Figure 1.1: Variations in the Rate of Copper Extraction, Past 5000 Years

R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 1

Figure 1 . 1 : Variations in the rate of copper extraction, past 5000 years

106 Industrial Revolution

Sung dynasty Decline of Roman of China metallurgy & mining Use of coinage 104

Beginning of Bronze Age Peak production in Swedish Falun mine

102

Copper production tons/year) (metric Roman Rise & fall Republic Source: of Athens & Empire Landner & Lindström 1999, Figure 2.1 100 5000 3000 2000 1000 0 years ago R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 2

Figure 1 . 2 : Copper production at the mine in Falun, Sweden

3000

2500

2000

metric tons 1500

1000

500 trend actual average

0 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 3

Figure 1.3: Total production of copper from ores in the "Western World", 1810 - 1995 8000

6000

4000

2000 Copper from ore (1000 metric tons)

1800

1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

Source: Landner & Lindström 1999, Figure 4.1 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 4

Figure 1.4: Total consumption of copper in the "Western World", 1950-1995

14000

12000 Consumption, refined & recycled

10000

8000

6000

Recycled copper 1000 metric tons metric 1000 4000

2000

0 1950 1960 1970Year 1980 1990 Source: Landner & Lindström 1999, Figure 4.2 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 5 gasoline additives Industrial Revolution 9 2000 in 1975) 1750 (4 x 10 kg mining in Europe A.D. renaissance fall of fall Roman Empire Empire Roman istorical production of lead coinage B.C. 0 1000 Figure 1.5: H 1.5: Figure stimulation bronze age 2000 cupellation discovery of 2600 1700 700 300 1100 Patterson et al. al. 1970 et Patterson Source: adapted from adapted Source: 3000 1000 6 5 10 9 8 7

10 10 10 10 10 10 Lead produced (kilograms per year) per (kilograms produced Lead R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 6 0 0 industrial revolution of silver Spanish production in New World New in silver production in Germany in Roman Republic & Empire of Roman of lead mines exhaustion 2000 2000 of Athens of Riseand fall use of coinage reenland ice lead and production 3000 1000 years before present 3000 1000 Age ofGreenland ice(years before present) of 5000 discovery cupellation Fig ure 1 . 6 : G 6 4 2 0

10 10 10 10 Global Pb production (metric tons/year (metric production Pb Global 7760

2 1 3 4 Pb concentration in Greenland ice(pg/g) Greenland in concentration Pb Source: [Boutron 1998,158] p. R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 7

Figure 1.7: Probable distribution of a geochemically scarce metal in the Earth's crust Amount

Current mining

Source: [Skinner 1976, Figure 4] Grade (%) R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 8

Figure 2.1: Mass flows (kg) in the production of 1 MT copper (simplified processes, typical material mixes) utilities -235 mJ 616

Air 503 SULFURIC ACID Water inputs H2SO4 3 1880 8026 2722 outputs ELEC- -2722 TRO- Off- wastes gases -5304 LYTIC 5643 0.58% Cu-ORE REFIN- 2103 Air 3 ING Waste SOL- gases Air 5304 VENT LEACH- inputs 866 EX- 1031 ING outputs Sulfide TRACT- -1000 /oxide TION Anode wastes 277 -31 Refined Air Cu-ore ELEC- copper copper 48658 4824 CON- TRO- 1025 1000 ROASTING CEN- WIN- Flotation TRA- Flotation 0.63% AND reagents ING Slime Waste reagents Silicon solids gases SMELTING 97 TION 133 SULFIDE dioxide (SXEW) 28 3 254 CU-ORE (SULFIDE Cu-ORE) inputs 51726 CONCEN- outputs -277 wastes -51448 Lime- TRATION Lime- stone normally stone to 2984 85% eff 1943 further inputs recovery 144596 Tailings Leach Waste outputs solids gases 47477 -2949 Sulfide inputs 3134 837 Sulfide wastes Cu-ore 11037 Cu-ore -141647 concen- outputs 141479 trate -7460 2949 wastes nomally to further recovery -3577 1068 748 Tailings 141647

Slags Waste 4020 gases normally 625 to further recovery

2952 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 9

Fig ure 2 . 2 : US copper ore grade percent,1880-2000

3.5 1907: beginning of open pit mining 3 1920+: flotation process for concentrating 2.5 sulfide ores Herfindahl (avg) 2 Coppa McMahon MYB-all

Percent 1.5 MYB-conc

0.5

0 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 10

Figure 2.3: Exergy flows (mJ) in the production of 1 MT copper (simplified processes, typical material mixes) utilities -235

1026 Air 25 SULFURIC utilities ACID 792 Water inputs H2SO4 9217 97 outputs 4535 5 -4535 utilities ELEC- 2520 Off- waste heat TRO- gases -4014 LYTIC 9095 REFIN- Air 0.58% Cu-ORE ING 3504 <1 Waste gases SOL- 432 Air VENT inputs 45 LEACH- EX- 2161 utilities ING outputs 22454 Sulfide TRACT- -2112 utilities Anode Refined /oxide TION copper waste heat 21570 Air -798 copper Cu-ore ELEC- 582 248 31512 2155 2112 ROASTING CON- TRO- Flotation 0.63% AND CEN- WIN- Slime Flotation Waste reagents Silicon TRA- ING solids gases 1366 SULFIDE dioxide SMELTING reagents TION 44 <1 CU-ORE 10 (SULFIDE 4574 (SXEW) CONCEN- Cu-ORE) inputs 39635 outputs -582 Lime- TRATION Lime- waste heat -34356 normally stone stone 85% eff to 160 104 further inputs recovery 31175 outputs sulfide Tailings Leach Waste -25201 ore solids gases Sulfide 1258 waste heat concen- inputs 5868 91 Cu-ore -21570 trate 26607 outputs 29648 25201 -11713 waste heat nomally to further recovery -29577 Tailings 1044 5974 1573

Slags Waste gases 5431 3385 to further recovery

4387 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 11

Figure 2.4: Primary copper mass and exergy flows

Material composition & processes are exemplary only Wastes are pretreatment & pre-reprocessing Process water included for chemical reactions only utility Cooling water not included; overburden not included exergy Wastes include depleted air and water vapor 45.3 gJ UTILITIES INPUTS

1 MT PRIMARY

COPPER PRODUCTION mass (inc. byproducts) 1.67MT INPUTS

MATERIAL MATERIAL 73% from sulfide ores, 0.63% Cu PRODUCTS & & PRODUCTS

BYPRODUCTS embodied exergy 3.22 gJ mass 204 MT 27% from oxide ores, 0.58% Cu

embodied exergy 67.8 gJ

WASTES & LOSSES product waste waste waste copper 1 ore 190 MT (61.1 gJ) mass embodied heat 2.11MT air 6.20MT (0.318 gJ) gJ limestone 4.93 MT (0.264 gJ) exergy exergy potential byproduct 202 sulfuric acid 0.667 process water 1.88 MT (0.0971 gJ) 21.4 90.3 MT MT other 0.484 MT (5.95 gJ) gJ gJ 1.11 gJ R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 12

Figure 2.5: France; copper foundry production, imports, exports & apparent consumption, 1913 - 1998 (3 year moving averages) 600

500 Foundry production Imports Exports Apparent consumption 400

300

200 Copper (1000 tons) (1000 metric Copper

100

0 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 13

Figure 2.6: United Kingdom; copper foundry production, imports, exports & apparent consumption, 1913 - 1998 (3 year moving averages) 600

Foundry production Imports Exports Apparent consumption 400

200 Copper (1000 metric tons) metric (1000 Copper

0 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 14

Figure 2 . 7 : Germany; copper foundry production, imports, exports & apparent consumption, 1913 - 1998 (3 year moving averages)

1000 Foundry production Imports Exports Apparent consumption 800

600

400 Copper (1000metric tons)

200

0 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 15

Figure 2.8: Sweden; copper foundry production, imports, exports & apparent consumption, 1913 - 1998 (3 year moving averages)

Foundry production Imports Exports Apparent consumption 100 Copper (1000 metric tons) (1000 Copper

0 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 16

Figure 2 . 9 : Japan; copper foundry production, imports, exports & apparent consumption, 1913 - 1998 (3 year moving averages) 1600

1400

1200 Foundry production Imports Exports Apparent consumption 1000

800

600 Copper(1000 metric tons) 400

200

0 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 17

Figure 2.10: USA; copper foundry production, imports, exports & apparent consumption, 1913 - 1998 (3 year moving averages) 4000 3800 3600 3400

3200 Foundry production 3000 Imports Exports 2800 Apparent consumption 2600 2400 2200 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 Copper (1000 metric tons) Copper 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 18 S 1947 - 1993 1947 - S 1975 1980 1985 1990 Figure 2.11: Electrical consumption of copper; U copper; of consumption Electrical 2.11: Figure 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 percent of total consumption total of percent R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 19

Figure 2.12: Telecommunications capacity

1 voice channel is taken Lasers 1010 as equivalent to 2000 bps in plotting these points. Numbers in parentheses Communication give voice channels satellites carried. 8 10 planned helical coaxial cable and micro- waveguides wave highways (32000) (100,000 or equivalent) microwave links (1800) 10 6 coaxial cable links (600)

carrier telephony first used (12 per wire pair) 10 4 (bits per second) per (bits telephone lines first constructed

100 Baudot multiplex telegraph (16 telegraph machines per line) printing telegraph systems Capacity of major telecommunications highways telecommunications major of Capacity early telegraphy, Morse code dots and dashes oscillating needle telegraph experiments 1 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 Year R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 20 1? waste 3 40 24 103 exports exports exports exports? 1990 , 11 10 old old scrap Sweden

59 Reprocessing old 28? scrap for scrap

24 balance

10 16 other 1 waste 32 ? 1 waste slag copper tentative

98 90 77 66 97 92 97 80 ore 160 196 120 A final final trate 74+? 74+?

blister blister Mining copper copper concen- cathode cathode Refining Smelting products 13: Concentration . 2 Semi-manufacturing

Fig ure 2 ? 13 15 63 42 imports imports imports imports R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 21

Figure 2.14: Price of copper on the New York market, 1870 - 2000 (cents per pound in current and constant 1987 US dollars)

200

100 80 60 50 40 30

10 8 Undeflated copper price (cents/pound) 6 5 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

70 60 50

10 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 Cents per pound (deflated by BLS PPI, 1967=100) R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 22

Figure 2.15: Estimated accumulation of copper-in-use in USA, 1845 - 1998

20 million metric tons million metric tons in use end at year

0 1850 1875 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 year Sources: McMahon 1964, Historical Statistics, and Minerals Yearbooks R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 23

Figure 2.16: Annual change in the copper store in the Swedish technosphere: 1950 - 1995 60

Copper (1000 metric per year) metric tons (1000 Copper -20

-40 1940 19501960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Source: Landner & Lindström 1999, Figure 5.6 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 24

Figure 2.17: Cumulative evolution of the copper reservoir in the Swedish technosphere (1950 base)

750

600

450

300

Copper (1000 metric tons) 150

-150 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

Source: Landner & Lindström 1999, Figure 4.6 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 25

Figure 2.18: World copper production and the US manufacturing production index, 1880 - 1998 with projections to 2050

300 30000

1880 - 1998 fitted

100 10000 1970 - 1998 fitted

1880 - 1998 fitted

(see scale on left) US manufacturing production index 1970 - 1998 fitted

10 1000

Global copper production (see scale on right) US manufacturing production index - 1899=100 World copper production - million metric tons metric million - production copper World 1 100

0.1 10

1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 26

Figure 2.19: Historical and modeled Intensity of Use (consumption of refined copper) as a function of GDP/capita in 1960-1997

15 10 (kg/capita, year) 1.4

1.2

1.0 REF

0.8

0.6 (kg/kUSD'90) OECD90 0.4 ASIA

Model IU 0.2

ALM 0.0 0 10203040506070 (kUSD'90/capita, year) R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 27

Figure 2:20: Model of the global copper system

Global modeling Four world region modeling S6) New scrap S1) Primary resources

x64 (t) = x 56 (t-1)

x(t) x (t) x (t) 12 64 56 S7) Long-lived goods x=sum(x(t´)u(t,t ´)) x(t) 79 57 57 t´< t P2) Concentration P3) Smelting & refining x(t) P4) Production of semi- P5) Production of goods 34p manufactures x(t) x(t) x= l (t) x 23 l = 45 l 2 11 c 12 x=3 12 s(x23 + x93 + x10 3 ) x45x+ 34p x+34s x 64 x=56 px45 l x(t) x= (1-l )gx x=23 (1-c(t)) x12 x=34p (1-ls)x23 34s 57 p 45 l x= (1-l )( 1-g)x x=34s (1-s)(x93 + x10 3 ) 58 p 45 x(t) 58 S8) Short-lived goods u x8 10 =sum(x58 (t´) (t,t ´)) t´< t

P10) Utilization of short-lived goods x(t) x(t) 10 3 8 10 h x=10 3 sx8 10

x=10 14 (1-)xhs 8 10 P9) Utilization of long-lived goods x(t) x(t) 93 79 h x=93 lx79

x=9 13 (1-)xhl 79

x(t) 2 11 x (t) x (t) x (t) 3 12 9 13 10 14

S13 ) Waste from S14 ) Waste from S11 ) Gangue S12 ) Slag long-lived goods short-lived goods R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 28

Figure 2.21: Global copper recycling (separation) efficiency 8 scenarios

Sc8 80% Sc6 Sc7 Sc5

70%

60% Sc4 Sc2 Sc3 Sc1

50%

40% 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 29

Figure 2.22: Global copper recycling rate 8 scenarios

60% Sc8

Sc7 Sc6 50% Sc5 Sc4

Sc2 40% Sc3 Sc1

30%

20%

10%

1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 30

Figure 2.23: Global consumption of refined copper, scenarios 1 through 4 (low recycling efficiency)

100

90 ConSc1

70 ConSc2 ConSc4

ConSc3 50

30 million mteric tons

0 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 31

Figure 2.24: Regional consumption of refined copper; scenarios 1 and 5

45 ASIA

35 ALM 30

15 million mtericmillion tons

10 OECD90

5 REF

0 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 32

Figure 2.25: Regional consumption of refined copper; scenarios 3 and 7

ASIA 25 ALM

15 million mteric tons mteric million

10 OECD90

5 REF 0 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 33

Figure 2.26: Regional consumption of refined copper; scenarios 2 and 6 100

70 ASIA

50 ALM

million mteric tons 30

OECD90 10 REF 0 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 34

Figure 2.27: Regional consumption of refined copper; scenarios 4 and 8 100

ASIA 40 ALM

30 million mteric tons

20 OECD90

10 REF 0 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 35

Fig ure 2 . 2 8 : Global mine production of copper,1900 - 1998, MMT 8 scenarios 90 Herfindahl

70 Sc1 60 Sc5

50 Sc3 Sc7 40 Sc2 Sc6 million metric tons 30 Sc4 Sc8 20

0 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 36

Fig ure 2 . 2 9 : Cumulative global mine production of copper,1900 - 1998, MMT

plus 10x reserve base Sc1 Sc5 Sc2 5,000 plus 9x reserve base Sc6

Sc3 plus 8x reserve base Sc7 Sc4 Sc8

4,000 plus 7x reserve base

plus 6x reserve base

3,000 plus 5x reserve base Herfindahl

plus 4x reserve base 2,000 plus 3x reserve base million metric tons metric million

plus 2x reserve base 1,000

plus 1x reserve base

copper mined to date 0 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 37

Figure 2.30: Global stock of waste copper,1900 - 1998, MMT 8 scenarios

Sc1 Sc2 2,000 Sc3 Sc4

1,500

Sc5 Sc6 Sc7 Sc8 1,000 million metric tons

500

0 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 38

Figure 2.31: Global stock of long-lived copper products,1900 - 1998, MMT 8 scenarios Sc5 3,500 Sc6

Sc7 Sc1 3,000 Sc8 Sc2

Sc3 2,500 Sc4

2,000

1,500 million metric tons metric million

1,000

500

0 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 39

Figure 2.32: Global stock of short-lived copper products,1900 - 1998, MMT 8 scenarios 300 Sc5

250 Sc6 Sc7

200 Sc1 Sc8

Sc2 150 Sc3

Sc4

100 million metric tons metric million

0 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 40

Fig ure 3 . 1 : Mass flows (kg) in the production of 1 MT lead (simplified processes, typical material mixes)

net usable heat 175 mJ

Water 192 SULFURIC ACID PRODUCTION H 2SO4 2021 Off- inputs 7661 gases 5459 outputs -2021 wastes -5639

Waste gas 5639

Air Air Air Air 4182 8063 41 48

Flotation Coking coal Sulfur reagents 5% Fluxes 665 3 12 2691 ORE BLAST SINTER- DROSS- REFIN- Lime- BENE- Lime- Coal stone FUR- stone FICIA- ING 2 ING ING 604 92 NACE TION 95% eff Ore Con Lead Lead Bullion, Lead, sinter bullion refined 72428 inputs centrate inputs inputs inputs drossed inputs 730448980 3312 30677 1435 10255 1060 1105 1033 1081 1000 5% outputs outputs outputs outputs outputs 99.99% -6497-4599 75% -15107 80% -1060 94.4% -1033 96.8% -1 wastes wastes wastes wastes wastes -68445-2483 -15570 -9196 -72 -81

Waste Waste Waste Waste Gangue Waste Slag, Slag, Slag, Slag gases gases dust gases gases dust dust 43 gases 49091 192 3260 10 324 8872 34 38 27

normally normally normally normally to to to to further further further further recovery recovery recovery recovery R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 41

Figure 3.3: Primary lead unit mass and exergy flows

Mat erial com posit ion & processes are ex em plary only Wastes are pretreatm ent & pre-reprocessing CoolingProcess waterwater includednot included; for chemical overburden reactions not only utility Wastesincluded include depleted air and water vapor exergy 28.8 gJ UTILITIES INPUTS

1 MT PRIMARY mass 68.5 MT mass (inc. byproduct) 2.48 MT LEAD PRODUCTION

embodied exergy 36.9 gJ INPUTS embodied exergy 3.59 gJ MATERIAL MATERIAL (5% Pb ore) PRODUCTS & BYPRODUCTS & PRODUCTS

WASTES & LOSSES ore 52.2MT (11.8 gJ) product lead 1 MT air 12.3 MT (0.635 gJ) waste waste waste 1.12 gJ coking coal 0.802 MT (24.8 gJ) mass embodied heat limestone 3.06 MT (0.164 gJ) 66.0 exergy exergy potential byproduct process water 0.141 MT (0.007 gJ) MT sulfuric acid 1 .4 8 MT other 0.011 MT (0.061 gJ) 9.91 gJ 39.7 gJ 2.46 gJ R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 42

Fig ure 3 . 4 : Mass flows (kg) in the production of 1 MT zinc (simplified processes, typical material mixes)

net usable heat 157 mJ

Air 1262 SUL- 1603 FURIC Flotation (9%) reagents ACID SULFIDE SULFIDE Water 16 692 inputs Zn-ORE CONCEN- 5714 CONCEN- Air TRATE, outputs 3572 -1820 H SO 218 TRATION ROAST wastes 2 4 Off- 1820 FINAL Lime- 85% eff` & SMELT gases -3894 stone 3760 REFIN- Slab 102 Air inputs inputs 118 ING zinc 15878 6098 inputs outputs Waste 1000 outputs gases 1520 -2562 -4648 3894 outputs wastes Sulfide wastes -1000 Sulfide -13353 -1450 888 Zinc wastes con- -520 ore centrate (95%) 15761 2526 1184 utilities Slime Waste Waste Slags Dust solids gases Tailings particles 386 gases 1022 133 12436 917 10 Coking Waste coal gases 1184 418 SULFIDE/OXIDE

Zn-ORE (8.3%) normally normally Air to further to further SINTERING & recovery recovery 11775 RETORTING 296

Lime- stone inputs & sand 16372 30 outputs -296 wastes Sulfide -16076 /oxide ore 3383 Waste Dust Waste solids particles gases 2904 30 13142

normally to further recovery R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 43

Fig ure 3 . 4 : Mass flows (kg) in the production of 1 MT zinc (simplified processes, typical material mixes)

net usable heat 157 mJ

Zn-ORE (8.3%) normally normally Air to further to further SINTERING & recovery recovery 11775 RETORTING 296

Lime- stone inputs & sand 16372 30 outputs -296 wastes Sulfide -16076 /oxide ore 3383 Waste Dust Waste solids particles gases 2904 30 13142

normally to further recovery R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 44

Figure 3.5: Exergy flows (mJ) in the production of 1 MT zinc (simplified processes, typical material mixes)

net usable heat 157 utilities utilities 27174 15134 Air 65 SUL- FURIC 2669 Flotation ACID reagents Water 5 SULFIDE SULFIDE inputs utilities 35 Zn-ORE CONCEN- 6082 14061 Air outputs (9%) TRATE, -3033 184 H 2 SO4 ROAST Off- waste heat CONCEN- 3033 FINAL Lime- & SMELT gases -2729 364 stone TRATION 5983 Slab 5 Air REFIN- 6 ING zinc inputs inputs inputs 15816 Waste 5182 15720 gases 6269 outputs outputs outputs -10407 163 -15632 Sulfide Zinc -5182 Sulfide waste heat waste heat waste heat con- -19478 ore -27174 centrate (95%) -14662 15710 15632 4425 5900 utilities Slime Waste Slags Dust 7048 Waste Tailings particles solids gases 396 281 gases 10 78 4 5 Waste Coking gases coal 665 42847

Zn-ORE (8.3%) normally Air to further normally SINTERING & recovery to further 606 recovery RETORTING

Lime- stone 1475 & sand inputs 1 46194 outputs -1475 waste heat Sulfide -34918 /oxide ore 3383 Waste Dust Waste solids particles gases 485 5 16359

normally to further recovery R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 45

Figure 3.6: Overall unit zinc mass and exergy flows

Material composition & processes are exemplary only Wastes are pretreatment & pre-reprocessing Process water included for chemical reactions only utility Cooling water not included; overburden not included Wastes include depleted air and water vapor exergy 63.3 gJ

UTILITIES INPUTS

mass 37.9 MT 1 MT PRIMARY embodied exergy 62.2 gJ ZINC PRODUCTION mass ( inc. byproducts) 2.602 MT

INPUTS 75% from sulfide ores, 9% Zn embodied exergy 7.851 gJ MATERIAL MATERIAL PRODUCTS & 25% from oxide ores, 8.3% Zn BYPRODUCTS

WASTES & LOSSES waste waste waste product slab zinc 1 MT ore 19.1 MT (18.5 gJ) mass embodied heat 5.182 gJ air 16.7 MT (0.861 gJ) coking coal 1.18 MT (42.8 gJ) 35.3 exergy exergy potential byproduct process water 0.692 MT (0.035 gJ) sulfuric acid 1 .6 0 2 MT limestone & other 0.147 MT (0.012 gJ) MT 18.5 gJ 99.2 gJ 2.669 gJ R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 46

Figure 3 . 7 : Arsenic demand patterns in the United States, 1973 - 2000 (kMT)

15 Wood preservatives Agricultural chemicals

1000 metric tons (As content) (As tons 1000 metric Other Total 10

0 1970 1980 1990 2000 Source: USBM, USGS. Minerals Yearbooks, various years, "Arsenic" Table 1 R.U. Ayres et al The life cycle of copper, its co-products and byproducts 47

Fig ure Annex 1 (1.2): Copper production at the mine in Falun, Sweden

3000

2500

2000

metric tons 1500

1000

500 trend actual average

0 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900