Forestry Department Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers

State of Forest and Tree Genetic Resources in the Republic of Moldova

by Dragos Postolache Botanical Garden (Institute) Academy of Sciences Chisinau, Republic of Moldova

2004

Forest Resources Development Service Working Paper FGR/64E Forest Resources Division FAO, Rome, Italy

Disclaimer

The Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers report on issues and activities related to the conservation, sustainable use and management of forest genetic resources. The purpose of these papers is to provide early information on on-going activities and programmes, and to stimulate discussion.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Quantitative information regarding the status of forest resources has been compiled according to sources, methodologies and protocols identified and selected by the author, for assessing the diversity and status of genetic resources. For standardized methodologies and assessments on forest resources, please refer to FAO, 2003. State of the World’s Forests 2003 ; and to FAO, 2001. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 (FRA2000). FAO Forestry Paper No 140 . Information can also be found at the FAO-Forestry Internet site (http://www.fao.org/forestry/Forestry.asp ).

Comments and feedback are welcome. For further information please contact: Pierre Sigaud, Forestry Officer (Forest Genetic Resources) Forest Resources Division Forestry Department FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Rome, Italy Fax: +39 06 570 55 137 [email protected]

For quotation: Postolache, D. 2004. State of Forest and Tree Genetic Resources in the Republic of Moldova. Forest Genetic Resources Working Paper FGR/64E. Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS RELATED TO FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES ...... 1 1.1. CURRENT STATE OF FOREST RESOURCES ...... 1 1.1.1. Introduction...... 1 1.1.2. Moldovan forests today ...... 1 1.2. UTILIZATION OF TREES ...... 3 1.3. THREAT IDENTIFICATION ...... 4 1.4. LINKS BETWEEN THE FORESTRY SECTOR AND FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES ...... 5 1.5. LINKS WITH OTHER ACTIVITIES ...... 6 1.5.1. Agriculture ...... 6 1.5.2. Energy ...... 7 1.5.3. Forest exploitation and wood industry...... 7 2. PAST AND PRESENT ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELDS OF CONSERVATION, UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES ...... 7 2.1. SUPPLY AND DEMAND OF SEED FOR AGROFORESTRY AND AFFORESTATION ...... 7 2.2. IN SITU CONSERVATION ...... 10 2.3. EX SITU CONSERVATION ...... 15 3. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK...... 17 3.1. INSTITUTIONS : THEIR ROLE , RESPONSIBILITIES AND CAPABILITIES ...... 17 3.2. NATIONAL LEGISLATION , POLICY AND STRATEGY ON FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES ...... 19 3.3. LINKS WITH OTHER INITIATIVES (C ONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND INTERNATIONAL TREATIES ) ...... 25 3.4. BIOSAFETY REGULATIONS ...... 26 3.5. LEGISLATION ON ACCESS , PROPERTY RIGHTS AND BENEFIT-SHARING ...... 26 4. IDENTIFICATION OF NATIONAL PRIORITY SPECIES...... 28 4.1. NATIVE SPECIES ...... 28 4.2. EXOTIC SPECIES ...... 32 5. SUPPORT ACTIVITIES...... 33 5.1. TRAINING AND CAPACITY BUILDING ...... 33 5.2. RESEARCH ...... 34 5.3. NATIONAL FORESTRY POLICY ...... 37 6. PROPOSALS FOR REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION...... 38 LITERATURE AND REFERENCES...... 41 APPENDICES ...... 44 Appendix 1: abbreviations and acronyms ...... 45 Appendix 2: value and use of target and important species...... 46 Appendix 3: location and management of genetic resources, by natural site and species ...... 47 Appendix 4: nature and level of threats to the integrity of species/populations of important tree species...... 48 Appendix 5: list of priority species for conservation, improvement or seed procurement...... 50

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List of tables

Table 1: re-afforested and afforested areas in the Republic of Moldova (1994-2000) ...... 8 Table 2: protected areas in the Republic of Moldova (2000)...... 11 Table 3: permanent forest seed stands...... 12 Table 4: forest genetic reserves...... 12 Table 5: selected forest genetic resources of Moldova (IPGRI-Project) ...... 13 Table 6: forest seed plantations and clone archives ...... 16

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1. SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS RELATED TO FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES

This country report was prepared to assess the conservation, management and use of forest and tree genetic resources. The report is based on the following information:

- Report on the State of the Forestry Sector in the Republic of Moldova for the reference period 1997-2002 (Popu oi A., 2002); - First National Report on Biological Diversity; - National Strategy and Action Plan on Biological Diversity Conservation; - Second National Report on Biodiversity, and - Strategy on Sustainable Development of the Forest Sector.

The results from the "Genetic resources of broadleaved forest tree species in South-eastern Europe Project”, coordinated by IPGRI and funded by the Government of Luxembourg, (Blada et al ., 2002) were also used. Information from monographs, scientific studies and papers submitted to conferences is also included.

1.1. Current state of forest resources

1.1.1. Introduction

Intense and un-managed forest resource exploration can severly impact intraspecific, floristic and ecosystem diversity. The stability, productivity and long term sustainability of forest stands may be reduced if the genetic diversity of forest populations is reduced. This report was compiled with the hope of contributing to the formulation of effective studies on forest genetic resources that would lead to successful national management policies and conservation strategies in the future.

1.1.2. Moldovan forests today

Forests are one of the most valuable renewable natural resources in the Republic of Moldova. According to Article 14 of the Forest Code, all forests have protective functions.

- water protection - land and soil protection; - protection against harmful climatic and industrial factors - recreational functions - scientific interest and gene pool conservation (forest reserves, national parks, etc.).

The area under the National Forest Fund (NFF) is 392 600 ha (11,6 percent of the total country area) including 349 500 ha of forests (10,3 percent of the total country area) (Popu oi, 2002). The State Forest Agency “Moldsilva” (SFA) manages 354 300 ha (90,2 percent of the NFF), including 311 200 ha covered by forests.

State owned forests are subject to forest management plan that include parameters on biodiversity including: typology, species composition, state of the grass layer, regeneration.

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The remaining forest area (38 300 ha, or 9,7 percent) is managed by local authorities, agricultural farms, the Ministry of defense, the Ministry of transportation, and (300 hectares) private property (Popu oi, 2002).

The area covered by forests has greatly increased in the last 50 years due to afforestation with Acacia spp. and resinous species. One-third of the planted area consists of introduced species.

Inadequate forest management in the past has led to a disproportionate distribution of forests by age, quality and origin. Such disproportion produced a decline in forest quality, changes in forest compartments and a decrease of biodiversity in certain areas.

The distribution of forests by age group is unbalanced: 26,3 percent of the total forest area is covered by young plantations, 43,7 percent by medium age plantations, 17,5 percent by nearly harvestable plantations and 12,5 percent by harvestable plantations. Forests over 100 years old occupy only 6 000 ha.

The forests are represented by deciduous (97,8 percent) and coniferous species (2,2 percent). Deciduous forests are dominated by pedunculate oak, Quercus robur , and sessile oak, Quercus petraea, (46 percent) while other indigenous species constitute 12 percent of the forest. Pedunculate oak forest stands include high forests (29 198 ha, 37,3 percent) and coppices (49 040 ha, 62,7 percent) (Postolache, 2003). Quercus petraea forest stands include high forests (7 165 ha, 12,7 percent) and coppices (49 336 ha, 87,3 percent). Oak coppice growth is due to management practices initiated a century ago (3-4 generations) (Postolache, 2003).

The percentage of forested areas varies according to the geographical zone: 7,2 percent of the Northern zone is forested, while 13,5 percent of the Central zone and 6,7 percent of the Southern zone are forested. Moreover, 800 forests (with areas ranging from 5 to 1 500 ha) are unevenly distributed without any interconnecting corridors between them. These corridors are extremely important for the vitality of forests and the protection of biodiversity, soil and water catchment areas.

Natural forests in Moldova consist of broadleaved formations of the Central European type. The main species in the forest are European oak, Quercus robur , sessile oak, Quercus petraea , pubescent oak, Quercus pubescens and beech, Fagus sylvatica . All these species spread according to hypsometrical levels, exposure, slope degree, soil and other conditions (Postolache, 1995). These and other factors have determined the formation of different types of forests and associations.

The Northern Zone is characterized by a wetter climate (550 mm annual rainfall) and damper forest soil. Pedunculate oak, Quercus robur , is the main species in the Northern zone forests. Ninety percent of natural forests in the Northern zone belong to the “forest oak with cherry” (Prunus avium ) type. In most cases, Quercus robur forests originate from coppices. A few areas are constituted by high forests. Besides oak, a high frequency of cherry was detected. The second forest layer is poorly developed and consists of isolated trees ( Pyrus pyraster, Populus tremula, Acer campestre, Malus sylvestris and Acer tataricum ).

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The Central zone is a compact forest massif comparable to the Central European broadleaf forest. The annual rainfall is 550 mm. Soil varies from brown to grey and light grey forests soils on slopes, to dark grey forest soils in depressions. The dominant tree species are Fagus sylvatica, Quercus petraea and Quercus robur. The favourable ecological conditions lead to the formation of highly productive forest stands. Hornbeam, Carpinus betulus, and ash tree, Fraxinus excelsior, are abundant in derivative arboreta. The second forest layer consists of white lime, Tilia tomentosa , ash tree, Fraxinus excelsior , cherry, Cerasus avium , sycamore, Acer pseudoplatanus and Norway maple, Acer platanoides .

The Southern zone is the driest and is characterized by pubescent oak forests, Quercus pubescens , that are found on South and South -Western slopes. The Southern zone, however, is mainly a steppe zone.

Forested areas are disconnected and dispersed throughout the country, a factor that must be taken into account when formulating a biodiversity conservation strategy.

The forest cover is far from being optimal yet. Forest extension potential aimed at the amelioration of ecological conditions is an important component of the national ecological policy.

1.2. Utilization of trees

The total volume of timber from forests is 43 million cubic meters. The total volume of timber per hectare is 124 cubic meters; while the total average growth of trees is 1 153 cubic meters per year. (Popu oi, 2002)

The forest sector contributes approximately 360 000 to 380 000 cubic meters of timber per year to the national economy. (Popu oi, 2002) The harvest potential for the main forest products is 195 000 cubic meters per year, while the harvest potential for secondary products (health and maintenance cuttings) is 180 000 cubic meters per year. Harvest potential for the main products will grow in the next 20 to 40 years. Young trees (under 60 years) will join older age groups and more productive and stable structures will be created due to ecological regeneration and reconstruction of existing forests.

The forest sector generates approximately 34 to 35 million Lei to the national economy, which represent around 0,3 to 0,4 percent of the Gross Domestic Product.

The SFA “Moldsilva” has the potential to process around 100 000 cubic meters per year, which is less than one-third of the harvested timber mass. But only about 25 000 cubic meters are processed. In other words, only 7 percent of the harvested timber mass is processed. The lack of necessary equipment, advanced technology and trained specialists in the forest industry, have limited the variety of wood products (parquet, technological splinters, timber, charcoal, casks, clothes pegs, spade handles and other items), which cannot generate higher profits for the forestry sector and the State. Harvested firewood satisfies around 60 to 70 percent of energy needs in rural areas.

It is also important to mention that non-wood forest products are poorly utilized. Forests in Moldova can produce around 4 million tons of wild fruits, berries, walnuts, mushrooms, medicinal plants and others per year. But, only 3 000 tons are collected annually.

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1.3. Threat identification

The threats identified as influencing forest biodiversity are: illicit logging, unauthorized grazing, pollution due to municipal waste, unregulated tourism and abiotic factors (droughts and frosts). These factors also reduce biodiversity, thus contributing to the (i) introduction of invasive species ( Urtica sp., Chenopodium sp. and Atriplex sp.) into forest ecosystems, (ii) the intensification of the secondary successions, (iii)the extension of areas covered by aggressive synanthropic species and secondary phytocoenosis with reduced species composition.

An intensive invasion of Acer negundo and Robinia pseudacacia occurs in forest ecosystems. Because of its high potential for reproduction, Acer negundo, eliminates indigenous species such as Salix alba, Populus alba, Fraxinus excelsior and Quercus robur from associations, especially in azonal forests of the Prut and Nistru river meadows. Robinia pseudacacia has spread very actively in Quercus petraea and Q. robur forests .

Coniferous forests ( Pinus sp. and Picea sp.), which are usually subject to forest fires, are small. This is why forest fires, are reported annually in an area of 50 to 100 hectares where almost all of the grass layer is destroyed. Thus, the Moldovan forests are included in the category of low fire risk (average of 3,6 points). The main cause of forest fires in recent years is the irresponsible behaviour of the population that has free access to forests.

Unfavourable particularities of the existing forest structure, as well as drought in recent years, have caused the outbreak and extension of complex pest and forest disease hotbeds, accompanied by a considerable degradation of forest phyto-sanitary conditions. Thus, in the last century, the percentage of areas affected by pests has varied between 15 and 30 percent annually. Thirty to forty thousand hectares (9 to 13 percent) of forests need annual aerial spray treatment.

Dry up processes are widely spread over large areas of forests, mainly in Southern Moldova, and 30 percent of surfaces were affected by pathogenic factors. This phenomenon was reported especially in Acacia spp. forests. During 1995 and 1996, the sanitation cutting and clear cutting have substantially reduced the volume of forests.

From 1992 to 1999, the surface affected by illicit cutting constituted approximately 174 000 m3, or 1 400 hectares of forest. In this respect, around 1 percent of the forest under state management was destroyed due to illicit cutting, while 13 percent of forest under other types of management were destroyed.

Illicit grazing, which accounts for 6 percent of forest crop losses, took alarming proportions in 1990-1995, when the number of privately owned cattle in rural areas increased.

In November 2000, the Republic of Moldova was confronted with a very severe natural disaster: frost. Thus affecting 13 forest enterprises. The total affected area constitutes 51 000 ha. The most damaged forest enterprises were located in North-eastern Moldova (Postolache et al ., 2001).

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Some mistakes in forest management have contributed to increased damages, and have led to:

- a decrease of diversity in arboreta; - a large proportion of arboreta (50 percent) do not correspond to their local condition sites; - a broad surface (60 percent) of coppice forests; - a low forest feasibility and vitality; - a low afforestation level.

1.4. Links between the forestry sector and forest genetic resources

Human pressure on forests, regeneration through off-shoots of second, third and further generations and the recent practice of replacing indigenous species with exotic ones, plus the destruction of ecological corridors between forests, have affected the vital potential of forests, and have therefore damaged the diversity of forest flora and fauna. In order to reduce or even stop forest biodiversity degradation, it is necessary to undertake a series of urgent measures.

To this end, the SFA “Moldsilva” has included specific activities in the “Forestry Sector Sustainable Development Strategy in the Republic of Moldova 2002-2020” (Chisinau, 2001), which involve conservation of forest genetic resources. It is also important to mention that the conservation of forest genetic resources is an integral part of sustainable forest management through best management practices.

The natural forests, which have survived so far, constitute the main pillar of the National Forest Fund (NFF). The SFA “Moldsilva” included the following priorities in the action plan:

- Protection of threatened and fragile forest ecosystems (beech tree, pedunculate and sessile oak groves, fluffy oak forests). - Conservation and improvement of forest genetic resources, which is a fundamental condition for the conservation of forest ecosystem diversity. - Application of comprehensive regeneration and restructuring actions, aiming at improving the composition of biotypes of trees resistant to drought and other impacts, as well as substituting introduced species by re-establishing indigenous phyto-coenosis. - Drawing special attention to sub-stands, flora and fauna in forest ecosystems, which may prove to be invaluable (food, medicine, oil, etc.) and increase the vitality of forests.

The main concept and objectives of the “Forestry Sector Sustainable Development Strategy in the Republic of Moldova 2002-2020” (Chisinau, 2001) stipulate that taking a decisive step to conserve biological diversity in forests will provide a refuge and adequate habitat for various species of wild plants and animals jeopardized by anthropic activities. In order to realize this basic concept, a series of objectives of primary importance were defined together with a concrete plan of activities for 2002-2020.

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1.5. Links with other activities

1.5.1. Agriculture

Agriculture is an activity of vital importance to the Moldovan economy and is the main land user in the country. Actions are currently focused on the restoration of degraded agricultural land and the introduction of sustainable agriculture including organic farming methods. Non- native pioneer tree species ( Robinia pseudacacia and Gleditsia triachantos ) are being used to establish biocoenosis on degraded agricultural land, thus increasing the total forested area at the same time.

Lack of forest stands, and therefore shortage of forest vegetation in the Northern zone of Moldova, and especially in the Southern zone of Moldova have led to a series of negative phenomena, such as soil erosion (mechanical and wind-driven), desertification, biodiversity reduction and decrease of agricultural productivity.

From the 1950’s to the 1980’s, shelterbelts, forest plantations and green areas were established. As a result, around 273 000 ha were covered with forest vegetation. In the 1980’s, the farmers resisted the implementation of new shelterbelts by refusing to offer the necessary land for this purpose. As a result, the current implementation of shelterbelts stopped, while the previously ones, under municipal administration, were mostly exposed to destructive factors (illegal logging, grazing, pollution, etc.). Meanwhile, the problem of agricultural land degradation caused by erosion became a national disaster, needing urgent interventions. Among the latter, effective recovery measures included soil protection by creating networks of forests and forest vegetation shelterbelts.

Under new conditions, and due to land conversion to agricultural purposes under private ownership, the SFA “Moldsilva” now emphasizes the need to adopt a moderate approach to promote the agroforestry concept, which includes:

- intensification of security as well as protection of previously planted green areas and shelterbelts; - introduction of a new forest vegetation planting system (at the border of village estates); - financial and material incentives to farmers in order to afforest degraded or low- productivity land; - transfer of land intended for afforestation from the municipalities reserve and acquisition of lands under private ownership; - creation of acceptable conditions for plantation and maintenance of private forests, especially in regions without forest vegetation.

The SFA “Moldsilva” planned to carry out integrated programmes, such as: - elaboration and implementation of national and regional programmes on degraded soil protection, conservation and recovery of degraded land; - annual plantation of forest areas (1 400 ha), annual plantation of shelterbelts and windbreaks (around 200 ha), forest plantations along rivers, land slides and abrupt slopes (400 ha annually); - programming the efficient use of agricultural land and natural resource diversity.

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1.5.2. Energy

Harvested firewood satisfies approximately 60 to 70 percent of the energy needs in rural areas, thus substituting other energy resources. The supply of firewood has become a severe problem especially in rural areas. This has provoked a wave of illegal harvesting, which jeopardizes the further existence of forests. The forestry sector will participate along with the corresponding department in developing and implementing energy programmes. The following actions will be taken in that respect:

- accurate evaluation of the timber mass potential, which can be offered by the National Forest Fund (NFF) as firewood both at the national and county levels; - improvement of the firewood collection system; - creation of a firewood supply system, flexible enough to meet the market demand.

The long term programmes (20-30 years) will include the use of new reserves coming from both, the eventual extension of forests and the plantation of special forests with fast-growing trees.

1.5.3. Forest exploitation and wood industry

The potential of forests to provide main products is only 195 000 cubic meters per year, therefore it only partially satisfies the ever-growing domestic demand for timber. The major problem is that the above mentioned productivity, including that of valuable oak, walnut-tree and linden tree wood, is used at a very low rate and its limited assortment cannot generate serious profits for the forestry sector and the state.

To overcome this situation, the SFA “Moldsilva” underlines the necessity to launch special programmes for the efficient use of existing timber resources by improving wood processing, under the condition that the respective units are supplied with modern equipment and technology.

2. PAST AND PRESENT ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD OF CONSERVATION, UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES

2.1. Supply and demand of seed for agroforestry and afforestation

During the post-war period forest regeneration practices were mainly artificial, i.e.: trimming, soil preparation and forest crops obtained from seeds and seedlings. The same techniques were applied to create forest crops for areas considered inadequate for agricultural purposes, and to establish shelterbelts. As a result, approximately 200 000 ha were planted from 1950 to 1980, thereby increasing the forest area by 60 percent.

Since the 1990s, forest crops on a large scale were reduced due to socio-political restructuring, thus decreasing the global regeneration rate. The new forest management policy emphasizes natural regeneration of forests through the establishment of seedling covered areas and a seed tree base of indigenous productive material, capable of satisfying the needs of the National Forest Fund (NFF).

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The main priorities in forest activities are to establish seed stocks of the main indigenous species and to use native seed for creating arboreta similar to natural ecosystems. The emphasis made on forest seed origin aims at creating more productive and resistant forest plantations in extreme ecological conditions. According to Article 51 of the Forest Code (1996) the priority for the natural regeneration process is given to native species, originated from seed, thereby conserving the gene pool and ensuring their continuity.

In order to implement the “Forestry Sector Sustainable Development Strategy in the Republic of Moldova 2002-2020” (Chisinau, 2001), including forest reconstruction and forest vegetation coverage increase, the Forestry Department counts on qualified personnel, technical equipment and 25 nurseries with a total surface of 857 hectares that produce more than 30 million saplings per year. Seedlings are divided as follows: 47,4 percent of main forest tree species, 26,3 percent of secondary forest tree species and 26,3 percent of bush species seedlings. Approximately 70,7 percent of larger seedlings are broadleaf species, 16,9 percent are coniferous species and 12,4 percent are bush species.

From 1995 to 2000, SFA “Moldsilva” collected between 34 and 232 tons of seed per year. Seed volume of the main forest species ranged from 68,3 to 91,9 percent, while secondary species ranged from 4,9 to 17,9 percent and bush species from 3,2 to 13,8 percent. Collected material from seed stands does not satisfy the requirements of reproductive material aimed at having high performances.

The seed base includes: constant seed stands, forest genetic reserves, forest seed plantations and trees with exceptional qualities.

According to national laws and regulations, seed stands and forest reserves (forest genetic reserves and trees with exceptional quality) are recognized as in situ conservation units. Protection objectives of these resources are heterogeneous and include genetic variation, genetic variability, timber yield potential, ecological services as well as rare and endangered species.

The lack of protection measures aimed at crops from seed stands leads to a loss of collected seed volume. Other causes of low collected seed volume are the reduced accessibility to seed stands, their small surface and different mast years 1 in separate seed stands.

Afforestation rate on barren land has decreased in recent years (table 1). Low afforestation rate may create poor and uneven afforestation dynamics in geographical regions at a national level.

TABLE 1: RE -AFFORESTED AND AFFORESTED AREAS IN THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA (1994-2000) Afforestation (ha) Year (on barren lands) 1994 826 1995 868 1996 617 1997 516 1998 564 1999 493 2000 443 Total 4 327

1 Year in which large quantities of mast are produced. Mast is the oak and beech tree fruit.

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Forest species for afforestation are selected according to the site and scope of plantations, either for productive or protective purposes. Species used for afforestation are native species (Populus alba, Populus nigra, Salix alba, Quercus robur, Quercus petraea, Fraxinus excelsior , etc.) and non-native species (Robinia pseudacacia, Gleditschia triachantos, Sophora japonica, Quercus rubra, Pinus nigra, Pinus sylvatica, etc.).

The success of afforestation on eroded land relies strongly on indigenous brush species, which improve the plantation structure and soil conditions. The native brush species used include Cotinus coggygria, Crataegus monogyna and Rosa cannina .

SFA “Moldsilva” and the Prototype Carbon Fund have elaborated the afforestation activities foreseen by the project, for an initial 11 year-period (2002-2012). These activities promote sustainable soil conservation in and around degraded agricultural areas and will support global objectives of carbon sequestration and reduction of greenhouse gas concentrations. The project will conserve soils on 14 494 hectares of degraded pasture lands, by means of afforestation with tree and shrub species adapted to adverse site conditions providing as well, the urgently needed fuelwood and timber to rural people.

Afforestation activities, elaborated in the framework of SFA “Moldsilva” together with Prototype Carbon Fund, according to specific climate and site conditions for afforestation where 27 percent of the sites were partially degraded and 73 percent were largely or entirely degraded by soil erosion), showed that the use of non-native species offers the best chance for success in terms of local ecological benefits, wood supply, soil and site stabilization and rural landscape improvement. Therefore native species will be planted on partially degraded sites, and wherever soil/site conditions allow it. Afforestation activities on the rest of lands (marginally appropriate for afforestation due to their extreme soil conditions) will be carried out according to the following tested method for ecological restoration: 1) establishment of forest cover using non-native species that are known to survive on degraded soils and, 2) secondary planting with native species. Plantations of non-native species are managed on short rotations and assume restoration of native forests after the first (maximum second or third) production cycle. After soil/site conditions have improved (after one or two rotations of Robinia pseudacacia ), native species may be planted on improved soils.

The experience achieved during the last 50 years shows that only those non-native species mentioned are capable of growing on such soils. Since 1950, around 200 000 hectares were afforested in Moldova, 50 percent of them were afforested with those species. The existing Robinia plantations (over 125 000 ha) represent the main source of firewood supply for the population because of their high wood density and energy value.

The following non-native species were selected for afforestation activities: Robinia pseudoacatia, Quercus rubra, Pinus nigra, Ulmus pumila, Gleditschia triachantos, Sophora japonica, Junglans nigra and Junglans regia.

Selection of species was also based on the following criteria:

(a) In case of afforestation with native species, a relatively longer time would be necessary (more than 10 years) in order to complete the process of canopy closure, while the cost would be twice as expensive, compared to afforestation with non-native species. (b) The use of non-native species, allows to provide more benefits (wood and non-wood forest products) for the local population.

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(c) Non-native forests permit to carry out grazing activities relatively sooner, thereby reducing the costs for the local population. Finally, non-native species could play the role of pioneers for soil improvement. Thanks to their biological qualities, these species would improve degraded soil and would create new conditions to plant native species after the first productive cycle of non-native species.

During the last decades, many artificial plantations died in Moldova. White acacia, which was introduced in Moldova about 150 years ago, occupies approximately 30 percent of the whole forest surface area. During this period, there were no dehydration reports on this species. After the winter in 1994/1995, the white acacia plantations suffered greatly in all the districts of the Republic of Moldova. The whole surface of dehydrated white acacia plantations shrunk to just 40 percent of the area.

Cases of dehydrated oak plantations were also reported. In 1996, for example, an 80 ha plot planted with 40-year old oak dried up completely during the past two years. The number of dried trees reached about 95 percent. An investigation showed that when establishing these forest plantations, seeds (acorns) of Western Ukraine origin were used. When the seed material originated from Moldova, the cases of plantations becoming dry were also reported but it did not correspond to the ecological conditions of these newly created plantations. Such cases made Moldova to revise the main guiding principles of forest plantation establishment.

Establishing forest plantations on an ecological genetic base is a key issue for the creation of new forests in Moldova. This problem has encountered different theoretical opinions, nevertheless the work is difficult to pursue without sound financial support. The origin of forest seeds aimed at the establishment of more productive and resistant forest plantations in extreme ecological conditions, is also taken into account. Natural restoration potential should also be considered. Therefore, not all the sites may need to be actively afforested. Sites that are situated in proximity to seed sources may become afforested naturally through windborne seed dispersal or transport of seeds by birds and other animals. It would be necessary, however, to prepare soils by light disking of hard pans.

Common principles for silvicultural practices that contribute to the sustainable, nature- friendly and multifunctional management of forests aimed at dynamic gene conservation, need to be implemented and adapted to local needs (Rotach, 1999).

2.2. In situ conservation

Protected areas constitute 66 467 hectares (1,96% of the country’s territory). The Law related to the State Protected Natural Areas Fund (1998) spells out how to determine and manage these areas. At present, the classification of natural protected areas includes 12 types (8 types according to the IUCN criteria), contemplated in the Law on State Protected Natural Areas Fund (table 2).

The Law on the State Protected Natural Areas Fund was adopted since 1998. Protected areas occupy 1,96 percent of the country, placing it far behind other European countries.

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The natural protected areas constitute a network for the conservation of biological resources and genetic variety, its nucleus being scientific reserves (29,4 percent of the total protected areas), followed by landscape reserves (51,5 percent) and strict nature reserves (scientific reserves, 0,58 percent, which were only 0,17 percent in 1990). Currently four out of the five strictly protected areas (scientific reserves) are effectively subordinated to SFA “Moldsilva” because they are mostly forest zones. The fifth (Iagorlic) is located on the left bank of the Dniester. Other types of protected areas (natural protected landscapes, landscape, natural monuments, garden art monuments, botanical gardens, dendrological parks, zoological parks) are under the responsibility of local authorities.

TABLE 2: PROTECTED AREAS IN THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA (2000)

Surface Protected areas IUCN classification Number Area % (ha) Scientific reserve I 5 19 378 29,4 National park II - - - Monuments of nature III 130 2 906 4,3 Natural reserve IV 63 8 009 12,0 Protected landscape reserves V 41 34 200 51,5 Resource reserves VI 13 523 0,8 Multifunctional management areas VII 32 1 030,4 1,5 Biospherical reserves VIII - - - Botanical gardens 1 105 0,1 Zoological gardens 1 20 Dendrological gardens 2 104 0,1 Secular trees 433 - - Rare species: floristic 269 - - Rare species: faunistic 215 - - Monuments of landscape architecture 20 191,06 0,3 Total 1 225 66 467 100

Genetic conservation of forest tree populations takes place in both unmanaged and managed forests. The unmanaged forest category concerns different types of protected areas, such as national parks, nature reserves or forest reserves. Besides their conventional functions, such as ecosystem and habitat preservation, protected areas contribute to maintaining and preserving the genetic diversity of forest tree species (Koski et al ., 1997). In situ conservation is generally the main approach applied for the conservation of genetic diversity of long-lived, largely outbreeding and undomesticated forest tree species (Ziehe et al., 1989; Eriksson et al., 1993). The key characteristic of in situ conservation is its dynamic nature allowing for continued evolution of gene resource populations.

In situ conservation of biological diversity is focused on expanding the natural protected areas, improving their management, and developing an ecological network connected to the European Ecological Network.

According to national laws and regulations, seed stands and forest reserves are recognized as in situ conservation units. Protection objectives are heterogeneous and include genetic variation, genetic variability, timber yield potential, ecological services, as well as rare and endangered species.

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Seed stands and in situ conservation forest reserve units include the following components:

- 118 constant seed stands with a surface of 1 402,8 hectares of various given species (table 3); - forest genetic reserves (8 plots, surface of 713,2 ha). The main forest genetic reserves are in Tighina and Straseni Forest Enterprises (table 4).

TABLE 3: PERMANENT FOREST SEED STANDS

No Species Number of stands Surface (ha) 1. European oak – Quercus robur 52 457,2 2. Sessile oak – Quercus petraea 22 355,2 3. Pubescent oak – Quercus pubescens 7 179,3 4. Red oak - Quercus robur 2 31,6 5. Beech - Fagus sylvatica 7 54,1 6. Black locust – Robinia pseudacacia 12 162,5 7. Walnut – Juglans nigra 4 68,3 8. Hornbeam – Carpinus betulus 3 43,8 9. Service tree – Sorbus torminalis 1 2,0 10. Cornel – Cornus mas 2 8,5 11. Field maple - Acer campestre 1 15,0 12. Other species 5 25,3 Total 118 1 402,8

TABLE 4: FOREST GENETIC RESERVES

No Species Number of plots Surface (ha) 1. European oak – Quercus robur 2 433,5 2. Sessile oak – Quercus petraea 3 175,5 3. Pubescens oak – Quercus pubescens 3 104,2 Total 8 713,2

Eighty-one trees of exceptional quality were distinguished; 32 of them were Quercus robur and 49 Quercus pubescens .

In 1997, IPGRI (International Plant Genetic Resources Institute) initiated a three-year collaborative project with Bulgaria, Moldova and Romania ("Genetic resources of broad- leaved forest tree species in southeastern Europe") which was implemented in 1998-2001 and funded by the Government of Luxembourg. The staff of the “Laboratory of forestry and geobotany” of the Botanical Garden (Institute) participated in the project. As a result, oak, common oak, beech, common ash, narrow-leafed ash, fluffy ash, field maple, Norway maple and sycamore tree genetic resources were assessed in the Republic of Moldova.

The forest genetic resources have been selected according to their forest stand natural origin, quality criteria, and morphological characteristics. As a result, all selected forest genetic resources chosen according to their quality and value, were classified in four categories (table 5; Postolache, 1999):

- Optimal forest stands include natural forest stands with superior composition, structure and productivity.

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- Seed stands comprise forest stands with superior production qualities, which can be used for collecting seeds of the best quality. - Forest stands with greater intraspecific diversity from the contact zones of two or three oak species. - Forest stands from reserves.

The seed stands represent mature, indigenous populations with superior phenotypic performance, selected in various site conditions throughout the distribution range in Moldova. Although the selection of seed stands followed the purpose of seed production for afforestation programmes and tree breeding, it is considered as an adequate sample of the existing genetic variation for genetic conservation.

Seed stands are widely recognized as a category linking the conservation of genetic resources to their use (e.g. Kleinschmit, 1995). Most of the seed stands identified in Moldova were sessile oak, Quercus petraea , and pedunculate oak, Quercus robur , the most widely spread species and the most important broad-leaved species, from the economic point of view. In addition to seed stands, two different categories of gene conservation units were established (Postolache, 1999).

'Optimal' forest genetic conservation stands were defined on the basis of ecological site conditions (nutrient rich soils, humidity). Conservation stands with “high diversity” were identified particularly in the contact zone between Quercus robur , Quercus petraea and Quercus pubescens .

TABLE 5: SELECTED FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES OF MOLDOVA (IPGRI-PROJECT )

Category of forest genetic resources Intraspecific Optimal Species Seed stand diversity Reserves Total stand stands No ha No ha No ha No ha No ha Pedunculate oak 33 583,1 81 1 768,5 55 1 193,0 13 355,9 181 3 900,5 (Quercus robur) Sessile oak 24 764,6 62 2 222,3 37 2 327,7 23 1 178,0 146 6 492,6 (Quercus petraea) Pubescent oak 13 268,5 37 990,1 31 759,1 - - 44 1 749,2 (Quercus pubescens) Beech 9 79,2 12 149,7 - - 17 191,9 38 420,8 (Fagus sylvatica) Common ash 9 103,6 68 1 138,7 - - 54 928 131 2 447 (Fraxinus excelsior ) Narrow-leafed ash 16 162,1 13 193,0 - - - - 29 355,1 (Fraxinus angustifolia ) Fluffy ash - - 1 5 - - 1 3 2 8 (Fraxinus pallisae ) Field maple - - 75 1527,9 - - 23 430 98 1 968,0 (Acer campestre) Norway maple - - 51 1170,8 - - 34 896,7 85 2 067,5 (Acer platanoides) Sycamore - - 6 76,9 - - 13 285,8 19 362,7 (Acer pseudoplatanus) Total 104 1 961,1 406 9 242,9 123 4 279,8 178 4 269,3 773 19 771,4

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The conclusions reached by the project were the following:

- Common principles for silvicultural measures that contribute to the sustainable, nature- friendly and multifunctional management of forests aimed at dynamic gene conservation, need to be implemented and adapted to local needs. - Existing knowledge of eco-geographical variation patterns in the region needs to be combined with genetic information from field trials or genetic marker studies.

A remarkable feature of the national natural protected areas network is that 92,4 percent (60 721 ha) of the total surface of them is under the forestry sector, which represents about 18,8 percent of the total area of the National Forest Fund (NFF). Unfortunately, the system of natural protected areas is only partially observed within scientific reserves, where the forest cover is 16 377 hectares (0,5% of the total area covered by forests).

Protected areas have been grouped in five categories of forest ecosystems, according to their species composition, (Postolache, 2002):

1. The pedunculate oak, Quercus robur, with cherry tree ecosystem: occurs in Northern Moldova. The most common species are Quercus robur, Cerasus avium, Rhamnus tinctoria, Frangula alnus, Sambucus nigra, Carex brizoides, Potentilla alba and Veratrum nigrum . Ten protected areas (11 602 ha or 18%) belong to this type of ecosystem. 2. The sessile oak, Quercus petraea , pedunculate oak, Quercus robur and beech, Fagus sylvatica , ecosystem is spread in the Central part of Moldova. These forests belong to the Central European type of forest. The total surface of this forest type is 150 309 hectares. The most characteristic species are Quercus petraea, Q. robur, Fagus sylvatica, Cerasus avium, Carpinus betulus, Tilia tomentosa, Sorbus torminalis, Cornus mas, Carex brevicolis and C. pilosa . Forty-four protected areas (total surface of 33 815 ha, or 21,1%) are aimed at forest ecosystem conservation. Twenty forest genetic resources have been selected in the framework of protected areas. Beech in Moldova is situated at the Eastern border of the distribution area and the genetic resources of this species have a special importance, attributed to their adaptation to marginal environmental conditions. 3. The pubescent oak, Quercus pubescens, ecosystem occurs in the Southern part of Moldova and has a total surface of 7 000 hectares. Most common species are Quercus pubescens, Cotinus coggygria and Rhamnus cathartica . Twenty species occurring in this ecosystem have been included in the Red Data Book. While twenty-five protected areas belong to this type of forest ecosystem with a total surface of 5 374 hectares constituting 76 percent of the total. 4. The willow tree, Salix alba , poplar Populus alba, P. nigra and pedunculate oak Quercus robur , from water meadows ecosystem covers a total area of 15 000 hectares. Fourteen protected areas, with a surface of 4 609 hectares, belong to this type of forest ecosystem, while 10 of its forest genetic resources have been selected. 5. Sessile oak, Quercus petraea, pedunculate oak, Quercus robur , on limestone substratum Ecosystem. Twenty-seven protected areas (8 656 ha, or 36 percent of the area) have been declared with the purpose of preserving biodiversity.

Many of the plant species that grow in Moldova are becoming more endangered and enjoy legal protection in the country. The share of endangered biota is rather high. Twenty-six species of higher plants in danger of extinction were introduced in the Red Data Book (1 st edition, 1978). The 2 nd edition of the Red Data Book (2001) comprises 126 species of plants (82 species of higher plants).

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Forty eight species of the total number of rare and endangered plants are characteristic to forest ecosystems, 32 species to steppe ecosystems, 18 species to meadow ecosystems, 19 species to petrophyle ecosystems and four species to aquatic ecosystems. Trapa natans and Cypripedium calceolus L. are included in the European Red Data Book.

One hundred and sixteen fauna species in danger of extinction are included in the Republic of Moldova Red Data Book (2001). Numbers of rare and directly jeopardized species are higher in special intervetebrates. The basic characteristic of jeopardized vertebrates, especially carnivorous, both birds and mammals, depend on the existence of massive trees (with hollows), extracted from the forests during silvicultural care. A lot of jeopardized species of insects depend on the volume of dead biomass during their growth, but this biomass is extracted from the forests during forestry activities. Survival of these species could be assured only through strict observation of technical regulations concerning the protection of wildlife during execution of forestry activities.

A considerable number of rare plant species live in the herbaceous litter of forests subject to state enterprises and natural reserves. Some of these species are important for medicinal purposes.

Due to its physical and geographical location, Moldova offers advantageous possibilities for hunting, but the reduction of natural habitats has decreased the number of game animals. At present, the hunting areas comprise 2 832 million hectares. The hunting species are: deer (429), roebuck (3 664), wild boar (2 691), hare (109 267), pheasant (26 286), fox (14 137), goose (3 825) and duck (114 802).

In order to intensify hunting activities, a series of actions have been taken to increase the number of animals. The “Concept and Development Programme” was formulated. The programme must be better defined according to the latest changes in legislation, also proceeding from the international obligations acquired in 1999-2000.

2.3. Ex situ conservation

Several institutions are active in the field of ex situ biodiversity conservation of plant and animal species. The traditional ones are the botanical, zoological, dendrological gardens, public parks, arboreta and others.

Initially, ex situ biodiversity conservation activities were performed in the parks of estates and monasteries located in various regions of the country. They were created in the 19 th century. Some examples are: Pavlovca park (18,3 ha, founded in 1900), Hincauti park (27 ha, founded at the end of the 19 th century), Taul park (46 ha, 1901-1904), Leontea park (21,49 ha, end of the 19 th century) and the Dendrological Garden of Chisinau (74 ha, 1950) among others.

At present, ex situ evaluation and conservation of plant and animal species are carried out by academic and sectoral institutions. Moldova has significant collections of cultivated and spontaneous plants (about 3 000 species) that are kept in 13 institutions: two institutions of the Academy of Sciences (Botanical Garden Institute, Institute of Genetics and Centre for Vegetal Genetic Resources), seven specialized branch institutions, the State Agrarian University, the Dendrological Garden, Taul park and the Arboretum of Tiraspol.

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The Botanical Garden Institute of the Academy of Sciences holds a collection of 12 400 species (decorative, medicinal, aromatic, fodder, fruit, vegetable plants). The Herbarium contains about 200 000 samples of plant species and fungi, which reflects the floristic diversity of the country. The paleontological collections of plants contain nearly 270 species. The Botanical Garden Institute of the Academy of Sciences is the main holder of native and allochthonous spontaneous plant collections.

Ex situ conservation units, including seed orchards and clone collections, were established for the main economically important broadleaved species in Moldova.

Forest seed plantations of European oak, Quercus robur , pubescent oak, Quercus pubescens, and european walnut, Junglans regia comprise 12 plots with a surface of 67,8 hectares (table 6).

TABLE 6: FOREST SEED PLANTATIONS AND CLONE ARCHIVES

Category Number Surface (ha) Forest seed plantations - first generation Quercus robur 6 30,1 Quercus pubescens 1 1,0 Junglans regia 5 36,7 Total 12 67,8 Clone archives Quercus pubescens & Quercus robur 1 1,0 Junglans regia 1 4,0 Total 2 5,0

One example of pubescent and pedunculate oak clone archive plantation was laid out in Capriana and Harbovat forest farms 34 years ago (1,0 ha). The initial purpose of these plantations was to collect seeds from different geographic regions and to plant them in common plantations. The objectives were to study the reactions of provenances under new climate conditions and to research the cline variation 2 of morphological and biological traits. The final results are intended to be used in the division system of seed stands into districts and in establishing the allowed limits in seed transportation.

Another successful attempt to create “ ex situ ” clone archive plantations was achieved in the Botanical Garden Institute of Chisinau, where four different sessile oak plantations were created 30 years ago. The collection occupies 6,1 hectares and includes the following plantations:

- Sessile oak, Quercus petraea , with smoke tree, Cotinus coggygria, - 0,2 hectares. - Sessile oak, Quercus petraea , with lime, Tilia tomentosa Moench, and common ash, Fraxinus excelsior -0,7 hectares. - Sessile oak, Quercus petraea , with hornbeam, Carpinus betulus , - 0,5 hectares. - Sessile oak, Quercus petraea , with beech, Fagus sylvatica , – 0,4 hectares. - Pedunculate oak – 3,5 ha

2 A succession of plant populations over a geographic range that have acclimatised in different locations and are slightly different from each other. The differences gradually accumulate until speciation eventually occurs—if that happens you have in effect a different species at each end of the cline, with a range of intermediate forms stretching between them.

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- Pubescent oak, Quercus pubescens, – 0,5 ha - Beech, Fagus sylvatica , – 0,3 ha

Research in the fields of biotechnology ( in vitro cultivation) and genetic engineering has just started in the Republic of Moldova. The use of some biotechnological methods in agriculture and medicine is considered a priority activity. A gradual tendency to switch to the use of biological preparations instead of chemicals may be observed in the field of biological research for agricultural plants, as well as cryoconservation of gametes in animal breeding.

The Ministry of Ecology, Construction and Territorial Development, is responsible for the elaboration of the legislative framework for ex situ biodiversity conservation, the use of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) and biosafety in the Republic of Moldova.

The Republic of Moldova does not consider ex situ conservation as the highest priority in the implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Unfortunately, due to the lack of financial resources, the Government allocates limited funds for supporting ex situ conservation research activities. It is also necessary to mention that a National Centre of Genetic Resources and a relative information database of unified data on genetic resources do not exist.

3. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

3.1. Institutions: their role, responsibilities and capabilities

The following institutions are involved in genetic resources activities in the Republic of Moldova: the Botanical Garden Institute and the Institute of Genetics, both branches of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, SFA “Moldsilva”, and the Ministry of environment and territorial development.

The Botanical Garden Institute holds a collection of 12 400 species, including decorative, medicinal, aromatic, fodder, fruit and vegetable species etc. The National Herbarium holds 200 000 samples of species and varieties, including 2 000 vascular plant species from the Republic of Moldova. Fossil samples are also held. The Botanical Garden Institute has links with 150 other botanical gardens through the BGCI (Botanic Gardens Conservation International) and participates in seed exchange programmes with these gardens. The Botanical Garden Institute cooperates with the FAO and participates in EUFORGEN programmes (European Forest Genetic Resources Programme).

The Institute of Botany is responsible for the following activities:

- introduction of different plant species for various purposes; - species conservation, supervision, multiplication and reintroduction in natural ecosystems, especially rare and endangered species; - vegetation, flora and forest resources assessment; - flora inventory and monitoring of species state, valuable habitats, including threatened species; - geo-botanical research; - forest genetic resources research;

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- elaboration of scientific bases and recommendations on biodiversity conservation as well as recommendations to ensure species protection; - elaboration of recommendations on the restoration of degraded natural areas; - elaboration of scientific bases for planting trees in cities and villages.

Geo-botanical research has contributed to (i) the identification and description of tree and bush species; (ii) the description and highlightening of forest communities, forest classification according to the relief, forest types, and associations; (iii) the assessment of biological productivity, ecological particularities of forests and forest biodiversity.

In addition, applied research has contributed to forest improvement with validated scientific recommendations on biodiversity conservation, protected areas management, species association in the framework of forest protection belts, reconstruction of degraded stands, sylviculture, acacia protection path management, assistance in natural regeneration of oak forests and afforestation techniques of eroded slopes.

The Botanical Garden Institute has prepared and published the following papers on the basis of multi-annual flora research:

- Forest Types and Forest Associations, 1964 - Identification Manual of Superior Plants of Moldova (1986); - The Vegetable Kingdom of the Republic of Moldova, 5 volumes (1986-1989), with more than 1 850 species of forest flora described. The first three volumes focus on biological diversity of forests (1986); volume 4 identifies vascular plants of steppe and meadows (1986); volume 5 shows forest plants (mushrooms, mosses, lichens, 1987); - Botanical Research, 9 volumes (1981 – 1990); - Vegetation of the Republic of Moldova, 1995.

The Genetics Institute is responsible for biotechnology research. Its laboratory conducts genetic research on gene isolation, cloning, multiplication and transfer, mainly for genes responsible for sexual reproduction in higher plant species used in agriculture. This research is conducted using only traditional research methods and naturally existing genes. There is no research on GMOs in the Republic of Moldova. Only imported GMOs, if any, are present in the country.

The SFA “Moldsilva” is under direct responsibility of the Government. The SFA is the central forest authority, empowered to regulate, coordinate and control the management and administration of the National Forest Fund (NFF). The Forest Service comprises the following units: State Forest Enterprises (14 units), State Forestry-hunting units (3 units), Forest Fruit Processing Enterprise and five State Natural Reserves.

The Institute of Forest Agreements and Forest Research acts in the framework of the State Forest Agency. This Institute is a plenipotentiary legal entity responsible for forest organization, pest and disease control, and scientific research and planning.

The Forest State enterprises are plenipotentiary state bodies that manage the forestry and hunting funds throughout the territory. They enjoy a legal status with all the necessary prerogatives (independent budget, current budget account and other accounts). The enterprises include 69 forest districts overall, with 187 sectors and 1 068 forest cantons.

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The central forestry authority, together with its subordinated units, ensure forest monitoring through an observation and forecasting system that reveals the conditions of forests, discovers and prevents the negative processes and tendencies in forest development. The objectives of the forest monitoring system are on one hand, to register the information in terms of spatial and temporal evolution of forest conditions at the local and national levels, and on the other, to determine the main causes of forest pests and to highlight the tasks and the critical stages when negative factors occur.

The Ministry of Environment and Territorial Development is responsible for the implementation of ample monitoring programmes of air, water, soil, waste, flora, fauna environment sectors concerned with pollution.

The Ministry of Environment and Territorial Development was set up as a Central Public Administration body. This ministry has an extremely wide range of functions that include:

- elaboration and promotion of state environmental policy, rational use of natural resources, national territorial planning, construction, building materials industry, urban planning; - state control for the enforcement of legislation; - elaboration and coordination of implementation strategies, national and local planning, state programmes and the integration of environmental protection into the economic reform process and other sectoral policies; - administration of the National Ecological Fund and Red Book; - coordination of activities of subordinated organizations and enterprises; - licensing of activities in the field of natural resource use, elaboration of environmental impact assessment reports, regulation of substances which destroy the ozone layer, - elaboration, approval and implementation of normative documents; - coordination and conduction of scientific research in the field of environmental protection, implementation of new techniques and technologies; - monitoring of environmental pollution, meteorological, hydrological and agricultural monitoring; - extension of international collaboration in the field of the implementation of international environmental conventions to which the Republic of Moldova is a party; - public environmental awareness.

The Ministry includes three departments: the Department of the Environment, the Department of Territorial Development and Construction and the Department of Communal Administration and Housing. Each one of these departments is divided into three branches. There are also four divisions in the framework of the Ministry, which ensure interdepartmental collaboration.

3.2. National legislation, policy and strategy on forest genetic resources

The sustainable use of biological resources is a priority issue and constitutes one of the main factors for the sustainable development of the national economy.

The basic principles of Moldovan forestry are: sustainable forest management along with preservation of biological diversity of forests, maintenance of wood production stability and quality, and of useful forest functions in general.

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Management of forest lands is regulated by legal acts approved by the Parliament; technical norms and regulations approved by the Government; and finally, instructions and forestry recommendations approved by the central forestry authority. The primary legislation in Moldova concerning forestry development is the Forest Code (No. 887 from June 21, 1996).

The national policy specifies that forests have a primary function to protect the environment, assuring first of all, the ecological equilibrium guaranteed by the Constitution. According to the current legislation, existing Moldovan forests are the exclusive subject of public ownership (Article 127 of the Constitution). The legislation of the Republic of Moldova allows private forests, but only if these are planted on private land.

The Forest Code and other laws prohibit the reduction of the existing forest cover and allow for timber mass to be harvested within the limits determined by forestry planning procedures. A series of provisions, included in the Administrative Code and the Criminal Code protect the forest against destructive actions. The legislation contains a series of provisions on the extension of afforested areas in degraded areas, gullies, areas affected by landslides and the protection zones along rivers and water basins.

Other legal regulations addressing the rational use of natural resources and the conservation of forest biodiversity and environmental protection, are:

- Environmental Protection Law (1993), particularly Chapter 6, section 5, devoted to biodiversity and nature monument protection; - Monument Protection Law (1993); - Natural Resources Law (1997); - Protection of the Animal Kingdom Law (1995); - State Protected Natural Areas Fund Law (1998); - Plant Protection Law (1999); - Improvement of Degraded Lands through the Afforestation Law; - Land Code (1992); - Governmental Decision on the Approval of the Regulation of SFA “Moldsilva” (1995); - Governmental Decision on the Improvement of Forest and Forest Vegetation Management (1996); - Governmental Decision on the Classification of Forests into Functional Groups and Categories (1997).

The development of legislative and normative frameworks is still under way. The law on Environmental Protection, the Law on the Animal Kingdom, the Law on State Ecological Examination and other laws, include detailed provisions on biodiversity conservation and ecosystem protection.

The Republic of Moldova has ratified the following country programmes that stipulate general measures on biodiversity conservation and sustainable use:

- Action Programme on Sustainable Development “Agenda XXI” (Rio de Janeiro, 1992). - Environmental Protection Concept in the Republic of Moldova (1995), which proposed a new concept of governmental policy in the context of economic reform considering environmental issues for sustainable development. - Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2001). - Forestry Sector Sustainable Development Strategy in the Republic of Moldova (2001)

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The National Strategy and the Action Plan on Biological Diversity Conservation has been prepared and approved by the Parliament of the Republic of Moldova (Decision No.112-XV, April 27, 2001). These legislative and normative documents are designed to prevent and mitigate the anthropic impact on biodiversity. At the same time, they constitute the background for decision-making, at the national level, in the domain of sustainable use of biodiversity.

The overall goal of the Biodiversity Conservation Strategy is conservation, restoration, rehabilitation and sustainable use of biodiversity and landscapes in order to ensure socio- economic sustainable development in Moldova.

Particular goals of the Biodiversity Conservation Strategy are the following:

- in situ conservation of biodiversity; - socio-economic identification and estimation of national biological resources and their sustainable use; - ex situ conservation of biodiversity; - restoration and maintenance of the genetic fund, ensuring the genetic and biological security of Moldova.

The Biodiversity Conservation Strategy identifies the following basic principles for its implementation:

- Prioritize the “ in situ ” methodology for the conservation of biological diversity: - significant loss of biological diversity shall be compensated by extending protected green areas; - landscape maintenance in accordance with its biological richness; - utilization of biological resources within the framework of their regeneration; - common responsibility for conservation and sustainable utilization of biological diversity.

In order to implement the Convention on Biological Diversity provisions according to the requirements for the sustainable development of the country, the Biodiversity Conservation Strategy in Moldova focuses on the following main objectives:

1. Assessment of biodiversity specific features and the recognition of biodiversity as a basic value to protect the nature in Moldova; 2. identification and elimination of anthropic dangers that threaten the integrity of ecosystems and the conservation of species; 3. identification of optimal conditions for environmental rehabilitation through the conservation of biodiversity; 4. improvement of the biodiversity state assessment and monitoring methods; 5. improvement of the legislative framework related with the use and conservation of biological resources, establishment of socio-economic benefits through the sustainable use of biological resources at the local, national and regional levels; 6. Improvement of the activity management system in the field of biodiversity conservation; 7. Information and ecological education of the population; its participation in the decision- making process in the field of conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.

The main objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity were used to develop a system of components (activities) aimed at integrating a national strategy.

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In situ biodiversity conservation

The activities addressing the genetic domain are the following:

- avoiding the degradation of flora and fauna species from main natural ecosystems by strengthening the conservation means at the state level, continuing the research on and monitoring these populations; - avoid degradation of the genetic fund of native and allochthonous taxa by maintaining their reproduction; - conserve biodiversity by applying cultural traditions.

The activities addressed at maintaining the level of species are:

- developing a special conservation programme of endangered and vulnerable taxa of national and international importance; - Preventing further reduction of the species composition and population abundance of natural biocoenosis; - avoiding habitat fragmentation and encouraging rehabilitation of corridors for migratory species of animals and spreading plants as their living conditions change; - protecting indigenous species by preventing the spread of adventitious and invasive species; - restoring the productive potential of the main forest species, increasing the forest non- timber capacity and ensuring their rational use; - protecting and restoring the game and fish resources, by enhancing the number and structure of populations.

Ex situ biodiversity conservation

The objectives of ex situ conservation are :

- preventing further degradation or extinction of the gene pool of cultivated taxa (plants, fungi and animals) by strengthening the protection of the gene pool of domesticated taxa and by reviving and expanding the activities of the breeding institutions, maintaining and conserving the botanical and zoological collections, and creating respective databases; - preventing further degradation of the gene pool of taxa of international importance, which are not characteristic to the country, by elaborating and using efficient methods of ex situ multiplication and reproduction (botanical gardens, zoos, biotechnological centres; - elaborating the economic mechanism of the ex situ biodiversity protection; - elaborating complex research and ex situ protection programmes, coordinating activities in this field by organizing a genetic centre and gene banks; - applying biosafety measures related to GMOs through effective veterinary and phytopathological control systems.

The components of such strategy were systematized in accordance with the duration of implementation terms (short term - less than 5 years, middle - from 5 to 10 years, long term - more than 10 years). The strategic components for the protection of species, the genetic fund conservation and ex situ methods of protection that could be implemented in the short term are mentioned.

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In addition, a series of actions were defined to carry out general activities and specific ecosystem initiatives according to the methodology applied in the Pan-European Landscape and Biological Diversity Strategy.

Forest Ecosystems Protection Action Plan (2002-2010)

The activities included in this part are aimed at preventing further degradation of ecosystems and forest species, through the rational use and restoration of forests, the creation and maintenance of their optimal structure. The action plan includes a series of activities that will increase the expansion of natural forest stands and their regeneration with a balanced diversity, structure and functions. These activities include maintaining natural habitats and species diversity by developing special programmes aimed at the conservation of taxa, species of global importance, and at avoiding the deterioration of migration routes of fauna species.

The biodiversity conservation programmes consist in:

- elaborating a conservation programme of significant forest communities (2002-2003) based on the Forestry Sector Sustainable Development Strategy. - Elaborating and implementing the national programme aimed at the ecological reconstruction of degraded forests and the increase of forest areas (2002-2005). - Consolidating the management capacities in State protected natural areas. Drawing up the technical assistance necessary in this field (2002-2005). - Increasing the surface of State protected natural forest areas for the preservation of significant existing communities (2002-2010). - Elaborating and implementing measures for the afforestation of ecological corridors in order to establish the forest frame (2002-2010).

The main concept and objectives of the “Forestry Sector Sustainable Development Stragtegy (2001) in the Republic of Moldova” include taking a decisive step to conserve the biological diversity of forests in order to offer a refuge and adequate habitat to the various species of wild plants and animals which are jeopardized by anthropic activities.

In order to realize the basic concept of the “Forestry Sector Sustainable Development Strategy in the Republic of Moldova 2002-2020” (Chisinau, 2001), the following objectives of primary importance were established:

1. Consolidating the vital potential of existing natural forests

Given that natural forests surviving to date, constitute the main pillar of the National Forest Fund (NFF), the following priority elements were included in the action programme:

- avoiding subsequent degradation of forest ecosystems by improving their sustainable use, creating and maintaining the optimal structure of stands; - protecting threatened and fragile forest ecosystems ( Fagus sylvatica , Quercus spp. forests and Quercus petrea groves); - conserving and improving the diversity of forest stations, which is a fundamental condition for the conservation of diversity in forest ecosystems; - implementing comprehensive regeneration and restoring actions aimed at improving the composition of drought resistant tree biotypes and other stress resistant biotypes to substitute introduced species and re-establish the aboriginal phyto-coenosis;

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- drawing special attention to sub-stands, herbaceous forest, and forest ecosystems fauna, which might prove to be invaluable for nutritive, medical, oil production and other purposes; - creating the interconnection corridors mentioned above, which besides other advantages, might increase the vitality of forests.

2. Conservation of forest biological diversity

The Forest Biological Diversity Conservation Programme includes a series of important activities:

- extension of natural regenerated stands via intensive treatment, which allows for the conservation and establishment of stands with optimal diversified horizontal and vertical structures; - adjusting the protected areas system to the representation requirements of the entire variety range of forest ecosystems, creation of an ecological network of better preserved forests of special interest, in order to conserve and re-establish representative forest ecosystems and protect threatened ones; - conservation and increase of forest biodiversity via ecologically driven afforestation of fugitive and pluvial eroded areas; - integration of forest biodiversity conservation problems into the concept and practice of forest outfitting; - completing criteria of functional zoning of forest with additional elements referring to biodiversity conservation, including forest genetic resources; - halting the substitution of aboriginal forest with exotic species; - rejecting chemical control of defoliators and forest pests, cautious application of biological pest control, which can sometimes diminish the biodiversity and natural equilibrium of forests; - halting the clearing of forests not included in the National Forest Fund (NFF); - stopping fragmentation or loss of natural habitat, which reduces the surviving individuals, has negative consequences on inbreeding and produces genetic drifting, and loss of genetic variety; - maintaining species diversity by undertaking special programmes for the conservation of rare and vulnerable taxa, establishment of a legal basis for an effective protection; - assuring conservation of species of global importance; - elaborating and implementing several educational programmes and public awareness campaigns aimed at the public, non-governmental organizations and other decision- making actors in the conservation of forest biological diversity; - training of engineers capable of implementing the above mentioned objectives.

The “Forestry Sector Sustainable Development Strategy” action plan includes a series of concrete activities aimed at the conservation and use of forest genetic resources. Such strategy includes the following activities:

1. A series of actions have been elaborated and will be implemented from 2004 to 2006 in order to conserve forest genetic resources. SFA “Moldsilva” and the Academy of Sciences are responsible for these actions.

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2. Assessment of genetic diversity of main forest tree species will be carried out from 2004 to 2010, in order to estimate the state of the genetic fund; the selection of etalon arboreta; the delineation of seed zones for harvesting. SFA “Moldsilva”, the Ministry of Ecology, Construction and Territorial Development and the Academy of Sciences are responsible for these actions. 3. A series of biotechnological methods will be elaborated and implemented from 2004 to 2010 in order to increase oak species areas. SFA “Moldsilva”, the Ministry of Ecology, Construction and Territorial Development and the Academy of Sciences are responsible for these actions.

An important element to achieve the “Forestry Sector Sustainable Development Strategy” is integrating forest activities in the complex of national and regional strategies and programmes.

3.3. Links with other initiatives (Convention on Biological Diversity, international treaties)

Cooperation in the sustainable use of biological resources has just initiated, both at the state and private sector levels. As it regards the application of the CBD provisions, other conventions are usually included, (the Bern, Ramsar and Bonn Conventions, CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species), IUCN (The World Conservation Union) decisions, etc.

Moldova adopted and ratified almost all of the significant international environmental agreements and became a party to multilateral and regional agreements. The Government has passed many legislative acts to implement these conventions and to harmonize its environmental legislation with international and regional standards.

The Republic of Moldova has signed 16 international conventions in the field of environmental protection.

The Republic of Moldova undertook important measures on international cooperation and adhered to biodiversity-related conventions, which directly or indirectly refer to forest resources and the conservation of forest biodiversity:

- Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar, 1971). - Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern, September 19, 1997), ratified by the Parliament Decision No. 1546-XII on June 23, 1993. - Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Janeiro, June 5, 1992), ratified by the Parliament Decision No. 457-XIII on March 16, 1995. - Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar, 1971), ratified by the Parliament Decision No. 504-XIV on July 14, 1999. - Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (Washington, 1973), ratified by the Parliament Decision No. 1246-XIV on September 28, 2000. - Moldova signed the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (New York, February 14, 2001). As a result, the draft Law on Biosafety has been prepared in order to implement the Protocol requirements.

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- Moldova signed the Helsinki resolutions (H1, H2, H3, H4): • Resolution H1: General Guidelines for the Sustainable Management of Forests in Europe. • Resolution H2: General Guidelines for the Conservation of the Biodiversity of European Forests. • Resolution H3: Forestry Cooperation with Countries in Transition. • Resolution H4: Strategies for a Process of Long-term Adaptation of Forests in Europe to Climate Change.

The implementation process of the Helsinki Resolutions has lead to greater cooperation and improved mutual understanding with other countries, as well as increased awareness on the importance of forest biodiversity and sustainable forest management.

Moldova participates in the EUFORGEN network ( Temperate Oaks and Beech Network and Populus nigra Network ). The most important result of its participation in the EUFORGEN network was the accomplishment of a three-year collaborative project with Bulgaria, and Romania "Genetic resources of broadleaved forest tree species in southeastern Europe" which was implemented from 1998 to 2001 and funded by the Government of Luxembourg.

The ratification and observance of the above mentioned Conventions will facilitate the conservation and protection of natural resources.

3.4. Biosafety regulations

Research in the field of biotechnology and genetic engineering are at an early stage in the country. Moldova signed the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity on February 14, 2001 in New York.

As a result, the draft Law on Biosafety was elaborated. The draft Law stipulates the main aspects on access to information regarding genetic resources, biotechnology and GMOs. The organizations responsible for access to the genetic resources are: the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Moldova, the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Industry, the Ministry of Health and Ministry of Ecology and Construction and Territorial Development.

The successful implementation of this article requires the elaboration of the institutional framework on the wise management of genetic resources and a mechanism for their import and export; the preparation of staff training and public awareness programmes in this domain; carrying out special studies on the biotechnologies used and their impact assessment and setting up a database on native and alien genetic resources.

3.5. Legislation regarding access, property rights and benefit-sharing

The Convention on access to information, public participation in decision-making and access to justice in environmental matters (Århus, June 29, 1998) has been ratified by the Parliament Decision No. 346- XIV on April 17, 1999. As a result, the Environment Information Centre has been set up, with the financial support of the Danish Government, in order to permanently share information on the environment.

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Nevertheless, the level of public awareness on the importance of biodiversity is unsatisfactory and does not meet the requirements of biodiversity-related conventions and international agreements.

According to the provisions of the Århus Convention, the population benefits from the access to information, the participation in decision-making and the access to justice in environmental matters. This is why the Law on access to information, public participation in decision- making and access to justice in environmental matters has been elaborated and adopted. The Law was drafted by the Ministry of Ecology, Construction and Territorial Development and approved by a Governmental decision.

The Law establishes the methods to achieve public involvement and participation in the elaboration and endorsement of legislation, normative acts and environmental decisions. In order to share and make available the information on the current state of biodiversity to everybody, the data acquired by the various institutions have to be compatible and maintain a unique interpretation. This is why, the Regulation on Information Sharing was elaborated by the State Ecology Inspectorate on March 28, 2000 and approved by the Ministry of Ecology, Construction and Territorial Development. The regulation establishes the method of acquiring, improving and presenting the ordinary and periodical information on the state of the environment. In addition, the regulation includes information on:

- the protected natural areas Fund, - the state and survey on the genetic resources Fund in Moldova, - the information on the activities carried out by the ecological territorial agencies in the field of fauna protection, - the record of cynegetical fauna, the damages provoked to natural protected areas, - the unfavourable development of biological indicators on ecosystem quality, - the restoration and rehabilitation of ecosystems.

The Republic of Moldova did not have a national centre of genetic resources and a relative information database. Therefore, the Centre of Plant Genetic Resources has been established under the Academy of Sciences of Moldova (ASM).

The legislation on access to genetic resources, that would allow the development of a multilateral system to facilitate access and benefit-sharing in the context of the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources, is under development.

The national system of intellectual property rights protection is used only for plant varieties and animal breeds that are created through the methods of artificial selection. This system is not applied to traditional knowledge, plant and animal species, local varieties and breeds.

The successful implementation of the intellectual property rights article requires the elaboration of an institutional framework on the wise management of genetic resources and a mechanism for their import and export; the preparation of staff training and public awareness programmes in this domain; the implementation of special studies on the biotechnology used and its impact assessment and setting up a database of native and alien genetic resources.

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After examining the present state of the forestry sector, we can conclude that between 1990 and 2002, a comprehensive legislative framework on forestry issues and their links to the environmental protection, economic, social and cultural issues of concern to the society was created with the contribution of forest specialists, and adopted by the Parliament. Despite internal political instability, the State has promoted a coherent policy of forest protection at a large scale.

4. IDENTIFICATION OF NATIONAL PRIORITY SPECIES

From the quality point of view, the forests of Moldova are represented by broad-leaved trees (97,8 per cent); while coniferous species constitute almost 2,2 per cent. Almost half of the forest area is covered with oak species and more that 12 per cent by other indigenous species. In the last 50 years, the forested extension increased mainly due to acacia and coniferous tree planting. Though the total area covered by oak species increased by 18 percent, their share in the forest structure decreased by 13,6 percent. More than one third of the stands have an artificial origin that does not fit within the natural ecosystems of Moldova. But more than 60 percent of the pedunculate oak, Quercus robur , stands and 90 percent of the sessile oak, Quercus petraea stands grew from the offshoots of the second, third and forth generation, having a less active vegetation condition and less resistance to biological and abiotic harmful factors, which, of course, has a negative influence on the longevity of stands.

4.1. Native species

Acer campestre is an important species from the social and economic points of view. Field maple often fructifies in ecological conditions of sessile oak, white lime and ash tree. It is currently used for fuelwood, charcoal, agroforestry systems, soil and water conservation, recreation, aesthetic and cultural purposes. The threat degree is low, mainly due to pests. Prompt actions are recommended for in situ conservation of some representative field maple forest stands within the next two decades.

Acer platanoides is a species with clear potential value. Norway maple is currently used for timber production, fuelwood, charcoal, agroforestry systems, soil and water conservation, recreation, aesthetic and cultural purposes, landscaping (protective belts) and gardening. The threat degree is low. Negative factors which threaten are pollution, pests, abiotic factors (frost, drought), etc. Prompt actions are recommended for in situ conservation of some representative Norway maple forest stands within the next two decades.

Acer pseudoplatanus is a species with clear potential value. Sycamore is currently used for timber production, fuelwood and charcoal. It is also used in afforestation, landscaping and shelterbelts. Although sycamore is not on the list of rare species, we may attribute it to the category of species with limited range. We suggest implementing a gene conservation programme, because sycamore in Moldova is situated in the Eastern part of its European distribution range. The gene conservation strategy must be aimed at preserving the genetic variation of sycamore in Moldova. Conservation and enhancement of the species variability in small local populations is necessary. The threat degree is currently low. Negative factors which threaten the species integrity are: pollution, pests, abiotic factors (frost, drought), etc. We recommend prompt actions for in situ and ex situ conservation of some representative sycamore forest stands within the next two decades.

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In addition, exploration and collection of biological information, germplasm collection for evaluation and assessment of main representative sycamore natural populations are recommended within the next two decades.

Carpinus betulus is a species with clear potential value. Hornbeam is used for timber production, fuelwood and charcoal. The threat degree is low. Negative factors that threaten the integrity at the population level are abiotic factors (drought and frost). Some activities related to exploration and evaluation are recommended within the next five years.

Fagus sylvatica has clear potential value and socio-economic importance. Beech is used for timber production, roundwood, fuelwood, charcoal, aesthetic and cultural purposes. The beech is spread only in “Codri” and “Plaiul fagului” reserves in Central Moldova. Beech grows in the Eastern border of beech spread area in Europe. The threat degree reaches a medium level. Because beech in Moldova is situated in the Eastern part of its European distribution range, we recommend to combine patterns of ecogeographical variation in Moldova with genetic information from field trials or genetic marker studies.

Fraxinus excelsior is an important species from the social and economic points of view and clearly shows a lot of potential value. Ash is used for timber production, roundwood, fuelwood, charcoal, non-wood products (oils, medicines), soil and water conservation. The threat degree is low. Negative factors that threaten species integrity are pests and abiotic factors, such as frost (in November 2000 frost damaged 1 442 ha of ash). Recommended actions within the next decade are the establishment of complementary networks of gene conservation populations: in situ populations selected throughout provenance regions and a network of ex situ populations (progeny trials, provenance trials, collections). Whenever possible, in situ conservation activities are recommended for other noble hardwoods.

Populus alba is a species with clear potential value. It is currently used for timber production, roundwood, fuelwood, charcoal, aesthetic and cultural purposes. The threat degree ranks at a medium level. Habitat destruction has caused enormous damage to white poplar populations, and it still represents a major threat to the genetic diversity of this species. In addition, Acer negundo, a species with high reproductive capacity, tends to eliminate autochthonous species like Populus alba, Fraxinus excelsior and Quercus robur from associations, especially from azonal forest stands of the Prut and Nistru river meadows. The threat degree may be ranked at the medium level. Habitat destruction of meadow ecosystems has caused damage to white poplar populations. Some activities related to in situ and ex situ conservation should be immediately carried out.

Populus nigra is a species with clear potential value. It is currently used for timber production, roundwood, fuelwood, charcoal, aesthetic and cultural purposes. The threat degree reaches a medium level. One of the negative factors threatening its population integrity is represented by pests. Habitat destruction of meadow zones has caused enormous damage to black poplar populations, and it still represents a major threat to the genetic diversity of the species. Some activities related to in situ and ex situ conservation should be immediately carried out.

Prunus avium is an important species from the social and economic points of view and clearly shows a lot of potential value. Wild cherry is used for timber production, roundwood, fuelwood, charcoal, non-wood products (tannins, medicines), food, shade, shelter, recreation, esthetic and cultural purposes. The threat degree reaches a medium level.

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Threats to wild cherry and its genetic diversity result from an overall reduction in the number of individuals. Actions within the next decade are recommended for in situ conservation of populations selected throughout provenance regions. These actions could be combined with exploration and collection of germplasm aimed at evaluation.

Quercus petraea is an important species from the social and economic points of view and clearly shows a lot of potential value. Sessile oak is used for timber production, roundwood, fuelwood, charcoal and non-wood products (tannins, medicines, dyes). The threat degree is low. Threats are represented by abiotic factors, such as droughts and frosts. Seven varieties and three forms were recorded as recurrent in the sessile oak forests that prove the intraspecific diversity, which is nevertheless, not as pronounced as in the case of pedunculate oak, Quercus robur . The intraspecific diversity of the sessile oak, Quercus petraea , confirms the necessity of protecting and rationally using this tree genetic resource. When using seed material of Quercus petraea in plantations, it is necessary to take into account their origin and their next placement in the natural forests. Research studies that would combine patterns of ecogeographical variation of Quercus petraea in Moldova with genetic information from field trials or genetic marker studies, are recommended for immediate implementation.

Quercus pubescens is an important species from the social and economic points of view and clearly shows a lot of potential value. Pubescent oak is used for timber production, roundwood, fuelwood, charcoal, non-wood products (tannins, medicines, dyes), shade, shelter, agroforestry systems, recreation, aesthetic and cultural purposes. The threat degree reaches a medium level. Threats are represented by abiotic factors, such as droughts and frosts. Research studies which combine patterns of ecogeographic variation of pubescent oak with genetic information from field trials or genetic marker studies are recommended for immediate implementation. Activities related to population studies are also recommended as a basis to organize networks of gene conservation populations.

Quercus robur is an important species from the social and economic points of view and clearly shows a lot of potential value. Pedunculate oak is used for timber production, roundwood, fuelwood, charcoal, non-wood products (tannins, medicines, dyes), shade, shelter, agroforestry systems, recreation, aesthetic and cultural purposes. The threat degree reaches a medium level. Threats are represented by abiotic factors, such as droughts and frosts. Ten varieties and eight forms of pedunculate oak were recorded as showing a great intraspecific diversity depending on the different ecological conditions and the capacity of the species to cross. The diversity of pedunculate oak in the contact zones with other oak species (Q. pubescens, Q. petraea ) is greater in Southern Moldova, at the same time, the intraspecific diversity of pedunculate oak is less pronounced in Central Moldova forests. Pedunculate oak frost resistant varieties (var. tardiflora Crezn.) and less frost resistant oak varieties (var. precox Crezn.) exist. Rare varieties such as var . microtricha, var. Australis have been identified. These varieties are scarce and therefore need to be protected. Research studies combining ecogeographical variation patterns of pedunculate oak with genetic information from field trials or genetic marker studies are recommended for immediate implementation. Activities related to population studies are also recommended as a basis to organize networks of gene conservation populations.

Salix alba is a species with clear potential value. It is currently used for timber production, roundwood, fuelwood, charcoal, soil and water conservation, recreation, aesthetic and cultural purposes.

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The threat degree is low. Meadow zones have been depleted and willow populations suffered enormous damage. Activities aimed at gathering biological information and in situ and ex situ evaluation should be carried out within the next two decades.

Sorbus torminalis – is a species with clear potential value. It is currently used for non-wood products (tannins, medicines), shade, shelter, recreation, aesthetic and cultural purposes. The threat degree reaches the medium level. The threats menacing the genetic diversity of this species result from two major causes: (1) an overall reduction in the number of individuals, and (2) the disturbance of the natural metapopulation structure due to the human impact. Intensive forestry and sylvicultural practices, loss of suitable habitats, insufficient knowledge and perception, all contribute to the reduction of its population size. Reduced levels of gene flow and migration and higher levels of inbreeding result in a loss of genetic diversity and higher genetic differentiation among fragments. Thus, in situ conservation efforts must start by carrying out forest inventories, assessing population size, structure, core populations, fragmentation, threatening processes, as well as conservation needs and priorities. The implementation of these activities is of the highest priority and should start immediately.

Tilia cordata is an important species from the social and economic points of view and clearly shows a lot of potential value. Small-leaved lime is used for timber production, roundwood, fuelwood, charcoal, non-wood products (medicines), soil and water conservation, recreation, aesthetic and cultural purposes. Owing to its aesthetic and cultural values, this species is employed as a landscape element in urban areas. Small-leaved lime has become increasingly important in recent centuries. Lime trees are insect pollinated, and as such are quite important for honeybees and honey production in the Republic of Moldova. Small-leaved lime is important for recreational purposes, shelterbelts and game plantings in the open landscape. The threat degree is low. Human impact reduced the distribution of Tilia sp., because many lowland forest areas were converted to agricultural land.

Inbreeding caused by extensive fragmentation and destruction of biotopes is expected to have an impact on both T. cordata and T. platyphyllos (Kleinschmit et al., 1996). It is therefore necessary to establish a network of conservation stands within the next five years. Inventories are needed in order to provide an overview on the state of genetic conservation. Breeding, improvement and management of genetic resources of Tilia cordata should be combined with gene conservation to favour evolutionary forces.

Tilia tomentosa is an important species from the social and economic points of view and clearly shows a high potential value. It is currently used for timber production, roundwood, fuelwood, charcoal, non-wood products (medicines), recreation, aesthetic and cultural purposes. The threat degree is low. Yet, the establishment of a network of conservation stands within the next five years is recommended. Inventories are needed in order to provide an overview on the state of genetic conservation. Breeding, improvement and management of genetic resources of Tilia tomentosa should be combined with gene conservation in order to favour evolutionary forces.

Ulmus laevis is an important species from the social and economic points of view and clearly shows a lot of potential value. White elm is used for timber production, roundwood, fuelwood, charcoal, agroforestry systems, soil and water conservation. The threat degree ranks at a medium level. Habitat destruction has caused enormous damage to white elm populations, and it still represents a major threat to the genetic diversity of the species.

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Dramatic changes in the landscape are likely to happen in riparian forests along large rivers, especially when the land can be drained and reclaimed for agriculture. Nowadays, the white elm is often restricted to fragmented populations of limited size that may be subject to serious risks of genetic drift. The impact of the Dutch elm disease (DED) on the white elm populations has affected trees, and mortality is frequent. In situ conservation of white elm genetic resources is still feasible through a network of conservation stands selected across its natural range, on the basis of ecological variation, each one of them comprising at least 50 flowering trees. These activities should be implemented within the next five years. Priority measures should concentrate on marginal populations and remarkable floodplain communities in danger of deforestation.

4.2. Non-native species

Juglans nigra is a species with clear potential value. It is currently used for timber production, fuelwood, charcoal, non-wood products (oils, tannins, medicines), food, agroforestry systems, recreation, aesthetic and cultural purposes. The threat degree is low. Exploration and collection of germplasm for evaluation activities is recommended within the next five years.

Juglans regia is an important species from the social and economic points of view and clearly shows a lot of potential value. It is currently used for timber production, fuelwood, charcoal, non-wood products (oils, tannins, medicines), food and agroforestry systems. The threat degree is low. Exploration and collection of germplasm for evaluation activities is recommended within the next five years.

Pinus sylvestris is an important species from the social and economic points of view. It is currently used for fuelwood, charcoal, recreation, aesthetic and cultural purposes. The threat degree is low. Exploration for biological information activities should be carried out within the next five years.

Robinia pseudacacia is an important species from the social and economic points of view and clearly shows a lot of potential value. It is used for timber production, roundwood, fuelwood, charcoal, non-wood products (medicines), agroforestry systems, soil and water conservation, recreation, aesthetic and cultural purposes. The threat degree is low. Threats are represented by abiotic factors, such as frost (in November 2000 frost damaged 5 653 ha of acacia). Exploration for biological information activities should be carried out within the next five years.

Robinia pseudacacia is well adapted to be used on highly degraded soils found in Moldova, due to its rapid root growth, well-developed root system and short productive cycle (25-35 years). This species is an important source of fuelwood for household heating and cooking and sprouts well after cutting. It has national priority in afforestation activities because it is the only species that can survive in extremely impoverished soils. In addition, it is fire- resistant, provides good resources to local users in the form of poles and fuelwood and creates good windbreaks.

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The following non-native species ( Robinia pseudacacia, Quercus rubra and Gleditsia triachantos ) have national priority in afforestation activities because: (a) by using non-native species, it is possible to provide many more benefits (in wood and non-wood forests products) for the local population; (b) non-native forests permit grazing in a relatively shorter time, thereby reducing the costs to the local population. Finally, non-native species could play the role of pioneers for soil improvement. Due to their biological qualities, these species could improve degraded soils and create new conditions for planting native species after the first productive cycle of non-native species.

5. SUPPORT ACTIVITIES

5.1. Training and capacity building

The staff training system in place provides specialists for various institutions and public organizations. This staff is in charge of undertaking activities on biodiversity conservation and sustainable use of biological resources.

The main staff training centres in the field of botany, zoology, microbiology, genetics, ecology, forestry and agronomy, are the State University of Moldova, the Pedagogical University of Tiraspol, the Agrarian State University and the Pedagogical University of Chisinau. The academic and branch institutions contribute a lot to the process of specialized staff training.

The university educational programmes need to be reviewed. Biodiversity conservation principles have to be integrated in the fields of forest, agriculture and tourism. There is need of experts on nature conservation, up-to-date research methods for biodiversity protection in training programmes and laboratories with modern equipment.

Forest specialists are presently trained in Moldova and in Romania. Forest studies in Moldova comprise three levels:

- Forestry school (Cuhureni) - Industrial-Ecological High School and Horticulture and Forestry College (Chisinau) (sub- engineers) - Department of Landscape Forestry and Horticulture (Institute of Real Sciences) and Agrarian University (Chisinau)

Since 1990, studies at the 1 st and 2 nd levels for Moldovan specialists are also based in Romania.

After analysing the situation of forestry staff training and professional retraining, it should be mentioned that a big share (66%) of rangers have no professional training. A normative framework for permanent training of personnel does not exist and the managers are not prepared to operate in the new economic conditions. The system lacks highly qualified personnel and specialists with scientific degrees (master and PhD degrees).

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The financial resources are allocated out of the national and county voluntary ecological funds and are used in scientific research in environmental protection, professional re-training courses on environment protection and international cooperation development. Specific training courses for specialists from the Ecological Territorial Agencies and the Environment Protection and Natural Resource Management Divisions from county councils were conducted from 2000 to 2002.

The majority of workshops, conferences and publications dedicated to forestry, are carried out under the following slogan: “Forest is an ecological stabilizing factor”. Unfortunately, little attention is paid to the anthropic impact on forest ecosystems.

“The Forestry Sector Sustainable Development Strategy in the Republic of Moldova 2002- 2020” (Chisinau, 2001) stipulates the goal of achieving professional development of forestry personnel at every level according to the following requirements:

- concrete support to the national forest educational system, created only a couple of years ago, by providing premises for education activities, modern equipment, textbooks and other didactic materials; - modernization of admission procedures at the three levels by applying modern methods, testing motivation, knowledge and skills related to the professional requirements; - alignment of the curriculum to the demands of the forestry sector in Moldova; - increase teaching effectiveness by applying modern teaching and testing methods; - elaboration and publication of textbooks and additional didactic materials focusing on the specifics of forestry in Moldova; - amelioration of the selection process of teaching personnel; - enhancement of scientific works and encouragement of scientific activities of students and teaching personnel; - contact diversification between the educational establishment in the forestry field and specialized establishments from other countries: visiting professors, student exchanges, etc; - creation and strict implementation of a continuous training system for personnel from various levels in the forestry field; - creation of an upgrading centre for personnel from all levels, which could serve other users, according to special programmes.

5.2. Research

Research in the forest genetic resources field can serve as a preliminary scientific background for future efficient activities related to genetic, species and ecosystem diversity conservation. The lack of funds does not allow the universities, academic and branch institutions to tackle thoroughly the key problems in the field of protection and restoration of the forest and tree genetic resources. Nowadays, the plant and animal diversity of the Republic of Moldova is the object of very little study. The most important results were obtained in the 1980s.

Systematic forest-related research started in the post-war period with a focus on two fields: geo-botanical investigations at the Botanical Garden (Institute), investigations in the forest protection field and the influence of chemical treatments on forest pests and other fauna, carried out by the Institute of Zoology together with the Central Forest Authority and applied forest research at the experimental forest station in Bender.

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The geo-botanical investigations identified zonal forests, contributed to the identification and description of tree and bush species, highlighted and described forest communities, classified forests according to relief, description, highlighting forest types and associations, and finally provided an appreciation on the biological productivity and ecological particularities of forests.

Applied research contributed to the improvement of the forest and tree genetic resources with validated scientific recommendations on maintenance cuttings, forest crop planting and tending techniques, association of species in the framework of forest shelterbelts, reconstruction of biodegraded stands, successive cuttings, acacia and protection path management, gully re-cultivation, assistance in natural regeneration of Quercus spp. forests, afforestation techniques of eroded slopes, administration of chemical treatment and control of forest and nursery crops diseases and pests.

In 1997, IPGRI (International Plant Genetic Resources Institute) initiated a three-year collaborative project with Bulgaria, Moldova and Romania titled "Genetic resources of broadleaved forest tree species in southeastern Europe". The project was implemented in 1998-2001 and was funded by the Government of Luxembourg. The staff from the forestry and geobotany laboratory (Botanical Garden) participated in the project. As a result of the research carried out, tree genetic resources of Quercus spp., Fagus sylvatica , Fraxinus excelsior , Fraxinus angustifolia , Fraxinus pallisae , Acer campestre , Acer platanoides and Acer pseudoplatanus in the Republic of Moldova, were assessed. The data obtained through the inventory provide a solid basis for developing and implementing integrated genetic conservation strategies, to be carried out by the national programmes of Moldova. The research helped in identifying priorities for the conservation of diversity both, within and between species, particularly for the rare and threatened broadleaved species, which have often been neglected in the forest management and tree breeding surveys.

The data related to risks and value of such resources have to be integrated into the decision- making framework related to the genetic conservation management, in terms of priority species, populations and interventions in the future.

The existing knowledge of the ecogeographical variation patterns in Moldova needs to be combined with genetic information from field trials or genetic marker studies. While significant genetic information has been obtained for Quercus petraea , Quercus robur and Fagus sylvatica at the international level (e.g. Kremer et al ., 1998; Paule and Gomory, 1998; Von Wuehlisch et al ., 1998), The knowledge of processes that maintain the genetic variation in rare species is hardly available. The general trend, in Europe, towards an ecologically oriented, uneven-aged, close-to-nature forestry management suggests that an increased attention needs to be paid to noble hardwoods and other rarely occurring species (Kleinschmit et al ., 1995; Rusanen, 1998).

Besides, the conservation of these species requires increased efforts towards the development and application of complementary methods for ex situ conservation and propagation of the genetic material (Palada-Nicolau and Hausman, 1999).

Since 1992, the Republic of Moldova is a member of the ICP-FOREST (International Co- operative Programme on Assessment and Monitoring of Air Pollution Effects on Forests operating under UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe) located in Hamburg (Germany).

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ICP-FOREST monitors the forest condition in Europe, using two different monitoring intensity levels in cooperation with the European Union.

At the present stage, in accordance with the International Programme ICP-FOREST, all the plots from the national network are inventoried in order to assess the situation at level 1 and during the transition to level 2. It is planned to conduct a third level of investigations in the long run.

In 2001, the State Order on Scientific Research defined the following research orientations:

- elaborating principles for maintaining the diversity in the genetic resource base of spontaneous flora and the conservation and utilisation of the woody plant genetic resources introduced into the Botanical Garden (Institute) of the ASM; - elaborating methods for biodiversity conservation and biological resources reproduction in ecosystems; - studying anthropic landscapes and the elaboration of scientific background on their sustainable use; - applying modern biotechnologies (genetics-molecular biology) for increasing valuable hereditary traits (resistance, productivity, quality) of crops; - assessing the impact of phyto-pathogenic agents and natural bioregulators on inducing and selecting genetic variability of agricultural plants collected in vitro or in vivo . - Increasing the genetic potential of fruit-growing plants in order to intensify fruit production; - ameliorating and conserving the beekeeping genetic base of Moldova by using economically efficient technologies.

Unfortunately, due to the lack of financial sources, the Government of the Republic of Moldova allocates limited funds to support the planned research activities.

With regard to the “Forestry Sector Sustainable Development Strategy in the Republic of Moldova 2002-2020” (Chisinau, 2001), this document stipulates that the sustainable development of the National Forest Fund (NFF) needs a comprehensive programme of scientific research in the following fields:

- Characterization of genetic variability of the main forestry species in order to provide a seed basis and to ensure conservation of genetic forest resources. - Description and systematisation of natural forest ecosystems according to their vulnerability degree in order to perform forestry activities adequately. - Elaboration of ecological treatment technologies with diversified optimal structures as part of natural forest regeneration efforts. - Provision of adequate techniques for ecological restoration of genetically and coenotically degraded forests. - Provision of a scientific basis and elaboration of ecological technologies in order to carry out afforestation in fugitive and pluvial eroded areas, and increasing diversity through afforestation. - Creation of a scientific base for disease and forest pest control through biological means.

In addition, genetic and biosafety research, together with investigation at the ecosystem and population levels, are necessary. Continuing research on floristic and faunistic mapping is also important for setting up seed funds of valuable genotypes from natural ecosystems.

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There is no national centre of genetic resources and a relative information database on genetic resources in Moldova. Therefore, the Centre of Plant Genetic Resources has been established under the Academy of Sciences of Moldova (ASM).

Research in the field of biotechnologies and genetic engineering is at an early stage in Moldova. Currently, some preliminary thematic research is being carried out in the following fields: modern biotechnologies (molecular biology, genetics) aimed at increasing valuable hereditary variability (resistance, productivity, quality) of the crops, as well as molecular genetic technologies for diagnosing human hereditary and infectious diseases, and synthesis of biologically active substances from bacteria and algae used as biotechnological objects.

5.3. National forestry policy

Forestry activities aimed at the sustainable management of forests in Moldova could be successful only if supported by adequate policy.

From this point of view, the creation of a new forestry mentality, the implementation of international conventions adhered to by the Republic of Moldova and the organization of the rational use of forest products are necessary.

The legislative framework, determining the State policy in the forestry sector, includes (i) provisions in the Constitution of Moldova, (ii) the 12 laws and (iii) the set of Governmental dispositions related to problems in the forestry field.

The national policy specifies that the forests have a primary function to protect the environment, assuring first of all the ecological equilibrium, guaranteed by the Constitution. The Forest Code and other laws prohibit the reduction of the current extension of the National Forest Fund (NFF) and allow for harvesting timber mass within the limits determined by forestry planning procedures. A series of provisions, included in the Administrative Code and the Criminal Code, protect the forest against destructive actions. The legislation contains a series of provisions on the area extension covered with forest vegetation by afforestation of the degraded areas, gullies, areas affected by landslides and protection zones along rivers and water basins. The law on Environment Protection, the Law on Animal Kingdom, the Law on State Ecological Examination and other laws, contain detailed provisions on biodiversity conservation and ecosystem protection.

According to the present legislation, existing Moldovan forests are the exclusive subject of public ownership (Article 127 of the Constitution). The legislation of the Republic of Moldova allows for private forests, but only if these are planted on private land.

This legislative base has to be developed and improved in relation with the new requirements imposed by the transformations of the transition period and by the need to harmonize the national forest policy with international policies.

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Moldova has signed 16 International Conventions in the field of environment protection, which directly or indirectly refer to forest resources and forest diversity conservation, including the Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Janeiro, 1992), the Convention on the Conservation of Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern, 1979), the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (New York, 1992), the Convention of Environment Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context, the Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and the International Lakes (Helsinki, 1992) and others.

The governmental Forest Agency “Molsilva” is the central forest authority, empowered to regulate, coordinate and control the management and the administration of the National Forest Fund (NFF). The Forest Agency “Molsilva” is divided into the following units: State Forest Enterprises (14 units), State Forestry-hunting units (3 units), Forest Fruits Processing Enterprise and five State Natural Reserves.

After examining the present state of the forestry sector, we can conclude that profound social and political transformations and a very severe economic crisis marked the period from 1990 until now. The inevitable losses though, were reduced to the possible minimum. The forestry sector maintained to a large extent its production base, its human potential and the ability to administer the forestry patrimony correctly.

Between 1990 and 1998, a comprehensive legislative framework on forestry issues, including its links with environmental protection, economic, social and cultural concerns, was created with the contribution of forest specialists and was later adopted by the Parliament. Despite internal political instability, the State promoted a coherent policy of forest protection at a large scale.

In terms of international cooperation, it must be said that Finland has assisted the Republic of Moldova for several years in forestry matters and has also contributed to the elaboration of the Forestry Sector Sustainable Development Strategy.

6. PROPOSALS FOR REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION

The most significant limiting factor for almost all aspects of biodiversity conservation is the availability of funds and resources. The lack of resources limits the type of actions that can be undertaken to conserve biodiversity and dictates how biodiversity resources themselves are used.

The International Community could support Moldova’s economic development by helping the country to fulfill its obligations under the various international agreements it is a party to, including the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Few projects on in situ biodiversity conservation are supported by international organizations. The need of special funds to save Moldova’s natural reserves from extinction and increase its institutional and management capacities is clear.

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Funding requirements should be fulfilled to facilitate the implementation of successful projects in countries that do not have sufficient resources to carry out these ventures on their own. Moldova is not currently a priority area for funding organisations. Moldova is only a small country and is surrounded by much larger countries which have more influence and in some cases more pressing serious environmental problems such as Russia and the Ukraine.

According to the recommendations of Article 5 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Republic of Moldova develops bilateral and international actions of cooperation as much as possible and as deemed appropriate.

A central feature of the country’s National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy consists in developing a National Ecological Network. This national effort is linked to an international network that includes the Nistru River and Prut River valleys bordering Ukraine and Romania, respectively. The sites that are located along the network corridors must be afforested in order to give the greatest contribution to the network’s development in those given locations.

In fact, the National Ecological Network is one of several cooperation efforts developed by Moldova, together with the neighboring countries, Romania and the Ukraine. The cooperation priorities are: biological diversity conservation in the North-West Basin of the Black Sea and in the basins of the Danube, Nistru and Prut rivers; impact assessment of the anthropic activities on ecosystems in the transboundary zones; mutual report on emergency events.

The Republic of Moldova plays an active role in setting up the Emerald Network Programme. This initiative was undertaken under the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern, 1979), and has developed a pilot-project supported by the Council of Europe in 2000.

As a result, two natural areas protected by the State (scientific reserves “Prutul de Jos” and “Padurea Domneasca”) have been suggested to be considered as “Areas of Special Conservation Interest” (ASCI). Further activities will be conducted within the implementation of the National Strategy and Action Plan on Biodiversity Conservation of the Republic of Moldova.

The activities aimed at setting up the National Ecological Network (NEN) are under development as part of the Pan-European Ecological Network. These activities come as a result of the first goal stipulated in the Action Plan of the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy (Sofia, 1995) for the years 1996 to 2000. The ecological corridors at the international level are considered for being connected to the National Ecological Networks of Romania and the Ukraine.

Cooperation activities are carried out with the Newly Independent States (NIS) (the Ukraine, Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, etc.) at the information exchange level on rare, endangered and vulnerable species. The Biodiversity Office set up under the Ministry of Environment and Territorial Development, has elaborated the Clearing House Mechanism (CHM), which facilitates the technical, scientific and technological exchange of information on biodiversity conservation.

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Moreover, collaboration efforts are carried out with governmental institutions and organizations of those countries, including joint initiatives with scientists participating in the implementation of biodiversity protection programmes. The main vehicles of information exchange are: the harmonization of legislation; the organisation of the National Ecological Network (NEN), the creation and management of transboundary protected areas.

As it regards other international cooperation activities, the researchers from the Botanical Garden (Institute) are looking forward to further cooperation with the FAO and to increased participation in EUFORGEN programmes. Unfortunately, due to the lack of financial resources, the Government of the Republic of Moldova did not allocate funds for its membership in EUFORGEN programmes. This lack of funds is a great impediment to maintain research activities.

More cooperation with the different stakeholders at the international level is needed in order to continue and increase research and training programmes. For instance, t he SFA “Moldsilva”, together with Prototype Carbon Fund, have elaborated a project that includes afforestation activities for an initial period of 11 years (2002-2012). Afforestation activities within the project will promote sustainable soil conservation in and around degraded agricultural areas and will support global objectives of carbon sequestration and reduction of greenhouse gas concentrations.

The Moldovan scientific forestry community is looking forward to cooperating with the FAO and contributing to the implementation of the Helsinki 3 resolution. The accomplishment of the H3 would improve transparency and increase the exchange of information between countries in transition and between donors and recipients of assistance. This cooperation would encourage implementing activities targeted as priority needs by Moldova.

Finally, the participation in meetings associated with the above mentioned activities would also contribute to strengthen international cooperation. Conferences and seminars with representatives from other countries may also be considered as important ways of regional and international cooperation in the process of experience exchange.

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LITERATURE AND REFERENCES

Blada, I., Alexandrov, A., Postolache, Gh and Turok, J. 2002. Inventories for in situ conservation of broadleaved forest genetic resources in South-eastern Europe . International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Managing Plant Genetic Diversity.

Cuza, P. 1994. Structura populationala a stejarului pedunculat (Quercus robur L.) din Republica Moldova [Population structure of pedunculate oak in the Republic of Moldova]. Chisinãu. (in Romanian).

Eriksson, G., Namkoong, G. and Roberds, J.H. 1993. Dynamic gene conservation for uncertain futures. For. Ecol. Manage , 62: 15-37.

Gheideman, T.S. 1969. Bukovaja dubrava v Moldavii . [Beech-oak forest in Moldova]. Chisinãu. (in Russian).

Hausman, J.F. 1999. Genetic conservation of broadleaved tree species. IPGRI Newsletter for Europe, 16: 3.

Kleinschmit, J. 1995. Practical implications of the forest genetic resources conservation program in Germany. Silvae Genetica , 44(5-6): 269-274.

Kleinschmit, J., Stephan, B.R., Liesebach, M., Schüte, G. and Steinhoff, S. 1996. Noble Hardwood species in Germany: occurence and gene conservation measures. In J. Turok, G. Eriksson, J. Kleinschmit and S. Canger, compilers. Noble Hardwoods Network. Report of the first meeting, 24-27 March 1996, Escherode, Germany , pp. 101-110. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

Koski, V., Skrøppa, T., Paule, L., Wolf, H. and Turok, J. 1997. Technical Guidelines for Genetic Conservation of Norway Spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst). International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

Kremer, A., Petit, R.J. and Ducousso, A. 1998. Structure of gene diversity, geneflow and gene conservation in Quercus petraea . In IPGRI. EUFORGEN Social Broadleaves Network. First meeting, 23-25 October 1997, Bordeaux, France, pp. 133-144. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

Palada-Nicolau, M. and Hausman, J.F. 1999. Oak somatic embryogenesis: carbohydrate accumulation during somatic versus zygotic embryo development. Abstracts of the Internat. Congress on Appl. of Biotechnology to Forest Genetics, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain, Sept. 1999.

Paule, L. and Gomory, D. 1998. Genetic diversity of beech populations in Europe. In IPGRI. EUFORGEN Social Broadleaves Network. First meeting, 23-25 October 1997, Bordeaux, France, pp. 152-163. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

Popu şoi, A. 2002. Report on the state of the forestry sector from the Republic of Moldova for reference period (1997-2002) . State Forest Agency “MoldSilva”, Chisin ău.

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Postolache, D. 2003. Conservation of forest genetic resources of sessile oak (Qurecus petraea L.) in Moldova . The Young Scientists’ Conference "Ecology. Person. Society" May 14-16, 2003, Kyiv, Ukraine.

Postolache, D. 2003. Conservation and state of genetic resources of pedunculate oak (Qurecus robur L.) in Moldova . The “Conference of Young Researchers from the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Moldova”, October 15, 2003, Chisinau, Moldova.

Postolache, Gh. 1995. Vegetatia Republicii Moldova [Vegetation of the Republic of Moldova]. Stiinta, Chisinãu. (in Romanian).

Postolache, Gh. 1998. Present status of the conservation and use of broadleaved forest genetic resources in Moldova. In IPGRI. EUFORGEN Social Broadleaves Network. First meeting, 23-25 October 1997, Bordeaux, France, pp. 11-12. Rome, Italy.

Postolache, Gh. 1999. In situ conservation of pedunculate oak ( Quercus robur ) genetic resources. In IPGRI. EUFORGEN Social Broadleaves Network. Second meeting, 3-6 June 1999, Birmendsorf, Switzerland , pp. 11-12. Rome, Italy.

Postolache, Gh. 2002. Current problems on optimization National Network of protected areas for biodiversity conservation from the Republic of Moldova. Scientific bulletin of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Moldova , Nr4(289): 3-17.

Postolache, Gh., Rotaru, P., Talmaci, I., Postolache, D. 2001. The reconstruction problems of forests affected by natural calamities in November 2000 in the Republic of Moldova. In Proceedings of the Symposium, Restoration Ecology. University of Agricultural Sciencies Timisoara, Romania, September 20-23 2001, pp. 178-181.

Postolache, Gh., Postolache, D., Caisân, V. 2001. Description of Elite arboretums of sessile oak and pedunculate oak from The State Scientific Reserve "Codrii". In Proceedings of the Symposium "30 years old Aniverssary of Scientific Reservation "Codrii"", 27-28 September 2001, Lozova, Moldova .

Postolache, Gh., Postolache, D., Sturza, N., Manic, T. 2001. Assesment of vegetal diversity of most valuable ecosystems from The State Scientific Reserve "Codrii". In Proceedings of the Symposium "30 years old Aniverssary of Scientific Reservation "Codrii"", 27-28 September 2001, Lozova, Moldova , pp. 33.

Rotach, P . 1999. In situ conservation and promotion of Noble Hardwoods: silvicultural management strategies. in EUFORGEN Noble Hardwoods Network. Third meeting, 13-16 June 1998, Sagadi, Estonia , pp. 39-50. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

Rusanen, M. 1998. European gene conservation strategy for Noble Hardwoods: Norway maple and sycamore. In IPGRI. EUFORGEN Noble Hardwoods Network. Second meeting, 22-25 March 1997, Lourizan, Spain , pp. 40-43. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

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Von Wuehlisch, G., Liesebach, M., Muhs, H.-J. and R. Stephan. 1998. A network of international beech provenance trials. In EUFORGEN Social Broadleaves Network. First meeting, 23-25 October 1997, Bordeaux, France, pp. 164-172. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

Ziehe, M., Gregorius, H.-R., Glock, H., Hattemer, H.H. and Herzog, S. 1989. Gene resources and gene conservation in forest trees: general concepts. In Scholz, F., H.-R. Gregorius and D. Rudin, eds. Genetic Effects of Air Pollutants in Forest Tree Populations , pp. 173-185. Springer Verlag.

* Ministry of Environment and Territorial Arrangement, World Bank. 2000. The First National Report on Biological Diversity . Chisinau. ** An. 2001. National Strategy and Action Plan on Biological Diversity Conservation . Chisinau. *** Ministry of Ecology, Construction and Territorial Development of the Republic of Moldova. 2002. The Second National Report on Biodiversity . Chisinau. **** State Forest Agency “MoldSilva. 2001. The Strategy on Sustainable Development of the Forest Sector in the Republic of Moldova period 2002-2020 . SFA, Chisinau.

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APPENDICES

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Appendix 1: abbreviations and acronyms

ASCI Areas of Special Conservation Interest ASM Academy of Sciences of Moldova BGCI Botanic Gardens Conservation International CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CHM Clearing House Mechanism CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species DED Dutch elm disease EUFORGEN European Forest Genetic Resources Programme FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GMO Genetically Modified Organisms ICP-FOREST International Co-operative Programme on Assessment and Monitoring of Air Pollution Effects on Forests operating IPGRI International Plant Genetic Resources Institute IUCN The World Conservation Union NEN National Ecological Network NIS Newly Independent States SFA State Forest Agency “Moldsilva” UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe

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Appendix 2: value and use of target and important species

Value Present, future or potential use Species code ti po wo nw pu fo fd sh ag co am xx Acer campestre 3 X X X X X Acer platanoides 2 X X X X X Acer pseudoplatanus 2 X X Carpinus betulus 2 X X Fagus sylvatica 1 X X X X Fraxinus excelsior 1 X X X X X Juglans nigra 2 X X X X X X Juglans regia 2 X X X X X Pinus sylvestris 3 X X X X Populus alba 2 X X X X X Populus nigra 2 X X X X X Prunus avium 1 X X X X X X X Quercus petraea 1 X X X X Quercus pubescens 2 X X X Quercus robur 1 X X X X X X X Robinia pseudacacia 2 X X X X X X X Salix alba 2 X X X X X Sorbus torminalis 1 X X X Tilia cordata 1 X X X X X X Tilia tomentosa 1 X X X X X Ulmus laevis 2 X X X X X Value 1. Species of current socio-economic importance 2. Species with clear potential or future value 3. Species of unknown value given present knowledge and technology Utilization ti timber production po posts, poles, roundwood pu pulp and paper wo fuelwood, charcoal nw non-wood products (gums, resins, oils, tannins, medicines, dyes, etc.) fo food fd fodder sh shade, shelter ag agroforestry systems co soil and water conservation am amenity, esthetic, ethical values xx other (specify)

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Appendix 3: Location and management of genetic resources, by natural site and species

In situ Ex situ Villages, Experiment. Species in ecogeographic Nature reserves, conservat Managed Unmanaged Plantations conservatio fields, fields, (or genecological) zones protected areas ion forests forests n stands* homesteads trials* stands Acer campestre *** <100 / *** > 500 < 100 < 100 / *** > 500 < 100 / *** > 500 > 500 < 100 < 100 <100 Acer platanoides <100 <100 <100 <100 > 500 <100 <100 <100 Acer pseudoplatanus <100 <100 <100 <100 > 500 <100 <100 <100 Carpinus betulus > 500 > 500 > 1,000 > 1,000 > 1,000 > 1000 > 500 <100 Fagus sylvatica > 100 > 100 > 100 > 100 > 500 > 500 > 500 <100 Fraxinus excelsior <100 <100 > 500 > 100 > 500 <100 <100 <100 Juglans nigra > 100 > 100 > 100 < 100 > 500 <100 > 500 <100 Juglans regia > 100 > 100 > 100 < 100 > 500 > 500 > 500 > 500 Pinus sylvestris > 100 > 100 > 100 < 100 > 500 <100 > 500 <100 Populus alba *** <100 / *** > 500 < 100 < 100 / *** > 500 < 100 / *** > 500 > 500 < 100 < 100 < 100 Populus nigra *** <100 / *** > 500 < 100 < 100 / *** > 500 < 100 / *** > 500 < 100 < 100 < 100 < 100 Prunus avium <100 <100 <100 <100 < 100 <100 <100 <100 Quercus petraea > 1,000 > 500 > 1,000 > 1,000 > 1,000 > 500 > 500 <100 Quercus pubescens > 1,000 > 500 > 1,000 > 1,000 > 1,000 > 500 > 500 <100 Quercus robur > 1,000 > 500 > 1,000 > 1,000 > 1,000 > 1,000 > 500 <100 Robinia pseudacacia > 100 > 100 > 100 > 100 > 500 > 100 > 500 > 100 Salix alba *** <100 / *** > 500 < 100 < 100 / *** > 500 < 100 / *** > 500 > 1,000 < 100 < 100 < 100 Sorbus torminalis <100 <100 < 100 < 100 < 100 <100 <100 <100 Tilia cordata <100 <100 < 100 < 100 > 500 > 500 <100 <100 Tilia tomentosa > 500 <100 > 500 > 500 > 500 > 500 <100 <100 Ulmus laevis <100 <100 < 100 < 100 > 500 <100 <100 <100 Number of individual trees in each category, per major ecological zone, as follows: < 100 individuals > 100 individuals > 500 individuals > 1 000 individuals >10 000 individuals * Indicate the amount of provenances, families, clones, as appropriate ** Indicate whether the amount of trees has been assessed or estimated (non documented) *** Different number in different eco-geographical zones (hilly zones / *** water meadow zones) 47

Appendix 4: level and nature of threats to the integrity of species/populations of important tree species

In situ Ex situ Villages, Species in ecogeographic (or Reserves, Managed Unma naged Exper. Degree of threat conservation Plantation conservatio fields, genecological) zones natural area forest forest fields, trials index stand n stand homesteads Acer campestre 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 Acer platanoides 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 Acer pseudoplatanus 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 Carpinus betulus 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 Fagus sylvatica 2 2 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 Fraxinus excelsior 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 Juglans nigra 3 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 Juglans regia 3 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 Pinus sylvestris 3 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 Populus alba 2 2 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 Populus nigra 2 2 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 Prunus avium 2 2 4 4 3 2 3 3 3 Quercus petraea 2 2 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 Quercus pubescens 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 Quercus robur 2 2 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 Robinia pseudacacia 3 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 Salix alba 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 Sorbus torminalis 2 2 4 4 3 2 3 3 3 Tilia cordata 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 Tilia tomentosa 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 Ulmus laevis 2 2 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 Estimates should be given of the degree of real or perceived threat (low, medium, high) of each species/population. Direct causes of threats may include: - Un-Managed Use and Harvesting - Un-Managed Grazing/ Browse (domestic animals, wildlife) - Wildfires, Environmental Biotic/Abiotic Factors (drought, pests, diseases, floods, pollution) - Clearing for Agriculture, Pasture land

48 - Infrastructure Development (dams, mining, urban expansion) - Other (specify).

Threat Index on a scale of 1 to 5: 1 implementation / enforcement of regulations probable, and regulations scientifically sound. Low level of threat. 5 implementation/ enforcement of regulations unlikely; or threat severe with high probability of genetic degradation or loss. High level of threat. 2-3-4 intermediate between 1 and 5.

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Appendix 5: list of priority species for conservation, improvement or seed procurement

End use Operations/Activities Exploration & Remarks Species W NW FW O Evaluation Conservation Germplasm use collection 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Acer campestre X X 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 Acer platanoides X X 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 Acer pseudoplatanus X 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Carpinus betulus X X 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Fagus sylvatica X X X 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 MPTS Fraxinus excelsior X X X X 2 2 2 3 2 3 3 3 MPTS Juglans nigra X X X X 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Juglans regia X X X X 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 SO Pinus sylvestris X X 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Populus alba X X X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 CLT Populus nigra X X X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 CLT Prunus avium X X X X 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 MPTS Quercus petraea X X X 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 MPTS Quercus pubescens X X 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 SO Quercus robur X X X X 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 SO, MPTS Robinia pseudacacia X X X X 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 MPTS Salix alba X X X X 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 Sorbus torminalis X X 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 (E) Tilia cordata X X X X 2 2 2 3 2 3 3 3 Tilia tomentosa X X X 2 2 2 3 2 3 3 3 Ulmus laevis X X X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 End uses 1. Industrial wood (logs, sawtimber, construction wood, plywood, chip and particle board, wood pulp, etc.) 2. Industrial non-wood products (gums, resin, oils, tannins) 3. Fuelwood, posts, poles (firewood, charcoal, roundwood used on-farm, wood for carving) 4. Other uses, goods and services (food, medicinal use, fodder, land stabilization/amelioration, shade, shelter, environmental values). Complementary information is, at 50 times, given in the "Remarks" column.

Exploration & collection 5. Biological information (natural distribution, taxonomy, genecology, phenology etc.) 6. Collection of germplasm for evaluation

Evaluation 7. In situ (population studies) 8. Ex situ (provenance and progeny tests)

Conservation 9. In situ 10. Ex situ

Reproductive use 11. Semi-bulk/ bulk seedlots, reproductive materials 12. Selection and improvement

Remarks 12. Specific uses not obvious from columns 1-4 are mentioned. Also, work in progress is reported in this column. For clarification, reference is sometimes made to a specific country. PVT = provenance trials PGT = progeny trials CLT = clonal trials SO = seed orchard (E) = endangered at species or provenance level MPTS = multi purpose tree species

Rating For columns 1-4: , as appropriate For columns 5-11: 1. Highest priority, action should start, or be continued, with immediate effect 2. Prompt action recommended, action should start within next two biennia 3. Action required in next five years

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