Sino-US English Teaching, January 2016, Vol. 13, No. 1, 40-58 doi:10.17265/1539-8072/2016.01.007 D DAVID PUBLISHING

The Effect of a Proposed Training Program Based on the Reflective Model on the Teachers’ Reading Practices in Mafraq

Fawwaz Al-Abed Al-Haq Asma Ahmed Alimoush Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan Tabuk University, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia

This study aimed at investigating the effect of a proposed EFL (English as a Foreign Language) training program on the teachers’ reading practices in Mafraq. This program was developed by the researcher according to the ninth-grade EFL teachers’ needs. The participants of the study were 20 ninth-grade females EFL teachers who represented the experimental and control groups (10 teachers in each group). They were randomly chosen from 10 schools in the Northwestern Badia Directorate of Education. To achieve the purposes of the study, the researcher designed a needs analysis questionnaire, a training program, a pre and post observation checklist, and a pre and post received knowledge test for teachers. Proper statistical analysis was used to analyze the results of the research questions. The results of the study showed that teachers were in need to be trained on 20 reading comprehension practices to be able to teach reading comprehension effectively. Besides, there were statistically significant differences at the level of (α = 0.05) between the means scores of the ninth-grade teachers’ performance of the control and experimental groups on the post observation checklist and on the post received knowledge test in favor of the experimental group due to the training program.

Keywords: teacher training programs, reflective model, reading comprehension practices, English reading skills, reading comprehension strategies, received and experiential knowledge

Introduction Recently, the reading skill is viewed as a means of communication that prepares individuals to live in this global world. Most scholars would agree that reading is one of the most important skills for educational and professional success (Alderson, 1984). McShane (2005) described reading as the most important skill. She clarified that reading provides access to other skills and knowledge, facilitates life-long learning, and opens gates to opportunity. Furthermore, Kim and Krashen (1997) confirmed that those who read more have larger vocabularies, do better on test of grammar, and write better. Chastian (1988) claimed that all reading activities serve to facilitate communication fluency in each of the other language skills. Having in mind the importance of reading comprehension, a good question might be raised in this regard: what kind of instruction best promotes the development of students’ comprehension skills? Armbuster and Osborn (2003) stated that teaching reading is not a simple matter. They clarified that there is no rapid solution to improve the development of reading skills. Yet, they explained that present knowledge base helps us to recognize what skills that children must learn in order to read well. In this context, Block and Israel (2005)

Fawwaz Al-Abed Al-Haq, professor, Ph.D., English Department, Yarmouk University. Asma Ahmed Alimoush, assistant professor, Ph.D., Department of Language and Translation, Tabuk University.

THE EFFECT OF A PROPOSED TRAINING PROGRAM 41 maintained that teachers can help improve students’ comprehension through instructional reading strategies that include modeling, thinking aloud, inferring, summarizing, making connections, questioning, predicting, etc. Many researchers have made the link between high-quality teaching and student learning (American Education Research Association, 2005; Darling-Hammond, 2000; Guskey, 2000; Joyce & Showers, 1988; Naik, 2004; Sanders & Rivers, 1996; Sparks & Loucks-Horsley, 1989; Taylor, Pearson, Peterson, & Rodriguez, 2005). Naik (2004) asserted that the teacher is the key practitioner in the field of education. Darling-Hammond (2000) who examined the ways in which teacher qualifications and other school inputs are related to student achievement concluded that the quality of teachers affects students’ achievement. Further, Harries and Sass (2008) who investigated the relationship between teacher quality and students’ achievement concluded that more experienced teachers appear more effective in teaching elementary reading. Rockoff (2003) studied the effect of teacher quality and figured out that teaching experience and raising teacher quality is a key tool in improving student achievement. In conclusion, teacher quality is curial in improving student learning. In this context, a good question might be raised: How can teacher quality be developed so that it improves students learning?. In fact teacher educators provided good answers for this question. For example, Craft (1996) urged teachers to face the demands for high standards and calls for improving quality by modernizing and improving their skills through in-service training. She cited that teacher professional development and in-service training are sometimes used interchangeably to cover a broad range of activities that are designed to improve teachers’ practices. Moreover, she listed a number of reasons that lied behind professional development, such as improving the job performance skills, enhancing the professional knowledge, enriching the teachers’ experience, promoting job satisfaction, and preparing teachers to change. Moreover, in highlighting the importance of professional development, Brown (2001) suggested that teachers need to address some major professional goals that provide continuing career growth for many years; these goals might be acquiring knowledge of the theoretical foundations of language learning and teaching, being aware of alternative teaching techniques and analytical skills, and being flexible and open to change. Being a lifelong learner is an idea that is also highly appreciated by Sharma (1997) who stated that the ideal teacher is a lifelong learner (p. 55). He added that “A teacher can never truly teach unless he is learning himself. A lamp can never light another lamp unless it continues to burn its flame” (p. 55). According to Hole and McEntee (1999), for teachers to be lifelong learners, they should begin by reflecting upon the delivery of individual lessons, identifying those things that work well and those that could be improved. They added that teachers who practice reflective thinking about their practice are better equipped to be life-long learners; they are also in a more favorable position to initiate changes in their existing practices. With reference to reflection, Lester (1998) believed that improving instruction begins with the process of reflection. Richards (1990) pointed out that a reflective approach should engage teachers in developing their personal theories of teaching; they should examine their own decision-making processes and teaching practices, and develop critical thinking skills that lead to change and development. Teachers should be active in the teaching learning process and should always try their best for continuous self-development. Richards added that this model is effective if teachers are given the opportunity to acquire both the relevant theoretical background of the profession and the ability to reflect on their teaching practices, which completes the connection between theory and practice. A key component of teacher professional development is the training programs. Naik (2004) believed that any training program must have well-planned aims, content, methodology, and assessment. He clarified that the

42 THE EFFECT OF A PROPOSED TRAINING PROGRAM essential aim of any training program is to develop teachers’ professional knowledge. The content should cover both theoretical and methodological aspects. Concerning methodology, Murdoch (1990) pointed out that a successful training program should utilize an interactional methodology that activates the trainees’ roles and participation. Concerning assessment, Wallace (1991) indicated that assessment can play a positive role in a teacher training program. For example, it develops the trainees’ skills of analysis and reflection. Training programs have always held an important place in teacher professional development. A well-planned training program should develop survival skills, improve the basic skills of teaching, enhance instructional expertise, expand teachers’ instructional flexibility, promote the professional growth, and provide teachers with opportunities to practice leadership and participate in decision-making (Leithwood, 1996). In the Jordanian context, many attempts were initiated by the Ministry of Education in Jordan to improve teachers’ instructional practices through in-service training programs. A number of Jordanian studies were conducted to investigate the effectiveness of these training programs. Unfortunately, the results revealed some drawbacks of these in-service training programs (Al-Shdaifat, 1993; Bani Abdel-Rahman, 1990; Ibrahim, 1975; Nahar, 1992).

Problem and Significance of the Study Research indicates that students are not likely to use reading skills and strategies as they read, without being aware of their value, and other students do not realize that reading requires active thinking as they read (Hedgcock & Ferris, 2009). There is a consensus among theorists, educationalists, and practitioners that teachers’ quality has a significant impact on students’ learning. Actually, throughout the researcher’s field work as a teacher, and a supervisor at the Northwestern Badia Directorate of Education, she noticed that most of the English language teachers need to be trained in using the effective methods for teaching reading comprehension more properly. It seems that using a limited number of the comprehension strategies and traditional techniques in teaching reading for EFL students has not improved their reading comprehension skills. Therefore, the researcher developed an EFL training program to enhance and improve the EFL teachers’ reading practices.

Purpose and Questions of the Study This study aimed at investigating the direct effect of the EFL training program on the EFL teachers’ reading practices. This study attempted to answer the following questions: What are the teachers’ perceptions of their reading comprehension practices? Are there any significant differences between the means scores of the ninth-grade teachers’ performance of the control and experimental groups on the pre and post observation checklist due to the training program? Are there any significant differences between the means scores of the ninth-grade teachers’ performance of the control and experimental groups on the pre and post received knowledge test due to the training program?

Operational Definitions of Terms The following terms will have the associated meanings whenever they appear in this study: The conventional reading comprehension teaching procedures: They are the procedures that are included in the Action Pack Teacher’s book to help teachers carry out reading comprehension lessons. These procedures recommend teachers to brainstorm students and answer the student’s book pre-reading questions before reading, then answer the student’s book while-reading questions.

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Reading comprehension: It is constructing meaning from written language through an interactive process in which the reader interacts and involves with the text using his capacities, abilities, knowledge, and experiences. Reading comprehension skills: They are the abilities for deducing the meaning and use of unfamiliar lexical items through understanding word formation, understanding relations within the sentence especially elements of sentence structure, skimming to obtain the main idea of the text, understanding relations between parts of a text through cohesion devices, understanding relations between parts of a text through grammatical devices, summarizing information into a semantic map, understanding information when explicitly stated (extract specific explicit information), understanding information when not explicitly stated (making inferences), comparing ideas, and thinking critically. Teachers’ reading practices: They are the teachers’ performances regarding teaching reading comprehension. They also refer to the techniques that are used by the teachers to teach reading comprehension including using previewing strategy, predicting strategy, skimming strategy, examining cohesive ties strategy, examining syntactic information, question-answering strategy, and semantic mapping strategy to teach reading comprehension, formulating lesson plans that implement the strategies mentioned above, and using systematic observation strategy to gather information about the students’ strategies implementation. Training program: It is a purposeful plan that aimed at enhancing and improving the EFL teachers’ reading practices, and the students’ reading comprehension skills. The program has two foundations: the training foundation that is based on the reflective model for teacher education, and the instructional foundation that is based on the cognitive and metacognitive strategies of reading. Thus, it focused on previewing strategy, predicting strategy, skimming strategy, examining cohesive ties strategy, examining syntactic information strategy, question-answering strategy, and semantic mapping strategy. Reflective model: It is a reflective training model for teacher education. It aims to develop the professional competence through engaging the trainees in continuing process of reflection on the received knowledge and experiential knowledge. Schema theory: It is an interactive theory of reading which places great importance on the role of the knowledge the reader brings to bear on the text in the reading process. Metacognition theory: It is an interactive theory of reading which places great importance on the role of the deliberate behaviors done by the reader to adjust and control cognitive processing. Comprehension strategies: They are deliberate and conscious plans for gathering, evaluating, and using text information to construct meaning. Previewing strategy: It is a pre-reading strategy that involves reading over key parts of a text, such as the title, subheadings, bold and italicized words, figures, and tables. Predicting strategy: It is a pre-reading strategy that involves telling or stating what will happen in the future on the basis of special knowledge. Predicting involves making conclusions through a process of logical thinking. Skimming strategy: It is a pre-reading strategy used to get the main idea of a text and to familiarize the readers with the text before reading it in depth. Examining cohesive ties strategy: It is a while-reading cognitive strategy which aims at looking closely at text cohesion through examining cohesive devices (e.g., pronouns reference, synonyms, conjunction, and so forth).

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Examining syntactic information strategy: It is a while-reading cognitive strategy which aims at looking closely at syntax structures of a text (e.g., sentence components, relative clauses, noun phrases, tenses, passive voice, adverbials, and so forth). Question-answering examining: It is a while-reading cognitive strategy that helps readers make meaning of the text through looking for answers of given questions. Semantic mapping strategy: It is a post-reading strategy that gives the reader a visual representation for expository and narratives texts.

Limitations of the Study The following points can be considered as limitations to the generalization of the findings of the present study: (1) The present study is limited to the in-service EFL female teachers who teach the ninth-grade at the Northwestern Badia Directorate of Education during the academic year 2011–2012. So, the findings of the study are generalizable only to similar educational contexts in Jordan; (2) The present study relied on training EFL teachers to improve limited number of reading practices that are delineated by the needs analysis questionnaire; (3) The present study aimed to improve limited number of reading comprehension skills.

Methods and Procedures This section presents the methodology which the researcher followed in this study. It includes the design of the study, participants of the study, instruments, validity and reliability of the instruments, the training program (objectives and description), the data collection procedures, and the statistical analysis.

Design of the Study A quasi-experimental design was used in order to conduct this study. Quantitative data were collected through a needs analysis questionnaire, pre and post observation checklist, and teachers’ pre and post received knowledge test. The questions of the study were analyzed using means, standard deviations, estimated marginal, MANCOVA, and ANCOVA.

Participants of the Study The teachers of this study were 20 female teachers, who randomly chosen from the population consisted of 32 female teachers who teach the ninth-grade in the Northwestern Badia Directorate of Education depending on the Northwestern Badia Directorate of Education statistics during the academic year 2011–2012. The researcher first distributed needs analysis questionnaire to this sample to, and then assigned this sample randomly into two groups: the first group consisted of ten females teachers who were involved in the current training program comprising the experimental group, the second group consisted of ten female teachers who were not involved in the current training program comprising the control group. Those 20 teachers who represented the first sample in this study were teaching in ten schools.

Instruments of the Study: Their Validity and Reliability The researcher has developed the following instruments in order to achieve the purposes of the present study:

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The Needs Analysis Questionnaire After reviewing the relevant existing literature (e.g., Tawalbeh, 2005; Hijazi, 2010), the researcher compiled a list of potential reading comprehension practices to be included when designing a training program for the participants. The researcher developed a needs analysis questionnaire to determine which reading comprehension practices teachers found necessary to be able to teach reading comprehension more effectively. The needs analysis questionnaire included three parts: (1) reading comprehension preparation and planning; (2) methods and principles of teaching reading comprehension; and (3) reading comprehension assessment. Under reading comprehension preparation and planning, there were five items assessing the teachers’ ability to formulate specific outcomes, define the proper instructional procedures that match learning outcomes and adequate assessment techniques and tools. Methods and principles of teaching reading comprehension included 21 items assessing the teachers’ levels of performance in the procedures they followed when teaching reading comprehension. Finally, reading comprehension assessment included five items assessing the teachers’ capacity to assess their students through adopting a variety of assessment techniques. The scoring system followed in the needs analysis questionnaire included five scales showing the degree of teachers’ performance on the domains under investigation. These included 5 = excellent, 4 = very good, 3 = good, 2 = adequate, 1 = inadequate. Validity of the needs analysis questionnaire. For the purpose of validating the needs analysis questionnaire, a jury of three EFL university professors, a measurement and evaluation university professor, and seven EFL supervisors were kindly requested to judge and determine whether the items were enough, appropriate, and comprehensive. Reliability of the needs analysis questionnaire. The reliability of the needs analysis questionnaire was measured by administering it to a pilot sample consisting of seven teachers who were chosen from outside the participants of the study. Pearson correlation was computed of the tool as a whole, using Test-Retest strategy, and it was 0.83. The internal consistency coefficient was also computed using Chronbach Alfa formula and it was 0.87. These percentages are acceptable for the purpose of this study. The Observation Checklist The researcher developed a pre and post observation checklist to observe the teachers’ classroom practices as determined by the content of the training program which the teachers participated in. The observation checklist included eight main domains: (1) planning reading comprehension lessons; (2) using previewing strategy; (3) using predicting strategy; (4) using skimming strategy; (5) using question-answering strategy; (6) using examining cohesive ties and examining syntactic information strategies; (7) using semantic mapping strategy, and (8) using systematic observation. The scoring system followed in the observation checklist included five scales showing the degree of teachers’ performance on the domains under investigation. These include 5 = excellent, 4 = very good, 3 = good, 2 = adequate, and 1 = inadequate. Validity of the observation checklist. For the purpose of validating the observation checklist, a jury of three EFL university professors, a measurement and evaluation university professor, and seven EFL supervisors were kindly asked to judge whether the items were enough, appropriate and comprehensive. Reliability of the observation checklist. The reliability of the observation checklist was tested by administering it by three raters (the researcher, and two other colleagues) to a pilot sample that consisted of four teachers who were chosen from outside the participants of the study. Consistency between the researcher,

46 THE EFFECT OF A PROPOSED TRAINING PROGRAM and the two raters was computed using Copper formula: Consistency coefficient = Total items agreed upon/overall items X100. The total coefficient of agreement between the researcher and the raters was high since it ranged between 0.95 and 0.98 which is acceptable for the purpose of this study. The Teachers’ Received Knowledge Test The researcher constructed a teachers’ pre and post received knowledge test to measure the effect of the current training program on the teachers’ reading comprehension knowledge practices. The test included three parts: part one: multiple choice items; part two: designing activities; and part three: think and write. The test was distributed to 20 female teachers. They were asked to answer the questions on the same paper of the test. The test was marked according to the answer key. The total mark of the test was 100. Validity of the received knowledge test. The validity of the test was proved by a jury of three EFL university professors, a measurement and evaluation university professor, and seven EFL supervisors who were kindly requested to ensure its content validity. They suggested deleting the vague, misleading, and similar items. Reliability of the received knowledge test. The test was administered on a sample of 10 teachers of English who were excluded from the study sample. It was administered after two weeks to the same sample to assess its reliability. The results were calculated and analyzed. The test-retest result was 0.84 and KR-20 was 0.88 which are considered acceptable for the purpose of this study. Kuder Richardson was used since it is an achievement test and it is a special form of the general Cronbach formula. Teacher Training Program The researcher designed a training program to acquaint the teachers with sufficient knowledge that may enable them to teach reading comprehension more effectively. Objectives This training program aimed to: (1) Engaging the trainees into a continuing reflective process to develop the following teachers’ reading practices: using previewing strategy; using predicting strategy; using skimming strategy; using questions-answering strategy; examining text cohesive ties and syntactic information of the text strategies; using semantic mapping strategy; formulating lesson plans that implement the strategies mentioned above; using systematic observation strategy to gather evaluate the students’ strategies implementation; (2) Familiarizing the trainees with the importance of using the strategies mentioned above while teaching reading comprehension; (3) Acquainting the trainees with the definition of the target strategies, specific outcomes, and systematic observation; (4) Acquainting the trainees with procedures used for providing explicit strategy instruction for students; (5) Familiarizing the trainees with types of activities used for getting students apply the strategies mentioned above; (6) Providing the trainees with procedures used for implementing the target strategies; (7) Acquainting the trainees with procedures used for formulating lesson plans that implement the target strategies;

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(8) Acquainting the trainees with a ready-made checklist used for systematically observing and evaluating their implementation of the target strategies while teaching reading comprehension texts; (9) Acquainting the trainees with a ready-made checklist used for systematically observing the students’ strategies (that are mentioned above) implementation.

Variables of the Study The variables of the study were the following: (1) the independent variable: the current training program and (2) the dependent variables: reading practices of the English female teachers.

Data Collection Procedures To carry out this study, the researcher followed following steps: (1) Permission was taken from Northwestern Badia Directorate of Education to conduct the study; (2) Choosing the samples of the study from the Northwestern Badia Directorate of Education; (3) Distributing the needs analysis questionnaire to the first sample of teachers to assess their own level of reading comprehension practices; (4) Designing the current training program in light of the analysis of the needs analysis questionnaire and establishing its validity; (5) Meeting the teachers included in the experiment and trained them to trained them on the program; (6) Giving the pre-post achievement test at the onset and the outset of the experiment; (7) Using the pre-post observation checklist at the onset and the outset of the experiment.

Statistical Analysis To answer the research questions, a proper statistical analysis was used. To answer the first question, the percentages for each category in the Likert scale, means, and standard deviations of the teachers’ perception of their present level of reading comprehension practices were calculated. To answer the second question, first, means, standard deviations, and estimated marginal means of the teachers’ reading comprehension practices of the control and experimental groups as observed by the researcher prior and after the application of the training program were calculated. Second, MANCOVA was conducted on the domains of the pre and post observation checklist. Finally, ANOVA was conducted on the total of the pre and post observation checklist. To answer the third question, first, means, standard deviations, and estimated marginal means of the total score of the pre and post achievement test were calculated, and then ANCOVA was conducted.

Results of the Study This section presents the results of the study concerning the teachers’ perceptions of their reading comprehension practices, and the effect of a proposed EFL training program on the teachers’ reading practices. Results of the First Question In attempting to answer the first question, “What are the teachers’ perceptions of their reading comprehension practices?”, the percentages for each category in the Likert scale, means, and standard deviations of the teachers’ perception of their present level of reading comprehension practices were calculated. Table 1 presents the results.

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Table 1 Means and Standard Deviations of the Teachers’ Perception of Their Present Level of Reading Comprehension Practices Present level of practice Reading comprehension practices Mean Std. Deviation Reading comprehension preparation and planning 1 Formulating specific and measurable outcomes. 2.30 1.031 2 Determining proper instructional strategies to be applied during teaching. 2.10 1.294 3 Determining the assessment strategies and tools to be used during teaching. 3.65 1.387 4 Planning and designs activities to be used during teaching. 2.20 1.399 Dividing the instructional procedures (what the teacher and students do to carry out 5 2.15 1.137 the lesson plan) into pre, while, and post-reading. Methods and principles of teaching reading comprehension Using previewing strategy (e.g., introducing the topic of the text, presenting the 6 2.45 1.050 title, introducing pictures, name the main characters). 7 Introducing the key words. 4.45 .999 Relating the lesson to students’ experiences and life (activating relevant 8 3.15 .985 background knowledge). 9 Using brainstorming strategy. 4.10 .788 10 Using prediction strategy. 2.25 1.372 11 Using scanning strategy. 4.45 .826 12 Using skimming strategy 2.30 .801 13 Using text-structure strategy (i.e., story , letters, news papers articles ). 2.35 .813 14 Using question-answering strategy. 2.45 .605 15 Examining cohesive ties strategy. 2.35 .587 16 Examining syntactic information strategy. 2.40 .754 17 Using inference strategy. 2.10 .718 18 Using graphic and semantic organizers strategies. 2.35 .813 19 Using monitoring strategies. 2.05 .686 20 Using summarizing strategies. 2.45 .759 21 Taking care of individual differences among students. 2.60 1.095 22 Using the silent reading technique. 3.50 1.395 23 Using recognition-based activities in teaching reading comprehension. 2.30 1.081 24 Encouraging group work activities. 4.20 1.105 25 Providing students with explicit strategies instruction. 2.35 1.309 Providing plenty of opportunities for guided practice to ensure students can use 26 2.15 .988 comprehension strategies independently. Reading comprehension assessment 27 Using pencil and paper assessment strategy. 3.15 1.040 28 Using performance-based assessment strategies. 3.15 .988 29 Using systematic observation strategy. 1.95 .887 30 Using communication strategies. 3.35 1.089 31 Using reflection strategies. 3.25 1.118

It can be concluded from Table 1 that the means of the level of each targeted practice as perceived by the teachers range from 1.95 to 4.45; the highest are introducing the key words, and using scanning strategy, while the lowest is using systematic observation strategy. It also can be concluded from Table 2 which reading comprehension practices teachers need to be trained on. Based on these needed practices, the researcher developed the training program, the pre and post observation checklist, and the teachers’ pre and post achievement test to be used for evaluating the effect of the training program on the teachers’ reading comprehension practices.

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Results of the Second Question To answer the second question, “Are there any statistically significant differences at the level of (α = 0.05) between the means scores of the ninth-grade teachers performance of the control and experimental groups on the pre and post observation checklist due to the training program?”, first, means, standard deviations, and estimated marginal means of the teachers’ reading comprehension practices of the control and experimental groups as observed by the researcher prior to and after the application of the training program were calculated. Second, MANCOVA was conducted on the domains of the observation checklist. Finally, ANCOVA was conducted on the total of the observation checklist. Table 2, Table 3, and Table 4 present the results.

Table 2 Means, Standard Deviations, and Estimated Marginal Means of the Ninth-Grade Teachers Performance of the Control and Experimental Groups on the Pre and Post Observation Checklist Pre Post Estimated Group N Mean Std. Deviation Mean Std. Deviation marginal means Planning reading comprehension Experimental 1.96 .207 4.32 .103 4.37 10 lessons Control 2.20 .133 2.24 .084 2.19 10 Total 2.08 .209 3.28 1.071 3.28 20 Using previewing strategy Experimental 1.69 .074 4.45 .127 4.51 10 Control 1.87 .106 1.88 .103 1.82 10 Total 1.78 .128 3.17 1.323 3.16 20 Using predicting strategy Experimental 1.27 .157 4.29 .165 4.43 10 Control 1.34 .074 1.50 .168 1.35 10 Total 1.31 .125 2.89 1.438 2.89 20 Using skimming strategy Experimental 1.57 .152 4.37 .075 4.48 10 Control 1.93 .183 1.99 .177 1.87 10 Total 1.75 .249 3.18 1.227 3.18 20 Using question-answering Experimental 2.05 .252 4.15 .102 4.14 10 strategy Control 2.27 .102 2.33 .096 2.34 10 Total 2.16 .218 3.24 .937 3.24 20 Examining cohesive ties and Experimental 1.87 .164 4.40 .067 4.46 10 syntactic information strategies Control 2.11 .137 2.03 .067 1.97 10 Total 1.99 .192 3.22 1.218 3.21 20 Using semantic mapping strategy Experimental 1.44 .180 4.36 .204 4.51 10 Control 1.63 .043 1.70 .137 1.55 10 Total 1.54 .161 3.03 1.374 3.03 20 Using systematic observation Experimental 1.60 .516 4.80 .422 4.94 10 Control 1.80 .422 2.00 .667 1.86 10 Total 1.70 .470 3.40 1.536 3.40 20 Total Experimental 1.70 .119 4.34 .075 4.39 10 Control 1.91 .078 1.96 .068 1.91 10 Total 1.80 .148 3.15 1.224 3.15 20

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It can be concluded from Table 2 that the means of the ninth-grade teachers’ performance of the experimental group on the pre observation checklist as estimated by the researcher range from 1.27 to 2.05. The highest is using question-answering strategy, while the lowest is using predicting strategy. It can also be concluded that the means of the ninth-grade teachers’ performance of the experimental group on the post observation checklist as estimated by the researcher range from 4.15 to 4.80. The highest is using systematic observation, whereas the lowest is using question-answering strategy. These results showed that the means the experimental group rose dramatically after the application of the training program. The researcher concluded that this may refer to the training program that has a very big effect on developing the teachers professionally. In contrast, since the control group was not involved in the training program the means performance on the pre and post observation checklist nearly remain the same. The means range from 1.34 to 2.27 prior to the application of the training program. The highest is using question-answering strategy, while the lowest is using predicting strategy. The means range from 1.50 to 2.33 after the application of the training program. The highest is using question-answering strategy, while the lowest is using predicting strategy. To determine the significance of these differences between the means of the experimental and control groups, MANCOVA was conducted on the domains of the observation checklist. Results are presented in Table 3.

Table 3 MANCOVA Results on the Pre and Post Observation Checklist’s Domains of the Experimental and Control Groups Sum of Source Dependent variable df Mean square F Sig. squares Planning 4.097 1 4.097 2399.270 .000 Using previewing strategy 6.212 1 6.212 687.721 .000 Using predicting strategy 8.134 1 8.134 959.774 .000 Group Using skimming strategy 5.818 1 5.818 478.765 .000 Hotelling’s trace = 1086891.515 Using question-answering strategy 2.757 1 2.757 1168.938 .000 Examining cohesive ties and syntactic p = .000 5.307 1 5.307 4478.180 .000 information strategies Using semantic mapping strategy 7.516 1 7.516 442.240 .000 Using systematic observation 8.158 1 8.158 163.387 .000 Error Planning .017 10 .002 Using previewing strategy .090 10 .009 Using predicting strategy .085 10 .008 Using skimming strategy .122 10 .012 Using question-answering strategy .024 10 .002 Examining cohesive ties and syntactic .012 10 .001 information strategies Using semantic mapping strategy .170 10 .017 Using systematic observation .499 10 .050 Corrected total Planning 21.792 19 Using previewing strategy 33.266 19 Using predicting strategy 39.301 19 Using skimming strategy 28.602 19 Using question-answering strategy 16.679 19 Examining cohesive ties and syntactic 28.166 19 information strategies Using semantic mapping strategy 35.879 19 Using systematic observation 44.800 19

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Table 3 shows that there were statistically significant differences at (α = 0.05) between the means of the ninth-grade teachers performance of the control and experimental groups on the domains of the pre and post observation checklist due to training program variable in favor of experimental group. This may refer to the extent of improvement, and the amount of benefit the teachers got through training. Moreover, to determine the significance of the differences between the means of the experimental and control groups, ANCOVA was conducted on total of the pre and post observation checklist. Results are presented in Table 4.

Table 4 ANCOVA Results on Total of the Pre and Post Observation Checklist of the Experimental and Control Groups Source Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig. Pre (obs.) .037 1 .037 11.636 .003 Group 13.405 1 13.405 4212.012 .000 Error .054 17 .003 Corrected total 28.456 19

As can be seen in Table 4, the teachers show a considerable progress in the professional development. There were statistically significance differences at (α = 0.05) between the means of the ninth-grade teachers performance of the control and experimental groups on the total of the pre and post observation checklist due to training program variable in favor of experimental group. This of course proves once again that the training has a very big impact on developing the teachers professionally; they put what they receive into practice.

Results of the Third Question To answer the third question, “Are there any statistically significant differences at the level of (α = 0.05) between the means scores of the ninth-grade teachers performance of the control and experimental groups on the pre and post achievement test due to the training program?”, first, means, standard deviations, and estimated marginal means of the total score of the pre and post achievement test were calculated, then ANCOVA was conducted. Table 5 and Table 6 present the results.

Table 5 Means, Standard Deviations and Estimated Marginal Means of the Total Scores of the Pre and Post Received Knowledge Test of the Control and Experimental Groups Pre Post Estimated marginal Group N Mean Std. DeviationMean Std. Deviation means Experimental 66.80 8.284 75.00 7.601 75.50 10 Achievement test Control 67.80 8.257 66.00 9.068 65.50 10 Total 67.30 8.066 70.50 9.361 70.50 20

Table 5 shows that the mean of the total scores of the post-test of the experimental group raised significantly after the application of the training program. The mean of the total scores rose from 66.80 to 75.00. Whereas the mean of the total scores of the post-test of the control group nearly remained the same, i.e., the mean of the total scores changed from 67.80 to 66.00. Moreover, to determine the significance of these differences between the means of the experimental and control groups, ANCOVA was conducted on total scores of the pre and post achievement test. Results presented in Table 6.

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Table 6 ANCOVA Results on Total Scores of the Pre and Post Received Knowledge Test of the Experimental and Control Groups Source Type III sum of squares df Mean square F Sig. Pre 1232.801 1 1232.801 770.515 .000 Group 498.042 1 498.042 311.282 .000 Error 27.199 17 1.600 Corrected total 1665.000 19

Table 6 shows that there are statistically significant differences at (α = 0.05) between the experimental and control groups in the post achievement test due to training program variable in favor of the experimental group. This may refer to the extent of improvement, and the amount of benefits the teachers got through training.

Discussion, Conclusion, Implications, and Recommendations This section presents discussion, conclusion, implications, and recommendations of the study. Discussions of the Results of the First Question The results of the needs analysis questionnaire, as shown in Table 1, indicated that there were 20 reading comprehension practices teachers need to be trained on. These were using systematic observation strategy, using monitoring strategies, determining proper instructional strategies to be applied during teaching, using inference strategy, dividing the instructional procedures (what the teacher and students do to carry out the lesson plan) into pre, while, and post-reading, providing plenty of opportunities for guided practice to ensure students can use comprehension strategies independently, planning and designs activities to be used during teaching, using prediction strategy, using skimming strategy, formulating specific and measurable outcomes, using recognition-based activities in teaching reading comprehension, using text- structure strategy (i.e., story, letters, news papers articles), providing students with explicit strategies instruction, examining cohesive ties strategy, using graphic and semantic organizers strategies, examining syntactic information strategy, using summarizing strategies, using question-answering strategy, using previewing strategy, and addressing students’ individual differences. This considerable number of reading comprehension practices that teachers need to be trained on may be attributed to the quality of the training programs provided by the Ministry of Education. As the researcher mentioned earlier, many attempts were initiated by the Ministry of Education in Jordan to improve teachers’ instructional practices through in-service training programs. A number of Jordanian studies conducted to investigate the effectiveness of these training programs. Unfortunately, the results revealed some drawbacks of these in-service training programs (Ibrahim, 1975; Bani Abdel-Rahman, 1990; Nahar, 1992; Al-Shdaifat, 1993). They concluded that the Ministry of Education’s training program had many defaults. For example, training programs were not based the needs of in-service EFL teachers, inappropriate time organization in terms of duration and timing; trainers need to be more qualified; training was not held regularly; training centers need some necessary facilities; training programs had a limited impact on practice with little follow-up; and were not modernized in terms of meeting new and challenging needs of modern times such as information technology and critical thinking strategies.

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Discussions of the Results of the Second Question Tables 2, 3, and 4 showed that there were statistically significant differences at (α = 0.05) between the means of the ninth-grade teachers performance of the control and experimental groups on the domains of the pre and post observation checklist due to training program variable in favor of experimental group. This indicates a significant improvement in the teachers’ reading comprehension practices with a total mean of 4.34 as can be seen in Table 3. As indicated in Table 2, before the application of the training program, the means of the ninth-grade teachers’ performance of the control and experimental groups on the domains of the pre observation checklist were low. This can be seen in the eight domains of the observation checklist. For example, the mean of the experimental group in the planning domain was 1.96, and the mean of the control group in the same domain was 2.20. This could be due to the fact that most teachers mainly depended on the general guidelines for carrying out the reading comprehension lessons provided by Action Pack Ninth-Grade Teacher’s Book, i.e., most teachers did not formulate specific and measurable outcomes from their own. Teachers simply copied the specific terminal outcome of a reading comprehension lesson from the teacher’s book into their preparation notebooks. Most of them did not formulate the specific enabling outcomes that led to the achievement of the specific terminal outcome. Besides, most teachers did not determine proper reading comprehension strategies to be applied during teaching reading comprehension. Most of them determined general instructional strategies, such as group-work and direct instruction. It seems that most teachers did not plan and design activities beforehand to be used during teaching properly. The majority of them depended on comprehension questions that were formulated while teaching in most cases. Further, most teachers did not divide the instructional procedures (what the teacher and students do to carry out the lesson plan) into pre, while, and post-reading adequately. For example, some teachers asked questions that required intensive reading (reading between the lines) at the pre-reading stage. Others ignored the post-reading instructional procedures. Moreover, before the application of the training program as indicated in Table 3, the means of the ninth-grade teachers performance of the control and experimental groups on the pre observation checklist were also low in the domains of using previewing strategy, using predicting strategy, using skimming strategy, using question-answering strategy, examining cohesive ties and syntactic information strategies, and using semantic mapping strategy. The majority of teachers did not employ these strategies adequately. For example, most teachers did not provide explicit strategy instruction, i.e., they did not define the strategy, explain when and why to use it, model the strategy for learners by thinking aloud as they read and examined the parts of the text, and asked students to underline parts of text related to the use of the strategy. Further, most teachers did not provide students with opportunities to practice the use of the strategy through presenting activities that encouraged students to practice using the target strategy. The researcher thought the low means of reading comprehension practices of the experimental and control groups before the application of the training program may be attributed again to the quality of the training programs provide by the Ministry of Education (this factor was discussed in details while discussing the results of the first question above). Other factors may be attributed to the possibility that these reading comprehension strategies were more difficult to use than the general instructional strategies. Other obstacles may include

54 THE EFFECT OF A PROPOSED TRAINING PROGRAM difficulty in their implementation, time constraints, and teachers’ lack of expertise in the area of teaching reading comprehension. In contrast, after the application of the training program, the reading comprehension practices of the experimental group changed dramatically as shown in Tables 3, 4, and 5. This may be attributed to their participation in the training program. The training program that is based on the reflective modal which focused on both the received knowledge (theoretical knowledge), and the experiential knowledge (practical knowledge) had provided teachers with an in depth-understanding of these practices and the opportunity to apply that understanding in their daily classroom lessons with their students. It is not surprising that training with reflection and practice over a period of time would lead to such results. In other words, the training program can be considered beneficial because it positively affected teachers’ reading comprehension practices. This result was in line with studies by Boatman (2003), Boone (2009), Conly (2005), Denise (2003), Forte (1999), Hammash (2005), Roy (2000), and Walizer (2004) which support the idea that the training programs are beneficial for teachers. Concerning the effect of the training programs on the experimental group reading comprehension practices, as shown in Table 2, it can be concluded that the means significantly increased in the eight domains of the post observation checklist. For example, the mean of the experimental group in using systematic observation domain was 4.80. This is due to the fact that teachers used the ready-made checklist (that used for systematically observing the students’ strategies implementation) which was provided by the training program. Moreover, as indicated in Table 2, the means of reading comprehension practices of the experimental group were also high in the domains of using previewing strategy, using predicting strategy, using skimming strategy, using question-answering strategy, examining cohesive ties and syntactic information strategies, and using semantic mapping strategy. The majority of teachers employed these strategies effectively. For example, most teachers provided explicit strategy instruction, i.e., they defined the strategy, explained when and why to use it, modeled the strategy for learners by thinking aloud as they read and examined the parts of the text, and asked students to underline parts of text related to the use of the strategy. Further, most teachers provided students with opportunities to practice the use of the strategy through presenting activities that encourage students to practice using the target strategy. Further, as indicated in Table 2, the mean of the experimental group in the planning domain was 4.32. For instance, most teachers formulated specific and measurable outcomes from their own. Most of them formulated the specific enabling outcomes that led to the achievement of the specific terminal outcome. Besides, most teachers determined proper reading comprehension strategies to be applied during teaching, such as predicting, skimming, question-answering strategy, etc. In addition, most teachers planed and designed activities beforehand to be used during teaching properly. The majority of them use work-sheets similar to those presented in the training program. Likewise, most teachers divided the instructional procedures (what the teacher and students do to carry out the lesson plan) into pre, while, and post-reading adequately. It would be possible to close at this point, concluding that involving teachers in training programs that aim to acquaint them with proper knowledge and practice to be able to teach reading comprehension effectively is both feasible and desirable for the EFL language classroom in Jordan. This idea is highly stressed by many educators such as Block and Israel (2005), Bos, Mather, Narr, and Babur (1999), Darling-Hammond (2000), Harries and Sass (2008), Snow (2002), Spear-Swerling and Brucker (2004).

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Discussions of the Results of the Third Question The results, as indicated in Tables 5 and 6, showed that there were statistically significant differences at (α = 0.05) between the experimental and control groups in the post received knowledge test due to training program variable in favor of experimental group. This may refer to the extent of improvement, and the amount of benefit the teachers got through training. The results indicated that the level of teachers’ knowledge has developed since their achievement has been raised in the post test compared to that of the pretest. The teachers’ knowledge has been improved in issues related to the principles and methods of teaching reading comprehension and planning. It seems that the training program used in this study was carefully designed and successfully employed. The current training program is based on the trainees’ needs. The researcher observed the teachers inside classrooms and reviewed the related literature, then developed a need analysis questionnaire that aimed at identifying the training needs of the ninth-grade teachers in Mafraq in the area of teaching reading comprehension. After that, in light of the need analysis questionnaire analysis the objectives were established, and the materials were designed. Most importantly, some specialists in TEFL whose suggestions were taken into account concerning the content and application of the program were consulted. Further, the researcher believed that the methodology used in this training program enabled teachers to gain new knowledge. The methodology used in this training program aimed to reproduce the kind of the engaged learning experience that was expected from the teachers to be able to practice in their own classrooms at the end of the training program. The teachers were engaged actively in a spectrum of training contexts (training methods and ways)—that was based on the reflective model for teacher education—ranging from minimum cost contexts at one end to autonomous professional action at the other. These training contexts were planning and designing activities, microteaching, systematic peer observation, systematic self-observation, collaborative supervision, teaching practice, and autonomous professional action. Thus, after giving teachers sufficient received knowledge (theoretical knowledge), they were invited to improve the experiential knowledge (practical knowledge), i.e., they planned and designed activities, prepared and performed microlessons (microteaching). Besides, systematic peer observation and systematic self-observation were effective ways in which teachers can learn from each other, and reflect on the experiential knowledge. During the implementation of the training program, the teachers were requested to observe each other and themselves using two forms of observation checklists. These two ways were meant to raise the teachers’ awareness of reading comprehension practices introduces in the training program. Collaborative supervision and teaching practice were more training ways used in the training program. Collaborative supervision was used to discuss and follow-up the training program assignments, and attend two classes for each trainee using the observation checklist. Teaching practice referred to a training context which gave the trainees opportunities to develop and improve the target reading comprehension practices in the context of real classrooms. Collaborative supervision and teaching practice were meant to provide teachers with assistance and follow-up support. Conclusion The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of a proposed EFL training program on the teachers’ reading practices. It was found that training programs that are based on teachers’ needs were effective and successful. These needs can be identified by the needs analysis questionnaires. Engaging teachers into a

56 THE EFFECT OF A PROPOSED TRAINING PROGRAM continuing reflective process seems to improve their reading comprehension practices. In addition, training contexts such as planning and designing activities, microteaching, systematic peer observation, systematic self-observation, and collaborative supervision were of significant role in the training program. Pedagogical Recommendations Taking the findings of the present study into consideration, the following recommendations can be stated: (1) Teachers’ needs should be considered when designing training programs to guarantee their effectiveness, success, and continuity. These needs have been identified by a variety of research instruments such as questionnaires, observation, and interviews; (2) English language teachers should improve their received and experiential knowledge of reading comprehension practices. They have to realize the importance of using reading comprehension strategies while teaching reading. This can be accomplished by attending specialized workshops or training programs which may acquaint them with the needed knowledge that enables them to teach reading comprehension effectively; (3) Training programs should include, besides the received knowledge, the experiential knowledge. The importance of the experiential knowledge stems from the fact that it provides teachers with opportunities to engage in intensive activities and practical applications on how to apply effectively the techniques of teaching inside the classroom; (4) A reflective approach should be taken into consideration when designing training programs; (5) Planning and designing activities, microteaching, systematic peer observation, and systematic self-observation—that are effective training contexts that aim to improve both received and experiential knowledge—should be considered when designing training programs; (6) Teachers should be followed-up inside the classrooms while implementing what they were trained on to find solutions and suggestions for the problems they face. This could be achieved through collaborative supervision; (7) Syllabus designers are invited to incorporate different cognitive reading comprehension strategies in curricula and textbooks; (8) Teachers should realize the importance of implementing cognitive reading comprehension strategies when teaching reading comprehension. Recommendations for Further Research Based on the results of the study, the researcher suggested the following recommendations: (1) To gain a deeper understanding of the effect of the training programs on teachers’ classroom practices and on students’ learning, more comprehensive studies must be conducted. A variety of settings from elementary through secondary schools should also be considered; (2) Studies should be conducted to examine the effect of using other reading comprehension strategies; (3) Since research studies examining the link between training programs and students’ achievement in English are rare in Jordan, further research in this area is in great need, particularly in response to the current reform efforts and the constant changing needs of students and teachers.

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