A.D., it is It was built simultaneously with the city Thailand's biggest ancient sandstone of Bangkok by King Rama I. Cover: Steve Satushek, Image Bank. Page 8: Hans Hoefer, Woodfin Camp. monument. Page 10: 2. Hans Hoefer, Woodfin Camp; 18 The Temple of Dawn, Bangkok 3, 6. Thomas Hoepker, Magnum; 4, 5. P.]. Griffiths, 10 Phra Nakhon Khiri This religious complex served as the Magnum. King Rama IV built this suburban palace royal temple during King Taksin's reign Page 12:1. Hans Hoefer, Woodfin Camp; complex. (1809-24) when Thonburi was the capi­ 4. Michael Yamashita, Woodfin Camp. Page 14: Bruno Barbey, Magnum. tal of Thailand. Page 16:1. Gilbert Garcia, Image Bank; 2, 3. Lindsey 11 Phra Pathom Chedi Hebberd, Woodfin Camp; 4, 6. Helen I. Jessup; It is the largest Buddhist stupa in Thai­ 19 Wat Po, Bangkok y Nick Pavloff Image Bank; 7. Guido Alberto Rossi, land. The Temple of the Reclining Buddha Image Bank. was built in the 16th century and is the Page 18:1, 2. Guido Alberto Rossi, Image Bank; 12 PhuPhraBaht oldest and largest Buddhist temple com­ 3, 4. Andrea Pistolesi, Image Bank; y Abbas, Magnum; 6. Paul Elson, Image Bank; 7. Lisl Dennis, On the ceiling of this prehistoric rock plex in Bangkok. Image Bank; 8. Allan Seiden, Image Bank. shelter are painted geometric designs and Page 20: Guido Alberto Rossi, Image Bank. human figures. 20 Wat Yai Suwannaram Page 22:1. Abbas, Magnum; 2. Guido Alberto Rossi, This important Buddhist temple com­ Image Bank; 3. Michael Salas, Image Bank. 13 Phuket plex dates from the Ayutthaya period. Page 24:1. Guido Alberto Rossi, Image Bank; 2. Steve Satushek, Image Bank; 3. Wanda Warming, The largest island in the country and Image Bank; 4. Michael Salas, Image Bank; y P&G once an important port rich in tin, it has Bowater, Image Bank; 6. Jon Davison, Image Bank. many Sino-Portuguese buildings from Page 28: 5. P.J. Griffiths, Magnum. the turn of the century. Page 30:1, 3, 4, y Kevin Hamdorf; 2. Steve McCurry, Magnum. 14 Sri Satchanalai Page 32: Wendy Chan, Image Bank. Page 34: 3. Guido Alberto Rossi, Image Bank; During the 13th-16th centuries, it was 6. P&G Bowater, Image Bank; 7. Tim Bieber, Image the biggest center of the ceramic indus­ Bank; 8. Anne Rippy, Image Bank. try in Southeast Asia. Page 36:1, 2. Cyril Isy-Schwart, Image Bank; 3. Lisl Dennis, Image Bank; 4. John Lewis, Image 15 Sukhothai Bank; y John Banagan, Image Bank; 6. P&G Bowa­ ter, Image Bank. Site of the first Thai kingdom, today it is Page 38: Burt Glinn, Magnum. a World Heritage Site. Page 40: 5. P.J. Griffith, Magnum; 6. Marc Riboud, Magnum. 16 The Temple of the Emerald Page 46: Michael Yamashita, Woodfiin Camp. Buddha, Bangkok Page 47: NASA, Woodfin Camp. The temple is home to a small, dark Page 48: 1, 2. Bettmann Archive. Page 49: 1, 2. Bettmann Archive. statue of green jade that sits atop a huge Page y0:1, 2. Bettmann Archive. gold altar. Back Cover: P.J. Griffiths, Magnum.

M I A I \\ • X Hong Kong \ 1 I T \ A \1

BURMA

THE PHILIPPINES

PACIFIC OCEAN Trails to Tropical Treasures Trails to Tropical Treasures A Tour of ASEAN's Cultural Heritage A Tour of ASEAN ys Cultural Heritage

CREDITS

This publication was produced as a joint project of the World Monuments Fund and the U.S. Committee of the Interna­ tional Council on Monuments and Sites. The World Monuments Fund was repre­ sented by Bonnie Burnham, Executive Director, and John H. Stubbs, Director of Programs. US/ICOMOS was repre­ sented by Terry B. Morton, President, and Russell V. Keune, Vice President for Programs. Authors from each of the ASEAN nations provided the basic text for each of the country essays, which are signed. Credits for the various introduc­ tions and occasional technical contribu­ tions are also given. Editorial super­ vision of the overall project was pro­ vided by David Sassoon, New York, New York. The design and the supervi­ sion of printing production were pro­ vided by Frank Benedict Design, Livingston, New York: Frank Benedict, Julie Hurst, Maria Clark. Printed at C & C Joint Printing Company, LTD., Tai Po, Hong Kong.

Cover: Via Danu Hindu Temple, Lake Bratan, Bali, Indonesia.

Back Cover: Ifugao rice terraces, Banawe, The Philippines.