CEU eTD Collection

In partial fulfilment ofthe requirementsforthedegree ofDoctor ofPhilosophy

WAR OFWORDSANDFOR of Serbianliteraturein Nationalism andmasculinityinthefield Supervisor: ProfessorJasmina Luki Department ofGenderStudies Central European University Budapest, Hungary Submitted to Dejan Ili 2010 By the1970sand1980s i

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CEU eTD Collection Abstract domination. images, symbols,andconceptsofbelonging, which areusedinarivalryfor political of words;accordingly, worksofliteratureandli identity politicscompete against each other. Therefore, withinmy thesis,afield of lite legitimize certaintraditionsasapossible demonstrates thatboth national literature anditshistoryatthesame timeproduceand self-victimhood? that wasthoroughlypermeated byutterlyethnicizeddiscoursewith "national question,"raisedbydisintegration following question:Howcome thattheSe have beenarticulatedwithinthefieldof century. Itfocuses onvaluesystems, symbol individuals whoidentifythemselves asSerbs),in thelast decades of thetwentieth cultural self-understanding reasons todesignate Serbiancultureas it, claiming thatthegravewrongdoingsofth perspective ofthecollapsesocialistY produced, reproduced,andsustainedwithin twentieth century. These analysesmay beseenasaninventory of identitypatterns qualities, wasformed, andhowithasbeen explain how Serbianidentity,withits'subs analyzing particularworksofSerbianlit transitional justice's demands. context-specific categoriesofcultureand justice's measures. Keepingthisinmind, I arguments thatputforward cultural constraints inimplementation of transitional justice andanalysisoftheYugoslavTrut interpretations presented inthesecond part.Feminists' discussions ontransitional and ethnicityastheobjects elements, that is,theirinclusive andexcl literary criticism andhistoriography.The particular ethicaldimension ofthese collective self-understandings overarches theresearch. fields andtheories, theconcept of transitiona the thesiscirculatesacross This thesis identifies and critically The thesisapproachesthe latetwentie Although itrejectsadirectcausallinkbetw In thesecondpartof In thefirst part ofthethesis,Iestablish ananalytical framework for Categories ofgenderandethnicityareused disciplines andusesvariousconceptstiedtodifferent of theSerbiansociety,anditsmembers (thatis, of researchinthiswork. discerned intheworks ofSerbiannarrativeliterature, thesis, Iusethesecategories a cultureofaccomplices. Therefore, although erature andhistoriography,attemptingto Serbian literature, inorder toanswerthe ugoslavia andarmed conf usive mechanisms, delineate Serbian culture h andReconciliation Commission caseoffer subject ofattachment andidentification. rature istreated asanarenainwhich identity thatismore compatible with rbian politicalelit analyzes theprevai ii suggest alternativec tantial', 'inevitable', and'constraining' maintained inthelastquarter of the thefieldofSerbianliterature. This competition ischaracterized aswar of theYugoslavfederalstate,inamanner e Serbiansideinthesewarsgiveenough s, memories, myths, andtraditions that l justice, withits specific cultural aspect, th-century Serbianliterature from the terary criticism arese indepictingparticularelements of een cultureandpolitics,thisthesis e respondedtothe ofcultureandidentityin ling patterns of the onceptualization of licts thatproceeded astrongnotionof en asarsenalsof CEU eTD Collection Professor Nenad Dimitrijevi was workingonthisthesis, Iexpress mygratitude toProfessor JasminaLukić For theknowledgeandunconditionalsupport

ć . iii thattheyweregi ving tomewhileI andto CEU eTD Collection of transitionalcultural policy 4.2. Literarycriticismandhi MORAL UNIVERSALISM,ID BETWEEN JUSTICE TRANSITIONAL Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 76 ...... 4.1. Generalframework CONTINUOUSCHANGE FIELDS OF ANDIDENTITY: CULTURE Chapter 4 71 ...... 3.8. Choosingidentities? 3.7. Reconciliation asa foundationalnarrative 3.6. FouraspectsoftheCommission'sendeavor 3.5. Chronology 3.4. TheCommission'sshortprehistory 3.3. Truthandreconciliationcommi 3.2. "Cognitiveblock" 3.1. Ahistoricalprelude ANDRECO TRUTH THE YUGOSLAV Chapter 3 2.3. Twofold transition 2.2. Threetypesoftransitional justice 2.1. Recognitionorredistribution? ANDTRANSITIONALJUSTICE GENDER Chapter 2 1.4. Looking backorreachingforward 1.3. "Realists"vs."idealists"...... 14 1.2. Transitionaljustice:introductorynotes...... 13 1.1. Comingtotermswith theevilpast...... 9 4.2.3. What is on the horizon? ...... 112 ...... 4.2.3. What isonthehorizon? 107 4.2.2. Trauma: anoriginofanation ...... 104 ...... 4.2.1. Conceptualizinga context 4.1.6. (Ethno)national identity ...... 95 ...... 4.1.6. (Ethno)nationalidentity 92 ...... 4.1.5. Righttointerpretandjudge 88 ...... 4.1.4. Cultureandmorality: descriptive cultural relativism 83 ...... 4.1.3. Culture's causalsignificance 79 ...... 4.1.2. Untanglingcultureandidentity 76 ...... 4.1.1. Hardconceptsofcultureandidentity 59 ...... Month –unknown,year2003,many months later 58 ...... May 2003,twenty-sixmonths later 58 ...... November 28,2002,twentymonths later 57 ...... May 28,2002,fourteenmonthslater 56 ...... January 15,2002,tenmonthslater 55 ...... April 17/December 10,2001,ninemonthslater 54 ...... April 15,2001,twoweekslater 53 ...... March 29/30,2001,beginning ...... 53 ...... 1 ...... 43 ...... 34 ...... 39 ...... storiography aselements ...... 104 ...... ANDCULTURE...... ENTITY, 8 ...... 28 ...... ssions: general frameworks ...... 30 ...... 20 iv ...... 50 ...... 76 NCILIATION COMMISSION AROCKAND ...... 25 ...... 63 ...... 59 ...... HARD PLACE: HARD PLACE: ...... 47 .. .. 38

CEU eTD Collection 7.2. Whatisonthestock? Bibliography CONCLUSION 7.1. Literatureasaresourceofidentitypatterns "FORGOTTEN BLACKMAN" Chapter 7 6.2. Cultureaslegitimacy 6.1. Anemptycoreasaguaranteeofcontinuity CONTINUITY INCHANGE CONTINUITY ANDTOSCANA: TURKEY Chapter 6 134 5.5. Ministryofpain...... 5.4. Theworst humiliation 5.3. Homoeroticismaspatriotism 5.2. Imagesfromhell 5.1. Fatherandson INAREPRESSIVECULTURE IDENTITIES UNAUTHORIZED MINISTRY OFPAIN: Chapter 5

Endangered vitality ...... 180 ...... 7.2.2. Endangeredvitality 168 ...... 7.2.1. Unanimouspolyphony 162 ...... 7.1.2. Meaningfulnarrativeformulas 160 ...... 7.1.1. Stylethatissomething else ...... 190 ...... 187 ...... 119 ...... 123 ...... 166 ...... 151 ...... 132 ...... 140 ...... 159 ...... 127 v ...... 140 ...... 159 ...... 116

CEU eTD Collection ethnicized discoursewith ast the Yugoslavfederalstate,inamanner Serbian politicaleliteresponde existing accounts,Iattempttoanswerthe members ofSerbiancommunity.Inotherwo Serbian military andparamilitary forces,th 1980s onwardsmanaged tolegitimize violen protagonists oftheaggressiveandexpans the 1970sand1980s,Iamalsotryingtoprovideapartialexplanationofhow replace each otherovertime. only theyaresubjectsofthecontinuousreinterpretation, buttheyalsocontestand understanding arenoteverlasti from thisperiod.AsIwillargueinthefo and traditions intheSerbiannarrative literature, literary criticism andhistoriography focus isonthepresence/articulations of who identify themselves asSerbs), inthe of theculturalself-understandingSe INTRODUCTION

By exploring Serbiannarrative fiction, literary criticism andhistoriography of This thesis aims atidentifying andcri

rong notionofself-victimhood? d tothe"nationalquestion," ng, althoughtheyarerepresen value systems, symbols,memories, myths, 1 that wasthoroughly rbian society,anditsmembers (individuals last decades ofthetwentieth century.My ionist Serbian nationalism from thelate at is, tojustifytheirwrongdoings tothe llowing chapters,thesepatternsofself- following question:Howcome thatthe tically analyzing theprevailing patterns rds, hopingtocontributethealready t actsandmass crimes perpetratedby raised bydisintegrationof ted assuch.Infact,not permeated byutterly CEU eTD Collection Dejan Jovi Nationalism Revival of the Intellectual Oppositionand 1995). 1995). Century the Twentieth in Nationalism European Re Edicija Federalismin Yugoslavia, 1962–1991 of weight responsibility"], and James Ker-Lindsay (eds.), (London and Portland: Frank Cass, 2002); Jasna Dragovi and New York: Routledge, 2010), pp. 117–142; Latinka Perovi Latinka 117–142; pp. 2010), Routledge, York: New and and inter-ethnictensionsin thesocialistYugoslavia. been typicallyinterpreted asaresponse to capacities andauthorities. kind ofconfederalstatestructure,l forward nationalquestions. socialist politics. respectively, undertheclaim thatthey the federalstatehadtogetridof Communists faceditsfirstgravecrisis oflegitimacy. from thelate 1960s andthelargestudents' 6 5 4 3 2 1 within which the"Serbian national question" wasraised. onto twoSerbianprovinces,Vojvodinaand Kosovo. Thiswasaninstitutionalframe the leadershipofLea the 1970smaybeunderstoodasanendeavor Conflicts Conflicts in Europe and Gender Racism Nationalism, Consequences for Women," in Helma Lutz, Ann Phoenix and Nira Yuval-Davis (eds.), Tatjana 1990); knjiga, Školska SeeRobert M. Hayden, Dimitrijevi See Nenad SeeŽarko Puhovski, Jovi See Dejan SeeŽarkoPuhovski, SeeSiniša Malševi The ethnicturnexplicitwith (Ann Arbor: Michigan University Press, 2000). 2000). Press, University Michigan Arbor: (Ann ć č , , 2003); Dennison Rusinow, "The "The Yugoslav Rusinow, Dennison , 2003); Jugoslavija – država koja jeodumrla koja država – Jugoslavija ć , "Reassessing Socialist Yugoslavia, 1945–90: The case of Croatia," in case Djoki Croatia," Dejan The of 1945–90: Yugoslavia, Socialist , "Reassessing 3 Aseriesofchangesthefederalconstitutionfrom thefirsthalfof ć , ć č Socijalisti Ideology, Legitimacy and the New State. Yugoslavia, Serbia and Croatia and Serbia Yugoslavia, the New State. and Legitimacy Ideology, , Re Socijalisti Slu Blueprints for a House Divided. TheConstitutional Logic of theYugoslav č č no. 62, 2001, pp. 85–90. 85–90. pp. 2001, 62, no. New Perspectives on Yugoslavia. Key Issues andControversies aj Jugoslavija [The case of Yugoslav 6 Thisconstitution also confe gue ofYugoslavCommunists. 5 NewYugoslavConstitution, from a 1974,established

ka konstrukcija zbilje konstrukcija ka Đ č uri (Bloomingtonand Indianapolis: I ka konstrukcija zbilje; konstrukcija ka ć , "From National Economics to Nationalist Hysteria– Nationalist , "Fromto Economics National in theSerbian national pol (London: Pluto Press, 1995). Pluto 1995). Press, (London: eaving thefederalgovernment withweak (Washington DC: The American Press, DC:The University (Washington Croatian and Serbian republic leaderships Croatian andSerbianrepublicleaderships undermined achievements ofthepost-war [Yugoslavia – the state that passedaway] [Yugoslavia–thestatethat (Beograd: 2 thecurrentconstitutio protests,whentheLeagueofYugoslav (London: Hurst and Company, 2002). Company, 2002). and Hurst (London: to strengthenlegitimacy, undertakenby [Socialist construction of reality] (Zagreb: (Zagreb: ofreality] [Socialistconstruction Peoples," in Peter F. Sugar (ed.), (ed.), in Peter F.Sugar Peoples," ć -Soso, Sabrina P.Ramet, Nationalism Sabrina and ć 2 , "Teško breme odgovornosti" ["Heavy 1 Intheearly1970s,headof Therootsoftensionoriginate rred ahighlevel ofautonomy "Saviours of the Nation." Serbia's ia] (Beograd: Re Edicija ia] (Beograd: 4 ndiana University University ndiana Thisreinforcement put icy inthelate1980shas nal, political,social Press, 1992). 1992). Press, Crossfires. Crossfires. (London (London č , 2001); , 2001); Eastern Eastern ć

CEU eTD Collection the worksofSerbiannarrativeliterature, are usedindepictingparticularelements of collectiveself-understa nationalism, Sciences, whichisconsidered tobe themain programmatic document oftheSerbian is hardly possibletointerpret theMemo 8 7 noticeable, culturalaspect,overarchesthere theories. The conceptoftransitionaljus circulates acrossdisciplines anduses variou straightforward causallinkbe question becomes evenmore challenging contribute toanswering the "indoctrination"? How didthishappen, afterdecades of and immediately wellunderstoodbylarge name ofcollective pastsufferings.Thedi in improving existingones.Theysimplyclaimed newnation-state, arrangements; also,the solution was neither inreturning toprevious arrangements nor authors werelookingforjustificati is the concept I am criticizing and rejecting in chapter 4 of this work. 4 of in chapter rejecting and I am concept criticizing is the which determinism, cultural of some kind on relies heavily argument stressthat Wachtel's to important itis here, histories; incultural types these periods terms and meaning for of the about consensus any reach to ideathatitispossible the aside To put Yugoslavia. socialist and Yugoslavia interwar both of fate the determined stateborders, much beyond went that postmodernism), and modernism, Wachtel bravely claims Yugoslavia in Politics Cultural and Literature Nation. a (ed.), Popov Nebojša 340–374. 340–374. The utterly opposite argument was ela opposite The utterly Milosavljevi See Olivera Yet, this context cannot help us understand why the response was so brutal. It Yet, thiscontextcannothelpusunderstandwhytheresponsewassobrutal.It Indeed, itisnotatallo 7 referring solely tothe constitutional settlements. TheMemorandum's Srpska stranarata that thesequence of general cultural paradigms (such asromanticism, realism, ć , "Zloupotreba autoriteta nauke" ["Mi

outlined question.Thejustifi tween culture and politics. bvious howtheanalysisoffield ofliteraturecan borated in Andrew Baruch Wachtel, Wachtel, Baruch Andrew in borated [Serbian road to war] [Serbianroad on beyondtheallegedlyunfairfederal scourse theyusedwasthoroughlyethnicized 3 randum ofSerbianAcademy ofArtsand literary criticism andhistoriography.The tice, withitsspecific,althoughnotso search. Categoriesof parts of political andintellectual elites. s conceptstiedtodifferentfieldsand given that I reject the argument of (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998). Press, Stanford 1998). University (Stanford: the so-called socialistideological (Beograd: Samizdat B92, suse of scientific authority"], in in suse ofscientific authority"], 8 Toanswerit,thethesis cation ofthisresearch Making a Nation. Breaking Breaking Nation. a Making gender andethnicity ndings discernedin at any cost, in the the in anycost, at 2 2002), pp. 2002), CEU eTD Collection measures donotcontribute significantly topoliticaland socialchanges, itseems that implementation of transitional justicemeas As Iwilldemonstrate, thecontext-specific features seem toconstraineffective goal oftransitional justiceis to change so of concepts developed withinthedomain of twentieth century. literature simultaneouslywiththedramatic political twistsinthesecond half ofthe the Serbianwarventure,wereproduced,repr such aframework.Inthis work contemporary literary criticism hasconsistently avoided toresearch itssubject within have beencoveredonfivepages,inaform Serbian literatureandliterarycriticismfr mechanisms, delineateSerbiancultureandethni particular ethicaldimension ofthese elements, thatis,their inclusive andexclusive 9 of Serbianliteraturestopsat1950.Inthelate terms ofthe"nationalistic"argument hasnot community understandsitself. national identityformation understood asin establishment andmaintenance of cultural and ethnical bordersthat leadto the work. Genderperspectiveprovidesconceptu Jovan Dereti In chapter1,Iestablishaframework for * A thoroughstudyofSerbiannarrativefict ć , Istorija srpske književnosti

Iwillshowthat [History of Serbian literature [History of Serbian om thesecondhalfoftwentiethcentury cietal foundations thatproved tobeflawed. 4 ofanappendix.Atthesame time, Serbian beendoneyet.Theonlyexistinghistory transitional justice. I argue that the main stituting asetofnotionsthrough which oduced, andsustainedwithinthefieldof ures. Furthermore, notonly thatthese al toolsforexplainingprocessesof patterns, which eventually legitimized my analyses.Thisframework consists city as the objects of research inthis st, updatededitionofthishistory, ion from the1970sand1980sin ] (Beograd: Prosveta, 2003). 2003). Prosveta, (Beograd: ] 9

CEU eTD Collection different levels,bothdiscussi Collective responsibility makes coming to involuntary group,seems necessary forestablishment ofcollective responsibility. society. Astrongconceptofidentity,firmly grounded inasenseofbelongingtoan different from thepreviousonesthatha mechanisms seekawaytoimpose newpatte changing culturalbasisofasocietyma Transitional justice's demands intheaftermat chapter 4movesdiscussionsontransitional to moral universals. my ownunderstandingofthecategoriescu identity- and culture-related arguments. Then,Iwillproceed tochapter4,present justice, and will explore howthese arguments work,byaddressing closely relatedcontext-specific determine the choiceof the available paths.Inthisthesis, Iamfocusingontwo appropriate totrydeconstr in universalist terms. Thisisth loom heavily,theyeven seem topreclude predicament requires resorting to moral universalism. However,contextual constraints measures ofanappropriateculturalpolic Therefore, Iam suggestingth they alsoreinforceexisting societalarra

Conceptualization of collective responsibil Rather thanmaking simpleconclusive a b) theYugoslavTruthandReconcil ons havetodemonstrate an uct mainfeaturesofthecont e problem Idepictinchapter1. categories: identityandcultu at thetransitional ngements, whosechange rked bywrongdoings.Transitionaljustice's 5 y. Ibelieve that thecharacter of Serbian ve been interiorized bymembers ofthe the verypossibilityofthinkingandacting h ofmass crimes areinfactdemands for lture andidentity,theirrelationship terms withtheevilpastcompulsory. rns ofself-understand justice from legal tocultural realm. evaluativejudgment, itmay bemore iation Commission, respectively.On ity for graveatrocities presented in justice's toolkithastoinclude apparent combined forceof a) ext, tosee if theyindeed genderandtransitional re. In chapters hasbeenrequested. ing, substantially 2and3,I CEU eTD Collection understood themselves asSerbsin thispa ethno-nationalist values, symbols, memories process ofthefederalstatedisint agents chose oraccepteditas themostsuita collective identity wasjustonepossibility. Inth maintained assuchuntiltoday? its 'substantial', 'inevitable', and'constraini century context,leads to the following quest is, arsenalsofsymbolic weaponsthatare and literaryhistoriesarearsenalsofimages, symbols,andconceptsofbelonging,that competition itselfmay beunderstood aswarof literature maybeseenasanarenaof competingidentity politics, whilethe common cultureasasubject ofattachment and legitimize aset of precisely, itisargued that are understood as sourcesoflegitimacyatraditiontowhich peoplebelong. More of transitional justice. suggesting different concepts ofcultureandidentity, more compatible with demands seemingly inevitableinconceptualizingcoll which transitional justiceisledbystrongc it alsoassumes acollectiveagent witha cha appears thatalthoughtransitiona Coming toterms withthe evil past implie

Rethinking conceptsofcultureandident In thesecondpartofchapter4,national

values, myths,shared historicalmemories, elements of national literatureanditshist l justiceiscenteredonthe egration. Thisisacrucialpoint:by e 1970sandthe1980s,at used inarivalryfo 6 ng' qualities,formed, Over time, collectiveas and identification. Therefore, thefieldof ble for designing strategies of action in a ions: HowwastheSerbian identity,with s formation ofanewidentity.Thus,it ngeable identity. Thisisan impasse into rticular way,assigned to theiridentity ective responsibility. oncepts ofcultureandidentitythat are , myths,andtraditions, citizens who words. Inthis war, works ofliterature literature andnational literary history ity withintheSerbian late-twentieth ory atthesame time produce strong conceptofidentity, r politicaldomination. horoughly ethnicized horoughly ethnicized and how hasitbeen In chapter4,Iam wellasindividual choosing asetof CEU eTD Collection work aims torepresent such aresearch inthefieldofSerbian literature. are necessarily limited, butatthesame time fact, whatis needed is anumber ofdisciplinaryresearch here, cannotbedonesimultaneouslywithinal results ofsocietalchanges. Anall-en justifying or denying committed crimes, andpartly defined byprojection of needed articulated throughinterpretationsofiden seeking andestablishingthenormative standpoi sufferings. patterns ofcreationethnicunityandso through analogywithits literature, thatis,it are thuslegitimized byreferringtocontin the continuityofanation.Specificnationalgoa continuity: if anation is thesame asits lite It arguesthatpatternsoflegitimacy consis that literaryhistoriesbya incessant sequenceofgreatmen andtheir continuity thatgoesbacktothecommon measure solidarity. ofethnic of commonorigins,shared Serbian literature. Taken together, these inventory ofidentitypatternsproduced,re features ofsubstantialityandinevitability.

By andthroughreevaluation oftheexistingtraditionsIamatsame time In chapter5,Iamexposinganunde nd throughcreatingimagery ofcontinuityconferlegitimacy. historical memories, elemen compassing culturalwork,whichisassumed patterns haveformed anethnicsetof 7 t ofestablishinganal produced, andsustained dead bodies.Chapter6dealswithanotion origins fromtheancientpastthroughan tified culturalpatterns In chapters5,6,and7,Iamofferingan rature, thenliterary continuity testifies to s literaryhistory.Chapter7putsforward crucial forthesuccessful transition. This uity of a nation,whichisestablished uity ofa l social,culturaland lidarity through images of collective ls, suchasformation ofanation-state, nt. Thisnormative standpointispartly rstanding ofcommunalcontinuity, ts ofcommonculture, and a es, whoseindividualimpacts ogies and constructing constructing and ogies political arenas.In within thefieldof and theirrolein

myths myths CEU eTD Collection Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2007], p. 30). Press, 2007], Princeton University Oxford: acutely ambivalent about affirming historical continuities" continuities" historical affirming about ambivalent acutely felt citizens where and question into decisively put been had traditions wherenational emerge to to Habermas, post-co it:"According explained briefly responsibility, and shared cultures in chapter 4. 4. chapter in cultures shared and responsibility, mass collective between crimes, relations conceptual more atlength discuss I 133–162. pp. 2009, njegovi podanici i masovni zloč Ethics S.and Hoffman (eds.), new Constitutionfrom 2006;theTrut MORAL UNIVERSALISM, BETWEEN JUSTICE TRANSITIONAL Chapter 1 11 10 trials andappointment ofthespecialprosecu Tribunal fortheFormer Yugoslavia,thatisICTFYortheHagueTribunal;domestic implementation of transitional justice's t Serbian culture,andinparticularitsliterature,from period. this domain oftransitionaljusticeprovide accomplices." Yugoslav wars,theremaybegoodreasonstodesignatethiscultureasa"cultureof processes, andespecially because ofthemasscrimes committed duringpost- nation-states wereformed. Dueto thewr federal statesocialistYugoslavia, andbyarmed conflictsthroughwhichsuccessor twentieth century.Thisperiodwasmarked by Serbian culture,andinparticularaboutSerbianliteraturethe Historikerstreit, This claim is articulated with the reference to Jü to reference the This with claim is articulated Aboutthe"culture ofaccomplices (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1991), pp. 240, 246; Nenad Nenad Dimitrijevi 246; pp. 240, 1991), Littlefield, and Rowman (Lanham: The aim ofthischapteristooffera and particularly to his concept of "post- of concept his to particularly and 10 Therefore, itispossible toargue thatconcepts establishedwithinthe Collective Responsibility. Five Decades of Debate in Theoretical and Applied Applied and Theoretical Debatein FiveDecades of Collective Responsibility. in" in" ["A criminal regime, its

" see Larry May, "Metaphysical GuiltandMoral Taint,"" seeLarryMay,"Metaphysical inL.May IDENTITY, ANDCULTURE IDENTITY, h andReconciliationCommission, 2001–2003) rgen Habermas' contribution to the dispute known as known tothe dispute contribution Habermas' rgen an appropriateframework forexamining 8 ools (suchasthe International Criminal AROCKAND ongdoings oftheSerbiansideinthese conceptual framework forthinkingabout tor forwarcrimes in nventional, 'reflexive' identities weremost likely identities 'reflexive' nventional, the processes thatledtothecollapse of conventional identities," as Jan Werner Müller Werner asJan identities," conventional (Constitutional Patriotism (Constitutional subjects, andmass crime"],

HARD PLACE: HARD PLACE: Serbiain2003;the last quarterofthe ć , "Zlo [Princeton and 11 č However, ina Re č č ki režim, ki režim, no. 79, CEU eTD Collection national reconciliation. totherestor Itisessential is "Justice (http://www.icty.org/sections/AbouttheICTY). thousands of victims andtheir families, thus contributing to alasting peace in the former Yugoslavia" http://www.icty.org/s ICTY President, taken asa motto on the ICTY's official web page retribution. Thus peace and justice gohand inhand who have lived under areign of terror. It breaks the cycle of violence, hatred and extra-judicial Belgrade Centre for Human Rights, 2005). war crimes committed bySerbiansidehasdecreasedoveryears. 1990s arepredominantly beingseeninSerbia;onthecontrary,awareness about Hague Tribunal's trialsandverdictshave 1.1. Comingtotermswith theevilpast been implemented inseekingjustice inSerbia. to bringneededchanges.First,Iwillbriefl mechanisms shouldbeimplemented together I am offering arguments for thelatter claim. Iwillconclude thattransitional justice's effective implementation of thetransitional just the underlyingconceptsoftran transitional justice aredoomed tofail. But, Serbia. in the2000sdidnotyieldexpectedresults( 13 12 states. Yugoslav wars,withanaim tolessentensionsamong newlyformedsuccessors rule oflaw–akind Tribunal hasundertakentoestablish –besidesthe promotion ofaccountabilityandthe accordance withsome ofthebasicprincipl " Bandovi SeeIgor By bringing perpetrators to trial, the to trial,the perpetrators ICTY crimes aims to By bringing deterfuture render justice and to 13 Instead ofhelpingtou It istempting toclaimthatdue to But,itlooksliketheTribunalhasonly ections/AbouttheICTY ections/AbouttheICTY ć (ed.), common (Beograd: (Beograd: War Crimes Judiciary National ICTY and Activityof The

sitional justice,suchascu nderstand thenatureof historicaltruthaboutYugo ation ofpeacefulandnormal relations between people 9 y listanddescribesome measuresthathave nothadasignificant impact ontheway ." These are the words of Antonio Cassese, former this argument may beturnedupsidedown: political, socialandculturalchanges)in with anadequatecu es oftransitionaljustice, theHague Serbianpeculiarities,processesof ice "toolkit." Inthispart of mythesis an indinspensable ingredient of the process of process of the ingredient an indinspensable reinforced positionsfrom whichpost- the post-Yugoslavwars, lture andidentity,constrain slavia's collapseandpost- ltural policy 12 Entirelyin in order CEU eTD Collection committed such acts, i.e. cleansed territories of di of territories acts,i.e.cleansed such committed whether the act is prohibited, aredisputed. National herosmay beheros precisely because they had i.e. court, international an in applied be to veryare norms The that with. No! charged been crime has he the reallycommitted the – whether defendant court the 'national' thein mattertried about only doubts Activity of ICTY and National War Crimes War National Judiciary, ICTYand Activity of Bandovi Igor 2005 other, to the excessive role of parliament in individual members ofparliamentmade are subservient by Art. 102.2 to party leaderships and, on the the fact that relate, hand, to on the one Constitution the to with respect concerns states:"Themain 106 Particularly interesting are paragraphs 103, 105, and 106 of the Conclusion. For instance, paragraph http://www.venice.coe.int/docs/ 70th plenary session (Venice, 17–18 March 2007)," available at single paragraph inthis Constitution that circumstances, oughttobe 2006. Although therewasaclearconsensus that newSerbia's Constitution, duetoall group identity.Thesameineffectivenessco outside, something thatendangersintrinsic whose members viewtransitionaljustice find reasonsforembracing transformation, or,toputitdifferently,withintheculture within thecultural contextthatopenly reje that thetransitional justice's "toolkit" isinadequate and ineffective when itisused Yugoslav nationsenteredtheconflicts. 17 16 15 14 has beeninanywayproblematic; instea social changes into liberalization of political institutions and procedures. Truth andReconciliation Commission. contextualized] (Beograd:Fabrika fundamental prerequisiteofa demo political parties." parties." political createsar this Constitution, the of Implementation Lawon Constitutional the in for provided Constitution ofthe force into entry the following ofalljudges reappointment the general Combined with judges. elects the in addition and appointment orindirectly,all membersAssembly directly elects, bu merely isexercise not apaper constitution the Fabrika knjiga, 2008). 2008). knjiga, Fabrika ustavotvorne skupštine After three years of annual public surveys commissioned by Belgrade Centre for Human Rights, in See Venice Commission, "Opinion on the Constitution Of Serbia, adopted by the Commission at its the atits Commission by adopted Of Serbia, the Constitution on "Opinion Commission, SeeVenice SeeNenad Dimitrijevi inthis work. Commission and Truth Reconciliation the Yugoslav on chapter Seethe Even more interesting is thecase of constitutional changes inSerbia inthe ć made the folowing conclusion: "Worst of all, the national public does not have [Giving up the enlightenment idea of constitutional assembly] (Beograd: assembly] (Beograd: constitutional of idea enlightenment the up [Giving ć , Ustavna demokratija shva demokratija Ustavna 2007/CDL-AD(2007)004-e.asp 2007/CDL-AD(2007)004-e.asp transitional, knjiga, 2007); Aleksandar Molnar, Molnar, Aleksandar 2007); knjiga,

cratic constitutionalismandisalso wholly necessarytoensure that 15 14

16 sloyal elements, tortured the hated enemy, etc." enemy, hated the tortured elements, sloyal 10 judicial appointments. Ju TheHagueTribunal clearlydemonstrates would suggestthat recentSerbianhistory thisConstitution isfar from channeling as something onthem imposed from the d, theConstitution's preamble regarding uld befoundintheworkofYugoslav cts –ordoesnothaveadispositionto t will be enforced in practice. Yet in the National practice. t enforced will be of the High Judicial Council proposing judges for for judges proposing Council Judicial the High of pp. 85–86). 85–86). pp. qualities of their collective and authentic eal threat ofa controlofthe judicial system by ć [Constitutional democracy democracy ena kontekstualno[Constitutional Oproštaj od prosvetiteljske ideje ideje od prosvetiteljske Oproštaj dicial independence isa 17 Thereisno (The (The CEU eTD Collection u svim unutrašnjim ispoljnim politi iMetohiji Kosovu na Srbije interese ištitedržavne zastupaju da organa državnih svih obaveze ustavne autonomije u okviru suverene države Srbije i daiz takvog položaja Pokrajine Kosovo i Metohija slede od toga daje Pokrajina Kosovo i Metohija sastavni državne tradicije srpskog naroda i ravnopravnosti svih gra Ustavna demokratija shva demokratija Ustavna 215–233. pp. 2009), MittelalterStudien, (München: Myth Revisited," in Wilhelm Fink (ed.), (ed.), Fink in Wilhelm Revisited," Myth see Dejan Serbia, twentieth-century the Repu of the Constitution issue Serbia of citizens affairs, foreign and all in internal Region Metohija and Kosovo the in stateinterests Serbia's defend sovereignty, andthatsuch a statusimplies c ofpr astatus ithas that territory, ofSerbia's part isaconstitutive Region Metohija and Kosovo the the fact that to also referring Serbia, in communities preamble, political reality andtosecurestate sove precisely, sinceSerbianauthoritiesdonot system. Sincethe preamble is indeepco passed Constitution introduces violation of c of defendingKosovoaswellSerbia's territo Constitution ofSerbiamaintain have beenitsanothermain purpose. although accordingtotransitionaltheories that this Constitution actuallyundermines the endeavors andwarcrimescommitted bySerbia Let usputasidetheKosovomyth, the main reasons for passinganewconstitution. But,whatthiscontinuityrefers to? fact that –following theories of transitional justice– Kosovo 20 19 18 implemented. Constitution. Inotherwords, theylivein See Nenad Dimitrijevi See Nenad Foran informativeoverall accounton ethnic and allcitizens of equality to and people Serbian of statetradition tothe "Referring Because ofthis"undermining," more 18 unequivocallyestablishes 20 Serbiancitizensparticipateevery ć ć , "Epilog: Rodoljupci pišu ustav" ["Epilogue: patriots write constitution"] in write constitution"] patriots ["Epilogue: ustav" pišu Rodoljupci , "Epilog: ena kontekstualno, č

kim odnosima, gra s continuity withtheprevious period.Undertheguise themythof Kosovo as a'nationa Đ ć oki Uses and Abuses of the Middle Ages: 19th-21st Century continuity 19 p. 398–406. 398–406. p. astable element ofall justifications of war onstitutional dutiesthatallstatebodies advocateand , "Whose Myth? Which Nation? The Serbian Kosovo Kosovo Serbian The Nation? Which , "Whose Myth? istine autonomy within the framework of Serbia's state state ofSerbia's framework the within autonomy istine 11 reignty overthe territory specified inthe thecountry whoseconstitution cannotbe have resourcestochangetheexistinggeo- blic of Serbia..." [my translation]. ["Polaze [mytranslation]. ofSerbia..." blic establishment oftherulelawshould onstitutional norms intothecoreof legal llision withreality, or, toputitmore deo teritorije Srbije, daima položaj suštinske đ with theprevious period, inspite of the ani Srbije donose Ustav Republike Srbije..."] Srbije..."] Republike Ustav donose Srbije ani rule oflawratherthanestablishingit, n side.What isless obvious isthefact rial integrity ingeneral, thisrecently đ than anythingelse,thecurrent ana ietni day inviolationoftheSerbian discontinuity č kih zajednicauSrbiji,polaze l'myth inthenineteenth–and oughttobeoneof ć i od i od ć i

CEU eTD Collection reinforces existing identity patterns, whosechange hasbeen requested. Bearing all Not onlythatthis"toolkit" do both ontheleveloftheoreticalanalysisa Therefore, thetransitional ju culture and identitylimit th which Iwilltrytoelaborate inthefirst part opinion, relies–explicitlyorimplicitly – that there aresuchpeculiarities. The conceptualization of transitional justice, inmy to claim thatthisineffectiven and toolsoftransitionaljustic defend Kosovo. relations. Such conditions areestablished andlegitimized bythestate's "necessity"to Serbia. Onthecontrary,everythingcanbeamatter ofnegotiationandpower understanding thatnothing needstobedetermined byconstitutional framework in given circumstances. Thus,itmight besaid that the Serbia's Cons constitution andprovideviolator to thisprivileged position itgets thepower toinstitutionalize violation of the said inconstitutionandthus a privileged positionin astructure of theC that Constitution's main purposeistopreven interpretation of newSerbia's Constitution gets a bitradicalized, itmight beevensaid understood asaconstitutional ground fordisr state territorialintegrity. That said,itispossible toarguethat th It ispossible toarguethatduespecificcircumstances inSerbia,principles In fact,the Constitution's introductoryparagraphmay be presentsaframework for e possibilities for thinking about their potential change. ess is not a result of Serbian peculiarities. In fact, I doubt ess isnotaresultofSerbianpeculiarities.Infact,Idoubt stice's "tool kit" may provetobeinevitably ineffective e simply havetobe ineffective. However,Iam inclined es notcontributetopolitical s withinstitutionalized justifications thatarebasedon 12 nd onthelevelofpracticalimplementation. on hardconceptsofcultureandidentity, onstitution: it precedes everything that is onstitution: itprecedeseverythingthatis t the ruleoflaw.Thepreambleoccupies ofthischapter.Thesehardconcepts egard oftheconstitutional norms. Ifthis e preamble's purposeisnottoguarantee understanding itscontent.Due and socialchanges,italso titution promotes an CEU eTD Collection University Press, 2004), p.ix. Press, 2004), University 69. of justice,applicable opted forfreedom anddemocracy. Transitiona and Eastern Europe,got rid of military dictatorships andtotalitarian regimes and societies acrosstheworld,inLatinAmerica, the secondhalfof 1.2. Transitionaljustice:introductorynotes policy. should beimplemented togetherwithmeasur that cannotbeprovidedbytransitionaljust transitional justicemay bee more compatible withpurposesof transiti legal andpoliticalmeans. Forexample, is supposedtochangetheunderstandingofwhatfair liberalizing change. criminal regime. focuses onlegalmeasures shapedtod this inmind, inthefourthpartofthisth 22 21 the periodofrepressiverule,newregime transitional justice needs todeal withinthe preventing theirfurtherimpact onpoliticalandsociallife Closing the Books. Transitional Justice in Historical Perspective Historical in Justice Transitional Books. the JonElster, Closing Genealogy," Justice G.Teitel, Ruti "Transitional Prominence of transitional justice isclos According totransitional theories, toc 21 However,prosecutingwrongdoers to societiesthataregoingthrough twentieth century–itslasttwo ffective onlywithin anappropriate cultural context, one

esis, Isuggestanalternativeview onculture, 13 eal withwrongdoingsofthepredecessor identifications ofpastwrongdoingsoccur aftermath of a criminal regime's fall. After Harvard Human Rights Journal onal justice. Iclaim s areexpectedto South-EastEurope,and,finally,Central ice's measures solely.These measures es derivedfromanappropriatecultural onstruct anormative shift, theone that l justiceisaspecificconceptualization ely relatedtopoliticalchanges from ofthepreviousregime and periods ofpoliti and just,may employvarious decades inparticular–when 22 isnottheonlythingthat undertake substantial (Cambridge: Cambridge that instruments of Vol. 16, 2004, p. 16, Vol. 2004, cal changes.It CEU eTD Collection translation]. translation]. ["Facing the evil past:does Serbia and itra transparency, and its simplicity however flawed they may be"(Closing the Books, would indicatethatatransitioniscomplete area ofdisagreement relatestotheasse brutality." c) of thepreviousregime," objectives of theprevious regime. political orderwhoseliberalizingobjectives followed byadequatelegalmeasures shouldcontributetorenovationorformation of transitional justicewhichwouldbedeemed a transitional justiceareaimed at: compensate, atleastto some extent, for recognition ofvictims'status isachiev through judicial,administrative, investigations;practicalandsymbolic andhistorical 25 24 23 about twoimportantsetofquestions:firs 1.3. "Realists"vs."idealists" make civilizedpoliticalandsocialarrangements. that former illiberalrule reconstruction. Thenecessityforsucha implies thata wholesocietyisengaged the material at hand is too flawed for flawedfor istoo materialhand the at ć Dimitrijevi Nenad to it,"societyhas puts AsElsternicely G.Teitel, Ruti "establishing basis for civilnormality and justsocietyafter the period of Despite clarity of general goals of tran 25

Transitional Justice Transitional , "Suo č avanje slošomprošloš b) has ruined socialcapacity fo "establishingandstabilizingnewdemocratic legitimacy,"

ises a number of serious questions serious of ises anumber (New York: Oxford Univer Oxford York: (New construction ofthe needed normative shift? a) Montenegro need atruth commission"], "moral,politicaland legal distancing from crimes rebuild itself in the open sea, open the itselfin rebuild 23 Thismeans that transitional justiceactually reconstruction derivesfrom acknowledgment ed byandthroughreparationsthataim to 14 p. 75). Yet, although the metaphor is catchy due to ssment ofpracticalaccomplishments that victims' suffering;constitutionalchanges ć t concernsthechoice in itsownpolitical,social andcultural u: treba li Srbiji i Crnoj Gori komisija za istinu" zaistinu" Gorikomisija iCrnoj treba liSrbiji u: need tobeclearlydistinguishedfrom the ppropriate toaparticul d. Ifformal elements suchaspolitical sitional justice, there isno agreement 24 Toputitsimply, processesof sity Press, 2000), 7. p. 2000), sity Press, r decencyanddispositionto . For example, whathappens if using the materials at hand, of mechanisms of ar context; second Re č 71, p. 66 [my [my 66 p. 71, CEU eTD Collection period, LucHuysedistinguishes about ways offacingtheevilpasta condition forsettinguptheruleoflaw. component inthemove from lesstomoredemocratic regimes." transition needstobeunders France, Japan, Spain, Portugal, and Greece, liberalizing tendenciesofde agents accept the rule oflaw.Takinginto social aspects,itmay bearguedthatitsle constitution ispassed.On theotherhand,a institutionalized proceduresthatgua to arguethat thetransition iscompleted wh justice, realists consider institutional categories: realisticandidealistic. practices ought toinfluence liberalization of politycanbebroadlydividedintotwo transitional justicegoals are set. Normative ideas about how political andjudicial accomplishment oftransitional justice goals, procedures andbodiesaswell 28 27 26 be realizedcautiously,takingintoaccountanexistingpowerbalance. establish democratic procedures and theruleof law.Furthermore, these goalshave to change shouldnotbeof primary importance; Ibid. 3. p. Ibid., Teitel, Deliberating aboutjusticeaf Prior toevaluationofhowvariousjudicial andpolitical measures contribute to Realists are inclinedto arguethats Transitional Justice, p. 5. mocratic transitions inWest Germany, Italy,Austria,

aslegaldocuments areput tood simply asaprocess fourpossibleapproaches: 27

ter socialandpolitical transition, andparticularly and proceduralchangestobeanecessary rantee fairness,areorganizedandnew 15 previous oppressive regime intransitional lthough thetransitionhasitseconomic and gal aspect iscompletedwhen allpolitical consideration importantsimilarities with en freeandfairelections,togetherwith eeking justicein thetimes of political it isnecessarytounderstand howthese the most important, they explain, is to it is afterallpossible toclaim that which entails"anormative forward, thenit a) massive prosecutionsof 26

28 ispossible Insteadof CEU eTD Collection all those whocollaborated withtheold 29 here aboutcultureinthe contextoftran justice forpastcrimes asacrucialprerequi universalist conceptionofjustice,theyal achievement ofjusticeasnecessaryforsu or disqualification of former elite anditsassociates, amnesty, butthe onewhichincludesrememb wrongdoings. acknowledgment, or applicable andeffective, thatis,either issue of acknowledgment," that isif evilpast tw approaches dealsinitsownwaywith consensual support totransitionuncertain, th between former andnewelites, inwhich thepowerbalanceis fragileand is tobeconsidered.Incasesinwhichtran acknowledgment, or regimes feelstrongenough,either social environment, ensuredbyconsensual of theexistingpowerrelations. then becomes a matter ofanassessment ofso or some other consequencesforwhatthey "the issueofaccountabil Regimes Past," inNeil J. Kritz (ed.), Luc Huyse, "Justice After Transition: OntheCh , Vol. I (Washington D.C.: United States Ins (Washington D.C.:UnitedStates , Vol.I On theotherside,idealistsconsider certain judicialsteps aimed at Taking thisintoaccount,Huysearguesth 29

b) d) lustration–i.e.partialresponsibility andfullacknowledgment ity," thatiswhetherperpetrators Transitional Justice. Justice. How Emerging Transitional amnesty whichincludesfullacknowledgment ofthepast

a) prosecution–i.e.fullresponsibilityand regime andparticipated inabuses, o basic issues of transitional justice: 16 ccessful politicaltransition.Relyingonthe did. Whichapproachistobeimplemented so put forward retributive and corrective c) titute of Peace Press, site forliberalchange. SinceIam talking sitional justice,forthe purposesofmy sition isaresultofnegotiatingprocesses oices Successor Elites MakeinDealing with the support totransition withinwhichnew istoberemembered orforgotten;and e other twoapproaches seem tobemore amnesty –i.e.noresponsibility, amnesty cial andpoliticalcircumstances,cial that is, ering ofwhatwasdone.Eachthese at incasesofstablepoliticaland shouldbefaced Democracies Reckon with with Former Reckon Democracies c) amnesty forall,andd) 1995),pp.337–349. with judicial b) lustration a) "the b)

CEU eTD Collection symbolic oftransition." democracy successfullyestablished:"Leg and economicstrengthisnotenoughtoassert which isthereasonwhy theaccomplishment offairelections, institutional stability, between law andpoliticalchange,explainsTe beyond thecommonperceptionofjudiciar paradigmatic useoflawinnormative constr beyond legalframework. Accordingtoher, transformation ofsociety,Teitelputsfo suffices heretoreferRutiTeitel's of therealist/idealist dispute. Inregard tothisdimension of transitional justice,it argument there isnoneed toexamine indetails aspects of transitional justice interms 31 30 categories: wearetalking hereabout cultu many ofwhichcannotbecategorizedinterms ofusua fragile balancebetweenforgetting andre society intheaftermath ofmass crimes, which,among otherthings,implies akindof dimension of transitional justice. It israther clear that establishment of justandfair Ibid., Teitel,

p. 9. is notmere product butitself circumstances, but,also,challengingthe contrary totheprevailing What isdeemed justiscontingentand By concludingthatthelawhastolaygroundforanoverallmoral It isevident thatTeitel's concept of transition. Theconceptionofjusticethat constructivist: Itisalternatelyconstituted by, andconstitutive of, the ... theconceptionofjusticeinperiods of Transitional Justice, 31

p. 6.

idealist accounts,lawhere structuresthetransition. response totheabove-mentioned dispute: 17 al responsesarebothperformative and membering, dependsonvariousfactors, uction ofanewpolitic transitional jurisprudence hastofocus on ral strategies, moral questions, ways of ral strategies,moralquestions,waysof rward ethical,and,afterall,cultural law inperiodsofpoliticalchangegoes y's purposes.Theinteractionneeded itel, givesanextraordinary roletolaw, thattransitioniscompleted andnew emerges iscontextu informed byprior inju politicalchangeisextraordinary and prevailing realistsaccounts,law here 30 is shapedbythepolitical l judicial and political

al regime, whichis alized andpartial: stice. [...]For, CEU eTD Collection po.org/cherlist/pouligny.htm po.org/cherlist/pouligny.htm athttp://www.ceri-sciences- available cript, manus 2005, conflicts", ofviolent survivors for imperatives simple ananswer: Teitel hasposedanexceptionallyimportant words, sheasks:Where istheepistemic au when thisconsensus hasbeenviolated maintained by mechanisms of culturaltransmissions, Teitel rightly asks whathappens threshold sharedunderstandings,thatis society constructsitssharedtruths. asserts thatfortheaccomplishment ofjusti is dependentonculturalconditions,andthat societies define theirattitudetowardsthepast. remembering andestablishingnarrativepa 34 33 32 of mechanisms ofcultural transmissions, as role thatitsimplycannotperform. Societal expectations expressedbyboth Hague. understanding of Osiel is completely distorted by my experience of watching broadcasted trials from and caricature ofTeitel'sreasonably to liberalmorality, embodied incrim collective appropriate an normative establish shift, li in episodes crimes, tobebroadcasted which ought Osiel seriouslysuggeststhatdirect expe on 2000). Drawing Publishers, Jersey: Transaction counterpart: happ namely, what counterpart: Ibid. SeealsoMarkOsiel, Ibid. Teitel, Béatrice Pouligny, "The forgotten dimensions of 'justice' programs: Cultural meanings and memory isplayedbythelaw. shape collectivememory. Intransitions,the pivotal roleinshapingsocial threatened; soitisthelaw,itsframework, andprocesses thatingreat part In transition, theoft-shared framewor Assuming that construction andinterpreta By formulating aconstructivistlegalframework,By formulating whichhastomeet normative Transitional Justice, Mass Atrocity, Collecti Atrocity, Mass ens ifa consensus isachieved about immoral principles? p. 71. Further in the text we will see that this question hasits question this wewillseethat text the Further in 71. p. ed, theatricallydesigned, publictr

inal law.However, in my opinion realists andidealists, Teitel assigns judiciary witha modestly formulated proposals. It is also possible that my that possible It isalso proposals. modestly formulated 34 ordestroyedbythecriminal regime.

18 memory ofpastevents, andstrengthen attachments , onepistemic consensusachievedand shift innorms, ortheir renewal,isamatter it hasculturalimplications. Therefore she ve Memory, and the Law ke soap operas, have toinduce a needed societal thority in transition? However,althoughthority intransition? tterns, and,eventually,ways inwhich ce itisalsoimportant howtransitional sherightlypointsout,andthereisno andcomplex question,sheofferstoo 32 riences of the bearers of Argentina's transition, transition, Argentina's of bearers the of riences ks –political,religious,socialare Teitelis,indeed, awarethattransition tion ofthesesharedtruthsdependon ials against thoseaccused formassials against , Osiel's suggestions lookasa (New Brunswick, New 33 Inother CEU eTD Collection Feral Tribune, 2000); here pp. 17–18, 293. 17–18, pp. here 2000); Tribune, Feral To maximum 20years, which provided himwith the label of"anationalmartyr." Viktor See Ivan In an outstanding analysis of the social "significant and valuable sentence passed by the judge Dražen Tripalo." Šaki patte normative and elements ofinstitutional picture Writing about this trail, Ivan Viktor about Writing mass crimes committed he asacommander ofthe concentration camp, during the World Second.War undermining transitionaljudicialefforts. shared frameworkswhichinspiredandjust some casescertaininstitutionalized cultura societies alloft-sharedframew can begroundedinitself.Furthermore, are destroyed, thelawitself canfulfill bothle in thesituationwhichoft-sharedframewo epistemic consensus,itwillcertainly fail. Teitel isunrealisticwhensheassumes that that thisimposition will besuccessful inpr needed versionofsocietalmemory ortrut mechanisms fortheir transmission remains epistemic authority,reneworestablishconsen benevolent andjustjudiciary,thequestionofwhether regime. Although itmay beassumed that the lawwillbecreatedandimplemented by clear howthelawalonecanreestablish itself derivesitsjustificationfrom thresholdsharedunderstandings guarantee that judicial measures areable 35 assumes thatintimes ofsocietalcollapse In Zagreb, Croatia, in the late 1990s, Šaki Dinko late1990s, the in Croatia, Zagreb, In č ka na U.Slu na ka into redesigned historical textbooks? in letters and gold written systems honored these are publicly of ifvalues treatment, different particularly systems crimes thatturned intotheir fundamental and leaders, and political the crimes i.e.ideologists – who inspired –ifthose implemented law international willbe sense – matterno or domestic any whether have criminals using old-fashioned vocabulary –societal impact ofone sentence? Does punishing of war that hasto be – something towards to beourattitude circumstances, whatIn these issupposed č aj Šaki ć : Anatomija jednog skandala č

i ć orks gettobedestroyed.It asked whetherthis process hadany sense: ambient in which th s the law hassome capacities to go"against 19 35 h bylegalmeans, butthereisnoguarantee actice; onthecontrary, without the societal she wronglyassumes thatintransitional to fulfill thesame task.Furthermore, law ć its own grounds,ruinedbytheprevious ified wrongdoingsmight bestilleffective, Inotherwords,althoughTeitelrightly , "the slayer from Jasenovac," was prosecuted for rks, oneswhichusedtounderpinthelaw, l mechanisms thatusedto transmit oft- gal andcultural task,that is,thatthelaw open. Itispossibletotryimpose a sus orsharedtruths andactivate cultural [The Šaki rns that undermined the rns that undermined e trailtook place,Ivan ć case: anatomy of a scandal] (Split: (Split: scandal] case: a anatomy of this lawcantakeonan isnotnecessarily so:in strategies, receivecompletely effect of, effect of, otherwise, ć . Thusitisnot was sentenced to č i ć offered a clear č i ć , CEU eTD Collection is delineatedbyspecificc argue fortheforward-lookingconceptions,cl have tobeorientedtowardsfuture ortheyshoulddealwith may beseen asadisagreement aboutthe understanding andevaluatingchanges intransitional societies.Thatis, thisdispute 1.4. Looking backorreachingforward justice withseriousethicalim the sakeofargument, letustakeforgr here that behindtherealist/idealist dispute the lawhasanindependentconstructivistcapac the grain" and delegitimizecultural traditions to some extent, 37 36 or justice itself justice or method, based on a beliefthat thereis no alarge pictur interpretations of the transitional transitional ofthe interpretations setting anormative theoretical framework for his analysis, hedraws conclusions from his itsagents. fromof Instead standpoints of the an transition offers of to overview approaches possible does not specify the criteria he uses in criteriain choosing the he uses specify not does frame some normative on relies states, Elsterimplicitly such asthe Soviet Revolution from 1917. This practicallymeans that,in spite ofwhat heexplicitly takes place).However, inhistransitionalaccounts,El preceded type as autocratic and unjust (which isalmo the view transition ofthis agents that acondition under another, type ofa from to society transition one Elster for justice to transitional say that is possible It 81). (Ibid., p. behavior itcomes concrete to when little matter may justice of conceptions subjective that warns interests. Furthermore, he rightly and their emotions by shaped and agents the by held fairness and of justices conceptions identifying to limits himself bedone,and what isto prescribing meaning, but to "spell out the role of'justice'in transitional justice" (Ibid., p.79). So, heeschews emotions and interests (Ibid., p.81). Therefore, El guise of universal norms, her normative approach is far more defined and coherent than Elster's. criticized forimplicitlyimposing particular values of the West liberal-democratic societies under the isashift soci fromjustice illiberal an transitional possible to be provided by using only "materials at hand"? itmay isit be, whatever and as better future, istobeaccomplished remains: What insignificant, for future. with hopes Yet,qu transition better the case, besides justice, agents of transitionmayseek conceptions that are,afterall,shaped byagents' emo agents, by held justice of conceptions normative on may solely not depend vary. They do expectations Inhisanalytical studyoftransitional cases thatrangefromtheancientGree Enexample SeeMüller, patriotism. would be German constitutional Normative disputebetweenrealistsand Unlike Elster, Teitel views transitional justice in terms of liberal-democratic values. For her, Forher, liberal-democratic values. justice terms of in transitional Elster,Teitelviews Unlike (Closing the Books, ontexts anddependentonpart agents' intentions and deeds. This is a logical consequence of his plications canberecognized.

p. xii); there are only people who act inaccordance areonlypeople there xii); with theirp. 20 anted thatagents of transitionaim tocome forpeace andcivic normalcy. can term We this– a kindof culturalchallenge totransitional ety to a more liberal one. Although she may she ety to a more be liberal one. Although transitional cases worth analyzing. Transitional casesTransitional worth analyzing. transitional ster may claim that the task is not to define the define to isnot task the that ster mayclaim question ofwhetherbe tions and interests, according to Elster. In the best the Elster.In to according interests, and tions estion, which Elster tries to avoid by making it making by Elster avoid which tries to estion, may simply represent aterm thatrefers to any st alwaysthecase when substantial socialchange e, thatis,ageneral theory oftransitional justice, aim thatmeaning of transitional justice ster doesnottakeinto work. Therefore, itisrather unclearwhyElster Therefore, work. ity. Eventually,itisimportant tostress idealists openstwoperspectivesin icular transitionalgoals. theevilpast Constitutional Patriotism. 36 itdoesnot mean that considerationexamples k society to date,Elster k society arers oftransition . Realists,who 37

For CEU eTD Collection Oxford University Press, 2000], pp. 216, 216, 204, 20 pp. Press, 2000], University Oxford and othermilitary retired generals" (Alex Boraine, Constand Viljoen, former head of the Defence For former head of the South African Defence Force. Others who supported him [...] included [...] supported by a number of former generals, including Magnus Malan, former Minister of Defence and Truth and Partial Justice in Argentina. An An Update inArgentina. Justice Partial and Truth forward: specific circumstances inSpainthe reinforcing economy. Drawingonthepost-warWest caseaswellonthe German newly establishedorreestablishedinstit They believethatthepreventionoffuturewrongdoingslaysinstrengthening it onlyincasewhichwouldbecons Therefore, theyareeagertoclosethebookof previous regime's wrongdoerswould onlyjeopardizedemocratic prospects. Taking intoaccountafragilepower balance, of thepreviousregime isexpressedbycons political, legal, andsocial arrangements. Theirattitude toilliberalorcriminal legacies institutions, andbyimplementing strategies to terms withthebad past bysetting 38 guaranteed "sensitivity and respect," Botha refused refused Botha respect," and "sensitivity guaranteed with him wedeal and would Commission the before because peopleto learn werenotgivenanopportunity compromisemade was inwhich justicewas sacrificed prevented by very principles that define the Commission's work and purposes; in other words, a was wish this of Fulfillment jail." into thrown "to be Botha wanted apartheid, sufferedunder who of people thousands and hundreds with together Boraine, him." madeagainst the to allegations respond to the witness box enter did not Botha "it that that was atragedy wrote Commission, Reconciliation the South African case isconcerned, peace. What follows mightpeace. Whatfollows e the Commission. That was another compromise, only this time truth wassacrificed for the sake of sentenced for this act, although there was a sanctioned sentence for those who refuse to testify before Trading justice,andeven truth, itself inthe opensea, processes ofconstitutionmaking innewdemocracies, societyhasto that ismeted outthem. Inametaphor thatIhavealsousedtodescribethe fabric ofsociety.Whether After thetransition,leadersandagentsof reconstruction anddevelopment, theyma the votingbooth,orindirectly,bytheirimportance foreconomic xplain twists intheBotha for peace marked transitions in Arge usingthematerials athand,howeverflawedtheymay

Alex Boraine, one of the designers of the South African Truth and directly, bytheir access to (HumanRights Watch, 1991). 21 3). For Argentina, see AnAmericas Report, Watch idered necessaryforprotectingdemocracy. 1970s, JonElsteradvocatesforreaching ce [...] Johanvance derMerw utions, developingjustprocedures,and new values andnorms, byestablishing to come before the Commission. He was not even Hewasnot the Commission. before come to A Country Unmasked ACountry andmeasures forconsolidationofnew for the sake of peace. Boraine was disappointed truction ofjustanddemocratic society. pastassoonpossible,andtoreopen the truth:"Allwe wantisthatheshouldcome vs. with sensitivity and respect." of respect." Yet, inspite and sensitivity with realists suspectthat theCommission case:"Botha was strongly y beabletoinfluence thetreatment theoldregime arestillpartofthe ntina andSouth Africa.As far as means ofviolenceorto [Oxford and New York: e, former policechief, dealingwiththe rebuild 38

CEU eTD Collection Justice," in A. J.McAdams(ed.), respect for the dignity andworth fundamental character of the new order to be established, anorder based on the rule of law and on [Notre Dame:Universityof Notre DamePress, 1995], p.1). looking advocates,instituting optimism oftheforward-lookingadvocatesis wrongdoers isthemost efficaciouswayto 40 39 Therefore, theyinsist frameworks. Theseframeworks havebeencorruptedbythepreviousregime. arrangements needtobegroundedinthe unambiguous disruptionofthecontinuitywi transition candistanceitselffromevil predecessor. its Andonlytheclear, feasible means incoming toterms with thebadpastisonlywayasocietyin and theruleoflaw,whereonema – althoughitisalmost impossibletofullyr necessary toprosecutewrongdoersoftheprev to beestablished inaccordance wi transition intoliberalizingdirection. tive justice is an urgent task of democratization, as it highlights the "Infact,the asit highlights pursuitdemocratization, task of ofretrospec isan urgent tive justice Elster, Proponents ofthebackward-lookingcon Idealists, whoadvocatebackward-looki the leastcompromised among them, predemocratic regime, there may benopr be. Evenwhenjudges,forinstance,weredeeplyinvolvedwiththe because itfailstorecognize the worthanddignity ofeach victim. Itisalso to thuggeryandblackmail. Rather,Iw wrong primarilybecauseitsview of stab punishment. Forthisreason,apolicyofletting bygonesbe isnot torturing anewasaresultofpolicy example, itisimpossible to know whet There isreally nowaytopredict the fu Closing the Books, thatpriorto p.75. of eachhumanperson" (Juan E.Méndez, "In Defense ofTransitional Transitional Justice and the Rule of Law in the NewDemocracies the in of Law Rule the and Justice Transitional

new norms andprocedures th universalistnormative principles. anything else,thresholdsh 40 Toputontrialtheprecedingregime's 22 in premises is accountability.Usingallthe block theirinfluenceinthefuture. ealize it–tolaygroundsforajustsociety to judgethatregime itself. oft-shared political,re groundless.Accordingtothebackward- leniencyor,conversely,byapolicyof ious regime, sincethatistheonlyway th illiberallegaci ould arguethatitismorally wrong ture behaviorofrelevantactors.For ility looks suspiciously likeyielding her torturerswillbedeterredfrom actical alternative tousingthem, or ng conceptions,arguethatitis ceptions explainthatinstitutional ared understandingshave and creatingjustsocial es wouldguarantee ligious, andsocial 39

CEU eTD Collection newly formed, postwar German id formed, German newly postwar with incompatible discontinuity asastriking itssingularity, itin of stayoutside itshould regimes, or totalitarian of history European century tw entieth broader within contextualized be would which to normalize the Nazi heritage by Historikerstreit Press, 1990); E.Piper (ed.), Baldwin (ed.), as known the debate In Germany. transitions implyperiodsof conceptions ofculture,origin complexity. Numerous debates,which oscillate betweenuniversalist and relativist decency come from? reestablishing decentsociety. capacity todistinguishevillegaciesandpr important itis toestablis argued thatidealistsarefarmore realistic foundational requestcould beaccomplished sole eventually, culturalarguments, apparently practical-political reasons, itis possible to clearly delineate ethical, and, 43 42 41 in focus,precededtheestablishment of efforts towardsliberalization anddemocratiz narrative. The obviousone needed andwhattheyreferto? The question of discontinuity was raised in a profound way in the second half of the 1980s in the West 1980s of second half the wayin inaprofound raised was discontinuity of The question Teitel, Ibid., pp. 3–4. Yet, if weask ourselv foundation ofprivilegeandthe In thecoreof politically wrongbecause There may beatleasttwosignificantdi Transitional Justice, Reworking the Past. Hitler, the Holocaust, and the Historians' the Holocaust, Debate and Past. Hitler, the Reworking

(New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1993). –aculturalparadoxoftransitiona h andreinforceanormative st p. 69. p. 69. backward-looking conceptionof isbetween thesociety's illib Forever in theShadow historicaldiscontinuity, entity. See Peter Baldwin, "The SeePeter Baldwin,"The entity. Historikerstreit, es asimple question–

explaining and including it in the course of German history, one ate from thissimple, seemingly rhetoricalquestion.If althoughitsproponents,like it setsthenewpolitic denial oftherulelaw. dictatorships andtotalitarianregimes, 23 than theirrealistopponents inrealizinghow Germanacademicsdiscussed whether itispossible ation. Anotherone,whichisusuallyless ovide solidbasisforcurrenteffortsof scontinuities inthetransitional justice ly bylegal means. Infact,itmay be of Hitler.Original Documents of the where doestheurge to reestablish 42 whyarethesediscontinuities andpoint, onethatwouldhave Historikerstreit l justiceemerges inallofits eral legacies and its current eral legaciesanditscurrent transitional justice,beneath al orderontheweak Teitel,believethatthe 41

in Context", in Peter Context", in (Boston: Beacon (Boston: 43 andit CEU eTD Collection relationship tomoral universals. to presentmyownunderstand narrow prospectsofsocietalmoral transfor combined forceofidentityandculture argumen Reconciliation Commission. Ondifferentlevels, bothcasesdemonstrate anapparent addressing: 1)genderandtransitionalju chapters Iwillexplore howthesearguments closely related context-specific categories: identity andculture. Inthenexttwo indeed determines thechoiceofavailabl may bemoreappropriatetotrydeconstruct these concernsallowus toreformulateth ground aswell,andtheireffectivenessdepe law hasapivotal role.However,these mech Teitel, among others,replies–bytransiti first half of thiswork.Ratherthanmaking thinking and acting inuniversalist terms. This constraints intimidate heavily, they evense character of predicament that requires resorting tomoral universalism. Contextual How societycanberebuildonflawedf question oftransitionaljustic which legitimizing patternsforwrongdoings were setand accepted.Inotherwords,thissecond discontinuity points toaperiodin points toaperiod inwhichpolitical, moral,

All these dilemmas of transitional jus e ishowtochangesocietal ing ofthecategoriescu

oundations? Howtoreconstructfoundations? oundations? 24 onal justicemechanisms, amongwhichthe a simple conclusiveevaluativejudgment, it mation. Then,Iwill proceedtochapter4, e centralquestionof e paths. Inthis thesis,Iwillfocus ontwo stice, and2)theYugoslavTruth and cultural foundations for illiberal rule anisms, particularly thelaw, needsome em topreclude theve nd onaparticularc istheproblem Iam dealing withinthe aboutcontextual constraintswork,by tice may beseenaslooming overthe main features of thecontext,toseeif it were created.Theref ts, thatis,contextual constraints that foundations.Tothisquestion, lture andidentity,their transitional justice: ontext. Eventually, ry possibilityof ore, thecentral CEU eTD Collection feminist perspectives. the thoroughrethinkingofbasicconcepts customs ofwarhavedistinctivelymarked Organized massive crimes andsystematic ranging from civilians triggeredunfortunatebutpower gender andtransitionaljusticeinthecont history of masscrimes, inthissection Ifocus onthefeminist theoretical treatment of aspect ofageneralproblem Ide At theendof thissection, Iarguethat femi whether itis possibletocombine transitiona with practicalgainsforwomen, theysuggest feminists skeptical towards theprospects of transitional justice. It isbetter tostick patterns. These close tiesbetween transitional justice and socialcontexts make how processesofsocietalmoral transfor ANDTRANSITIONALJUSTICE GENDER Chapter 2 44 Hunt Alternatives Fund, 2004). 2004). Fund, Alternatives Hunt Herzegovina and for Bosnia (ICTY): Justice Yugoslavia Transitional SeeJulieMertus, While acknowledgingsufferingandvi Feminist approaches totheissues of tr where arewomenintransitional justice, Women's Participation in the Internatio the in Women's Participation 44 Massiverapesofwomen and

lineated intheprevioussection. 25 mation depend heavilyonexistingcultural nist dilemma abouttransitional justice isan ful impulseforposingvariousquestions, theseconflicts.Therefore,theyprovoked ext of thepost-Yugoslav armedconflicts. oftransitionaljusticefromgenderand l justice withafeminist notiononjustice. violationsof humanitarian lawsand ansitional justicemake itratherobvious , thantoengagein ctimhood ofwomen throughoutthe nal Criminal Tribunal for the Former Former forthe Tribunal Criminal nal (Women PeaceProgram,Waging large-scale felonies against towhereisgenderin generaldebateson CEU eTD Collection Introductory Essay," stages, procedures, processes oraspects of transitional justice, "women havebeen convincingly exposed thatfrom allofthesepo O'Rourke havesummarized thevariet protagonists abletodeliveror contribute toexpected changes. whether definedgoalsservetoestablishmen stages, each aspectoftransitionaljustice isbeing evaluate of retribution,reparation,a identify committedcrimes, theirvictims andtheir perpetrators. Then,thereisastage chosen representatives define individuals, includingt for successfultransition.Inthesecondst several parts.First,thereisanegotia Katherine M. Frankeputsit: opened forfeministandengenderingre-concep transitional justiceaspects,and,finally,th of transitional justice mechanisms, partic transitional justice, 46 45 Law, p. 23. Katherine M. Franke, "Gendered Subjects of Transitional Justice," Femi "Does O'Rourke, Bell Catherine and Christine Vol. 15:3, 2006, pp. 813–828; here, p. 816. p. 816. here, 813–828; pp. 2006, 15:3, Vol. In theirbriefaccountof feministappro For analyticalpurposesonly, committed against women because international humanitarian lawwas una upheaval is anoldstory,butuntilquite recentlythe masculinity of Of course,sexualviolenceagainstwo violation ofinternational The international Journal of Transitional Justice, Transitional of Journal international The towhere isfeminism intransitional justice. hose frombothofficialand non-governmental sectors– nd eventuallysocietalrestoration.Throughoutallthese

transitionalgoalsanddesign humanitarian legalnorms. transitional justice proce tion phase,inwhichma 26 ular laws,broaderframeworks ofvarious y of diversefeminist positions. They e veryideaoftransitionaljusticewere theyarewomen mightamount toa age variousprotagoni t ofcivilnormalcy; whoareappropriate nism Need a Theory of Transitional Justice? An Justice? Transitional of NeedaTheory nism sitions itisarguedthatineachofthese men during times ofwar andsocial aches totransitional tualizations andre-articulations.As ble toappreciatehowatrocities d: whathasbeenachieved; Columbia Journal of Gender an 46 Vol. 1, 2007, pp. 23–44; here, 23–44; pp. 2007, 1, Vol. particularjusticeneeded

sses maybedividedinto 45 Proceduralelements in protagonistsand sts –institutions, justice, Belland CEU eTD Collection Yugoslavia (ICTY). groups, whichallhaslittletodowithpa ceasefires andallocation of are predominantly male, buttheissuesput necessity to "bridgethe ga interests. Accordingly, participants inc largely absent." 51 50 49 48 47 problematic process,onewhichneedstotakeintoaccount twothings: first, itmust transitional justice.From agenderorfemi gender analysesmay shedalightonset restoration andcivilnormalcy arebroadly framework which,seemingly,doesnotneedto of problems thatcanbedealtwithwithin violence werenotre-victimized by demanding "reforms incourtroom proceduresin securing prosecutionsforthesewarcrimes." conflicts asamongst themost courts begintorecognize"women's experiencesofgender-basedviolenceinarmed gender." improvement ofphysical, socialandlegal keep onneglecting"underlyingissues Ibid.Seealso Mertus, Ibid. 26. p. Ibid., 25. p. Ibid., Bell and O'Rourke, "Does Feminism Needa Theory of Transitional Justice?" p. 23. Indeed, atfirstsightallabove-mentioned Furthermore, ittookalotofinvestigation,analysisandadvocacy tomake 48

47

Notonlythatparticipants inconflict andpost-conflict negotiations Women's Participation in the Internati inthe Participation Women's and controloverthe powerandresourcesamongdivided p betweenlegalstandards

seriouscrimes ofwar." the adversarial legal processes." onflict andpost-conflic 27 a generalframework oftransitionaljustice, of generalconceptualproblems concerning accepted astransitionalgoals,feminist and forward arethosemainly concernedwith ofdiscrimination, dominationand rticular women's su nist perspectiverest bequestioned.However,oncesocietal security, particularlywithregardto 50 ordertoensurethatvictims ofsexual issues may appeartorepresentaset Finally,alllistedpointslead to onal Criminal Tribunal for the Former Former the for Tribunal Criminal onal 49 and theirenforcement by Thisrecognition implies t negotiationssimply fferings, needs,and oration is a highly highly a is oration 51

CEU eTD Collection redistribution orrecognition." projects intothequestion –"whetherth 2.1. Recognitionorredistribution? of thorough analysis andcritique oftheprevious societal arrangements thaninaprocess likely thatasocietyshouldengagein be preciselydefi normalcy isnot atallsomething not betakenforgrantedthatwhatisto 53 52 contexts oftransitionaljusti over redistributionintransiti and redistributeatthesame time,Franke separated andtreatedindepende Ibid. of Subjects "Gendered Franke, restoration Following NancyFraser, Katherine M.Frankesums upalldilemmas of justice Although sheisawarethatrecognition and actsthatarebroughtto importantly, recognize,acknowledge,or commissions, orboardsofinquest,whos establishment ofofficialbodies,bethey cultural. By contrast, justice projects injurer) orpower–resourcesthatmight reparations), buttheycouldalsoredistributeshame (from theinjured tothe primarily committed toredistributing money orland(intheform of accountability, injury,andfairness.These and symbolic resourcesbasedupon apar Justice asdistribution isafamiliar concept entailing thereordering of material . ned –whatis Transitional Justice," p. 814. 814. p. Justice," Transitional ce have notyet delivered much of redistributive justice, onal contexts.Inotherwords,sheargues thatexisting 52

Sheexplains: normal ntly, infact,thesame o unquestionable initself.Thatis, their officialattention. andwhom itis 28 ey should befundamentally committed to claims thatrecognitionhasprevailedsofar an open-endedprocess,whichdemands restoredisvalidin thatemphasizerecognitionseekthe courts, tribunals,officially appointed ticular accountofculpability, desert, and redistribution bebestunderstoodassymbolic or call uptheidentitiesofparties transitional justice e taskistofindfacts,and,more normal fficial bodiesmay recognize 53

for. It ismuchmore for.It civil normalcy itself;second,civil cannot beclearly projects couldbe hasto CEU eTD Collection community ofaccomplices, crimes againstpeopleoutsidetheirstate own citizens andprocesses of transitional justices that refer tostates that committed transitional justicerelated tochanges in those whonegotiateinthenamegroups. ofthese groups' innerpatternsofdistributionpower and systematic violations.Itmay alsoturn covering discrimination anddomination with redistribution, may beusedtoaddanother Namely, "warcrimes tribunals,truthand one ofherexplanationsparticularlyim recognition. which sheconsiderstobe,asfarwo 55 54 however, shepointstoone:"reshapi mechanisms of transitional justice," explicates Franke, "have complex objectives"; Ibid., p. 823. 823. p. Ibid., 814–815. p. Ibid., Furthermore, itisimportant here to Franke offersvariousexplanationsw This means thatrecogniti culture more broadly. the recent past canberenderedasametaphor fortheemasculinization ofthe the nation's men wereunabletoprotect come tostandfortheviolationofna project. [...]Forinstance,theirsexualviolationcan service ofthisrebuilding stories, women's memories, andwomen' different narrativesoftherecentpast typically highlydynamic,characterized society hopesneithertoforget nortoreturn These institutionsservetolaydowna 54

inanalogy withthephrase 55

on, ifitisnotfollow ng post-conflict nationalidentity": reconciliation commissi 29 portant forthepurposesofmy analysis. regimes thatcommitted crimesagainst its outthatputtingforw men areconcerned, more importantthan layer onthetopofal borders. Forthe latter Iuse theterm in thegroupthatwasexposedtomassive hy she opts forredistribution,yetIfind hy sheopts battle tobedominant. Oftenwomen's and resourcesisnotintheinterestof distinguishbetweenprocessesof "their"women fromtheviolenceof s experiences areappropriatedinthe s experiences bya"representationalgap"where tion asawhole.Sotoo,thefactthat baseline; theymark outapastthe to.Thefirststagesoftransitionare culture ofaccomplices. ed bythoroughlyelaborated ard issues concerning ons, andotherpublic ready existing ones, It may may It CEU eTD Collection try tofit afeminist notionof justice withintransitional justice frameworks." broader projectsofsecuring that feminist theoryshould focus onhowtransitional justice debateshelp orhinder O'Rourke holdthesame position.Theydonot 2.2. Threetypesoftransitional justice must followeachother. argue thatredistributioncannotberealized resources is ofutmost importance forth conflict). Yet,Iwillargue thatredistribut communities (hereIput aside reparations ar accomplices, itislessclearwhyredistribution shouldbesoimportant forthese domination. Ontheotherside, if victims arenotpart of thecommunities of accordingly, resistchangingorabolishinginnerpatternsofdiscrimination and accomplices willstrongly resistreshaping or be expected, for the reasons I willexplain 57 56 extraordinary circumstances itisnotpossi justice istransiting'from' and'to'." acceptable answerto asimple questionposed by feminists: "whatexactlytransitional justice. Eachtypehasbeenthoroughlycr justice, transitional justice asliberalizing jus distinguish threepossibletypes Ibid., p. 35. 35. p. Ibid., Bell and O'Rourke, "Does Feminism Needa Theory of Transitional Justice?" p. 23. Indeed, Frankeisnotaloneinher Understanding transitional justice as material gainsforwomen th

of transitional justice: transitional justice asordinary 57

30 ese communities too.Furthermore,Iwill at length in chapter 4,that communities of ion of power,andmaterial andsymbolic without recognition: these two processes withoutrecognition:thesetwoprocesses tice, andtransitional justice as restorative iticized, sincenoneisabletoofferan appreciation ofredistribution.Belland redefining theirnational identities,and, ranged between thestates that were in ble topursueordina hesitate tostatee ordinary justiceassumes thatin rough transition, xplicitly: "We suggest ry justicefully. rather than 56 They CEU eTD Collection Rhode [ed.], [ed.], Rhode ("Legal MacKinnon Press]);Catherine University ("Wounded Attachments," etc. Among others, feminist authorswho critici might lead to domination of men over women, orof an ethnic majority overaminority ethnic group, imposing their particular values asuniversal, hencebinding for members ofall other groups. This as beidentified could groups social certain acommunity thatwithin meaning power-relations, Itis time that space. and further argued through formed anddeveloped in aparticular social andcultural context onto diverse backgrounds and cultures or issues ofjusticemay treated be asaneither overt or hidden projection of aset ofnorms andvalues symbolically representdoingjusticeona wrong. Thus,besidesprosecutionsofmain perpetratorsof massive crimes, which symbolic representationsofdoingjustice, massive criminal actsisimpossible. In such casesitismoreimportant tohave cases inwhichthorough prosecutionandre Therefore, transitionaljustice isakind ofa 59 58 to gointodetailsinexplaining feminist critique of liberalism. Therefore, thereisnoneedtorepeatwhat considered hereasrepresentative for thistypeof conceptualizing transitional justice. justice inthepreviouspartsofthis transitional justice. feminist perspectiveitisnot traditional forms ofaccountabilitysuch aspunishment." it would seem somewhat strange forwome criti particular, giventheextensivefeminist make agood pointreferringtoordinaryjustic fact compensate forsocietal inability to symbolic tradeoffssuchastruthforamnesty, orforgivenessforpunishment, thatin

Rhode ("Definitions of Difference," in Deborah L. Rhode [ed.], Liberalism as a kind of universalist approach in dealing with philosophical, social, cultural, political cultural, political social, in with dealing philosophical, approach Liberalismuniversalist of asakind 36–37. p. Ibid., There has been alotof talk about viewingtransitional justice as liberalizing Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference on Sexual Perspectives Theoretical State of Injury. Power and Freedom in Late Modernity clearwhatmakes ordinary

work. Arguments givenbyRutiTeitelare pursue justice.However,BellandO'Rourke 31 has beenalreadysaid. Thereis alsononeed Perspectives onSexual Difference," inDeborah L. whichdistinguishbe zed liberalism inthis the outlined process is inevitably associated with with associated process isinevitably the outlined que ofdomestic criminal justiceprocesses, weak form ofordinaryjustices adjustedto general level,thereisasequenceof e rather thantotransitional justice: "In n topointuncritica tribution ofeachperson involvedin [Yale University Pre [Yale University Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual 58 justice adesirablemodel for Toputitdifferently,from a sense are Wendy Brown 59 tween therightand It suffices hereto suffices It ss, 1990]); Deborah L. Deborah ss, 1990]); lly toaneed for [Princeton CEU eTD Collection believe that certaintypes of political libera setsof prin maybe conflicting though worth, equally depending on ever-changing political discursive practices; practices; discursive political ever-changing on depending interpretative aspect of justice and law; and and aspect justice of interpretative critiques point at: point critiques three universalism universalist. fallaciesof toacts as being legitimatethat their Idistinguish failing accordance with their understanding of justice andla in practices political implement certain discursive and referto who their actors define goals 112) liberalism], political and universalism fallacies of ([Three liberalizam" processes feminists shouldfocusonsecuringmaterial gainsforwomen putaside and restorative justice. In a line witharguments repeat afterBellandO'Rourke,summarizin 61 60 Difference have beenfundamentally unjust." this concept of justice speaks of a return to aset of relationships thatfor women may domestic law settingshave ad justice, BellandO'Rourke claim: "Asfemi should engagewithliberalizingprojects." vulnerable groups.Thiscouldbeuseful liberalism hasoperated positively to empower –andnegatively todisempower – transitional justice:whatweneed is amo criticism (Ibid., p. 39). The categories I proposed I categories The proposed 39). p. criticism (Ibid., typeof third Nussbaum's of isthe focal the point that and arenot, and what beings human are fully p. 38); furthermore, this leads to formation ofcertain normative patterns for distinguishing what beings of enshrining the understanding of a dominant group at the expense of minority understandings" (Ibid., understandings ofthe human andto demoteothers. Usually, the objection continues, this takes the form list ofthe most fundamental properties and functions of human beings is bound to enshrine certain people "understand human life and humanness in widely different ways, and any attempt to produce a Namely, argument of neglect of historical and cultural categories However, takinginto accounthow Nussbaum clarifie and cultural differences", underline: that universalism against objections of three categories distinguishes Pateman. In her Law Society and History Asia," Southeast Colonial in Exclusion of Politics Cultural the and Identities [Princeton University Pr Ibid., p. 41. 41. p. Ibid., Bell and O'Rourke, "Does Feminism Needa Theory of Transitional Justice?" p. 39. [University ofIllinois Press, 2004]). It would be too easy, but also enough, just to mention Carole After all,Franke, andBell andO'Rourke Finally, itis ratherpredictable whatmay besaidabouttransitional justice as [Yale University Press, 1990]); Iris Marion Young Young Marion Iris Press, 1990]); University [Yale a) andc) a) Sex & Justice Sex Social 34 [1992]); Nevedita Menon Menon Nevedita [1992]); 34 overlap, and that both can be understood "historical fallacy" – referring to aspatio to referring fallacy"– "historical ess, 1990]); Ann Stoler ("Sexual Affr b) "neglectofautonomy", and dressed, thenotionof'restoring' 61 (Oxford University Press, 1999), Martha C. Nussbaum

lism cansuccessfully an c) "particularistic fallacy" – arguing of fallacy"– fora arguing multiplicity "particularistic (Recovering Subversion. Feminist Politics Beyond the Beyond Politics Feminist Subversion. (Recovering 60 32 in my article "Tri propusta univerzalizma ipoliti univerzalizma in my "Tripropusta article re detailedexamina in decisions over when and how women in decisionsoverwhenandhowwomen

ciples andvalues instead againsttransitionaljusticeasordinary s each ofthese s categories, g theircritiqueofthesecondtype w, trying and, according tocritics, eventually differences points atthefact,she explains, that nist critiquesofrestorativejusticein b) alikeconcludethat intransitional c) "interpretative fallacy" – referring toan -temporal aspectofjustice and law, both "prejudicial application" (pp. 38–39). as cases of the"interpretative fallacy." (Justice and the Politics of Difference of Politics the and (Justice onts andRacialFr swer thesecritiques. Re thatlies attheheartof tion of"whenandhow č

no. 77/23, 2008, pp. 89– Comparative Studies in a) of a universal creed. I creed. auniversal of "neglect of historical it seems to me itseemsthat to ontiers: European European ontiers: č ki

CEU eTD Collection that discriminated against women, the passage ofnew passage the women, against discriminated that less vulnerable to future victimization. It urged the repeal or reform ofall statutory and customary laws womeof position the strengthen would reforms that economic and educational, political, to withlegal, recommendations respect "madestrong Leone Sierra in Commission Reconciliation and Truth The redistribution. and recognition between relatedness feminist notionofjustice.However,this are reluctant toengageseriously inadju societal order. Thisisthemain reasonw it seems thatthe only optionfor transitionis three types of transitional justice, as they 'to' and'from' togethersostronglythatth transitional justice istransiting 'from' and Franke, aswellinBellandO'Rourke Namely, 's writings. this conclusionmay asaresultof beseen adjusting transitional justice frameworks to 62 methodologies shouldbenefitfrom thelessons critical practiceandanongoi patterns ofredistribution. AsFrankeputsit, undefined. Eventually,acknowledgment canbeultimately confirmed onlybynew thoroughly analyzedandacknowledged,itisin will argue that'from' 'to' and shouldbecompletely different. While 'from' hastobe ofredistri preconditions fornewpatterns parties and acts thataresubjects oftr Therefore, processesofrecognition, ac which demands thoroughanalysisandcritique justice may beviewedasanimportant elem possible todistinguish clearly between 'fro Franke, "Gendered Subjects ofTransitional Justice," p.825. Franke also offers agood example of

ng experiment inwhichfutu hy Bell andO'Rourke,togetherwithFranke, hy Bell bution. UnlikeFranke,BellandO'Rourke, I havebeenpresentedbyBellandO'Rourke, 33 knowledgement, andidentificationofthe ey almostequatethesetwoelements. Inall 'to', theseauthors somehow managed totie sting transitionaljusticeframeworkstoa does nothavetobeth ansitional justicearesomekindofthe n in Sierra Leonean society and would render them them render and would SierraLeonean society in n an unnecessaryoverlapping thatoccursin "transitional justice shouldbeviewedasa ent ofanopen-endedtransitionalprocess, m' and'to'. Asitwassaid, transitional feminist notion of justice.I believethat laws requiring all political parties to ensure that ensure to parties allpolitical laws requiring learnedfrom ourpreviousefforts." oftheprevioussocietalarrangements. toestablish some form of previous fact necessarytoleave'to' partly re applicati asking whatexactly e case: itisindeed ons ofits 62

CEU eTD Collection possible to distinguish tw te settling for procedures negotiating institutionalized be successfully addressed within Histori universalism. against ofcritiques types three the with level, theoretical atleaston the cope, to isable recognition, equal and justice distributive of concepts the in embedded liberalism, amore level, political On maygeneral critiques be: the to answer [Three liberalis fallacies ofpolitical universalism and analyzed fallacies. The political struggle for for recogniti struggle fallacies. The political analyzed bearer of rights. Therefore, an asa subject is,apolitical that as a human being, recognized fully being of asacondition capacities mean exactly reasoning’ and forchoice capacities basic The reasoning. and choice for theircapacities basic of virtue worth,in areequally as such beings human that argument the to framework. Thefirstisrelated appropriation of legitimizing procedures offered within the framework. the within offered procedures oflegitimizing appropriation interpretations. On the other hand, these interpretations can be understood asa kind of discursive framework or a set ofrules that provide equal recognition for different, and sometimes conflicting viewed asastruggleover interpretation.Inthes have tobuildanewsocialorderthat causes, consequences,perpetrators,andvict going throughtwofoldtransition.Ononeside me thatfrom thefeminist perspectives, post-conflict or post-totalitarian societies are previous societal arrangements asappropriate Together with feminist criticsof transitional justice,I am skepticaltowardsall criticism maybeframed bythesetof uni 2.3. Twofold transition 63 (Ibid., p.827). recommended that Sierra Leone ratify the Protocol of the African Charter on the Rights of Women" and bewomen, elections local and forallnational oftheir candidates percent at leastthirty Together withRutiTeitel,Iam inclined stand in theplaceof'to'. Yet,this'to' the focusoffeministthinkingaboutsociet and critiquesofexistingsocietalarrangement be intransition.Transitionis to transitionaljusticeisthatfrom thefemi č ipoliti univerzalizma "Tripropusta in more atlength question this discussed Ihave The keypointtobetakenfrom theprev o theoreticalmoves in development of interpretative aspect can be distinguished in the core of the three three coreofthe in the canbe distinguished aspect interpretative an inevitabledema the liberal framework that will notrepeatarrangements whichinstall e terms,political liberalism can be understood asa 34 should resultfromthe nist perspectivesallsocietiesar to arguethatbasic y. And, it is ratherlogicalthatitcannot ims ofmassive crimes cal, interpretative and particularistic fallacies can fallaciescan particularistic and cal, interpretative versalist valuesof political liberalism. on and fair distribution of resources thus can can be and fair of resourcesthus distribution on m]. This is what I believe a universalist liberal liberal a is Ibelieve universalist m]. This what nsions between conflicting conflicting between nsions s. Therefore,'from' has alwaysbeenin modelsfor'to'. Therefore,itseems to second then has to explain what this ‘virtue of of ‘virtue what this to explain has then second s. Problems occur precisely in defining human defining s. Problems preciselyin occur ious discussiononfeminist approaches nd thatcomes from thoroughanalyses , thesesocietieshavetodealwith liberalism asauniversal political keeps political fieldopenfor standpoint forsucha criticism of'from'. ; ontheother,they forms of life.Itis of forms ki liberalizam" liberalizam" ki e orshould 63

CEU eTD Collection experience ofthevictim,andunderstands sexuality "asitdefinestheharm bythesexual becomes muchclearerinpractice that it seems thathumanitarian lawdefines sexua can beprosecutedasawarcrime, genocideorasacrime humanity. against Although follows. Sexualviolence, asacriminal violation of international humanitarian law, International Criminal TribunalfortheFormer Yugoslavia. implementation "instantiateand prosecutions. Sheconcludesthatgende and howthismodel isimplemented inle the existingapproachtosexua in armed conflicts constructed byinternati analysis oftherelationshipbetweengender andtheprohibitionuponsexualviolence gender relations." the InternationalCriminal violence. violence inconflictsanddifferentstrategiesforinte referring toKirstenCampbell's theoreticale and previous socialarrangements arethoroughlyinterwoven.Toillustrate this, Iam social orders.Yet,thesetwotransitionsca domination anddiscrimination 64 Criminal Tribunal forth Criminal Tribunal 1, 2007,pp.411–432; here p.411. Kirsten Campbell, "The Gender of Transitional Ju Campbell's main idea,confirmed byhe In herarticle "The Genderof Transitional Justice: Law,SexualViolence and 64 Here,thereisnoneedtogoin e FormerYugoslavia," Tribunal fortheFormerCampbell Yugoslavia," analyzes

l violenceasacriminal harmunderinternationallaw, reiterate, ratherthantran of particularsocialgroups,knownfrom previous The International Journal of Transitional Justice, Transitional of Journal International The 35 onal law,firmly basedonthecasesof this modelmirrors masculine model of nnot beseparated,thatis,massive crimes r patternsthato stice: Law, Sexual Violence and the International ffort tosuggestanewapproachsexual the sexualactinterms of anactive gal practice ininternational criminal l violenceasagender-neutralterm, it intent of theperpetrator rather thanthe r analysis, can be summarized as to detailsofCampbell'sthorough rnational prosecutionsofsexual sform, existinghierarchical ccur throughoutthis Vol. Vol. CEU eTD Collection meaning inthatsocial context." conflicts itis[...]necessary examination bringsusbacktotheabove relations; instead, theyinstantiateandreiter side, Campbell claims thatlegalnorms andpracticesdonottransform existinggender particularly onrecognitionofgenderrolesth interpretation ofthespecificcontext w sanction sexualviolencedependonrecognition, thatis,understandingand prosecuting sexualviolence.Ononeside in conflict. acts, organsandbodies." and bodies,""thosemodelsinturndrawuponideasofmasculine andfeminine since "thenotionof'sexual violence' reliesuponcertainm masculine body thatpenetratesapassivefeminine body." 69 68 67 66 65 Ibid. 429. p. Ibid., 419. p. Ibid., 417. p. Ibid., 418. p. Ibid., Therefore, "toidentifythespecificha Campbell convincinglydrawsourattentiontoonesignificantparadoxof nation thataresooftenthemselv nation, whichsolidifiesthosevery where itisunderstoodinterms ofa forms ofillegality.Thismodel charact act, which isrecognised asaninternational crime onlywhen framed byother becomes aninternational crime. Accord religious group,oranattackupona to armed conflict, the intendeddestruc of aninternational crime. Rather, it A crucialgap is that sexual violence in Furthermore: 69

66

toidentify hownotionsofsexualdifference aregiven

68 These meanings exactlyaresubjects to contestation es atstake inarmed conflicts. mentioned generalobser 36 ithin whichthisviolence occurred, and is onlywhensexualvi boundaries ofethnicity,communityand , implementations oflegalnorms that ate theserelations. T is contextconsists crime against a victim's community or crime against avictim'scommunity its ownrightisnot erises theconductas civilian population,thattheconduct rms ofsexualviolenceinparticular ingly, sexual violence isasubsidiary tion of anational,ethnic,racialor odels ofsexualacts,organs 65 Thisisnotunexpected of. But,ontheother vation articulatedby hus, thisparticular accorded thestatus olence hasanexus significantonly 67

CEU eTD Collection expected toyieldneeded results. transitional justicehastobeviewed asa also impossible ifthecontextitselfhasnot Therefore, thereplacement ofsome particular any newlegislativemodelisentirelyde in herarticle.However,andhereIrepeatmy main argument,a possibility toapply violence asdefinedbyhuman community ofperpetrators.Campbell sugge of transitional justice, especially whenthis some neworder. equate "from" and"to"rath feminist criticism of transitional justice:

And thisisexactlytheparadoxwhichIam tryingtopinpointasakeyproblem er than totransform existi itarian lawhastobereplacedbyanewone,suggested 37 mechanisms of transitional justice tendto pendent onthe existingsocialcontexts. beenchanged.ThisiswhyIsuggestthat issue is approached from theside of the kind ofgeneralcultu modelis notonly insufficient,butitis sts thattheexistingmodel ofsexual ng societalarrangements into ral policy, if itis CEU eTD Collection national martyr." was sentencedtomaximum whichonlyprovidedhim 20years, withthelabelof"a the concentrationcamp, during in thelate1990s,Šakić institutional aswellcultural, ANDRE TRUTH THE YUGOSLAV Chapter 3 70 protagonists contributedtotheineff contrary, theconcep demonstrate that this failure patterns which justified Serbianwar endeavor documents, theonlyresultityieldedwasa of thesame kind.Inspiteof contexts thatframe theCommission work. opening paragraphs ofthissectionIam environment isnecessaryforathoroughunders See footnote 24. 24. See footnote I havealreadymentioned thebrillian I believethat anextensivedescription

70 ThecaseoftheYugoslavTruthandReconciliationCommission is t oftruthandrec stoodtrialfor mass crimes hecommitted asacommander of declarative goals,formulated intheCommission's official was notresult ofcontextual circumstances only. Onthe

the WorldWar Second.Atthe that undermined effectsoftheŠaki ectiveness of thisCommission aswell. CONCILIATION COMMISSION onciliation commission 38 offering anelaborated account ofvarious mere confirmation ofthelegitimizing of theCommission political and social s. Myintention inthis section is to tanding ofitswork.Therefore,inthe t studyoncontextualconstraints, end oftheprocess,he offered toSerbian ć case.InZagreb,

CEU eTD Collection explain thepoliticalsceneinSerbiaof 3.1. Ahistoricalprelude articulated goal–removing Milošević victory onthelocalelections,protests feeling was that, inspite ofmaking th opposition politicalpartiesandprotestors protests, inthevacuumofpoliticaldepressi just accepted theresults, andthe whole story wasover.Monthsaftertheendof the power wasabouttocome.However,Miloševi endured formorethan100days,amongsta by abignumberofprotestors went much beyondtheclaim forrecognitionof last daysof December 1996andfirstdays of theautumn1996,inwhichoppositionpartieshadclaimed aclearvictory.Inthe against Milošević Miloševi protests againsttheregime oftheSocial years before2000failtoachievethesame success? previous decade;and,asanaspectofit, noon and8p.m. onOctober5,2000,managed to a) howcomethattheregime, whichwasbl Among thequestionsthatar The endof1996andbeginning1997in ć . Citizenspoured 's attempt toannul theresultsof into thestreetsandsquares that werepersistent a e stillputforwardinanattempt tounderstandand from–wasnotachieved. power the 1990s,followingtwoareveryfrequent: e regime recognizetheopposition parties' 39 ist PartyofSerbia b) failed,sincethemain, althoughvaguely on, politicalanalyststriedto explainwhy whydidthehugeprotestsfrom several had notcome alongway. Theshared shared beliefthattheendofMiloševi own awayjustineighthours,between of January1997, citizens' expectations ć foundasurprisinglyeasywayout:he thelocalelectionresults.Encouraged the localelections, Serbia weremarked bylargecivil stayinpower nd quite well organized, they nd quitewellorganized, throughout Serbia,protesting and itsleaderSlobodan the wholeof held attheend ć 's 's CEU eTD Collection translation]; also available at http://host.sezampro.yu/rec/9802/REC98024.htm. convincing distancingfrom theregime point wouldhavemeant atleast–puttingasideeverythingelse – aclearand grounded inclarifyingathickfogofnationali been notonly logical," shecontinues, " coming togetherasatec to gobeyondtheclaim fortherecognitionofelectionresults asareasonforand suggested thatthispointought help suppressingtensionsembedded inan coalition thatledtheprotes proceeded thefallofYugoslavia.She explaine the issue ofresponsibility forwarcrimes the protestscouldnotmeetmost importa offered herratherunexpectedviewonthefail 72 71 Yugoslav collapseandtheconflictsthatpr as theregime, wereunabletofacether phantasms, whichledhertoaquitepessimistic world beyondanarrownationalisticfram introduced theconceptof "cognitive block" coalition partners' inabilitytofocus such anintegrativepoint,sheconclude Ibid., p. 137. 137. p. Ibid., Drinka Gojkovi A yearaftertheendofprotes Towards theendofheranalysis,DrinkaGojkovi ć , "Za po č etak, skica" [A draft, to to with], [Abegin skica" draft, etak, hnique ofremovingMiloševi ts oughttohaveafirm point

to havebeenakindofsh d, theprotestsweredoomed tofail. thatwassoughttoberemoved." on clarifyingthe"nationalistic fog."She 40 but alsonecessaryifthataim hadbeen ts, inFebruary1998,DrinkaGojković committedin theethnic conflictsthat eality ofSerbianres oceeded it.Thisinab intrinsiccoalitionheterogeneity.She ework made from national obsessive nt expectationssincetheydidnotraise sm andwars";eventu ure oftheprotests:shepointedoutthat to pointamental closureagainst a d thatit had been clear that the political conclusion: theprotest leaders, as well ć Re from power."Itwouldhave of integration, whichcould ofintegration, č

ć ared politicalaim thathad no. 42, 1998, pp. 135–141 [my 135–141 pp. 1998, 42, no. alsotriedtoexplain the ponsibility for the ility precludedthe ally, "thisstarting 72 Without 71

CEU eTD Collection for instance, theassassination oftheSerbian Prime Minister Zoran 2001 to2003,thatalmost fullyoverlappedwiththetime Commission's ofthe work– once more. Furthermore, takingintoaccount "cognitive block"failed was meant toexamine –issufficient toconclude that the attempt of transcending the leaving nearlyanydocument orevidenceeither which succeededYugoslaviainFebruary2003,theCommissionfadedawaywithout a periodofthree-years–byestablishment of in generaltoreallyengage "cognitive block,"whichoughttoenablepolitic of theCommission canbeunderstoodasadeliberateattemptoftranscendingthe massive human rightsviolationswere actua Serbia werefullyawarehowmuch theissu after thechangeofpower,itcouldbeargue of thenewlyelectedfederalpresidentas earlyasMarch2001,onlyseveralmonths account thatthestateTruthandReconcilia of human rights inth for thewar crimes orpointed attheSerbian revolution, wassuccessfulalthough, again, no Gojkovi decisively embeddedinprinciplesof accountability. opposition parties tobring aboutdemocratic 73 Ibid., p. 140. 140. p. Ibid., Unfortunately, even a quick look at the results of the Commission's workover Unfortunately, evenaquicklookattheresultsofCommission's However, from thestandpointofOct ć wasdeeplywrong,since e post-Yugoslavconflicts.Yet, andthat,inGojkovi in democratizing processes.

the Octoberprotest,vi 41 tion Commission wasformed bythedecree lly important. In thatview, establishment key roleinmassive abusesandviolations theStateUnionSerbiaandMontenegro, es oftruthandres d thatbearers ofdemocratic changes in ć events thatoccurred changes in Serbia,sincedemocracy is 's terms, nationalphantasms prevailed one raised theissue ofresponsibility al actorsas well ascitizensofSerbia ober 5events,itappearsthatDrinka aboutitsactivities 73

on theotherhand,takinginto ewed bysome asa ponsibility relatedto in theperiodfrom Đ or eventsthatit in đic inMarch CEU eTD Collection phantasms," and tendencies areclosely rela different butinterrelatedtendencies,whic Commission andworkedunderthestrong influence wasformed ofatleasttwo and ReconciliationCommission.Moregene Commission hadaninappropriaterolemode nationalistic framework. Thereisat least one fail notonly because ofthenational under whichitworked,Iam inclinedtoarguethattheCommission doomed was to reconciliation. However,taki reasons whytheCommission neithergotcl well astoanalyze itsfailuretoachievewhatitwasaiming todo,thatis,outlinethe of theYugoslavTruthandReconciliati Reconciliation Commission's workcanserveasaninstance ofsuchacurrent. political discourses ofbothsides–there democratic transition in Serbiathan the might leadtothe conclusion thatMilošević uncertain democraticprospectsinSerbia provide asuitablegroundforunderstandin phantasms, thatprecludeddemocratic tr sound. Herinsightsaboutakindofmental clos conclude thatGojkovi significant strengthofaradicalright-wingpoliticalopt 2003, andtheparliamentaryelectionsin

The objective of this chapter istodepict b) thehuman rightsdiscourseinits ć 's analysisoftheeventsfrom ted totwodiscourses: a) ng intoaccountthewayitwasformed conditions andthe on Commission,formedMarch30,2001,as gime aswelltheopposition. TheTruthand 42 ansition inSerbia in 1996/1997,seemto today. Furthermore,thistrainofthought nationalistic "mental closure" evident in phantasms, thatis,thenarrow-minded h eventuallyled toanimpasse.These December 2003thatdemonstrated a l todrawon–theSouthAfricanTruth g anunstablepoliticalsituationand morereasontobeaddedthis.The ure withinaframework ofnationalistic rally, thismeans thattheYugoslav himself wasasmaller obstaclefor theformation andthethree-year work oser toanytruthnorachieved 1996/1997isstillapplicableand particularversionrelated to thediscourseof"national ion –oneis inclined to CEU eTD Collection Re sample of2,173intervieweesfrom Belg the question whenthe conflicts started: Svetlana LogarandSr partial denialsthatsomethi unwillingness isranging from biasedinterpretation of whatactually happenedto and citizensingeneraltoacceptwhat ha Yugoslav conflicts,this term referstoapersistent unwillingness ofSerbianpoliticians with them, whichcausesalackofaccount detachment from reality, thatis,toaninab 3.2. "Cognitiveblock" months afteritbegan;warinBosniaa 1993, yet,itwasfinished by theVancepeaceproposal from January 15,1992,eight according to interviewees,thewarin Croa Logar andBogosavljevi opposite ways,aimed tohelpintr these discoursesandtheirinteractions transitional justiceandtruthreconciliation commissions.Iwillgiveanaccountof 75 74 considering thefactthat wholeconf conflict inSloveniabetweenOctober1989andMarch1993whichisamazing results outlinetheperceptionof1990sinSerbia. http://www.b92.net/casopis_rec/arhiva/arhiva.html. http://www.b92.net/casopis_rec/arhiva/arhiva.html. Ibid., p. 33. 33. p. Ibid., Svetlana Logar and Sr č

62, 2001, pp. 7–34 [my translation]; here p. 7; also available at The "cognitiveblock,"asDrinkaGojković To startwiththebeginningsof đ an Bogosavljevi đan Bogosavljevi ć stressthe incredible breadthof answers that peoplegiveto ng reallyhappened.InthesecondhalfofApril2001,

anscending the"cognitiveblock." ć , "Vi đ enje istine u Srbiji" [Percep Srbiji" istine u enje rade, VojvodinaandCentralSerbia, , stressingthatbothofthem, althoughin 75 nd Herzegovina,accordi 43 ć ppened andtheirrespons intervieweesplaced tia startedbetween January1990 andJune ledthepublicopinionresearchon ability. Inthecaseofunderstandingpost- ility tounderstand realproblems anddeal lict lasted10days, wars: intheir comments ontheresults, usedtheterm, referstoacomplete tion of truth in Serbia], oftruth Serbia], tion in the beginningof in June/July1991; ng totheanswers, ibility for it. The ibility forit.The 74 whose CEU eTD Collection got killedinSarajevo,orhowmany were removed from theirhome townsin percent of interviewees di percent heardthatSerbsshelledMarkale people werekilledinSaraje accompanied withthelackofknowledgea discussed." interviewees putforward dates that are fa clear consensusaboutthebeginni 1998. regular police,military forcesandarmed Albaniangroupsthat brokeout inFebruary the NATOaircampaign inMarch1999,notw conflict erupted according to61.9percent of placed thebeginning ofthiswarcorrectly inApril1992;thebeginning oftheKosovo actually ended,however,more thanhalfof broke outinJanuary1990andlasteduntil 79 78 77 76 people weresimply notinformed oughtto Croatia, BosniaandHerzegovin 57.1 percent,and49.1didnotknow perpetrated bytheSerbianside,yethigh to think that people felt uncomfortable element oftheblurredpublicperception Ibid., p. 26. 26. p. Ibid., 27. p. Ibid., 33. p. Ibid., 24–25. pp. Ibid., 76 The chronologicalconfusionaboutthebegi LogarandBogosavljevi 77

d notknowordidwanttoanswerhowmany people vo bysnipers,only

ć ng ofthesewars,"itisstill concludethat,althoughitis a, andKosovo,respectively. peoplegotkilledinSrebrenica. market inSarajevo,11.2 44 Bosnia andHerzegovina,howmany people bout theconflicts' consequences.Some 70 the1990s.Thetempor to speak about casualties of violations to speakaboutcasualtiesofviolations be setaside.For, r from anydatethatcanbereasonably March1998,nearlyth theinterviewees,53.2percentofthem, ithstanding the bigger conflicts between ithstanding thebiggerconflictsbetween percentage ofinterviewees,49percent, the interviewees,withbeginningof howmany Serbswereexpelledfrom 54.7 percentofthem believedit;80.7 nnings oftheconflictsisjustone surprising thathalfofthe 91.5 percentheardthat truethatthereisno 79 percent believedit; Explanationthat al disorientationis 78 ree yearsafterit Oneisinclined CEU eTD Collection selective, and attitude to these events is very bi events these to attitude and selective, isvery SFRY (1992–1995) former the wars in to related events familiarity and with "Memory what theygot: percent ofthem believedit. 78.6 percentheardthatahugenumber ofBosn and Bogosavljevi cause, Mladi conclusion aboutit,forwheninterviewees neither toaskwhowasresponsiblefortheSrebrenicamassacr Ra 80.7 percent heardthattheAlbaniancivilpopulation waskilledinthevillage of 84 83 82 81 80 belonging. moral valuesinSerbianpublicdiscour way andjustify theSrebrenica massacre. Su However, thisdoesnotexcludethepossibility that those whokilledpeopleinSrebrenica did itfor the sakeof Serbiannation. were perpetratedforthe sakeofthenati is possibletostatethatthesedatareveal SeealsoBandovi 9 p. Ibid., 21. p. Ibid., Ibid. 22. p. Ibid., č ak, 22.8percentbelievedit. assume thatheroesdonotperpetratewarcrimes. Thus, itishardtoconcludewhatthese percent) and Miloševi Sreberenica viewedMladi It turned out that 61percent of t At firstsight, itseems thatthe Srebrenica case isanexception from therule: Indeed, theanalyzedresultsmake room foryetanotherconclusion.Namely, it 84

ć , Karadži ć ć , crossed thedataonSreberenica . Bandovi CrimesJudiciary War National ICTYand Activityof The ć , ArkanandMiloševi 81

ć (6percent) asprotectors Yet,itseems thatthese60.8percentwerewilling 80

ć (25percent),Karadži ased, depending on who was the perpetrator and who the who and perpetrator was the who on ased, depending a kindoftacitapprovalmassacres, asthey on. Untiltodaynoonehasexplicitly stated 45 ses aregoingbeyondthelimit ofethnic hose whobelievedinwhathappened were askedwhodidmost fortheSerbian ch apossibilityraisesquestionwhether ć werelistedasnationalheroes. thattherearepeoplewhothinkin ians werekilledinSrebrenicaand60.8 people reallybelieved in,since itisto and Serbianheroesthisis 83

of theSerbiannation.[...] ć (17percent),Arkan(14 e nortodrawany ć 82 explains: Logar CEU eTD Collection ethnic groups. ready tobelieveinwhattheylearn aboutcrimes committed bySerbsagainst other about crimes committed against Serbsissignificantly higher thananumber ofthose regardless of theevidence, anumber of interviewees whobelieved inwhat they learnt it istobeassumed thata ki blind tofacts;inthiscaseitshouldbeadde national phantasms. Itisnotenoughtosaythat akindofmental closuremakes people national hero makes possible to sketchcont 87 86 85 (p. 64). happened, and only 18% of citizens believethatthese really that this Vukovar, believe in 24% ArmyYugoslav and civilians paramilitary troops killed more these were warcrimes,that slightly only but "Flash", "Storm"82% and operations during civilians areas These described warcrimes.events group. believe them to be trut if the victims wereSerbs and the perpetrators belonged to a different ethinc and events with isfamiliar ofcitizens percentage A significantly event. larger given the victim of whether theknowledgeofnewevidencecha is, nationalphantasms wasultimately demonstrated wheninterviewees wereasked possibility thatSerbsarealsotobeblame citizens werereadytolookforcauseson Serbian nationalism (41.2percent), NATO interests(72.3percent),Muslim Croatian nationalism (77.8per state thatthefall Regardless oftheevidence,theysaiddidnotknow:intervieweeswereinclinedto by Serbs. crimes committed againstSerbs,wheretheyhardly couldrecall onecrime committed Ibid., p. 12. 12. p. Ibid., 18–19. pp. Ibid., Logar and Bogosavljevi The ambiguous image ofawarcrime pe 86 An image ofanationalhero prevails 85 Furthermore, the majority of interviewees wasable tolistthree of Yugoslavia and the wars that proceededitwerecausedby of Yugoslaviaandthewarsthat ć , "Vi đ nd ofnationalphantasm prevails enje istine u Srbiji," p. 34. cent), interestsoftheUn 87 whichmeans that more than half of Serbian d. The strengthofthe d. The 46 d that if we are faced withsuchablindness d thatifwearefaced ours of the"cognitive block"consistingof separatism (68.9percent),and,finally, 85% have heard that the Croats killed a lot alot of Croats thatthe killed heard have 85% than half of the population has heard that the thatthe heard has ofthe population half than believe that the events were true and 75% believe believe 75% weretrueand events the that believe nged theirview aboutthesidesinvolved the otherside,implicitlyexcluding were true events andconsider them warcrimes" overtherealityofawar criminal. rpetrator and,atthesame time, a ited States(7 over evidence. Therefore, "cognitive block,"that 3.5 percent),

CEU eTD Collection a) of theseapproaches initsownwaydealswith associates, and participated inabuses, b) what theydid –"theissue ofaccountability." whether perpetratorsshould befacedwith approaches: to establishajustanddemocratic one transition, andparticularlyabout 3.3. Truthandreconciliationcommi neglects evidenceandavoidsresponsibility evidence? Isitpossible toforgedemocracy to changetheiralreadyestablishedopinionswhentheyhappencome acrossnew in wars:theanswersof85.5percentthem 89 88 to argue that in cases ofstablepoliticaland socialenvironment, ensuredby circumstances, that is,existing powerrelati one is tobe implemented isthenthe matte transition only oneofthem canbeimpl necessarily mutuallyexclusive, itseems th Atruthandreconcilia "cognitive block"? were willing andabletoad Huyse, "Justice After Transition," p. 337. 30. p. Ibid., isevilpasttoberemembered orfor To repeatonceagain:inhisdeliberation So, whatistobedonewhenpeopleare c) a) amnesty forall,andd) massive prosecutionsofallthosew just theiropinioninaccord

lustration ordisqualification of former eliteand its facinganevilpastofaprev amnesty, butnotforgettingwhatwasdone.Each ssions: general frameworks gotten –"theissueof emented coherently andsuccessfully. Which tion commissionwassugge 47 , Luc Huyse distinguishes four possible , LucHuysedistinguishesfourpossible ons. Takingthisintoaccount,itispossible r ofanassessment of juridical or some otherconsequencesfor ? Isthereanywayof ? were negative,that were at Huyseimplies thatinasociety withinacommunity thatpersistently twobasicissues of transitional justice: 89 willing neithertoacceptevidencenor about justiceafterso Althoughtheseapproachesarenot ho collaborated with the old regime ho collaboratedwiththeoldregime ance withthe newevidence. acknowledgment"; and ious regime inanattempt is,only14.5percent socialandpolitical transcendingthis sted asasolution. cial andpolitical 88

b)

CEU eTD Collection York and London, 2001), p. 24. 24. p. 2001), London, and York In casesoftransitionasaresult ofnego partial responsibility and full acknowledgment, a) consensual support to transition, within 92 91 90 commissions. Beforemoreissaidabout often mentioned butrarely discussed instudiesontransitional justice andtruth way, extremely important inanal past, orachievingnationalreconciliation. former regime andhighlightinganewright commission, some ofwhichare:distan transitional justices, Priscilla B.Hayne from 21countriesthatexperiencedtran Huyse, isatruthandreconciliationcommission. accompanied with fullacknowledgment. Aform either uncertain, theothertwoapproachesseem tobe in whichthepowerbalanceisquitefragile, andconsensualsupporttotransition Ibid. Unspeakable PriscillaB.Hayner, Truths. Confronting State Terror and Atrocity 338. p. Ibid., "prosecution"–fullresponsibilityandacknowledgment,orb) Beyond thesepurposestheremight bevariousreasonsforsettingupatruth over thepast. and recommend reforms; andtopromot contribute tojusticeandaccountability; formally acknowledgepastabuses;torespondspecificneedsofvictims; to have anyorallofthefollowingfive Though presentedwithvaryingdegrees Drawing onherextensiveaccountof c) amnesty –noresponsibility,acknowledgment, amnesty or 91

yzing theSerbiancase.Itpoin r listedthecommissions' main purposes: which newregimes feelstrong enough,either tiating processesbetween 48 92 cing newgovernment's policiesfrom the itinrelationtotheYugoslavTruthand sitional processesandhadtodealwith s-respecting era,orclosingthebookon Ithink thatthe last oneis, inan inverted moreapplicableandeffective, that is, typeofapproachistobeconsidered. truth and reconciliation commissions basic aims: todiscover,clarify,and 90 of emphasis, atruthcommission may e reconciliationandreduceconflict

ofthelastapproach, accordingto outlineinstitutionalresponsibility ts toanaspect thatis oldandnewelites, , Routledge (New "lustration"– d) amnesty amnesty CEU eTD Collection does Serbia and Montenegro need atruth commission"], past"], change"], and guilt,truth on triangle: do now"],do we Toward Democratic Future," was held in May 2001, in Belgrade (see Democratic Toward May Belgrade Future," was heldin 2001, budu odgovornost, willwe language be speaki ["What war crimes issues responsibility. of truth and and were presented attheconference. ć ofBogosavljevi The results participated. Serbia, of Prime Minister was opened by MrKoštunica, atthattime President of Federal Yugoslavia, and Mr Ulcinj (see Re Reco and Responsibilities "Truths, first conference, focus on truth commission's –its necessity and purposes – were held in Serbia and Montenegro. The inSerbia"], reconciliation achieving and truth establishing in Serbia. against the"complete confusion" she terms such awork a"persistent faci particular casesofviolationhuman has tobehavethroughitsinstitutions inaccordancewiththisknowledge. sanctioned andinaparticularwaybindingforthecommun Dimitrijević pointed atindomestic discu Reconciliation Commission, wearetosee 99 98 97 96 95 94 93 Gojkovi materials that candemonstrate abuses, mi importance ofcollectingdocuments, eviden debate. a truth commission. Thefollowing isabrie "Suo "Srbija kao nedovršenadržava" ["Serbiaan as unfinished state"], Ibid., p. 23. 23. p. Ibid., Gojkovi Gojkovi truth, of issues tothe conferencesdevoted Two Dimitrijevi SeeVojin Dimitrijevi SeeNenad SeeDrinka Gojkovi č avanje s lošom prošlos Re 96 Among authorsinSerbia,DrinkaGojkovi č ć ć ć Asfarasaims ofatruthcommissionareconcerned,Gojkovi no. 65, 2002, pp. 45–57. 45–57. pp. 2002, 65, no. , NenadDimitrijevi , "Budu , "Zapo 98 Knowledgethatiscreatedinthis 95 č no. 57 and gavemost coherentandconvincing Re ć ć č nost u trouglu," pp. 20, 23. č nost" ["The past, responsibility, and the future"], future"], the and past, responsibility, ["The nost" etak, skica." no.55, 1999; "Budu ć 's articles:"Zapo ć , "Izgledi zautvr ć 's articles:"Kojim ć Re u: treba li Srbiji i Crnoj Gori komisija za istinu" ["Facing the evil past: past: evil ["Facing the Gori zaistinu" iCrnoj komisija liSrbiji treba u: č no. 58). The other one, "In Search for Truth and Responsibility – no. – 58). Responsibility The other and "InSearch for Truth one, ssions aboutatr These twoconferences

ć ng after the bombs stop falling"], falling"], stop afterthe bombs ng putsforwardthatacommission oughttoexamine Re ofpervertedfactsan"o č no. 57, 2000, pp. 17–24; "Politika prošlosti" ["The politics of of politics ["The prošlosti" "Politika pp.17–24; 57, 2000, no. č đ etak, skica" ["A draft, to begi ć ivanje istine i postizanje pomi ipostizanje istine ivanje nost u trouglu: o krivici, istini i promeni" ["The future in a in future ["The promeni" istinii krivici, o trouglu: u nost ć emo jezikom govoriti kada bombe prestanu da padaju" padaju" da prestanu bombe kada govoriti jezikom emo rights andofthelawcustoms ofwar 49 ng thefactsofourwars"andputsitout streatments andhuman rightsviolations; responsibility and reconciliation, with a particular with aparticular reconciliation, and responsibility uth commission. nciliations," was held on March 17–18, 2000, in 2000, 17–18, March on was held nciliations," which oftheseaims andreasonswere ces, testimonies, andallothervarious f accountoftheircontributions tothe Re provideda kind of framework discussing for wayoughttobepublic,officially Re č ć no. 71, 2003, pp. 65–83. 65–83. pp. no. 71, 2003, , č arguments infavorofestablishing 93 no. 62, 2001, pp. 69–74. 2001, pp. 69–74. 62, no. NenadDimitrijevi and Logar public opinion research research opinion public Logar and Re ity, that is,the community Re č n with"]; "Kuda dalje" ["What dalje" "Kuda with"]; n fficial truth" thatprevails Re no. 62).The latterconference Re renja renja u Srbiji" ["Prospects of č č no. 69, 2003, pp. 5–20; 5–20; pp. 2003, 69, no. č no.57, 2000, pp. 5–16; no. 55, 1999; "Prošlost, "Prošlost, 1999; no. 55, ć ć Đ 94 stresses the the stresses in andVojin đ ic, thelate 99 Like 97

CEU eTD Collection from theoldregime; authors agreethatithasto strengthening democratic andlegalinstitutions. those abusesperpetratedbytheSerbianside. committed duringthepost-Yugoslav wars,ye 108 107 106 105 104 103 102 101 100 these reasons inthree points: citizens; abuses; politics veiled inprivileging collectiveoverindividualinterests; territory of Serbia commission's competencies: it hasto exam states' borders –VojinDimitrijevi victims andperpetrators foundthemselves initially interethnic, eventually of theYugoslavcase–acommission evil pastthroughtruthcommissions –todraw on, 3.4. TheCommission'sshortprehistory V.Dimitrijevi Gojkovi Gojkovi V.Dimitrijevi N.Dimitrijevi N.Dimitrijevi Gojkovi N.Dimitrijevi Gojkovi 104 As farasreasonsforforming atrut for civilnormality andjustsocietyafter theperiod of brutality. establishing andstabilizing newdemocraticlegitimacy, 1) Although there wereothercases–notn 106 ć ć ć ć moral, politicalandlegaldistancing promotingdemocratic , "Budu , "Zapo , "Zapo , "Zapo strengtheningaccountability asa ć ć ć ć ć , "Izgledi za utvr , "Izgledi za utvr , "Suo , "Suo budu odgovornost, "Prošlost, , ć č č č nost u trouglu," p. 19. andMontenegro. etak, skica," p. 137. etak, skica," p. 138. etak, skica," p. 138. č č avanje s lošom prošlos lošom s avanje avanje s lošom prošlos lošom s avanje 102 liberationfrommental pattern contribute significantlyto:a đ đ

ivanje istine i postizanje pomirenja u Srbiji," p. Srbiji," 69. pomirenja u istineipostizanje ivanje p. Srbiji," 73. pomirenja u istineipostizanje ivanje turned outto be international, meaning thatat theend principles andvalues; 101

ć ć ć further narrows apossible realm ofa ć u," p.80. u," p.66. nost," p. nost," 14. 50 ine onlythoseeventsthatoccurredonthe on opposite sides of newly established onoppositesidesofnewly h commission areconcerned,allthree 100 from crimes ofthepreviousregime, t, headded, it oughtto examine only Emphasizingspecificcharacteristics necessary condition ofdemocracy; ecessarily thecasesofdealing with hastodealwitheventsthat,being 107 NenadDimitrijević 109 theSouthAfricanTruthand s oftherepressive,arbitrary clear anddecisivedistancing 105 autonomy ofindividual 3) 103 establishing basis avoidingfurther 108

summarizes 2)

CEU eTD Collection between AlexBoraine, work undertheirauspices, in1999 theOpen Notwithstanding this, differently duetodifferent conditions, ifanysuccess istobe achieved. occurred; still, Iwanttoempha of peopleinthesecountriesaretobesetasideduedifferentcontextswhichthey countries. Bynomeans doIintendtoclaim th violations ofhuman rightsandotherunlaw to beassumed that therelevance was establis Soros FoundationinBelgrade,SonjaLiht,a Commission, andpeople from Kosovo,Serbia Reconciliation Commission turnedouttobe 111 110 109 differences betweenthe twocanbeeasilylisted. South AfricancaseasrelevantfortheYugoslavsituation,althoughanumber of by oneofthemost prominent humanrights South Africa.Assuch,itcouldserveas effective incontributing to democratic change front oftheCommission –itissomeho questioned –for instance, itfailed tomake past isprobably theworld's best-known one.Althoughitssuccesshasoftenbeen Different reasonsmight causethis.TheS the Ulcinjconference. Many partic South Africa and Serbia," and a and Serbia," Africa and South of the Soros Foundation in Belgrade, Boraine said that: "I immediately stressed the difference between and Peace-Building," Reconciliation about the Serbian/Albanian case.SeeArieNadler, "From Te Arie Nadler presented the experi ArieNadler presented Israeli/Palestinian About Boraine's visit to Serbia see Ibid., pp. 401–404. 401–404. pp. SerbiaseeIbid., to Boraine's visit About SeeBoraine, Some otherreasons canbeaddedtoth A CountryUnmasked, through thenetworkofitsregi 111 dded, "but outlined what we had attempted to do todo here." attempted wehad what "but outlined dded, oneofthemain architectsoftheSouth African ipants viewed his presentation as quite enlightening and helpful for for helpful and enlightening as quite presentation his viewed ipants size thatifwearetodealwiththem, wehavetodo it p. 401. Describing his conversation with Sonja Liht, President Liht,President Sonja with conversation his 401. Describing p. Re č no. 58, 2000, pp. 33–39. 33–39. pp. no. 58, 2000, an example toitsYugoslavcounterpart. 51 outh Africancase ofdealingwiththeevil w takenforgranted the key perpetrator P.W. Bothatestify in ttended themeeting. SheinvitedBoraine arelevantmodel fortheYugoslavone. l Aviv to Ulcinj: Can LearnWe from EachOther ful actscommittedbythestateinboth ence in overcoming past and present conflicts at at conflicts and present past in ence overcoming hed inrespect tosimilarities of massive activists, Aryeh Neier, considered the s and stabilizationof stateinstitutions in SocietyInstitute arranged ameeting is. TheOpenSociety Institutechaired andMacedonia. Thepresidentofthe at similarities ofdrasticmistreatments 110 Sinceeverythingelsediffers,itis onal branchesandNGOsthat that itwasactually

CEU eTD Collection (Beograd: B92, 2000), presents English transla English presents B92,2000), (Beograd: outline certain aspects of theSouthAfrican Commission's aims. Commission's stancetowardreconciliati suggestions made byD.Gojkovi account oftheCommission's establishment, aimsandwork,compare thesewith the I showwhytheSouthAfrican Commission wa All oftheseledtopointingat in Serbiaisconcerned partners. Ontheotherhand,akindof neglec South AfricanCommission asarelevantm Open SocietyInstituteandBorainepersona had ontheSouthAfricansociety,itistobeassumed thattheinvolvement ofboth poorly informed abouttheSouthAfrican actually decidedabouttheformation ofth formed byKoštunica's decree. Koštunica, atthattime the special consultant for thematters of truth and reconciliation of bothVojislav second one,heldinBelgrade inMay already 2001.Atthattime, became Boraine the Orthodox Church." organizations, students,NGOs,independent issues oftruthandresponsibility,heldinUlcinj. when hemet with"awiderange of to visitBelgrade.BorainevisitedSerbia 113 112 which preventedhim toparticipateinth Dejan Ili 402. p. Ibid.,

If wetakeintoaccountthatthosewho ć andVeran Mati 112 InApril2000,hewasnotgive ć likely tobefoundontheotherside,representedbyBoraine. (eds.), President ofFederalYugos anexampleinappropriateto

Truths, Responsibilities, Reconciliations: The Example of Serbia of Example The Reconciliations: Truths, Responsibilities, ć , V.Dimtrijevi tions of the speeches given attheconference. several times; thefirsttime inOctober 1999, 52 e firstYugoslavconfer people representingalternativeacademic e YugoslavCommission anditsaims were Commission, itsworkandinfluenceithas on and"internationa odel thantheknowledge t orlackofknowledge lly wasmore decisiveinchoosingthe media, and representatives ofthe s notagoodchoice,Iwillgivebrief were inapositiontodecideandwho ć 113 , andN.Dimitrijevi However,heparticipated inthe n avisatoenterthecountry, lavia, andtheCommission, be arelevantmodel.Before l community,"and ence devoted to the ence devotedtothe whenthesituation oftheirSerbian ć , describethe

CEU eTD Collection Foreign Affairs,andthepresidentofCivicAllianceSerbia. issued thedecreedu President ofFederalRepub Yugoslav truthcommission, wasformed decreeofVojislavKoštunica,the bythe March 29/30,2001,beginning 3.5. Chronology 115 114 commission is formed, where it is situated, temporally temporally it issituated, where isformed, commission firsthalf the in context specific Serbian the of about abuses, mistreatments,massive human rights citizen. Serbian of myselfa as to very wellinformed think being am inclined pieces ofinformationandevidences? Out ofits19 assume weresuch bodies,then, thatthere why to and Herzegovina. Bosnia and Croatia If meaning we,for the argument's countries, neighboring sake there commission the of establishment the of time the di is Bulgaria, Hungary? What Romania, countries? Which neighboring countries? in neighboring and bodies similar commissions any other consequences or purposes to it? Why to "to shed a light." Are cognitive and informative aims informative and Arecognitive alight." shed "to the phrase mention to Not this context? in mean causality What does conflicts? andpolitical interethnic should the commission go into the past, and into who's past? What is the difference between social, decree rightandnow here. Which Availableat Seeat document inordertostartitswork. I allowtheCommission toissuean a Stankovi Mijatović Dimitrijević Mihajlo Vojvodi Radovan Bigovi By thisdecreeIappointthefollowing countries andabroad,inorderto * toestablishcooperationwithsimilar * toinform domestic andinternationa these events; political conflicts which led towar an * toorganizeresearchesandrevealev The taskoftheCommission is: Of EstablishingtheTruthandReconciliationCommission The Decree The TruthandReconciliationCommission, whichisthe http://arhiva.glas-javnosti.co.yu/arhiva/2001/04/04/srpski/D01040302.shtml http://www.komisija.org/osnovna.html ć , Radmila Nakarada,Predrag , Svetozar Stojanovi , LjubodragDimi e totheinitiativeofGoranSvilanovi ć , MirjanaVasovi ć , lic Yugoslavia,fromMarc fference between neighboring countries andcountries abroad? At the Đ

war is this decree about? What is the time isthe howfar framework, about? What decree war isthis or đije Vuković ć ć , DarkoTanaskovi , SlavoljubĐ exchangeworkingexperiences. exchange "working experiences" and not for example 53 ć 115 of 2001, one can easily be confused: why the the why confused: can easily be one 2001, of , TiborVaradi,SvetlanaVelmar-Jankovi violations, andwar crimes. Readingthisdecreeout members I have never heardofsixthem, andI inform the internationa informthe the only reasons for the the for reasons only the were nosimilar commissions and bodies in the l audienceaboutitsworkandresults;

[my translation]. I cannot help commenting this persons asmembers oftheCommission: commissions andbodiesinneighboring ppropriate program organizational and as well as spatially, and, eventually, who is to isto who eventually, and, as wellspatially, d shedlightoncaus idences aboutsocial,interethnicand , bishopSava(Vukovi Palavestra, LatinkaPerovi uki h 29, 2001. Vojislav Koštunica h 29,2001.VojislavKoštunica ć ć , AleksandarLojpur,Boško ć andSulejman Hrnjica. , theYugoslavMinisterof l audience? Whatarethe entire process? Are there process? entire After all, no single word word single all, no After 114 official name ofthe

al linksbetween . ć ), Vojin ć , Zoran ć , CEU eTD Collection April 15,2001, twoweekslater not exactlytowork. Commission wasofficiallyestablishedandbe 116 block." recallthe"cognitive might The other Boraine. with Alex consultations such apiece.And further questions reconcile with whom, and for what reasons. It isabso situation," andconcludes,"I images forgedaboutSerbsandSerbia," cope withthem. Heexemplifies thattheCommission hastodealwith"terrifying assigned totheCommission, continuesDimitrijevi about eventsoccurredonterritoriesthat citizens ofthelatterYugoslavia,"willnotbe and workinthisYugoslavia,"therefore, However, therearepeople"wholivedandworked inthatYugoslaviaanddonotlive before thefall ofSFRYugoslavia,"tendi competencies "areverynarrowly defined." TheCommission "willfocus ontheperiod to the Decree andmaterials for themeeting scheduled for April 17," the Commission's proclaimed byaninternal Co decision tostepoutbylis Availableat Vojin Dimitrijevi By publishing thedecree in the Vojislav Koštunica President ofFederal Belgrade March 29,2001 no. 1/2–03–0004/2001–1 http://www.komisija.org/osnovna.html ć withdrewfromtheCommission. Heexplained Republic Yugoslavia am notsurethat theComm mmission document. Dimitrijevi ting basicobjectionsagai arise, oneofthem beingwhether this decree resulted from Official Gazette 54 thisCommission, beingmade onlyofthe are outsideitsborders."Furthermore, tasks or toexamine "thenation's demographic ng toproduceahistoricalaccountofit. viewedasanimpartialonewhenjudging lutely astonishing that someone was able to to write wasable that someone astonishing lutely [my translation]. [my translation]. gan towork.Well,asamatter offact, ć , aresohugethatitcanhardly ission candoit."Eventually, nst theaims andpurposes from March 30,2001,the ć statesthat,"inrespect 116 the

CEU eTD Collection se ponašanje može objasniti i razumeti (i možda opravdati), ve možda irazumeti može (iopravdati), se ponašanje objasniti da zapo može Pomirenje nasilje. surovo primenjivalo širenja njihovog radi i ime njihovo seu jer Istina Velikih pravnika najviše zanima. Me points termed "goals": slightly modified them, making them more meanwhile. However,they termed "tasks"fr internal procedures,stamp,reimbursemen is notclearwhyittookthem solongto principles of itsworkon themeetings heldonApril17andDecember 20,2001. April 17/December10,2001,ninemonthslater lawyer," and hereDimitrijević humanitarian lawthatoughttoberespected "there aremany reasonsandcausesofwa 118 117 poštuju i napada ["Razni su uzroci rata a jedna su pravila humanitarnog prava, koja u oružanom sukobu moraju da da moraju sukobu uoružanom koja prava, humanitarnog supravila ajedna rata su uzroci ["Razni Availableat č ne mnogo skromnijim sredstvima. Tu nisu važne namere, ni ko je bio u pravu, a ko ne, niti ne, niti a ko pravu, u jebio namere, ko ni važne nisu Tu sredstvima. mnogoskromnijim ne decade." war, accompaniedwith terrifyingsufferinganddestruction duringthe last developments ofconflicts,whichcaused – "TheCommission's aimistothor neighboring nations." contributing togeneral reconciliati humanitarian law,theTruthand states, whichcausedcrimes againstpeace,violations ofhuman rightsandthe – "Byfacingthetruthaboutconflicts In anofficial document, itissaid behaved asahuman beingandwhodidnot. ofw goals. Itisnotthematter violence wasdone.Therec afraid ofbigtruthsand I ammostly interested, asitistobe e On thesame day,LatinkaPerović http://www.komisija.org/osnovna.html č i napadnuti. Kao što se moglo pretpostaviti, bestijalnost u našim ratovima me kao me kao našim u ratovima bestijalnost pretpostaviti, semoglo što Kao inapadnuti. đ utim, o

makes hisultimate point, č ekuje sedaKomisija ustanovljava velike istine: jasebojim explanations: inthename ofthesetruthssevere onciliation might startwithmore modestaims and ho wasrightandw alsolefttheCommission. 55 t, aswellwhat wasgoingoninthe bybothaggressorsanddefenders,beinga define theseprinciples,mainly aboutthe oughly examine causesand andestablish logical,andformulated twoadditional that theCommission definedthebasic om theinitial decree [my translation]. [my translation]. on within SRYugoslaviaand with rs, butthereisonlyoneinternational xpected, in brutalities of our wars. I am xpected, inbrutalitiesofourwars.Iam Reconciliation Commission aims at in SFRYugoslaviaa disintegration oftheformer stateand 117 ć ko je bio bio je ko

ho waswrong,butwho č ovek a ko ne "way of work"and nd itssuccessors č ovek."] ovek."] 118 č It It ije ije CEU eTD Collection Radmila Nakaradaputit,"toexploreourtragedyontwo levels –onthelevelof aggressors anddefenders."However,the but thereisonlyoneinternati Vojin Dimitrijević months beforethisdocument wasissued, reasons andcausesofwars.Asitwasmen the thirdpoint, outofthreeareasthatwere points: January 15,2002,tenmonthslater 119 Availableat The secondandthethirdpointofdoc factors." violations andof "crucial historicaleventsintheperiod1980–2000," – Among others,theCommission will one ofitsmaintasks." bodies andinstitutions (including the TribunalinHag),asitsbasicneedand – "TheCommissionviewsitsdialoguew groups." misunderstandings andtheircauses violations andofthe dictatorships, isolationofthecountry, destruction, destroying huge human casualties,ethniccleansi b) warsandotherconflict causes ofpolitical,economic, sociala – "TheCommissionistoencourageand The Commission issued theBasicProgram Document. http://www.komisija.org/osnovna.html

By establishing thetruth, the Commi ssion intendstogetridofvarious wrote toitsmembers, "there are many reasonsandcausesofwars, onal humanitarian lawthatoug

andruiningculturalmonuments, emergence of s intheregionofformer thehumanitarian law,"and international humanitarian law. 56 Commission's members resolute, as were explaining whyhele nd moral declination of SFRYugoslavia; tobeinvestigated,twowererelated [my translation]. [my translation]. tioned inthepreviousparagraph,nine criminalizing society;c)human rights ngs, refugeeflood,camps, economic ument areparticular organize researchesof:a)principal ith theinternationalcommunity, its form groupsforinvestigating: thus reconcilesocialandethnic Yugoslavia,whichcaused ht toberespectedbyboth 119 c ) "impacts offoreign ft theCommission, Theseareitsmain b) "human rights ly interesting.In a) CEU eTD Collection "perpetrators." Nakarada used that It isinteresting translation]. immediately understood byhuman rights before thewarsstarted,andincluding"foreignfactors"inresearchingareaswere date from whichhistorical important for their work thanestablishing the facts about the warcrimes. Settingthe striking thatitsmembers tooktheaspectof that theCommissioncannotbutsaysomething cannot bedone byonecommission withinthe ultimate historical research ofcauses victims, andonthelevelofcausesprotagonists." 123 122 121 120 explore themassive violationsofhuma Commission's members facedthecriticisms to presenttheCommission's planstowi table, according to thestatements ofthe Commission's members, wasanopportunity May 28,2002,fourteenmonthslater addressed: to"internationalcomm "looking forexcuse." experiences" of other truth commissions, two months is too much time to beso easily neglected. arhiva/2002/288-289/288-289_14.html http://www.yurope.com/zines/republika/ translation]. See also Vera Rankovi Biljana Kova at Available Availableat After what? Some fourteen months passed since th The Commission organizedaround http://www.komisija.org/PDF/6.PDF č evi http://www.b92.net/trr/2001/diskusija/index.php?lang=srpski&nav_id=51229 ć Vu č 121 o, available at Thesecondpointthenshowstowhomtheexcusewasbe investigation hastobegin ć

at http://www.svetlost.co.yu/arhiva/2001/296/296-1.htm unity, itsbodiesandinstitutions." n rightsperpetratedbySerbianforces. and reasons of thepost-Yugoslavconflicts 57 the term "protagonists" the term"protagonists" . table named "AYearAfter." causesandreasonsasbeingmuch more der audience. Attheround tablethe activists astheCommission's wayof e decree wasissued. Inrespect tothe"working fortheirinactivity andavoidanceto limited time, butalsoevenifweaccept about thecausesandreasons,itisstill 120 at 1980,more thantenyears Notonlythat complete and instead of,forinstance, . 122 Theround 123 [my

[my CEU eTD Collection crimes other,whatfollowsunderthe onthe to keepthe "balance" between"causes andreasons" onone side,and committed Wars inthe1990s"is descriptionofhistoricalanalysestobedone inorderto the Commission attheroundtable.However, Ljiljana Smajlovi Jusufspahi new members: Mira Bleham, Dimitrijević ones. OnNovember 28,2002,19months andtw members –inthemeanwhile TiborVaradi November 28,2002,twentymonthslater 125 124 previous documents, probably,among otherre violations, brutalitiesand their crimes inCroatiaandBosniaa sites of war crimes committedbySerbianforces, followed byCroatianforces and task. Dubrovnik,Vukovar,Sarajevo,Bijeljina, human rightsabusesinconflictsformer Yugoslaviain1990swaslistedasafirst do them. Forinstance,under description ofthingsthat Commission. May 2003,twenty-sixmonthslater of them. Available in English at inEnglish Available Availableat The Commission suggestedtothePresiden The Commission issued theDraftProgr ć , AndrijaKopilovi and Latinka Perovi Latinka and http://www.komisija.org/osnovna.html 125 TheDraftwastobediscussedin ć . 124

http://www.komisija.org/osnovna.html were tobedone,withthepr destruction from the1990sis

ć , Emir Kusturica, Ljubiša Lazarevi the title"1.FacingPa ć , thepresidentKoštunica Đ or nd Herzegovina.Thestressonhuman rights đe Vukadinovi 58 withdrew andbishopSavadied–bynew . Out of these nine, I have never heard about four title "2.Report:CausesofWest Balkan in anattempt to"s Srebrenica,Štrpci werementioned as asons, duetothecr o weeksafterthewithdrawalofVojin am oftheTruthandReconciliation June2003.TheDraftisadetailed t Koštunicatoreplacefourofits . ecise timeline andwhowasto ć , Miomir Daši st," reportingonmassive respondedbynaming 9 much strongerthanin ecure theexcuse"or ć , SlobodanRelji itics addressedto ć , Mustafa ć , CEU eTD Collection believes, unwantedconsequences,and,abov important toexploretherootsofconflicts Slavic movement inSerbia of creationKingdom ofSe amazing: amongothers,theCommission seeksanexplanationof"h explain causes ofwars.Thetime spanthatthese analyses havetoencompass is solution. Thus, wewillmake spaceforpeaceful conflict resolutions in the member oftheCommission,Radmila Nakarada they reallywantedto figur secondary importancethroughout of seriousabuses,mistreatments andmassi need forinterpretation,thatis,explanation statements andtheCommission's members in 3.6. FouraspectsoftheCommission'sendeavor Commission stoppedtoexistwith Month –unknown,year2003,manymonthslater socialist self-management" (!),andsoon. Radi War (!),"assassination ofKingAlexander"in1929(!),"assassination ofCroatMP ć " (!),"raise oftotalitarian ideologies From theinitial decree tothevery end of itsexistence, the Commission inits The Commission fadedaway.When itwas , Croatia,Sl e outandpointat,were" rbs, CroatsandSlavs [ out anyofficialannouncement. its "work";themain concer ovenia in19 59 in Europe"(!),IIWorld War (!),"system of of whathappened.Itseems thattheissues theirpublicappearancesemphasizedthe inordertopointatdangerouserroneous ve violationsofhuman rightswereof e all,thatthereisalwaysanother phrased itsmain aim th sic!]," thatis,"YugoslavorSouth century." Then follows: I World IWorld follows: Then century." just abouttostartwork,the causes andreasons."Beinga n ofitsmembers, what istoric background as follows:"Itis CEU eTD Collection not mind this lack of competence. translation]. translation]. translation]. translation]. do it. the Commission capabletofulfillthesecondtask, becauseitlackedthecompetence to only warcrimes, becausetherewereothercrimes aswell."Yet, Stojanovi Commission. Itssec encompass actors."Establishingsu "international the post-Yugoslavconflictswentbeyond region..." 130 129 128 127 126 the enormous enlargement ofatime spanthatwasto beencompassedbythe demonstrates howstrongthe"explanatory"te investigation hastobeginfrom 1980back War. saw theconflictsfrom 1990sasconti the Beham, perceivedthe "totality" of thepost-Yugoslav conflicts inherown way:she to thedomestic courts of law. with the"totality"or"t truth isnotplacedwithinsome totality." apartialtruthofanyelement, other. [...]Idonotseehowanyonecanreveal ifthat main issueisrelation between elements of Svetozar Stojanović believes" and"unwantedconsequences,"to This was exactly the reason why Vojin Dimitrijevi Vojin why reason the wasexactly This at Available at Available Availableat at Available 130 128 Eventually, the Commission shifting thedate from whichhistorical Therefore,Stojanovi 126 However,shedidnotspecifywhat http://www.politika.co.yu/2003/0122/01_26.htm http://www.b92.net/trr/2001/diskusija/index.php?lang=srpski&nav_id=51239 http://www.b92.net/trr/2001/diskusija/index.php?lang=srpski&nav_id=51229 http://www.b92.net/trr/2001/diskusija/index.php?lang=srpski&nav_id=51239 , hercolleaguefrom theCommissi ond taskStojanovi otal truth,"leavingthewarcr

ć simply concluded that 129 Yet anothermember oftheCommission, Mira ć sawinrevealingtruth 60 127 nuation oftheconflictsfrom IIWorld the the whole ononeside Stojanovi put aside"another"/"peaceful" solutions. ć ndency was.Itispossibletounderstand left thecommission. Stojanovi former borderandhadto Yugoslavia's tothemid-ninete shemeant by"dangerouserroneous ch a"totality"isthefirst taskof the . ć on, wasmore "precise":"The imes totheHagueTribunalor explained thatthetotalityof the Commissionhadtodeal about allcrimes, "not and thetruthon enth centuryalso ć ć obviously did didnotsee [my [my [my CEU eTD Collection for breakingthelawsand customs of war, conflicts. However, itis hardtobelievethat doubt thatothercountries anyone outsidethecountry.Forthem, itis V. Dimitrijevi to establishingaccountability. about abuses,mistreatments a Gojkovi community, itsbodiesandinstitutions(incl results ofinvestigations,ortobein revealed initsrepeatedly setting asidepossiblecausesandexplanations. establishment and description of concrete data region offormer Yugoslavia.Furthermor Commission has todealexclusivelywithth research had to beprecisely delineated intemporal and spatial terms, thatis,the 1990s. AsIbrieflydescribed,allthreeofth any reasontogobackbeyond 1991indealingwiththe warcrimes committed inthe Commission hadtodealwith. citizens putting explana

forwardtheissuesofmistreatments, Third interesting"explanatory"aspect,notmentioned, indeed,byD.Gojkovi The other aspectof theCommission's interpretative "distortion" can be On theotherside,noneofdomestic and havetocontribute tonormalization of domestic affairs, and particularly tion inadirectrelationtoincreasi ć , V.Dimitrijevi ć , andN.Dimitrijevi ć , andN.Dimitrijevi stressed needtoinform th interfered inYugoslavandpost-Yugoslavaffairs and n d violationsofcustoms of ć , isinvestigationof"foreignimpacts." Itisbeyond a constantdialoguew 61 ng awareness ofthesizecrime thatthe e eventsthatoccurredinthe1990s uding theHagueTribuna their interferencecan abusesandhuman rightsviolationsand that i em thatthe stated assumed thatallpiecesofinformation e, theystressed theimportanceof andparticularities of the events, thus ć authors mentioned inthischaptersaw mentioned awordaboutinforming s, for massive violations ofhumans, formassive e foreignaudienceaboutthe warareaimed atSerbian Commission's fieldof ith the"international justify orbeexcuse l)." NoneofD. ć , CEU eTD Collection svojstveno svim autorima koji setime bave, ali jednom jednom ozbiljnom razmatranju uzroka rata ne može ništa mnogo da nam koristi."] rata da nam nemože mnogo koristi."] ništa razmatranju uzroka ozbiljnom jednom upo propagandnu za jednu zastripove, pogodna vrlo je koja shemu jednostavnu onda pojam uzroka zameni pojmom krivice, paseonda ta krivica personalizuje, i tako dobijamo jednu opisao. Prvo, realnamnogostrukost uzroka rata svodi sena jedan uzrok – glavni i dominantni – pa se re Kada odrediti. je više na objašnjenje mislim nautvr uobi proč pitamo šta autor pod nekim od tih pojmova razume. Jasam nedavno u nekim radovima filozofskim genocida, ni krivice, ni jedne ni druge ni tre jedan na evidence about warcrimes reconstructed inorderto make itpossible will quoteparts of druge, provla druge, opinion membe rights. 132 131 emphasized thatthe partialtruth"isnot for theissuesoftruthand responsibility,supportedVukovi the same topics written by domestic authors. by same written domesticauthors. the topics Availableat foreign by written aremainlybooks These č itao, recimo,slede ajeni zlo č ina prouzrokovani, to jest da su uzroci rata obi r oftheCommission,presenttoot č It isalsohardtoseehowdata wars. Thereforewealsohadto assigned tocertainactors.Andthuswe Forth aspectfollowsdirectlyfrom pr the At thesame roundtable,SlobodanSamardži perpetrated inallwars.[...]When wear is notclearatallwhat them. recentlyreadsome Ihave philosophicalworks,andthere Ifoundthatit various conceptsofguilt,isclear;a Neither the conceptofwarcrime, norethniccleansing,genocide, guilt, defined. Itishardtounderstandthesec These books,andmany others,theyusec is atendencytoreducevariouscausesof and itisnoteasytodefinethem. When we allknowfrom thebooksaboutwars to beusedinpropaganda,butuseless c of literature about the Yugoslavcollapseand ofliteratureabout in koji jeteško razumeti. Ni pojam ratnog zlo ause has been replacedbyaconcept ofguilt. Thenthis guiltispersonalized, č č e se neki pojmovi koji su, u najmanju ruku, loše definisani. Obi ini koji se koji ini http://www.komisija.org/PDF/6.PDF č o Jugoslaviji poslednjih desetak godina, postoji jedna težnja, opet kažem, nijeto Đ ć or u stvar: naime, kažeseda nije uopšte jasno štaje ratni zlo đ đije Vukovi č ivanje uzroka rata. Svi znamo, iz knjiga o ranijim ratovima, da su oni na ine usvim ratovima [...]. Re and their perpetrators.

awarcrime, andwhatis ć 's discussionfrom theroundtable.Vukovi authors, since there is not more than couple of books on books of couple morethan isnot there since authors, ć deal withsuchbiasednotions. e krivice, nije tu u mnogimslu u tu e krivice, nije about internationalinvolvement canchange 62 "to determine theguilt acceptable anymore";thetruthhastobe nd wecanaskwhattheauthorsmeant by her participantsof . ["Naime,. kroz ove knjige, kaoi krozmnoge broju njih jeste – jedna težnja koju bih ja ovako for aseriousexplorationofcauses we aretalkingaboutYugoslavia,there e talkingaboutexplan get averysimple pattern,convenient oncepts interms oftheirdefinitions. č č č evious three. Inorder tooutlineit,I that therearemany causesofwars, no mnogostruki, dase ne daju uvek lako ina, nipojametni je o objašnjenju rata, to jest, kad kažem thewarstoonecau oncepts thatare,atleast,wrongly ć , thepresident's domestic advisor the subsequentconflicts: anordinarycrime being theroundtablehis č of allsidesinvolved kog č č ć ajevima jasanimi se ć shva suoni no 's discussion: he 's discussion:he 132 trebu, ali koja u ni alikoja trebu, č ations ofawar, iš

ć se. Thenthis enja, nipojam č in, a šta su ašta su in, ć 131 , a

eni na na eni lso a CEU eTD Collection these phrases. However, from thestatements nation demographic situation." had todealwith"terrifying and Vukovi the meeting scheduledforApri almost directreferencetothe"Memorandum situation" from Dimitrijevi images forgedaboutSerbsandSerbia.Yet, specific understanding of the"reconciliation" can beunderstoodinvariousways.InthisparagraphIwillexploreand outlinethe reconciliation among thereas Commi 3.7. Re therefore stressingthe"involve historical investigations,explanations, enlightening international audience, not the domestic one. Thereforeextended breaking throughthis"block"andpromoting accordance withsuchafinding,theyunderstood theirmission, atleastpartly,as of Commission "revealed" a "cognitive bl in theconflicts." 133 Availableat conciliation asa foundationalnarrative ssion's documents anditsmembers' statements. In hislettertotheCommission, VojinDimitrijević As itwasmentioned above,Priscilla ć ) itispossible to infer thattheir ma urope.com/zines/republika/arhiva/2002/288-289/288-289_14.html http://www.y 133 Thesediscussionsmake itpossibl ć images forgedaboutSerbsandSerbia,"ortoexamine "the 's letterisevenmoreintere

ons forsettingupatrut IntheCommission's offici ment ofinternational fact l 17,2001,inwhichitwas 63 and interpretations;thereforedialogue; thepartabout"thenationdemographic ofsome ofitsme oftheSerbianAcad purpose th ock" onthe "international" side. In the "totaltruth." Haynerlistedachievingnational in concerns actuall e toconclude that the members h commission.Reconciliation at can be revealed beneath the at canberevealedbeneaththe ors" indomestic affairs. sting andrevealing.Itisan al documents Ididnotfind referred to the material for for material the referredto stated thattheCommission mbers (e.g.Stojanovi Their focus wason emy ofScienceand y wereterrifying . ć

CEU eTD Collection Sluč and rea offered the pre docume Serbian nationalism, possible tocloselyrelatetheCommission' see anyreasontoquestionDimitrijević Arts" from 1986. 137 136 135 134 truths." had inm Milosavljevi fromtaken translation. this About the status and importance of "Memorandum" in reinforcing Serbian nationalism see "The Rusinow, in available translation English Ibid., p. 339. 339. p. Ibid., 341. p. Peoples," "TheYugoslav Rusinow, aj Jugoslavija; aj sentation ofthenation's demographi bythe"Memorandum": sons, thatis,"roots,"inovercomi that isaffectingallof Y in Yugo greater numberthanthe ofSl of theSocialistRepublicSerbia According tothe1981census,24percentof information. being persecutedbyoppressionandphys else. 40.3 percentofthetotalnumb It ispossible to assume they arepreparing forthefinalexodus,accordingto allsourcesof S last 20orsoye exiled, butafter thewarthiswaveof em In thecourseoflastwar,over In relationtoKosovo,thesearethe nts withinthecontext of theSerbiannationalistic discourse.What follows is erbian people arenotonlyleaving theirlandatanundiminished pace, but, ind thesedatawhentheywerest ind ugoslavia. OutsidetheregionofSerb ć , "Zloupotreba autoriteta nauke"; Dragovi nauke"; autoriteta , "Zloupotreba 136

slavia respectively,andalmost asmany peopleasthereareMuslims in Jovi 134 ć 137 If itwasreallyintheCommi , 135 Jugoslavija – država koja je odumrla. koja –država Jugoslavija

ars, 200,000Serbsleft thatis,itispossibleto

Yugoslavia, theSerbsaremo that Nakarada,Stojanovi er ofSerbs.Inthegeneraldisintegrativeprocess 's letterasareliables ng "simple explanatorypatterns"and"partial 64 Yugoslav Peoples," pp. 332–346. All quotations are are quotations All 332–346. pp. Peoples," Yugoslav c situationtakenfromthe"Memorandum": ressing importance ofinvestigatingcauses 60,000 Serbiancolonistsandnativeswere s documents with theprime document of – that is, 1,958,000 people, which is a –thatis,1,958,000people,whichisa ovenians, Albanians,andMacedonians ć ia proper,thereare3,285,000Serbs,or KosovoandMetohija.Theremaining findings aboutdem -Soso, igration reallyreached itscrest: inthe ical, moralandpsychologicalterror, ssion's earlymaterial, andIdonot allSerbsliveouts "SavioursNation";the of

understand andinterpretthese ć , Vukovi ource ofinformation, itis re affected than anyone re affectedthananyone ographic situation ć , andSamardži ide theterritory Dimitrijevi ć ć ,

CEU eTD Collection and member oftheCommission, VojinDimitrijevi within the ruling coalition inSerbia. Ashi Bosnia brokeout). 1992/1993, when war crimes andresponsibility,KoštunicaSvilanovi Affairs andpresidentoftheCivicAlliance Koštunica, duetotheinitiativeofGoranSvilanovi them h statehood inSFRYugoslaviawasst Serbian sacrificesforYugos Balkan Wars inthe 1990s" is structuredin approach outlined intheDraftProgram underthetitle"2.Report:Causes ofWest spring of1986. writer," draftedthe"Memorandum" withothersfrom theSerbianAcademy inthe important, since Dobrica long-lasting andrespectfulfriendshipbetweenthetwo. conversations withĆ Dobrica 141 140 139 138 Nakarada, sufferings werethoroughlydi the "Memorandum" viewsontheSerbiandemographicsituationandhistorical Ibid. 403. p. Peoples," "TheYugoslav Rusinow, Slavoljub Stojanovi ere. Theimportant questionformy To repeat,theCommissionwasestablis Furthermore, SvetozarStojanovi Ć ć Đ Đ osi 's biography is available at ukić uki ć 's closefriend.In2001hepublis ć Lovljenje vetra , Lovljenje 140 , Vukovi Ć Therefore, it isnot surprising that theCommission's historical 138 osi osi Anothermember oftheCommission, Slavoljub ć wasapresidentofFRYugoslavia(andwhenthewarin ć ć . Thetoneoftheseconversati became members oftheY Ć lavia andSerbsimpoverishment osi [Hunting Wind] (Beograd: B92, 2001). 2001). B92, (Beograd: Wind] [Hunting

scussed, andthereforethere ć , "widelyregardedasSe http://www.komisija.org/osnovna.html ructured inthe"Memorandum." ć wasaspecialadvisorofDobrica 65 gh officialintheCivi the same wayasthehistoricalargument of argument is:Howcome thatStojanovi Serbia.In2001,regardingtheissuesof hed bythedecreeofpresident ć ć hed abookofautobiographical promoted thepolicyofexploring , atthetime MinisterofForeign ugoslav TruthCommission? ć occupiedopposite positions ons reflectstherelationof ate is noneedtoinvestigate rbia's outstandingliving 139 anddeprivationofthe Thisisparticularly c Alliance ofSerbia, . 141 Thebiasesof Đ Ć uki osi ć ć , is in ć , CEU eTD Collection Latinka Perovi with "terrifying images forged about SerbsandSerbia." When VojinDimitrijevi former wasobviouslyinrelationtothe"cogni level ofvictims, andtheotheronle members wantedtoaddress: as Radmila Na issued bytheCommission, itwa for theissuesoftruthand for instance, evidentfrompublicappearancesofKoštunica's domestic specialadvisor Serbia, were,andstillaremu aimed tomakeSerbiangovernment toc the Commission's establishment, Serbiawasexposed toahuge international pressure Dimitri endorsed byGoranSvilanovi with theHagTribunal,same onethatwa and establishingfactsaboutwarcrimes, prosecutionofperpetrators,andcooperation 143 142 subsequent conflicts.This reason wasexp instrument ofspreadingtheSerbiansidetruthabout the Yugoslavcollapseand pressure. Furthermore, Koštunicaandhisa to dealwith theevilpast, whichhadtocontributedecrease of theinternational Commission, from theKoštunica's standpoint,could bedemonstration ofwillingness arrest persons suspected forwarcrimes. withdrawal, Svilanovi prevail. Asamatter offact,theprevalen and edited several publications for this NGO. severalpublications edited and Latinka Perovi Seeat jević What wasKoštunica's reasonforestablis http://www.vreme.com/arhiva_html/516/11.html lefttheCommission,asitisevid ć ć has been closely related to Helsinki to the closelyrelated has been 143 lefttheCommission,itwastobeexpectedthatlatterwould ć 's initiativefailed. responsibility, SlobodanSamardži ć ch closerto theauthorsof

ć . 142 s obviousthatthereweretw Koštunicaandhisparty, 66 ce ofthelatterwasalreadyth vel ofcausesandprotagonists. While the ooperate withtheHagueTribunalandto One ofthereasonsforestablishing dvisors couldseetheCommission asan karada putit–one licitly formulated intheCommission tive block,"thelatterwasaboutdealing s, withintherealm offoreignaffairs, ent from hisletter.ByDimitrijevi . hing the Commission? Atthe time of Committee for Human Rights;she prepared Human for Committee the"Memorandum," whichis, the Democratic Party of o main concerns thatits . From thedocuments is tobefindonthe e reasonwhy ć and and ć 's 's CEU eTD Collection history ofSerbiansuffering. relativize, andjustif formed statewiththe international co Stojanovi Koštunica andtheCommission's member and, asamatteroffact,itis state hasbeenformed asrecently asin1991, difference betweentheperceptionsof1990s especially in relationto"inter aggressive, expansionista opportunity forreinforcingthenationalistic standpoints, itispossibleto authors ofthe"Memorandum," andfrom theiracceptance ofthe"Memorandum" documents andstatements ofitsmembers. Eventually, from theirbeing closeto the 146 145 144 aspect oftheirpurposeshasnottenbeenexplicitlyreflectedon. been u Commi Therefore, Serbian citizenswerenot research from standpointsexpressedintheCommission 2001and documents. actually didnotmisuse it.Thatis,Iamcl spreading thenationalisticfoundationalna institutions." Philosophy and SocialSciences. see StanleyCohen, In the 1970s and the 1980s Stojanovi the 1980s and the 1970s In About the strategies of denying, relativizing and and relativizing ofdenying, strategies the About Nakarada and Samardži sed forconstitutingandreinfo ssion shapeditsmessage forthe However, byusingtheCommission for ć , 144 Radmila Nakrada, States of Denial y warcrimes perpetratedbySerb ć are collegues from the Institute for European Studies. Studies. the for European Institute from are collegues nd exclusionarypolicyofanemerging nation-state, assume that theCommission members sawitsworkasan stillinaprocessofform (Oxford: Polity Press, 2001). Press,2001). Polity (Oxford: national factors."Ithastobetaken intoaccount thatthis

146 145 Fromthisperspective,thereisnosignificant Slavoljub ć worked together with Koštunica at the Institute for for Institute atthe together Koštunica with worked rcing foundationalnarratives,althoughthis 67 mmunity, simultaneously tryingtodeny, aiming thattruthcomm "international community,itsbodiesand the Commission main addressees; the justifying massive state violations of human rights of rights human massive stateviolations justifying foundationalnarrativ rrative ofthenewstate,itsmembers from thescratchesofpreviousstate, s appointedbyhim (i.e.Svetozar Đ eventsoutlinedby uki the purposesofstrengtheningand ć ian forcesbyunderlyingthelong ) aimed toreconcile the newly ation. Metaphoricallyspeaking, issions havealready e andjustifyingthe the publicopinion CEU eTD Collection consolidating therestructured state institutions. establis criteria andisbasedontheprin reveal theidea thatnot only therule of lawwhichimplies theapplication of universal the symbolic orderframed bytheexistin is important here.Theseorganicisticmeta necessarily implynegativeconnotations,alt body isindeedanoldone,andcanbetracedbacktoPlato's harms some ofthem, ithurtsthewhole bounded bythebordersofstate.Citizens arelimbs of organicistic one.Theyrevealtheconcept for healingandreconciliation,"statesBoraine. debated nation needshealingisnotindispute.Th respect forhuman rights,"oneissayingto government whoselegitimacy isfoundedonde of thepast"?What else doesitmean abuses, mistreatments, unlawfulacts,huma far inthis paper, their meaning isclear. "the woundsofthepastmust 148 147 unless..." book. book. the in are texts collected whose authors by the used havebeen They 1995). Transition, in Justice Town: Ibid., p. xiv. xiv. p. Ibid., These phrases aretaken from AlexBoraine and Janet Levy (eds.), Such metaphors usuallypointatparticul "National reconciliation,""unitinganati hed, butalsothenewnarrativeis bythedifferentsides 147 –whatthesephrases point at?Onone

of thehistoricconflict, but be confronted,""thewounds ciple thatallciti body. Thisanalogybetweenthestateand However, whatelsedoesitmean whenpast e nature,extentandmethod requiredmay be 68 when instead of saying to "consolidate a when insteadofsayingto"consolidatea g foundationalnarrativeofanation.They of thenationasabodyunifiedwithinand n rightsviolationsaretermed "thewounds phors revealanendea "heal the nation"? "ThatSouthAfricaasa "heal thenation"? hough usuallyitdoes.Yet,something else tobeconstructedinorderhelp 148 zens are equal before thelawistobe

on," "thehealingofthenation";or ar conceptualizatio mocratic participation,justiceand level, whichhasb fewwouldquestiontheneed this body,andifsomething The Healing of aNation of thepastcouldnotheal Republic vor ofreorganizing n ofnation–an een explicated so . And itdoesnot (Cape CEU eTD Collection narratives on thesymbolic level. Aletta J.Norvalasks:"whataretheimplica someth other i African promotion ofdemocratic valuesandstabiliz preserved the existing power relations of peoplesdifferentraceto"separate time. Thesetwonarratives weremutually opposite side,thecounter-narrativeformed byoppressedwasgettingstrongerover narrative referredtonaturalandabsolute di legal exclusion. who willbeacknowledged asafully-fledgedciti to allhuman beings,foundationalnarrativesoftenserveasthemeasure fordeciding 151 150 149 and veiledthatanystat foundational narrativethatoperatedonthesy among human beings. but natural atall isnot concept son, the ultimate ground of equality, and concludes that in Locke's terms this this terms Locke's in that concludes and ofequality, ground ultimate the reason, to capacity natural 59–86; pp. 1997), Press California Laura Stoler (eds.), The Identity in Question in Identity The Forinstance, see UdayS. Mehta, Ernesto Laclau, "Universalism, Particularism and "Universalism, and Laclau, Ernesto Particularism SeeCohen, s constitutive of theself, inasitu ing ofthepast?"A and forall,'apartheid' itselfwouldhave Discussing thepossibilitiesofidentity fa ... apost-apartheid societywillthenonlybe Regardless ofpresentingthemselves asunive TruthandReconciliationCommission r asapartheid itselfis StatesDenial of 149 Tensions of Empire. Colonial Cultures in aBourgeois World InSouth Africa,undertheraci (New (New e violationofhuman right York and London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 93–108. 93–108. pp. 1995), Routledge, London: and York . nd sheofferstheanswer: rather highly ar rather highly

Mehta analyzeshowLocke theorized "Liberal Strategies of Exclusion," in: Frederic Cooper and Ann present initasitsother. that infactproduce thedifference. tificial and actually used for establishing inequality inequality establishing for used actually tificial and 69 developments." Atthe same time ittacitly tions of ation whereapartheid willhave become fference between races,aswelltoright ation of democraticinstitutions, theSouth the Question of Identity," in John Rajchman (ed.), Rajchman (ed.), John in Identity," of the Question exclusive. Apartfr was alsoeffective innegotiatingthese to playthe roleoftheelement keeping formation inapost-apartheidsociety, mbolic levellegitim zen: thatis,asatoolofpoliticaland recognising that s wasactually occurring. radicallybeyond apartheid inso rsal ornatural, thatis,applicable st regime ofapartheid,the Instead ofbeingeffacedonce the concept of universal and om contributingto theidentityof ized segregation, (Universityof 151 150 Onthe This CEU eTD Collection arbitrary/particularistic rule; itmarks the pointfrom whichon"all"citizenswill be between the previousregime andthenewone;itenacts the ruleof lawagainstthe sides –amnestyforacknowledgment. T narrative. Itcanbeviewed asakindoftradeoffforcedbybalancepower onboth oppression avictim waslackingsuchastat fledged citizen.Thisrecognitionwas,ind acknowledged victims' capacitytobeharm oppressed, theSouthAfricanTrutha expanded thenarrativesofbothsides: acknowledging pastsufferingsandrecompos and reconciliationcommission, inthename undertake democratic transition.Sincejudicial enough tobringperpetratorsjustice,a actually constructedthisnarrative.Thene South AfricanTruthandReconciliati members oftheSouthAfricansocietyonequa terms of the post-apartheid identity with"apa foundational narrative,either newly formed post-apartheidsociety. to constructnew,all-encompassing andeve 152 Time Aletta J. Norval, "Letter to Ernesto," in Laclau, in Ernesto "Letter to Ernesto," AlettaJ.Norval, (London: 1990), p. 157. 157. p. 1990), (London: What iscommonforbothBoraineandNo Like Borainewithhisorganici claiming tobeable open therelationtoother,ofserv createafinalunity.

in termsofthenation-as-a stic meta on Commission providedthegroundforand lthough ithadakindofconsensualsupportto 70 w SouthAfricangovernment wasnotstrong hus, theCommissionhasdrawnline nd ReconciliationCommissionpublicly by acknowledging the sufferings of the by acknowledgingthesufferingsof us duetothelegalmeasures anddominant r-open identity pattern for members of a ing thesymbolic field.TheCommission eed, retroactive,si rtheid" asits other,has to encompass all ing aswatchwardagainstanydiscourse ed ashuman beings,thatis,asfully- toolswereoutofreach,onlythetruth phors, Norval is tryinginherownway l terms. Itis possible to arguethatthe of thestate,coulddowork 152 New Reflections on the Revolution of of our Revolution the on New Reflections

rval, istheir insistence that new -unified-body metaphor orin nce atthetime of CEU eTD Collection reconciliation. demonstrates thattheCommission wasready treated as avalue in itself. FormerS reconciliation, itgainedits more onreconciliationthantruth.Or, treated as equal before thelaw.Therefore in theSouthAfricancasestresswas 153 constitutive fablesandmerge them in state, andethnic.TheSouthAfricanComm face theconsequences ofdisintegration previously segregatedsocialgroupsinto South AfricanCommission a foundational narrativeofapost-apartheidsoci rather 3.8. Choosingidentities? fragile democratic participation,ju to contributeconsolidationofthe government whoselegitimacy wasfoundedon allegations made against him" and other retired military generals" (Ibid., p. 203). Constand Viljoen, former head of the Defence For former head of the South African Defence Force. Others who supported him [...] included [...] supported by a number of former generals, including Magnus Malan, former Minister of Defence and Botha the in ofturns explanation isapossible follows refused to come before the Commission. He was not even sentenced for it (Ibid., p. 216). And what Yet,in (Ibid., 204). p. respect" and sensitivity with withhim deal wewould and theCommission come before should "Allwe isthathe want jail": into Boraine and hundreds and thousands of people who suffered under apartheid wanted "himto be thrown Boraine wrote: "It was a tragedy that Botha did not enter the witness box to respond to the to to respond thewitnessbox not enter Botha did that "It wasatragedy wrote: Boraine power balance. than revealingtruth,andifth The SouthAfricanTruthandReconcil If themain purposeoftheSouth 153 Onlyinthisway,Iaminclinedtoargue,the Commissionwasable (A Country Unmasked, importance throughreconciliation,andbynomeans itwas stice andrespectforhuman rightsundertheconditionsof nd itsYugoslavcounterpart.

to onefoundationalnarrative;theYugoslav onenation;theYugoslavCommissionhadto e reconciliationwassoughttorecompose outh African president P.W. Botha's case 71 ce [...] Johanvance derMerw spite of promised "sensitivity and respect," Botha Botha respect," and "sensitivity promised of spite African Com in otherwords, truth wasinservice of at leasttwokinds:na p. 216). However, it wasnot atragedy because ission hadtonegotiatetwoconfronted ety, thefollowingcanbesaidabout iation Commission soughttounitetwo to giveupfrom truthforthesakeof vs. Commission case: "Botha wasstrongly mission wasreconciliation e, former policechief, tional, interms of CEU eTD Collection possible tostatethat atruthcommission isn if itworksexclusively withinaframework of conclusions. Probablyitispossibletoargue Vojin Dimitrijevi side dealonly withabuses andcrimes committed ontheterritoryofSerbia,although of one conclusion, theSouthAfricanCommission wa 24 members oftheCommissionwouldbere institutions oftheformer Yugoslavia's successo inevitable contribute to formation of constitutivefables andthuslegitimization of crimes andabusescommitted bySerbianforces,theYugoslavCommission would legitimization ofreformed legalandde rights violationsandunlawfulacts,theSouthAfricanCommissioncontributedto it independent from Serbia, according tothe faced withsuchaproblem.AfterNATOin stabilizing multicultural andmultiethnic so separation. TheSouthAfricanCommissionha Commission sought tosomehow explain 154 for victims and perpetrators citizens areethnicSerbs. TheSouthAfri newly establishedborders.And,asfar as to doit:victims andperpetra puts it,they "alreadyreconciledbetweenthemselves." V.Dimitrijevi state; itdoesnotmake muchsense It ishardtosaywhethertheseinsi ć , "Izgledi za utvr ć rightlypointedoutthatitwoul tolivetogether;theYugos đ

ivanje istine i postizanje pomirenja u Srbiji," p. Srbiji," 74. pomirenja u istineipostizanje ivanje tors mostly found themselves can Commissionhadtoprovidetheground 72 Serbsareconcerned, if anytruthcommission formed bySerbian mocratic institutions;byacknowledging tervened inKosovo,andpracticallymade ciety; theYugoslav Commission wasnot thatatruthcommission canbeeffective latest censusnearly85percentofSerbian eeded whenitturnedout thatastateisin ghts canberephrasedinmore general and justifydisintegrationethnic onestate.Furthermore, probablyitis s meants toworkwithintheframework ady todosomething ofthiskind.In r states.Itishardto imagine that these d tocontributein d betheonlycoherentsolution. 154 lav Commission didnothave Byacknowledginghuman onthedifferentsidesof as VojinDimitrijevi establishing and ć

CEU eTD Collection possibl general remarks, itisimporta commissions in general, orit isjust an state border.Yet,regardlessofwhetherth case isthefirst oneinwhichatruth would haveoptedforsome othermodel.It case: as adv coopera crisis: thatithastorecon 156 155 massive violationsofhuman rightsandtosim also at forming for theYugoslavone.Itisevidentfrom hi Yugoslav Commission couldnotdo reconciling purposeisconcerned–thecruc other a Borane, at Borane, Seeat 155 http://www.b92.net/trr/2001/diskusija/index.php?lang=srpski&nav_id=42424 isor, wastrappedbythe"reconcil spects hadtobetakenintoaccount e toconcludethatif If Koštunica,Svilanovi encompassing way–tojustice,truth,reconciliationandinstitutional regional and national unity within deeply divided communities. Therefore, our a It isnecessa Therefore, theSouthAfricanCommission reforms. approach hastobeholistic,itisnece people heartsandminds... itisnecessary

tion betweentruthandreconciliati http://www.danas.org/programi/interview/2001/11/20011120064249.asp nd notonlythosebridgesmade ofstoneandiron,butalsobridgesbetween a regionaltruthandreconcilia http://www.b92.net/trr/2001/diskusija/index.php?lang=srpski&nav_id=42424 156

ry torebuildbridgesdestroyed bycrimes, hatred,andpropaganda, ceptualize itsbasicpremises. we putallotherpurposesasid

nt to payattention tothis ć , Boraineandothershadpa anything elsebuttofail. nd reconciliationcommissionhadtocrossthe individual case insu case individual 73 tion commission ores on commissions,thatAl iation" logicindiscussingtheYugoslav s statements aboutthenecessityofeither was notenoughtopoint is needrevealed thelimitations of truth ial oneintheSouthAfricancase– ilar needto aswell.Forinstan ssary todevoteourselves–inanall- could notserveasarelevantmodel tohealthewounds,establish As far asIknow,theYugoslav As far establish the ruleof law;the problem. Eventually,itis e, itseems thatasfar fficient formaking any id moreattention, they ce, onehadtothink tablishing regional tablishing regional ex Boraine,acting ; at similarities of . . CEU eTD Collection what kindoftradeoffwaspossibleinSerb early nineteenthcentury; features are:unquestionableethno-nationalco this identity from thestatements ofth substantiality andinevitabilit Serbs inthisparticularway,andassigne in ethno-nationalistterms,la representation itconstructs. This isa crucial point: by possible todeconstructtheimposed percepti context, and seeifitindeed determines th universalist terms. Therefore itseems inevita establishing aneffectivetruthcommissi However, contextualconstraints,aswecouldsee,loom heavily over the possibility of between twofederalunits,confirms therule. here tosay–theexception longer. BosniaandHerzegovina conflicts, aggressorsaswelldefenders,ma as fartheSerbiancaseisconcerned.Pe commissions' possiblepurposes, and exactlyth way itchoseobviouslyleadstoanimpa and lackofconsensualsupport totransitional processes. mutual/inter-ethnic/Yugoslav goals; continuous disloyalty ontheside of other biological continuation oftheethno-nati Is thereany otherway? Thereis,ind Something canbelearntfromthefailureofYugoslavCommission: the the longsequenceof rge groupofYugoslavcitizens y. Itis possible to construethe main characteristics of that, byitsfederalorganiza isinawayanexceptionof e Commission's members. Among others, these on whosemembers wouldthinkandactin 74 ople whoparticipatedinthepost-Yugoslav e choice ofthe availablepaths,oritis onal group;continuous sacrificesfor ia consideringthefragilepower balance inly donotleaveinthesame statesany d totheirownidentityfeaturesof eed, andithasbeenalreadysketched. e onethatislessimportant thanothers sse. Reconciliationisoneoftruth on of thiscontext,that is,theself- ble toanalyze main featuresofthis ntinuity thatstretc sufferingandconstantthreatto choosing toidentify themselves tion andvolati understood themselves as thisrule,butitsuffices hes at least to the hes atleasttothe le relations CEU eTD Collection completely compatible withneighboring aswellwithmajority of otherEurope Commission members wererightinone an identityisamatter of c nations ethnic factors"; finally,theunsolved"nationalque Yugoslav ethno-nationalgroups;exposuretotheconstantthreatof"international of thecategories ofculture group's members outside . In thenextsectionIam goingtolayth hoice. Iwilldoitbypresenting and identity,theirrelati the(ethno)national-statebor 75 stion," meaning alargenumber ofthe eoretical groundsforaclaim thatsuch thing: thesefeatures make "Serbs" onship tomoral universals. an alternative understanding der. Ifnothingelse,the an CEU eTD Collection communities shouldacceptrespons possible foracommunity tocommit acrime inthefirstplace,and,furthermore, why moral andpolitical agent." groups areobligedtoremember inorderto duty toremember areintroducedasconstituen after atrocities.Therefore, condition foranappropriatemoral behavior andre-establishment ofcivilnormalcy limiting theirmoral choices.Thesecondapproachconsidersremembering tobeakey which makes theirlivescomprehensible, butatthesame putsburdensonthem, time approach viewsindividualsasalwaysa members, regardlessof whethertheyw the community memory isautonomous and According tothefirst,peoplewouldinev possible arguments thatmake coming tote 4.1.1. Hardconceptsofcultureandidentity 4.1. Generalframework OFCONTINUOUSCHANGE FIELDS ANDIDENTITY: CULTURE Chapter 4 158 157 prevent something similar tohappen infuture. case and pathologies"] Ibid., p. p. Ibid., Đ or đ e Pavi Đ Pavi or đe Pavi ć ć evi evi ć ć , "Politi regardsbothapproachesasincoherent:"In casesmemory and Re ć evi č no. 77, 2008, pp. 69–88. 69–88. pp. 2008, 77, no. č ć ko pam criticizesarguments offere 158 the committed crimesshouldbe remembered inorderto However,noneoftheseappr

ć enje: normalnislu ibility fortheir evil past. nd alreadymembers ofaninvoluntarygroup, itably remember thepastwrongdoingssince 76 ould deliberately accept itornot. This preserve continuity and sameness of the preservecontinuityandsameness ofthe it imposes adutyofremembering onits rms withthe evil past seem necessary. č aj i patologije" ["Political memory: a memory: normal i["Political aj patologije" ts of identity;that is,individuals and d bythosewhobelievethat oaches explainshowitwas 157 Heputsforwardtwo CEU eTD Collection us tolearnandquestionvalues remembering shouldbeunderstoodas"animportant cognitivecap community onnewmoral ground. responsibility andmoral renovation,or,toputitdifferently,about acts asmorally wrong;andthatis thekeycondition forthinkingabout theirown how thesesame members ofcommunitycould criminal actinghadbeenprovidedbeforecrimes werecommitted, therefore mustdosomething granted thatmembers of this community wouldacceptitsdeedsasmorally wrong. 162 161 160 159 clear linebetween thequestionofmemo community questiontheirpast,valuesandpr who weare." culture and collective identity,itmight be is placedwithinthebroadercontextthattakesintoaccount relationships between focuses onthecentralissues of transitional justice. foundation is of moralityfoundation itself."Here,contradiction very the undermine "actsthat of consists evil radical although atrocities, such remember should mass society and exterminations." Hence, populations, of civilian deportations asenslavement, such cas in suffice to issuppose values layerof thin The loyalty. ofcareand relationships humanity shared normsor universal that holds universal moralbetween particular comm norms and Yugoslav collapse). more Germanys; afterthe any postwar (both Serbia society orexterminated, part ofthe isnot expelled Harvard University Press, 2002]; here pp. 78, 79). 79). 78, pp. here Press, 2002]; University Harvard Margalit, (Avishai respond? to order in from capacity on the very idea of shared humanity," where can the thick fabric of communal values derive the SeeCohen, to ofthe authors Margalit,one whom Pavi Avishai Pavi in cases important isparticularly This question ć evi Pavi If thisdiscussion about identity,memor ć , "Politi ć StatesDenial of evi 162 ć č doesnotofferawayoutfrom thisimpasse:hesimply claims that Neitherhasheexplainedfromwhichstandpointsmembers of ko pam ć enje: normalni slu enje: . a communityareawareoftheirownwrongdoingsand es of"striking examples of radical evil and crimes againsthumanity, about it.Yet,ifweassume thatlegitimizing groundfor

andprincipleswhichweacce 161

č aj i patologije," p. aj ipatologije," 86. 77 ry andthequestionofidentity,Pavi humanity spread over the thick fabric of communal can operate only through the web of communal in which a community of victims, being entirely victims, of being acommunity in which unity's values, such as care and loyalty. Margalit loyalty.Margalit as careand such values, unity's inciples. Nonetheless, bytryingtodrawa inevitable: Ifamassinevitable: crime possibletoavoidtheabovedescribed ć have retrospectively evi y, andcoming toterms withevilpast, The Ethicsof Memory[Cambridge, MA.: ć refers, argument thatoscillates offers an 159 Bothapproachestakefor pt; yet,itdoesnotdefine 160 reestablishing their evaluate their own is "a direct onslaught onslaught is "adirect acity thatenables thenitisunclear ć evi ć

CEU eTD Collection members of thegroup thatcommitted thecrimes. After all,if all described collective responsibilitythat standpoints whichareoutside ofthe give collective identitiesofmembers ofagivengroup. culture. Thosesame principlesandvalues seen asinevitable consequencesofprincipl members appearstobeimpossible. Even Furthermore, withinsuchaconceptuali accordance withpatterns ofnormativeexpect experience." portion ofanyone's self-conceptionispower initially determines thecontentof self-c consists ofnormative patternsthatshape according totheseconceptualizations, cultureandidentity fullyoverlap:culture instead ofsimply seeingitasageneral culture asacentralformative elementof possible toconcludethatallmembers of impasse. Pavi 164 163 collective andindividu substantially unchangeable,homogenous andcoherentsystems, determine which their needsandgoals,thusdirect normative expectations that (Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard UniversityPress, Ibid., p. 83. 83. p. Ibid., Moody-Adams, MicheleM. It islikely thatcollective deedswillbe If weassume thatculturesareclose 163 ć evi Eventually,everyculturedevelopsitsownparticularpatternsof ć criticizesconceptualizations of al self-conceptionsinawaydesc Fieldwork in Familiar Places. Morality, Culture, and Philosophy and Culture, Places.Morality, inFamiliar Fieldwork come from thesestandpointsmay notbeobligatoryfor structure formative experiences ofitsmembers, shape

theirbehaviorinacertainway. 2 2002), pp. 138–139. 138–139. pp. 2002), 78 emotions, thoughtsandbehaviors,thus tually, collectivewrongdoingscome tobe onception. Thismeans that"asubstantial also substantiallyde zation ofculture,agencyindividual acertaingroupare way oflifeacert n culture.Therefore,demands toaccept a group(aswellasi es andvaluesestablishedbyaparticular fully influencedbysocialandcultural seenasmorallywrongonlyfrom the ations intrinsic totheirown culture. d, strictlyseparate collective responsibility thatview ribed above,thenitisonly termine individual and supposed toactin ain group.Infact, ndividual) identity, d, self-sufficient, 164

CEU eTD Collection some sortofhardconcept level of societal arrangements andlevelof collective identity. Itseems thatwithout 4.1.2. Untanglingcultureandidentity means tocommitamass crime. choice, buttofollownormativeexpectations committed crimes: sincepeoplearemembers ofinvoluntarygroups,they donothave and thereforeresponsible;ontheother,this to promote. Ononeside,theyclaim th make theirdemands obligatory,theseconcepts of responsibility;yet, themselves. Theseconceptsleaveno room responsible. When dealingwithautocratic conceptualize responsibility, th avoids acceptanceofthe responsibility forcommitted crimes. indicates notonlyacritiqueof presumptions arevalid,thencriticizingcu 165 identity, thegrouprejectsanymoralenquire very existence. By defending itsright toexis And, oncewestarttocritici its members, sincethesebeliefs,customs andbehaviorsoverlapwiththeseidentities. a critiqueofthevery Ibid., p. 215. 215. p. Ibid., Narrative of transitional justice implies discontinuitiesatleast ontwolevels: Thus, itturnsoutthatPavi identityofagivengroup,together they articulatedemands forresponsiblebehavior.Inorderto ze identityofagivengroup,wealsobegintoendangerits collective identity,transitiona

acertainsetofbeliefs,cu at is, toidentify acollectiveagentwhois tobeheld ć evi at people are members ofinvoluntarygroups at peoplearemembers ć 79 criticizesconcepts th regimes whichmassively violated human for individualagency ltural practicesanddeedsof some group claim maybeusedasajustificationfor set bytheirgroup,evenincaseswhenit tence, that is, its authentic, substantial undermine basicprinciples theyclaim 165 of itscultural practices, andthus stoms andbehaviors,butalso withindividualidentitiesof l justicewouldbeunableto at areincoherent in or conceptualization CEU eTD Collection rights oftheircitizen 167 166 somewhat implicated inwhatany various groups thatshape whothesepeopleare,andthateach person isatleast particular kindofgroupidentity.Itisnot behavior. wrongdoings thatitmight happenthatalmost members ofacommunity. Inacaseofgenoc that reliesongeneralcooperationandparticipationofmany, ifnotmajority of group byastateoranotherganized–turnstobeparadigmatic: itisacrime cultural complexity. Amongsuchcrimes, genocide–committed againstawhole necessary inconceptualizing transitional justice, concept ofcollectiveresponsibilityand number ofmembers ofthatgroup,a transitional measures intheaftermath. rarely manage toconstructnewpervasiveiden shared understandingsandquestioningepiste legitimizing ground,infactde power withoutbroadsupportof the regime thatcame in powerbyusing to their ultimate cultural complexity, since transitional justice insuch cases focuses on identity, issuesofcollectiveidentityand Press, 2005), p. 157. p.157. 2005), Press, 456. 27, No.3,2001,p. Larry May, Respond," to Duties and Responsibility "Collective Radzik, Linda In suchcases, collective responsibility But, whenacrime hasbeencommitted inthename ofonegroupbyalarge 167

Crimes Against Humanity. A Normative Account ANormative Humanity. Crimes Against s, andwhichmay notalwaysfitinto patternsof collective

stroy collectiveidentityby itscitizens.Suchregime nd againstmembers ofanothergroup,both member ofthegroupdoes";collective 80 responsibility arenotdiscussedwithregard enoughthat"peoplesharemembership in violence andrepressi concept ofcollectiv all ofitsmembers contributetocriminal ide, community issomuch engagedin tity, onethatwouldbeabletoconfront mic authoritiesinsociety.Yet,they derives from concep 166 revealing allaspects of their (Cambridge: Cambridge University Vol. Vol. Practice and Theory Social s, while they seek some s, whiletheyseeksome violatingthethreshold on, andremained in e identity become e identitybecome tualization of a tualization ofa CEU eTD Collection attitudes thatconstitutethresholdshared understandings. Thisiswhyimplementation constitution andlegal meansarecompatible be sanctioned byconstitution ortransmitted byother legalmeans insofar as these areculturalactivities.Patternsof is onlyasegment. Identityformation, articulation of values,beliefs andattitudes –all discussions of transitional justicefrom legaltocultural realm, withinwhichjudiciary cultures ofaccomplices. viewpoints." bind themembers of a grouptogether responsibility applies to thosegroupsthatdevelopth 169 168 to sharedculture: of collectiveresponsibilitybyreferringtoshared of individual agents to collective categories, Nenad Dimitrijevi standpoint clearlydelineatedby memories] (Beograd: Beogradski krug, 2006). 2006). krug, Beogradski (Beograd: memories] 246. 240, pp. 1991), Littlefield, Ethics Applied and inTheoretical of Debate FiveDecades Responsibility. Collective Crime"], in Obrad Savi Crime"], Obrad Collective in Larry May, "Metaphysical Guilt and Moral Taint," in L. May and S. Hoffman L.Mayand Moralin (eds.), Taint," and Guilt LarryMay,"Metaphysical Nenad Dimitrijevi Conceptualization ofcollectiveres for theregime, itsideologyandactions,including thekilling. interiorize thepervertedvaluesystem,wh arbitrarily proclaimed asenemies. Third,themajority of theregime's subjects allows, justifies, andmakes routin the system ofvalues,beliefsandattitudes, institutionalized and'normalized': the multitude of individuals. Second,crime is conditions aremet. First,crime unfoldsas ... mass atrocitiescanbeidentifiedas Although heentersdiscussionsaboutcollectiveresponsibilityfrom the 168 Incasesofmass thesebindingculturesmay crimes, bedesignatedas ć , "Moralna odgovornost za kolektivni zlo

ć and Ana Miljani Ana and liberalprinciplesthatc groupandindividualself-understandingsmay 81 byprovidingcomm e inflicting sufferi with andgroundedinbeliefs,values ponsibility for mass atrocities moves ponsibility formass atrocitiesmoves political arrangements, legalnormsand ć thecollectivecrime providedthree (eds.), setofvalues,or,toputitdifferently, ich isthenexpressedintheirsupport a coordinated intentional action of a acoordinatedintentionalactionof ideologically, legally andpolitically

are allshapedinamanner that eir ownculture,since"cultures Zajednica se Zajednica oherently preventsubmission č in" ["Moral Responsibility for for Responsibility in" ["Moral ć ng onthosewhoare developshisconcept on experiencesand (Lanham: Rowman and ć anja 169

[Communityof Collective Collective CEU eTD Collection justice isinfactasimple communal identityisprerequisite for transitional justice. understood asidentityformation strategies changeable identityaswell.After all, justice iscenteredonthehardconcept past implies formation ofanewidentity. to establishadutyofcoming toterms with establishment ofcollectiveresponsibility; derived from strong senseofbelongingto members ofagivensociety.Expectedcontradictionoccurs:hardconcept of identity, different from thepreviouspervertedvalu justice seeksawaytoimpose pattern new demands for changingculturalbasisofa political arrangements,legal change ofidentityhadalreadyhappened normalcy, andstrivestoriseback.Thus, tells thestory about a society that fell atrocities, asincasesofpostwarGerm of transitional justice is sopainful a conceptualization of identitytothe pro those whoarearbitrarilyproclaimedasenemies. shaped inamannerthatallows,justifies,andmakesroutineinflictingsufferingon However, thiscontradictionmay be Transitional justice's demands intheaf This allowsustoshift thefocusofdiscussionfrom thestrong tripartite narrative,fi normsandasystemofvalu nd uncertainprocesswhenitfocusesonmass any, andSerbiainthe2000s,forinstance. society marked bywrongdoings.Transitional 82 under thethresholdof cesses of identity formation interms of collective responsibilityprovidesaground strategies of transitional justicemay be the narrative necessarily assumes thatone Thus, itappearsthat when criminal regime's subjectsaccepted the evilpast; coming to of identity, itassumes anagentwitha e system, whichhasbeeninteriorizedby , althoughitseems thatakindofstrong an involuntary group, is necessary for aninvoluntary group,isnecessaryfor seen asamere paradox.Transitional s ofself-understand lled withbiblicalconnotations,which termath ofmass crimes areinfact

es, beliefsandattitudes, although transitional decencyandcivic terms withthe evil ing, substantially

CEU eTD Collection Press, 1999), pp. 20–21. pp. 20–21. 1999), Press, Identity, National patterns. Thesocietalfallunde prevail dependsonadynamic gridofpower displaced bythesetofexplanatoryques a change.Yet, itisalsoanev reinforced, andrejected incessantly with transitional justice.Attitudesandvaluesth 172 171 170 means." becomes amoreimportant issuethan whata meaning toquestionsofactio rather it'contains the only andbeforeallimplies cultu language, whichsetsthestandardfor 'prope "a system ofrulesandprinciplesfor'proper' behaviour,analogoustothegrammar ofa expanding thissemiotic modelabit,itisev symbolic forms, throughwhichpeopleexperienceandexpressmeaning. semiotic perspective,Geertzhasconceptua marked byCliffordGeertz's interpretative elaborated throughthelonglastingdiscussi 4.1.3. Culture'scausalsignificance Ceausescu's Romania Cultures of Ruth Wodak, Rudolf de Cillia, Martin Reisigl and Karin and Liebhart, Reisigl Cillia,Martin Wodak, Ruth de Rudolf Clifford Geertz, "Thick description: Towa Katherine Verdery, Katherine This trainofthoughtsmovestheemphasi The term 'culture' refers heretothe set 172 (London: Fontana Press, 1993 [1973]), pp. 3–30. 3–30. pp. [1973]), 1993 Press, Fontana (London: However,once thesetof interpreta translated by Angelika Hirsch and Richard Mitten (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University University Edinburgh (Edinburgh: Mitten Richard Hirsch and by Angelika translated (Berkeley/Los Angeles/London: University of California Press, 1995), p. 19. standards forbehaviour'." National Ideology under Socialism. Identity and Cultural Politics in in Politics Cultural and Identity Socialism. under Ideology National idence thatchangeispossible.

r thehumanity thresholdisastrikingevid n: "how culture is anin ral productsorartefacts,"itis'not behaviouritself', rd anInterpretative Theory of Culture," tions of action, new problems emerge. One tions ofaction,newproblems emerge. One 83 in afieldofculture.Which oneswould at aself-conception containsare produced, turn inthefieldofanthropology.From his lized culture asawebofpubliclyavailable entually possibletounde on inwhichonestream wasdecisively r' therefore,culturedoesnot speaking"; relations thatisalsoshaped bycultural of meanings thathavebeenshapedand particular cultural 171 tive questionsofmeaning hasbeen

s from interpretativequestionsof strument for social action action forsocial strument The DiscursiveConstruction of text orperformance rstand 'culture' as The Interpretation ence ofsuch 170 By CEU eTD Collection 1986, p. 273. 273. p. 1986, Swidler, is"fundamentally misleading." meaning." an interpretativecultu science in search of law," whichis exactly and action.Thissearchforaculturalcause central causal element ofculture." ultimate ends orvalues towardwhichaction isdirected, thusmaking valuesthe action." Accordingtotheva it differently,theycontinuetoviewvalu contrary, asAnnSwidlerwarns,they do notofferanalternativeformulation of aspect ofthese problemsisrelatedtoid 177 176 175 174 173 agency incircumstances ofmajor societalchanges. impasse, andthuslimits theoretical capacities for properconceptualization of human which they can be intelligibly – that is that – intelligibly canbe they which understood as examples ofsuch a may be pp. 76, 83), (Ibid., activity" of pattern ongoing autonomous, itsown up to build structures activity," orthat"thehuman nerv of,mental to, constituents adjuncts but not those resourcesare,consequently, and operation; its very Cultures cau can be orprocesses institutions, behaviors, events, Adams suggested: along which action has been pushed," aswell asParsons' 'values', "asessencesaround which societies images' of'world th notion that Weber's demonstrate conceptualization of culture's causal importance in terms ofthe values paradigm, Swidler undertakes to

Ibid., p. 273. 273. p. Ibid., Ann Swidler, "Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies," SeeClifford Geertz, "The Growth of culture and the Evolution of mind," Geertz, "Thick description," p. 5. Culture, argues Even more, asserting that thoughts of Max Max of that thoughts more, asserting Even . Geertz's for resources cultural assertions that upon "the human dependant brain is thoroughly Yet, this"reigningmodel" inundersta (Fieldwork in Familiar Places, in Places, Familiar (Fieldwork also helpshape many ofthefundamental desires andpurposesthatinfluenceaction. and action – expectationsthat not thought, emotion, about normative expectations of patterns intricate develops culture Every 173 But,byavoidingcasualquestions, ral theorythatunderliesathic ous system relies,inescapably, on the accessibility ofpublicsymbolic

tacit appropriation, if ar they tacit appropriation, lues paradigm, "culture , thickly – described" (Ibid., p. 14). 14). p. (Ibid., described" – thickly , p. 83) p. 83) 175 onlyhelpstructureeachpers

tacitly stick tothevalues paradigm, entifying causalrelati 84 es as"themajor linkbetweencultureand what Geertztriedto Weber and Talcott Parsons are fundamental for 176 culture's causal (in)significance. Onthe Geertz, "is not a power, something to which social to which a something Geertz, "isnot power, at, "like switchmen," have determined "the tracks sally attributed; itisac sally attributed; Itinevitably leadstodeterministic mightremind usof"anexperimental nding culture's eff proponents ofdescriptiveapproach American Sociological Review Sociological American 177 e construed asMichele M.Moody- k description"insearchof shapes actionbysupplying Althoughsheagreesthat on's formative experiences but onship betweenculture avoidbyestablishing ects onaction,argues ontext, something within something ontext, The Interpretation of Interpretation The 174 or,toput , Vol. 51, CEU eTD Collection conceptualization of culture: transformations –bothsmall-scale andlarge-scalechanges–ofculture. its casualsignificance, preserves agency, andleaves spaceforexplaining sense onlywithinthecontextof values sharedamong members ofacommun however, doesnotmean todenythatagen it ispossibletoconceptualizeculturein ground forexplainingwhat causestransformati explanatory model:itmayexplaincultural accounted forinterms ofvaluesparadi without some modification ofculturalpatterns," Swidler, warnsthat"noculture of afunc fundamental desiresandpurposesthata cultural normative patterns structure pe 180 179 178 274–276). the styleorethosofactio en and regulate means normatively that are constituted," particular interestsorgoa No. 2. (1994), p. 291. 291. p. (1994), 2. No. Swidler, "Culture in Action," p. 273. 273. p. in Action," Swidler, "Culture Ignorance," Affected Responsibility, and "Culture, Moody-Adams, M. Michele Moody-Adams, action. but inprovidingculturalcomponents that time. Third,itseesculture's causalsignificance not indefining endsofaction, focuses on"strategiesofaction,"pers different kindsofproblems. Second,to and world-views,whichpeoplemay useinvaryingconfigurationstosolve First, itoffersanimage ofcultureasa Reworking Geertz's model, Swidler Swidler explains that noaction is 180 Fieldwork in Familiar Places, inFamiliar Fieldwork

n, even when ideas (andtheends of ls. Furthermore, peopleare sharedculturalpractices. ffect action,MicheleM.Moody-Adams, like a waythatavoidsdeterminism, accountsfor tioning societycanbeperpetuatedovertime p. 83. 85 ople's formative experiences andshape gm. Thevalueparadigm isaone-way cy isthoroughlyshapedbyattitudesand effects onaction,butdoesnotprovidea istent waysoforderingactionthrough undertaken independently,drivenby ons ofculture.Questioningthismodel, ity, andthatourbehaviormay make ds of action, cannot account for "continuity in "continuity for account cannot action, ds of "tool kit"ofsymbols, analyzeculture's causaleffects,it 178 are usedtoconstructstrategiesof action theyadvocate)change" (Ibid., pp. andthismodificationcannotbe suggests alternativ incapable ofundertakinga 179 Thequestioniswhether stories,rituals, Ethics e, tripartite , Vol. 104,

CEU eTD Collection not bydetermining theendstowhichtheyareput." effects actions,concludesSwidler,"through establish achainofactions one byone,sotoachieveparticulargoals a sequenceofactionscannotbearranged capacities from whichsuchstrategies ofac organizing individualactions Causal relationbetweencultu inevitably apartoflargerarrangemen maximal supposedoutcome with eachindividu sequence ofactions,workingsimultaneously on eachofthem,strivingtoachievea 183 182 181 the case of "unsettled lives" difficult tospecifyculture's causalrole,si two aspects of cultural influence. While inthe caseof"settledlives" itisrather their chosenorgivenpurposes. various elements forcreatingsequencesof tends toseecultureratherasakindof that consistently orders actions in one dir which goesagainst adeterministic conceptua of variety oftenconflictingsetsof sym such periods (Ibid., p. 279). 279). p. (Ibid., periods such developing or contending for dominance." Theoccurrence ofintense ideological activismis typical for Ibid., p. 276. 276. p. Ibid., The phrase 'unsettled lives' denotes periods "when competing ways of organizing action are are action organizing ways of competing "when periods denotes lives' 'unsettled The phrase 277. p. Ibid., To demonstrate applicabilityofherc This alternativemodel alsotakesinto by usingalreadyestablished

183 in alargersequence ofacting:culture "shapesthe re and action isthenestablished onthelevel of itisevident that"established culturalends are bols, customs, stories,andguidesforaction, t thatSwidlercalls"strategyofaction." 86 astoragefrom whichpeoplecanchoose ection. Asithas been by eachindividualaction.Itisnecessaryto nce itthoroughlyintegrateswithaction,in tion areconstructed."Swidlerassumes that out ofnothing:onecannotchooseactions actions,oneswhicharemost suitablefor the shapeandorganizationofthoselinks, account thatculturesingeneralconsist oncept, Swidlerdistinguishesbetween lization ofcultureasaunifiedsystem al act.Onthecontrary,eachactionis 182

links betweenthem. Culture pointedout,Swidler 181

CEU eTD Collection common both individualandcollective they become ordinary:"Assume patterns oforganizingbothindividual and collective action, and practice them until directly influencebehavior.Insuchci imposing newstylesorstrategiesofaction.Variousdoctrines,symbolsrites highly organizedsystems ofmeaning (e.g. unsettled lives.Intheseperiodsofdiscon paradigm, arguesSwidler,cannotexplain ideologies, playapowerfulrole jettisoned with apparentease,andyetexplic 185 184 strategies aswellforgoals they seektoachieve. directed toseveraldifferentgoals.Accord encompass acomplex webofdesigning,justif culture. Eventually,Swidler's term 'strategies ofaction' isflexibleenoughto hardly beformulated interms of ultimate goalsandvaluesdefined andimposed by question ofresponsibilityindividualandcollectiveactors,thethatcan patterns, ever changing grid conceptual spaceforexplaining complex Swidler escapesadeterministic trapofthevaluesparadigm,andleavesanopen as beliefs,ceremonies, artforms, instead tacit assumptions from the existing culture" (Ibid.). (Ibid.). culture" from existing the tacit assumptions capac cultural the toremake completely seeks which movement, ideological most the fanatical even Conversely, capacities. cultural their refine or maintain Ibid., p. 278. However: "Even when they lead settled lives, people do active cultural work to work cultural active do people lives, settled lead they when However:"Even 278. Ibid., p. Ibid., pp. 278–279. 278–279. pp. Ibid., Describing cultureasa'storage' ofvari sense." 185

of powerrelations,andpartic

actors. Furthermore, shepr d hereisacontinuum from inorganizingsociallife." rcumstances, peoplelearnhowtousenew 87 ingly, peoplemay beresponsibleforchosen of seeingitasaunifi ities of its members, will inevitable draw on many on members,draw its ities of willinevitable tinuity, contestingideologies–explicit, the culturalmechanisms inthecaseof itly articulated cultural models, suchas ous symbolic vehiclesofmeaning, such ying, andrealizingac dynamics between differing cultural dynamics betweendifferingcultural political orreligious)–compete in ovides room forposingthe ular interestsandgoalsof 184 ideology Thereforethevalues ed symbolicsystem, tion thatmight be to tradition to CEU eTD Collection Geertz is,indeed,fully awar actions. interpretation –thatis,ast society, and,eventually,about understanding particularsocialactionsand leads toconclusionsaboutaparticular assertions abouttheroleof large conclusionsfromsmall, butvery that oughttobedescribedasthicklypossible.Hestressestheaim isto"draw 4.1.4. Cultureandmorality:descriptiveculturalrelativism 189 188 187 186 actions. acquire actions social Particular culture. themselves havespun. broader "websofsignificance"inwhich actorsaresuspended,andwhich,infact,they actions havefortheactorswhose It lookslikehesupposesthatitispossibl general, Geertz actually impliesthat itis suggesting thiswayofestablishingknowledge them withcomplex specifics." nothing seems troublesome; problems emerge if these actionsmay beproperlyunderstood.As significance; this structure atthesametime of descriptive approach in "Thick description." Geertz, "Thick description," p.28. Geertz, "Thick description," p.9. example asan elaborated from littledrama" Morocco, of"the interpretation the them One of being 27. p. Ibid., In hissearchformeaning, Geertzpersis 189 Herewefaceanotherproblematic aspectofthedescriptive approach to 187 However,ashisinterpre ructure ofsignification–in culture intheconstructionof

societal lifeassuch.Yet,it e thatitis also necessary toestablish aframe of 186 Thetrainofthoughtshesuggestsstartsfrom possible tostepoutfrom hermeneutic circle. e tosetdown"themeaning particularsocial 88 meaning onlywithina they are,"althoughknowingnothingabout densely texturedfacts;tosupportbroad sets a frame of interpretation withinwhich aboutcertainsociet tently insistsonim farasdescriptionsareconcerned, oneistojudge tations clearlydemonstrate, order tounderstandparticular collectivelifebyengaging is ratherinterestingthatby certain structure of y andsociallifein portance ofdetails ethics ofcertain 188

CEU eTD Collection principle irresolvable." disagreement norsusceptibleofrationalre 'fundamental' moral disputes, disputesth "differences inthe moral practices of diverse socialgroups generate 'ultimate' or is, thestructureofmeaning theybelongt relativism practices canbeproperlyunderstoodandjudge practices ofacertaingrouporsocietyfrom outsider's an perspective,sincethese of theimplications of this stance may bethatitisimpossible toevaluate moral 193 192 191 190 systems thatpushactionsin questioned intheprevioussection.Howeve casual roleshouldbeunderstoodindete understood asconstituentpartsofacohere disparate elements thatparticipateinthewayoflifeanygr belief andactionmust be contained andisolablesets cultures areinternallyintegratedwholes,thatculturesfundamentally self- about moral practicesofagivenculture.Ye if incoherent.Consequently,itdoesnot cultures arefundamentally autonomous andisolablesetsofpracticesbeliefs,even 278; see p. 276. Clifford Geertz, "Anti Anti-Relativism," Anti-Relativism," CliffordGeertz,"Anti Ibid., Ibid. Moody-Adams,

p. 21. It iswrong,Geertzstatesresolutely This kindofrelativism 192 –isfundamentally dependenton Fieldwork in Familiar Places, inFamiliar Fieldwork 191

understood deterministically." a consistentdirect of practicesandbeliefs,

–Moody-Adams callsit American Anthropologist, American provide agroundforanoutsider's judgment p. 15. 89 rministic terms, werebothdiscussedand , toplacemorality beyondculture. o. Therefore itispossibletoarguethat at areneitherreducibletonon-moral solution –disputes,th r, showingthatculturesarenotunified nt whole,andthenotionthatculture's ion, doesnotundermin d onlywithinthecultu t, itispart thefollowing assumptions: "that 193 Vol. 86 (2), June, 1984, pp. pp. 263– June, 1984, (2), 86 Vol. that culturalinfluenceon icularly important toset Theideathat seemingly oup may beeventually descriptive cultural at is, that arein e thenotionthat ral context,that 190 One CEU eTD Collection the importance ofsuch cultural contextinwhichitisfound.Moody-Adams usestheheaviestreasontostress which itisimpossibletounderstandandeval conceptual spacefreefrom theclaim thatseemingly occupiesitand accordingto 194 relativism, transitional justice willinevita impossible topersuadetheperpetrators unacceptable, becausetheyprescribe theforcef drastic example:evenifwe conceptualized withinthesame theoreticalframework. ToelaborateMoody-Adams' deterministic understandingofculture,is same time: tochange substantial collective identity, onewhich isderived from the identity may beartheideaofcollectiveres culturally constituted substantial collective id collective responsibility,whichisusua in theaftermath of thecollective mass crimes. Thisdemand restsonthenotionof apparently supportthetransi other hand,itisclearinwhatwaysome elem blindness," inducedby culture, whichmakes relativism, disputeshouldremain this irresolvable.Herewefacea notionof"moral of thenecessitytheirownmoral transf Ibid.,

p. 25. destruction ofcultures. readiness to withholdjudgment will,atthevery least, aidandabetthe of another–suchasby means of forced expatriation or mass killing –the When thedefiningprinciplesofonecult As itwassaidinthepreviousparts,onceacceptsdescriptive cultural a theoreticalendeavor: tional justice's prime demand formajor societalchanges judge thedefiningprinciples

194

acceptourjudgment, andmake them aware 90 lly conceptualized through thenotionof bly find itself in al ormation. Intermsofdescriptivecultural ponsibility, itresistsanychangesatthe uate some orpracticeoutsidethe belief entity. While thissubstantial collective something thatsimply cannotbe individual members ofagivensociety ents ofdescriptiveculturalrelativisments ul elimination ofanotherculture,itis ure prescribe the forceful elimination ofonecultureasmorally ogical impasse. Onthe CEU eTD Collection Philosophy and Social Criticism, Social and Philosophy Arneson's argument, judgments andpracticesbel formulated, presuming thatjudgments areapplicabletopract allows onetorejectthe behaving inaccordance withadifferentmo unable torecognizewhatiswronginmorality 197 196 195 approach: cultural arrangements. (ed.), Ibid., Nenad Dimitrijevi SeeRichard Arneson, "What, If Anything, Renders All Humans Morally Equal?" in Dale Jamieson Peter Singer HisCritics Peter and Singer

p. 86. What makes this pictureevenbleaker responsibility forwhathedid. be exempted from thenegative mora the 'valued capacity' toactconscientiousl how distortedthatreflectionis.Inac acting 'admirably', becausehisactionistruetorefl does notneed anexcuse atall:whenhe person' isnotthereasonforexcusinghimresponsibilityhisactions.He only marginally qualifiesforpersonhood.Bu rationally distinguishingbetweenrighta be killed,he iscommitting aterrible moral error. Perhaps hiscapacity of what heseesastheplightofGerm history andthepresentcondition,whenhe Think ofHitleralongArneson's lines. hold thatthe latter capacity isthetrue and theability todispose oneself to is rightcanbefactoredin conscience isabrokenthermometer." Itis that "doingwhatonethinksisrightnobleandadmirable evenifone's Inansweringthisque judge theagent? agent doing sobecauseofthemistaken committing murder.We seetheagent actingwrongly,butwealsoseethe permissible, andheorsheindeed goes torealizeth infers thatkillingpeoplewhobelongtoanet or duetotheeffectivesocialimpos Suppose theagent–duetolimitations ć , "Moral knowledge and mass and , "Moral moral crime.knowledge relativism," of Acriticalreading 196 195 NenadDimitrijević

position from whichthejudgmen vol. 36 no. 32, 2010, pp. 131–156; here p. 143. 143. p. here 131–156; pp. 2010, 32, no. 36 vol. (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1999). ong tothesame culturalc

to twocomponents,theability 197

91 stressesdisturbingimp rality andaccepting alternative social and ition ofmoralignorance–erroneously do whatonethinksisright.Onemight ting onreflection,hehasdemonstrated locus ofhuman dignityandworth."[...] ans, andthatthereforethey deserveto inspires and leads the Holocaust,he is theypracticeandpreventsthem from stion, Arnesondepartsfrom theclaim nd wrongisverylimited–perhapshe is that descriptive cultural relativism When HitlerreflectsontheGerman l judgment andfrom retrospective beliefthatwrongisright. Howto y, andthisiswhyhewouldhaveto sobecause"thecapacitytodowhat ofthepersonalcognitive capacities deducesthatJews areatfaultfor t realizingthathe ontext. DiscussingRichard t of"moral blindness" is hnic groupismorally todecidewhatisright ection, regardlessof lications ofsuchan ices onlyifboth is convictionby isonlya'near- CEU eTD Collection and New York: Routledge, 1988 [1966]), p. 4. p. 4. [1966]), 1988 Routledge, New York: and threaten transgressors." transgressions have produced andmaintained: "theidealorder throughout acommunity;byestablishingstrong into strong hierarchicaloppositions.Theseoppositions establish boundaries insights, orderisdependent demonstrated that"ideasaboutsepara Based ondatasheobtainedduringherfieldworkpollution,MaryDouglas seems impossible almost toconceptualizecu thoroughly elaboratedwithintheanthropologic 4.1.5. Righttointerpretandjudge 201 200 199 198 element. Douglasdefined itsimply: "Where thereisdirt there issystem." notion ofdirtimplies asystem ofdefinedre violates theorderandneedstobeseenasa matter outofplace,thatis–dirt.Yet,the very center–ofacultura though itisconstitutiveofit.Eventually,bound established; second,disorder–i.e.dirt,ha two formative stepshere:first,the gene located in depth, and have permanence? To fill the gap, Kristeva shifted Douglas' work on pollution pollution work on Douglas' shifted Kristeva gap, Tofillthe permanence? have and in depth, located are shapes, recognizable have objects in which systembinary oppositions, ourselves with astable of tosurround strive and impressions shifting chaos of of afraid we are Why transgression? of prevention the notion of impurity consist of something dangerous and threatening, which makes it suitable in did not explain how disposition to respond to purity and impurity –i.e. disgust –is created. Why does her, astheto saw Douglas cause However, body ultimate human of causality. socio-economic Douglas in exam Douglas' ismissing something that noticed structure. Kristeva social on identity dependence ofand, construe of formation ultimately, body human Julia Kristeva has taken Douglas' theoreticalna taken Douglas' Kristevahas Julia Ibid., Ibid., Douglas, Mary

p. 36. p. 2. The notionofimportance ofcultural Purity and Danger. An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo and Pollution of Concepts the of Analysis An Danger. and Purity as theirmain functiontoimposesystem." 199 l structure ofmeaning. Whatever manages toes upon exaggerateddifferences

ting, purifying,demarcating andpunishing ral oppositionbetweenorderanddisorderis 92 ination of rituals of purity andimpurity. According s to be ritually excluded from a system, s toberituallyexcludedfromasystem, of societyisguardedbydangerswhich rrative and directed it in a predictable way,to apredictable itin directed rrative and lture withoutclearlyestablishedborders. lations, whichmeans thatdirtisalsoits 201 boundaries hasbeenformulated and al researchesandtheories.Infact,it aries turnouttobeinthecore– hierarchicaloppositions,cultureis

cape patterns ofoppositions that arebeingtransformed 198 According toher 200 Thereare (London (London CEU eTD Collection another –disorder; the latterserves asathreat thathelps maintaining theformer. be ultimately seenasageneralbinary oppositions, onesthatconstitute thestructure ofmeaning. Therefore,thesystem may patterns, overemphasizing differencesand falling apart. to upholdcommunityvalues,maintain boundaries,andthuspreventcommunity from social behaviorinbothsoci primitive societies andcivilizedsocietie twenty years later, emphasizing that there uphold communityvalues,andourmodern approach." book withoutmaking anylinkbetweentaboo-th society frombehaviour taboo turnsoutnottobeinco 204 203 202 1993). Routledge, York: (New (New York and London: Routledge, 1990) Limits Matter. On Discursive andof that "Sex" the Bodies Grosz, from sociologicalandanthro "a thinking": called primitives fromthecharge of famous workandconcludedthatshe accomp 1992), p.3. Press,1982], pp. 65, 66). See also Judith Butler's Butler's See Judith 65, also 66). pp. Press,1982], time Kristeva, (Julia psychosomatic functions does not parallel formation of order, rather, both are produced at the same (symbolic) system functioning of the speaking subject there wasa need "tointegrateFreudiandataaspsychosomatic semantic the valuesconnectedwith explained, she As 193). p. 1994], Press, University subject are structured ina same way.Furthe order." Ibid. Ibid., Mary Douglas, Risk and Blame. Essays in Cultural History Thus, following Kristeva, it is possible to conclude that the symbolic system and the speaking the speaking system and symbolic the that conclude to Kristeva, itispossible following Thus, Volatile Bodies. Toward a Corporeal Feminism Corporeal a Toward Bodies. Volatile

p. 4. For Douglas, primitive andcivilizedsoci More thantwodecadesafterithadb 202 "InPurityandDangerthe rationalbehaviour of primitives is vindicated: corresponds toaspecificstructurationofthespeaking Powers of Horror. An Essay on Abjection University Columbia [New York: that willwreckit." eties: inbothtypesofsocie pological into apsychological an ed thepremise introduc that "asocial Kristeva ." Therefore, mprehensible butanintel opposition, inwhichoneelement isorderand Gender Trouble. Feminism and Subversion of Identity of Subversion and Feminism Trouble. Gender s, i.e.acommongroundforunderstanding 93 rmore, formation of humanbody ofa web as having adifferentlogicormethod of 203 Douglas naivelyrejected Freudian premises when een published,Douglasreflectedon her is a basic similarity between so-called However,sheregrettedcompleting "the lished thetask of transforming them intohierarchical inking, whichusesnaturaldangersto eties both followthesame formative [Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana (London and New York: Routledge, Routledge, New York: and (London ties the'rational behavior' has 204 d subjectiveregister" (Elizabeth ligible concerntoprotect So,shedecidedtodoit subject inthe vindicating "theso- symbolic symbolic

CEU eTD Collection with onlyonecoherent set ofmoral pract dispute with thedescriptive cultural relativ based onempiricalinsights.Theseargument trick ofthedeconstructionistprovenience, apparently does notbelong toaculture in Viewed from thisangle,itis easy to these setsaremutually dependantandbe founded onconstantdenialoflegitimacy toalternativesetsof set ofmoral norms, viewed assubstantial system, e.g.ameaning ofathreat. within, sincewhatis'out' andwhatis'w acting asathreat, keeps it'within'. Acco 'within'. Thismeans thatwhatisapparently between 'within' and'out' isbeingperfor Thinking aboutboundariesintheseterms allo 206 205 stances asmoralandtoclaim that "fundamental" moral disagreement, thenitw moral practicesfrom anymoral positi embraced byanycultural context. Thisallo moral practices. Eventually, allmoral positi within this culture; its legitimacy isdenied as astandingpointforjudgingmoral practices For example, seeJudithButler's Feminist and queer theorists often use this line use this theorists Feminist queer often and Moody-Adams, Although thepreviousline If weapplythisstructurallogiconmo Fieldwork in Familiar Places, inFamiliar Fieldwork Bodies that Matter

thereisamoral disagreement. of argumentation may amere seem as theoretical ithin' canacquiresome meaning onlywithin a imagine that any moral position, which p. 16. 94 of argumentation to legitimize their own standpoints. ownstandpoints. their legitimize to of argumentation question andthusisc and ices. When oneexamines moralpractices rdingly, onageneralleveleverythingis on. Iftherereallywas "ultimate" or med onelements that areeventually all 206 inorder toestablis long tothesamest ons areinsome wayembraced orcanbe s werealsousedbyMoody-Adams inher ists. Sheassertsthatthere is nosociety for some cultural identity, ispractically 'out' infactdefineswhatis'within', and, ould beimpossible torecognizedifferent ws oneto criticizeanysetofdominant ral values,itmay beconcludedthatany GenderTrouble. itentails infact asimple conclusion ws ustorealizethatthedistinction intrinsictoit,isinfactaposition

h thesetofdominant 205 moral norms. But,all onsidered illegitimate ructure of meaning. ructure of

CEU eTD Collection boundaries. whose diversityhastobeexplainedby moral practicesas"fullyindividuable,inte constitute thestru examination is"thecomplexwebofbelie are relatedtomatters ofmora boundaries ofculturesandhistoricalperiodsarenotimpenetrable, particularlyifthey formulated from thestandpointof moral practicestothoseprovidedbymen. women, instance, provide for quiteopposite community's setofvalues.Moody-Adams referstoexamplesofculturesinwhich competent andrepresentative forcreati information, that is,shehastoaskhers is areasongoodenoughtoalwa which thesecontradictoryversionswill merge that belongtosome culture,shehastobe 208 207 available cultural elements, whichdonotconstitute anisolated, homogenous and of collective identity.Collect 4.1.6. (Ethno)national identity absurd toview modern statesasinstances ofsuchcultures. contact ormutualinfluence withother culture Ibid., Moody-Adams,

pp. 151–152. 151–152. pp. However, Moody-Adams goesonestepfurthertomakeapointthat It isimportant heretoun 208 Evenifthenumber ofculturesth Fieldwork in Familiar Places, inFamiliar Fieldwork cture ofmoral experience,"itiswr l significance.Although

ive identitieshave beenformed withinculture, using derstand cultureasaconcept broader thantheconcept descriptivemo ys evaluatemoral practices p. 47. 95 on of anappropriateimage ofagiven awareofcharacteristic 207 f, judgment, sentiment, andactionthat elf whetherherinformant isreliable, grated 'moralities' or'moralsystems'," s has beensignificant, itwould berather Andthereisnosomelevelon general pieces ofinformation about important into onecoherent whole. Even this fact the nature of impenetrable cultural at developedande ral relativism. ong toassume thatculturescreate it istruethatth inspiteofobjections ndured withoutany s of her sources of sources ofher s e objectofmoral CEU eTD Collection by andthroughthem –thathaveprov because theyhaveproducedethnicidentities an alreadyestablished,clearlydefined ethnicgroups; ethnic wars. Inotherwords, these warswe inthe1990s,anditisther armed conflicts argue thatethnicidentitiesofpost-Yugos Yugoslavia from the1990sputforwardethn collective identity is formed, kept,andre realizing collectiveidentities. reinforced, orchanged:ethnicandnational importance ofdifferencesbetweenworl and reinforced? most appropriateterm –ethno-nationalidenti and narrowed:namely, ornational,–inthiscase,the howthesubstanceofethnic, twenty first century,thegeneral question that coherent whole. 211 210 209 Press, 1996), p. 63. p.63. 1996), Press, Verdery, Katherine Quest for Understanding nationalism andethnonationalism canbetreated assynonyms (Walker Connor, group, that is, a group of people who believe they areancestrally related. Therefore, Connor concludes, nation," one’s loyalty to and with identification ifit is"use Ashe explained, interchangeably. matter that itor everything last,no welike whether marginalizing, ordenying; heritage cannotmatter bea ofdeliberate choice, and it encompasses is tradition while as follows: heritage from tradition conceptuali Todorova's isparallelto culture and region? Measuring spacein Europe"], Maria Todorova, "Šta jeistorijski region? Premeravanje prostora u Evropi" [What is ahistorical identities. identities. of regional in(self-)understanding change continuous of processes put forward attempt to an in region heritage (p. 88). Todorova discusses concepts of According to Walker Connor, terms "nationalism" and "ethnonationalism" may be used may be used "ethnonationalism" to Connor,and termsWalker According "nationalism" Žarkov, See Dubravka Inmy opinion, there is aclear analogy between what Iam arguing here and concepts developed in Thus, in the case of Serbia fromThus, inthecaseofSerbia thelatetwentiethcentury andintheearly 211 What Was Socialism, and What University Comes Princeton Next? (Princeton: 209 Furthermore,howdotheseiden Collectiveidentitie [Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 1994], pp. 42, xi. Seealso The Body of War

Therefore, thecentral questi Re č (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2007). 2007). Press, University Duke London: (Durhamand no. 73, 2005, pp. 81–117. My distinction between identity identity between Mydistinction 81–117. pp. 2005, 73, no. ided groundforthepost-Yugoslavnations. 96 dviews thatmembers ofthesame ethno- where nation connotes a self-differentiating ethnic ethnic aself-differentiating connotes nation where zation of tradition and heritage. She distinguishes Shedistinguishes and heritage. tradition zation of tradition and heritage in relation to the concept of concept the to relation in heritage and tradition s arebeingcontinuouslyestablished, lav nations have been formed duringthe lav nationshavebeenformed d in its pristine sense," nationalism "connotes "connotes nationalism d initspristine sense," re notethnicbecausetheywerewagedby created by evaluating, choosing, appropriating, and appropriating, choosing, evaluating, by created not. Therefore, unlike unlike Therefore, not. efore appropriatetoname theseconflicts inforced. Conflictswithintheregionof identities areonlytwopossiblewaysof –or,theseidentitieshavebeenshaped opensthissectionmay bereformulated ties hasbeenformed, transferred,kept, ic identities.Therearescholarswho tities marginalize and decrease they canbecalledethnic on ishowsubstantialityof tradition, we cannot shape shape wecannot tradition, Ethnonationalism. The Ethnonationalism. 210

CEU eTD Collection their ownidentity features of kit, citizenswhounderstoodthemselves asSerbsinthisparticularway,assignedto was falling apart.This isacrucial point: by tool kitfordesigningstrategi individual andcollective actors chose itor one among "toolkits"availableintheSe In the1970sand1980s,nationalistsym 'constraining' qualities,formed, andhowhasit is putforward: HowwastheSerbian identity establishing collectiveresponsibilitywith –theseconceptsserveasagroundforconcepts ofcultureandcollectiveidentity demands derivedfrom theconceptof collectiveresponsibility. has beenalreadyshown,thisapproachwoul easier to establish tiesbetween thecollectiv conception, whenwethinkabouttheroleofSerbiansidein1990s,would make it essentialist conceptofethni these questionscouldnotbeposedwithin as wellinYugoslavsocietycontributetoconstitution Clearly, oftheseidentities? groups wantorclaim, thatis,whatare "group." Ifwedecideto talkaboutgroups, And,theotherwayround,howdidth groups? Finally, how dotheseidentitiesframe attitudes towards andrelationshipswithother national groupholdinrelationtomany ot

Rogers Brubakerdefinesthispointas Therefore, by establishing framework substantiality andinevitability. es of action incircumstances inwhichthe federal state city or nationality, in spiteof the fact that sucha 97 in thisframework –thefollowingquestion their intentions? Howdotheythinkabout their intentions? accepted itasthe most suitable symbolic explains Brubaker,then we ask:What do theframework whichoperateswithan d lessenthepossibilitiestoconceptualize e agent andcommitted crimes. Yet,asit choosing ethno-nationalist symbolic tool e existingpowergridsinpost-Yugoslav of transitional just her aspectsof theirself-conceptions? , withits'substantial,' 'inevitable,' and adifferencebetween"category" and rbian cultural "storage." Overtime, beenmaintained as such untiltoday? bolic "toolkit"wasproducedasjust ice andbyrethinking CEU eTD Collection attitudes. categories inreturnchannelsocial individual andcollective act relationships insteadto substances. This Brubaker stressesthat categories of identitydraw ourattentiontoprocesses and group actsinaccordancewith discourse, which assumes thatagrouphassome Namely, Smithconsidersanationeach understanding ofnation,hisdefinitionmay be well. Althoughthelatterclearlydemonstrates thatSmith isclosertosubstantial the "nation" asananalytic category, andas cultural foundations ofnations,AnthonyD. Smith offersthe followingdefinitionof themselves Howdotheybehave andothers? 213 212 makes thesecategoriestobe characteristics ofethnicandnational categ inevitable. knowledge from thefactthat the continuousreproductionandreinterpretati

(Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2008), p. 19. Town Transylvanian a in Ethnicity Anthony D. Smith, D.Smith, Anthony Rogers Brubaker, Margit Freisc observe sharedcustomsandcommonlaws. historical homeland,createanddisseminateadistinctivep ublic culture,and myths, memories,symbols,values,andtr named andself-definedhumancommunity Following thistrainofthoughts,Smith Yet, westillhavetoask whetheritis 212 Thesecategories derive theability The Cultural Foundations of Nations. Hierarchy, Covenant, and Republic Republic and Covenant, Nations. Hierarchy, of Foundations Cultural The (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton ethnic, ors useethnicandnationalcategories,howthese hmidt, Jon Fox,Liana Grancea, NationalistPoliticsandEveryday

theyareacceptedandlegi itscoherentinterests a or national, teractions andshapeourknowledge pushes ustoexplore,arguesBrubaker,how 98 ahistoricalform ofhuman communityas towards other groups? Th towards othergroups? ories of identity. In other words, what ories ofidentity.Inotherwords,what usefulforthepurposesofthiswork. on ofthepatternvalues,symbols, categories of clear and stable identity, andthat this possibletoidentifycertaingeneral aditions, residein further defines"na 213 to channelinteractions andshape whosememberscultivateshared

nd will. Ontheother hand, University Press, 2006), p. 11. timized assubstantialand identity? and identifywitha tional identity"as is essentialist Discussing the

CEU eTD Collection the onehand,andas memories, myths,andtraditions that composethedistinctiveheritage ofnations, 216 215 214 national cultures,hasexplaine legitimizing groundfornation-state.StuartHa communities asakind of retrospective, solidarity. shared historicalmemories,elementsof defines as as "territorialized andpoliticized devel nationhood asakindofdevelopedethnicity.A nation andethnicity,Smithprov entirely overlap.Nonetheless,onceheesta assumes that the distinctive heritage of nationanditssingle stable identity pattern incoherent andheterogeneousvalues,me on theother. to language, prior to construction" that precedes gender, while itisactuallyaconstructio assomething to isreferred sex sex/gender distinction the in that explains Forexample, Butler subject. Examples of such oppositions areculture and nature, gender and sex, acculturated subject and natural to to of the reduce existence element. binaryone it is possible first oppositions one. Therefore, produced by the discourse asakind of ontological, metaphysical, essential ground that justifies the is other The part structure. hierarchical the dominates which one, only but opposition, a in binary parts are that there twono demonstrates, r successfully Butle is,asJudith The point the other. to submitted some is in way opposition ofan part one that meaning one, a hierarchical is Butlerclaims, opposition, are established within acertain discursive framework and cannot exist outside of it. Every binary Here I follow Butler's deconstructionist reading of oppositions in which she demonstrates that they they demonstrates that in she which of oppositions reading Heredeconstructionist Butler's I follow Ibid., Ibid.

p. 31. features –language,religion,custom,tr underlying cultureof"onepeople."Ethnici One wayofunifyingthemhasbeentore Namely, Smith arguesthatfrom acerta 215 named andself-definedhumanpopulations

214 Close reading Clearly,Smith doesnot thinkthatthis the identificationof 216 (Bodies that matter,5). p.

d thislegitimizing logic: ofSmith's definitionsallowsustounderstandethnic ides roomfor criticalappl opments" of ethniccommunities, whichSmith commonculture,andameasureofethnic 99 individuals withthat blishes conceptual re mories, myths andtraditions.Healso n offered within language, "asthat which is prior apparently historical establishment of ccordingly, itispossibletoviewnation ll, whodealtwithunifyingfeaturesof aditions, feelingfor"place"–which present them astheexpression ofthe in standpointitispossibletoview ty istheterm wegivetocultural with mythsofcommonorigins, single ication ofhisdefinitions. patternmight contain pattern andheritage, lationships between on

CEU eTD Collection 218 217 was criticizedbecausetheelements ofnati tradition; afoundationalmyth;thenotion ofa the nation, nation isasystem of cultural representations, one whichconsists of: the maintaining continuity is amatter of cultu continuity withthemythical commonorig ethnic category. Identity thenmay beviewed provides groundforethnicsolidarityandguara common origins.Byusingananalogywith directions? pattern hasbeenchangingovertime, what elements from theactualheritage, havebeen memories andtraditions,whichcomposeth supposed toidentifywith.Thequestionishowandwhy heritage, whichthenstandsforthewholeculture heritage ofnation.Infact, theentireher of values,symbols, memories, myths, a nation/ethnic group,itismore important here culture; establishing Publishers, 1996), p. 617. p. 617. 1996), Publishers, Kenneth Thompson (ed.), Ibid., pp. 612–615. 612–615. pp. Ibid., Identity," Cultural of Question Hall,"The Stuart "foundational" way. are shared byapeople.Itistherefore tempting totryuse ethnicity in this Among mythsthatconstitutethepattern, However, insteadofundermining legitimiz whichisforgedinnationalhistor origins, continuity,tr Modernity. An Introduction to Modern Societies Modern to Introduction An Modernity. 217

100 nd traditions that compose thedistinctive ral representations,therebysuggestingthat adition andtimelessness; itage becomes reducedtothisdistinctive causes thesechangesanddetermines their on asasystemofcu e patternandmarginalize othersymbolic ins. Hallexplains thatestablishing and astheestablishment andpreservationof chosen. Furthermore, since this identity in Stuart Hall, David Held, Don Hall,David Held,Don Hubert, Stuart and in family tiesthecommon originsmyth tostressthesignifi pure, originalpeopleor"folk." ntees thatthecollec . Itisthis'culture' thatindividuals are ies, literatures,media, andpopular the most significan ing logicofthehierarchicalcouple certain values,symbols, ltural representation cance ofthepattern (Oxford: Blackwell tive identityisan t istheoneabout theinventionof narrative of 218

Hall CEU eTD Collection found inthemyth ofKosovo,andespecially conflicts and mass crimesin in the1970sand1980s,patternwasfinallyestablishedthrougharmed well. Therefore, itisnotonlypossi influences from otherculturesandithas represent itassuch.Itis homogeneous norcoherent,inspiteofthef compose identitypatterns.Furt certain offered byculture,thatishe relations, which are, in return, regulated consisted ofchosenelements, ismaintain available withinthe fieldofculture. Once construction ofnational identity. such conceptualizationofanationmakes elements may beseenaspartsofthefirstone. However,thereisanawarenessthat which hesuggestedcanhardlybedistingu 220 219 distinguishing between communities. and endingofacommunity,thatis, Routledge, 1995 [1985]). 1995 [1985]). Routledge, 'national body'" (p. 30). linguistic construction ofacommon politicalpresent the 4) culture; acommon of construction linguistic the 3) past; political acommon of confabulation ofthe construction linguistic the "1) aspects: thematic he and Wodak Ruth identity, national particular one SeeWodak,et al., See Anthony P.Cohen, The SymbolicConstruction Community of While theelements of thecurrent Serbia It is important tostress againthat The Discursive Construction of National Identity, Identity, National of Construction Discursive The neitherisolated,norself-s the1990s.Themyth ofcommonoriginswas onceagain ble tocriticize the hegemonic

ritage, ismuch largerthan thesetofelements that 219 Alloftheseelements ar 220

101 ed andchallenged in accordancewithpower by thesame pattern.Thesetofelements formed andaccepted, theidentity pattern, to drawtheboundari ished onefrom another.Furthermore, all hermore, thisbroadersetisneither some impact onthesecultures as well. act thatthehegemonic patternintends to all theseelements arearticulated and in theKosovooaththatestablished r associates have distinguished the following following the haver associates distinguished and future;5)the linguistic constructionofa room foranalysisofthediscursive n ethnic identityhave beenarticulated homo Austriacus; 2) the narration and ustaining. Itisexposedto pattern, buttochangeitas e used tomarke used beginning p. 30. In analyzing aspects of p. 30. Inanalyzingaspectsof (London and New York: and New York: (London es whichenable CEU eTD Collection equation between state and nation, that is, ethnic group. frameworknationalis the Serbian of within patriotism the saythat at end twen to of the it isimportant here However, whether wasright. he question open an still remarks, itis critical confirmed his history itseems that Although Yugoslavia. socialist of conditions national and political into insights Connor's distinguishing between "nationalism" and"patriotism."There is no need here to discuss validity of 30). Connor obviously chose anexample ofthe state where complex ethnic/national relations allowed Nation? The Serbian Kosovo Myth Revisited." Revisited." Myth Kosovo Serbian The Nation? (ethno)nation-state. nation. A historicperiod thatpreceded th 223 222 221 expressed inacknowledgingsufferingofonl homogenizes anethno-nationalgroup.Eventu in thename ofrightsand collective identity. establish continuity appear tobepredominantly particular.It identity, toalargeextentinclusive–asp Serbian ethno-nationalidentitypatternss this myth its common origins. Croats andSloveneslegitimized itsexistenceusing thesame myth, identifying within various collectiveidentitypa myth seems tohaveuniversalaspects;th Serbian collective. Assuch,i.e.ahistoric, we usethis wordtoday. Thischoice isth choice, nationbecame "Serbian," indeedretr armies representsamythical paradise lost the single most important challenge to the political survival of [...] Yugoslavia" [...] Yugoslavia" of survival tothe political challenge most single important the contemplate [...] only need "one explains: Connor 1972, in already essaypublished in an dissonance, emphasized that these loyalties "arenot naturally harmonious." In order to demonstrate apossible group, while u he ethnic the to asloyalty nationalism defining by from nationalism patriotism, Connor distinguished "patriotism." Walker and "nationalism" in Yugoslavia Inthe case of Serbian nationalismitis ofno use otherwise very useful distinction between this in work. culture" a in represive identities unauthorized "Ministry of pain: chapter Seethe SeeAndrew Baruch Wachtel, (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998); Dejan Dejan Press,1998); University Stanford (Stanford: 222 223 Thisidentitynegates rights and produce akindofrigidand By doingthis, suchan identitysocially andpolitically Making a Nation. Breaking a Nation. Literature and Cultural Politics Politics Cultural and Literature a Nation. Breaking Nation. a Making interests of

221 tterns. Itisnotsurprising However,whentheissueof ects oftheKosovomyth,andmake thismyth e battlebetween Ottoman andSerbian feudal 102 uppress universalist–whenitcomes tothe ofSerbiannation.Du the collective,which erefore, itmight serveasafoundationfor tieth century, it was possible to formulate Serbian toformulateSerbian it was tieth century, possible it gained theright toeternity. The Kosovo may besaidthatexactlythepatterns that e mostimportant dist y one's ownethnicgroupandprivileging m exclusively. This was the ofacomplete wasthe result This m exclusively. ospectively, that is,inasense inwhich nderstood patriotism as loyalty to the state. the He to patriotism asloyalty nderstood ally, thiskindof neglects interest ggressive coreoftheSerbian thattheKingdom ofSerbs, Đ oki continuity is ć , "Whose Myth? Which Myth? , "Whose e totheKingLazar's is embodiedinthe self-conceptionis inct featureofthe p. (Ethnonationalism, s ofindividuals in question, CEU eTD Collection category, asclassificatorysc institutionalized withinandamong states?Howdoesnationworkaspractical 'what isanation' butrather:how isnationhoodasapoliticalandculturalform by "Nationalism isnotengenderedbynations.It one thinksaboutanddealswithSerbia that Brubakersuggestsforan and guarantee theexact same rightsto them. individual members ofitsowngroupand its rights,while refusingtoacknowledgetheinjusticethathasbeendoneboth 225 224 searching for"lost"traditions, itmay be reform nations,isinfactpartofnationalist Revealing hiddencontinuities,activityso taken fromtheheritageandthatguarant crucial toavoid legitimizing logicaccordi necessary formoral reform andchangeofdominant patterns.Atthesame time, itis important to identifywhatarethe resources representation ofSerbdom andwhatdidinfluencethisdeci decide whichelements wouldcompose th provided legitimacy for these crimes. Ononeside, wemay ask:Who andhowdid good reason forquestioningthehegemonic collectiveidentity pattern, whichhas political fields,notbythepropertiesofcollectives." (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 17. Ibid., p. 16. 16. p. Ibid., the New Europe in question national the and Rogers Brubeker,reframed. Nationhood Nationalism political fields Due tothesesame factors,itturnsou Crimes committed bytheSerbianside inthepost-Yugoslav conflictsgive a ofparticularkinds.Itsdynamic heme, ascognitiveframe?"

alysis ofnationalis 103 to members ofothernations/ethnicgroups ng to whichonly thoseelementsthat are much normative moreusefultolookfor ee continuitymaybelegitimately used. n ethno-nationalidentitypattern.First: dear tothosewhost symbolic tool kit.Therefore, insteadof t thatapplyingmethodological principles ofSerbianculturalheritage,whichare is produced–orbetter,itinduced e thematic aspects ofthecultural m isinfactrathercomfortingwhen s aregovernedbythepropertiesof 224 225 Second:"We shouldnotask

sion? Ontheother,itis sion? rive torenovateor

CEU eTD Collection valid moral positions isatwofoldprocess. for thatmatter,a reasonforrejectionofthisstandpoint. thisfactmustnotbe articulated withinSerbianculturalspace, other words, ifitturnsoutthatanaccep standpoints from whichthesetraditionsmight activities appear tobeasafeintellectual explaining how literaryproduction in turnsh expectations, describing socialconditions devices, forms andgenres,askingquest explicating changesofvaluesandhier interpreting worksof literature, establishing connections,tracing influences, 4.2.1. Conceptualizingacontext policy 4.2. Literarycriticismandhi work represents sucharesearchin limited, butatthesame time crucialforthesu is asequence ofdisciplinary researches, whose individual impacts arenecessarily simultaneously within all social, culturaland changes. Anoverallculturalwork,whichisassumed here,cannotbedone committed crimes, andpartlydefined byprojection of neededresults of societal interpretations of dominant To putitdifferently,thenormativestan traditions weareat the same time seeking "Inventorying" theheritageinasearch Doing literaryhistorycouldbeconsidered aprivilegedwork. Reading and cultural patternsand theirro storiography aselements thefieldofSerbianliterature. enterprise,undertaken outofapure academic 104 archies, identifying By andthroughreevaluationof theexisting does nothaverespectab table moralstandpoint, onewhichcanbe andtheirimpact onliterary production, and establishing thenormative standpoint. ions aboutrecepti political arenas. Infact,what isneeded ccessful transition.What followsinthis apes itssocialenvironment –allthese beevaluatedandnewonesformed. In dpoint ispartly articulated through for normative standpoints,thatis,for for normative of transitionalcultural le injustifyingordenying on andhorizonsof poetic and narrative poetic andnarrative le or any tradition CEU eTD Collection 24–45; FeliksVodi historians, asideofwriters, curiosity, without seriousconsequencesonanyofthefollowingsides:aside 227 226 criticism from thesame period,which "system ofsystems" and lite tried toestablish a theoretical model of literary history by introducing conceptsof Russian formalists andPragueSchool from thefirsthalf of thetwentieth century,who "development," asmirroring socialand German literary historiographers tounder closely relatedtothespiritoftime andnation,whichenabledbothFrench surroundings andGermanromanticists from thesame periodwhosawliterature as nineteenth century French positivists whodir new theoreticaltrendhavetried tofi hierarchies: Whatdidcausethem, a ought toenableoneexplainandunderstand, amongotherissues,changesinliterary present acoherentsequenceof around thequestionofhowtodefineasta sequence, classifyingliteraryworks,and,eventually,evaluatingthem. Itrevolves literary history,almost predetermining them pain andrisk,althoughtheissueisclosel "evolution," itisstillaneffo Checkinto Serbian by Aleksandar Ili Jefferson and David Robey (eds.), izdanje Posebno (Beograd: history] 1981). 1981). Vladislava Ribnikar Periši Rene Wellek, It ispossibletoclaim thateverynewge Even ifoneengagesinanattemptof A History of modern Criticism modern of A History č ka, Problemi književne istorije istorije književne Problemi ć , Ruski formalizam i književna istorija iknjiževna formalizam Ruski a sideofreaders,orsocietyingeneral. rary "centerandperiphery"; rt thatdoesnothavetocause toomuch ofintellectual

ModernTheory Literary č ć asopisa (Novi Sad: Književna zajednica Novog Sada, 1987). interrelatedworks ofli nd whatdidtheycauseinreturn? Ideje , Volume 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge: , Volume 3 nd itsownultimate standpoint. From the 105 "spiritual" changesanddevelopments; , 1976); Ann Jefferson, "Russian Formalism," in Ann ndpoint from whichitw dealt withliteraryhistorythroughthe y relatedtootherimportant aspectsof : establishingliterary [Problems of literary history], translated from translatedfrom [Problems literaryhistory], of stand literary changes, i.e. literary ectly associated literature toitssocial neration ofliterarytheorists and every resolvingthequestionofliterary (London: B. T. Batsford Ltd., 1991), pp. 1991), Ltd., B. T. Batsford (London: 227 terature. Suchastandpoint [Russian formalism and literary [Russian and formalism toAnglo-Americannew ould bepossibleto periodsandtheir 226 to CEU eTD Collection Johnson (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1993), pp. 29–30. pp. (Cambridge:29–30. Press,1993), Polity Johnson inadequate," for"theessentialexplanati history ofagivenperiodandsociety. history ofliteraturehasbeenfortoolongaauthorsandworksinstead together withPierreBourdieu,who,some task ofestablishing history sought toprovide anappropriatemethodology that wouldenableittofulfillits time. Takingas itsobject of research literature of agivenperiod andsociety, literary outside literature andto preservearelative autonomy of the literary field atthesame have beenattempting toelucidatechanges out oftheroutine completely performs, becauseitfails totake seemingly ahistoricalconceptof"tradition"; 232 231 230 229 228 appendix of thelatest edition of th reviews oftheworkspublishedinfirs twentieth century. The onlyexisting overall hi framework forapossible history oftheSerb literary periodsthrough response theoriesfrom themid-twentieth cen York and London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1991), pp. 113–134. &Company, pp. 113–134. Norton 1991), W.W. London: and York Drinka Germanby Gojkovi Serbian into (eds.), Robey "Anglo-Ameri Robey, David World, Inc., 1956); Literature,"in "Historyof Austin Warren, and recepcije M. H. Abrams, "Rationality and Imagination in Cultural History," in in History," Cultural in Imagination M.H. and Abrams, "Rationality alsProvok "Literaturgeschichte Jauss, HansRobert the in and Talent," Individual "Tradition T.S.Eliot, Pierre Bourdieu, Jauss,"Predgovor zajugoslovensko izdanje" ["Introduction to the Yugoslav edition"], However, inspiteofthelongand fru The aim ofthissection istooutline , p.29. Modern LiteraryTheory, The Field of Cultural Production. Essays onArt and Literature continuity-in-change. of monographswhich,howeverin theconceptof"horizon ofexpectation"

pp. 73–91. 73–91. pp. ć (Beograd: Nolit, 1978). (Beograd:Nolit, , in1978). recepcije Estetika is history, its authorJovan Dereti 231 on ofeachworkliesoutsidethem." Theory ofLiterature 106 230 That is,itsetsitself ataskthat"itnever can New Criticism," in Ann Jefferson and David David and Jefferson Ann NewCriticism,"in can

in literaturebyreferringtodevelopments itonexplicitly,evenwhendoesbreak 228 t half of thetwentieth century. Inthe ation der Literaturwissenschaft," translated translated from derLiteraturwissenschaft," ation fifteen years afterJauss,fifteen repeatedthat ian literatureinthelastdecades ofthe tury whotriedtoexplainthechainof (London: 1972); Rene Wellek Wellek Rene 1972); Selected Essays (London: important aspectsofanappropriate itful tradition,itis possibleto argue toproponentsofreception orreader- story ofSerbianlite terminable, arenecessarily (New York: Harcourt,Brace & Doing Things with with Texts Things Doing 229 –literaryhistorians rature ends with ć , edited by Randal dedicatedfew Estetika Estetika (New 232

CEU eTD Collection Toscana," in this work. in thiswork. Toscana," About the"overall"character optimism. literary historiesiscloselytiedtoparticular political inte without anyseriouspracticalrisks.Inte optimistically assumed thatwriting ofali historiography attheendof methodological paradigms whichcouldbe 4.2.2. Trauma:anoriginofanation of literary life inthelatetwentieth-century Serbia. interpretating andevaluating worksof literature, anddelineating main characteristics historiography. Suchahistory,eventually,may providemore appropriategroundfor are more relevant forestablishing ahistory of domestic literary criticism and the literaryworksonceandagain.Therefore, criticism andSerbianliteraryhistoriography approached seriously,it this enormous andserious work.Iam inclined tobelieve thatoncethisworkis of the1990s:collapsefederalst from twentiethcentury thesecond halfofthe century. pages toadraftofSerbian 234 233 of theSerbiannation-state.But,Dereti (New York: Oxford Univ Oxford York: (New Jovan Dereti Linda Hutcheon and Mario J. Valdés (eds.), During alongand widespreadacademic debate thatfocusedon 233 234 From everything thathasbeensaidsofar, itfollows thatSerbianliterature

ć , Istorija srpske književnosti srpske Istorija ersity Press, 2002). 2002). Press, ersity willturn out that todeal ca of this history, andabout its other aspects, seethe chapter "Turkey and literary productioninthes

twentieth century, some of itsparticipants have [History of Serbian literature] (Beograd: Prosveta, 2003). Prosveta, 2003). literature](Beograd: Serbian [History of ć 's history,withitsappendix,didnotevenstart 107 Rethinking Literary History. A Dialogue on Theory on A Dialogue History. Literary Rethinking terary history isaprivileged academic job, restingly enough,thefactthatdesigning ate, armed conflicts, mass crimes,building oughttobeviewedfromtheperspective is evenmore importantthanto(re)read contours ofaworkth employed forrethinkingliterary refully with the Serbian literary rests hasnotinfluencedtheir econd halfofthetwentieth at Isuggesthere

CEU eTD Collection adds that these interests are us Hutcheon is positivethat "literary historyin political interests thatare legitimized bysome kindof"identitypolitics."Accordingly, the present perspective. Itisalsoalways directly relates literature to"specific 'end' or model ofliteraryhistoryreli ends." signifier of national identity," explains Hutcheon, itcaneasily "be used tonationalist had agoodreason–thatanyversionofstor 239 238 237 236 235 human history. and realizing goalsthatinterventionist po history providesanimagery ofprogress. purposes. Namely, thedevelopmental narrative structure of national model of literary importance. Therefore,themodel itselfcan nation itself isrepresentedasnaturaland groups islessimportant; the literary historyrelieson ethnic andlinguisticpurity of anationalmodel history.Fo ofliterary considering literaryhistorycomes from the nationalist –thoughtheycannot Literary History, Linda Hutcheon, "Rethinking the National Model," in Hutcheon and Valdés (eds.), Ibid., p. 5. 5. p. Ibid., 7. p. Ibid., 3. p. Ibid., 14. p. Ibid., 236 This logical twist made byHutcheon is rather interesting. Since the national Linda Hutcheon,oneofthedebaters,didnot However,Hutcheonthinksthatsome aspectsofliteraryhistorymay avoid p. 6. p. 6. 238

fact thatanarrativeframew

es on thedevelopmental –teleological – narrative, it ually thoseofthenation-state. avoididentity 108 Such imagery isnecessaryforunderpinning related tocultural establishment andthusto r Hutcheon,thefactthatnationalmodel of litics advocateand wishtodeliver into a uninterrupted development isofagreater knowledge shehasofadeeperstructure evitably serves politicalinterests," and y aboutthepastisin telos ofculturallegitimation." be usedinutopianorinterventionist building–purposes.Her optimism 237 hesitatetoclaim –andsheindeed andthusexcludesmarginalized ork ofanationalhistoryand 235 Since"literature is evitably toldfrom Rethinking 239 This CEU eTD Collection groups andseek identity analogyitimplies, meet needsof Hutcheon tomake alogicall the complex andgainingauthority,anationitse literature thatdevelopsover development of nationalliteraryhistor legitimation is atwofold process. First: it 243 241 240 and thenarrative,teleologicalconstructionof through analogywithitsliterature, nation-state, arelegitimized byreferringto testifies to thecontinuity of anation. Speci constructing continuity: if anation is the same its legitimacy. important tostressthat achieved ontheexpenseof Second: althoughsheisfullyawarethat"the "Turkey and Toscana." produced patterns legitimizing on culture"; represive a in identities unauthorized "Ministrypain: of seethe medieval chapter literature Serbian on studies Ibid., p. 7. How this logic of confering legitimacy operates in Dimitrija Bogdanovi Dimitrija in legitimacy operates confering Ibid., this logic 7.How p. of 7. p. Ibid., L. Hutcheon, "Rethinking the National Model," p. 11. telos and itsfuture:throughtheverystructure ... torecoveranddocument aculturalheritage,aswelltocontributeit Here, itispossibletoinferthatlegiti purely conservationist(or,forthat matter, conservative)purposes. usable past –usable,that is,for the future, for interventionist rather than scholarly work is designed to identify, reevaluate andthen institutionalize a can embody theprogressivistintentions of itspolitical apotheosis," 241 Thus,the legitimation literaryhistoriesth atime and increasesinquality,becoming moreand eap: the developmental narrative model, together with an

marginalized groups, Hutcheon believes that itismore that is,itsliteraryhistory. 240 thatis,rather often, creation of anation-state. pattern consistsofestablishinganalogiesand 109 y andnationitself–likesome national rough creatingimagery of consists of established analogies between continuity ofanation,whichisestablished lf matures"fromitsfoundingmoments to historianswhobel fic nationalends,suchasformation ofa macy, derivedfrom theidentityanalogy by histories of Serbian literature see the chapter literatureseethe ofSerbian histories by continuitywithsome hiddenandthen as its literature, then literary continuity telos of this kindofliteraryhistory, they oftheirpoliticalagenda.Their of politicalapotheosis" istobe 242 ong tomarginalized Bothaspects enable continuityconfer 243 ć

's historical CEU eTD Collection was able–orwhetheritisatallpossible problemestablishing boundaries.Infact, of narrative of anationalmodel ofliterary history arenotendangeredonlybythe about utopianprojectionintothefutureand revealed heritage,isnecessaryforcreati 244 especially inthose societies in whichthes whether literary historians are allowed to we staywithintheframework of(Serbi history. appropriated suchanarrative, initially provided bythe national model of literary ethnic, African-American, andgay,lesbian, before to justify creating of anation-state. explain methodological choice her analysis: Hutcheon istoogoodliterarycritictobe interventionists purposes–remains, however, hoping thatitwouldbepossibletoadju made –they havepurloinedthemodelre Ibid., p. 10. 10. p. Ibid., Furthermore, thelegitimizing aspects The wholetheoreticaloperation underta (to assertitsdifferencefrom othe its identity, agroup must be inclusive (to assert community) butalso exclusive determine Fordetermine appears,itmust.Toestablish itsboundaries? them, it involves thebasicdecisionofhowagroupdefinesitself.Howdoesit ends ofidentity politicsisnotwit Adapting suchalegitimatingnational(ist

which literaryhistorians rs), andthereinliestheproblem. 110 neglect requests posed byidentity politics, an) literaryhistoriogr ng adispositionforid – tosuggestanotherle unconscious ofproblems thatemerge from hout serious dangers. The most obvious e politics are expressed ina particularly sponsible for theirownmarginalization, Therefore, literary hi the centralquestioniswhetherHutcheon st itandusefortheirutopian interventionist goals,asitwasnecessary ken byHutcheonwith fragile andopen tocriticism. Indeed, or queerproveniencehaverecently of thedevelopmental, teleological ) model tothedifferent, if related, from marginalized groups aphy, thequestionis gitimizing pattern.If storians of feminist, storians offeminist, eological consensus the cleargoalto 244

CEU eTD Collection trauma orevenascollective,enabling recoverynarratives." capacity tobe"re-readasa of literary history," explaining that strength of thosenarratives may beintheir She istherefore abletospeakabout"contin aggressive manner. Isitpossibletocreate 246 245 resisters," Hutcheonismainly interested ineffects whichtrauma hasonvictims. that trauma "hasanimpact of imperial ruleandtheirownreactionto beginnings; onthecontrary,theyaremarked byexperienced andremembered trauma historiography –donotgroundthemselves in nations. Unlikeothernations,postcolonialna historiography whenshespeak traumatic. 'origins'? These questionsbecome particul from thosethat tendtoestablish'pure' –li Is existing nationalidentity? establishment ofideological consensus and ch enterprises whichareaimed atjustifying utop nations Hutcheonconceptualizes literary harmed marginalized and co were usedtolegitimize nationformation being oneoftheseintentions.Thesehistor continuity with revealed/chosen/imagined/impos Ibid., p. 23. 23. p. Ibid., 20. p. Ibid., Hutcheon demonstrates herfirm optimis It isratherclearbynowthatinthecas uponitsperpetratorsandcoll necessary form of'testimonial resolution' of witnessing lonized groups).Legitimacy

it possible toconceive ahist s precisely about traumatic originsof postcolonial 111 this experience.Alt nguistic, ethnic,whatever–continuitywith ies aremodeled uponnationalhistoriesthat uing powerofthoseteleologicalnarratives a validliteraryhistor arly important when (i.e. theveryprocessthatproducedand histories as mainly future-oriented tions –atleastwhenitcomestoliterary e ofmarginalized groupsorpostcolonial ian orprogressivist allenges legitimacy ofprojectionsan memories ofheroicdeedsandglorious ed origins.Evened incases ofapparent m regardingpossibilities of literary aborators, onbystandersand 246 supposes establishment of orical narrativedifferent hough sheisfullyaware

y thatworksagainst origins orendsare intentions, recovery 245

CEU eTD Collection histories infactserveas arsenalsofimages, symbols,a provide "ample evidence thatidentitypolitics 4.2.3. Whatisonthehorizon? establishing newones. must questionandreevaluatethesepatt interruptions ofcontinuity– were usedtolegitimize proce legitimizing instruments for achievinganideological consensus inrealization of argued thatexistingworks ofSerbianlite light ofthemethodological paradigm ofnationalmodel ofliteraryhistory,itmay be conceptualize history of literature thatprecedes trauma, thatis,mass crime? Inthe legitimazing significanceofcontinuitywithin for literaryhistoriography w perpetrators? In other words,what isan option. such onlyfrom thestandpointofvictims w remembering. Yet,toviewtrauma asane im talk aboutcreationofnewcommunities, is suchacase–insteadof two demands: suchahistorymust putforw the methodological paradigm ofnationalmode its protagonists/perpetratorsandvictims. If of Serbian"political apotheosis," whichattheend turnedouttobetraumatic for both Unlike benevolentHutcheon,MarioJ.Vald The questionatstakeis:What doestrau talkingaboutdamaged Hutcheonchoosesto communities, ithin the cultureofaccomplices? Furthermore, whatis a clearly, socialtrauma ofcol sses whoseresultstu 112 appropriate trauma-related narrative model wearedrawinguponpremises intrinsicto w beginningand,moreover,toviewitas plying continuitythroughresponsibilityof ard patternsofliterar erns andconsequentlymake room for ho workontheirrecove rary historiographyoughttobereadas suchaculture?And,eventually,howto is awarof words";inthis war,literary l ofliteraryhistor ma looklike from the perspective of rned tobe traumatic; such ahistory és warnsthatliteraryhistories nd conceptsofbelonging, that onization orethniccleansing y historiographythat y, weshouldmeet ry isnottheonly telos

CEU eTD Collection produce and legitimize suchaheritageas subject ofattachment andidentification. and whatthisheritageconsistsof. differently, transactionsofsymbolic goods processes thatculturalidentitiesarebe creation, movement, andreception ofsymb Therefore, asoundliteraryhistoryought to for historians of literature to keep in mind that theyactively participate init. Valdés claims thatthiswarofwordscannot legitimacy ofatraditiontowhichusers In other words,interms ofth and putsthemwithinacontext an effectiveliteraryhistory informs usabout models ofliteraryhistory methodological paradigm ofnationalmodel such anapproach iscoherently applied,aresultinghistorymay transgresslimits ofa is, symbolic tools thatareusedinarivalryforpoliticalandeconomic domination. 251 250 249 248 247 field of literature. national paradigm followinganideaverysim not refertoBourdieuatall,hefindsa 29–30). 29–30). essential explanation of each workliesoutside eachofthem" of the routine ofmonographs which, however inte out itdoes break when even explicitly, take it failsto it on because completelyperforms, "itnever that of authors and works instead ofahistory of agiven period and society. That is, itset itself has atask History, Literary Rethinking Let me repeat it once again, Bourdieu argues that history of literature has been for too long a history a long history fortoo literature has been history of argues that again, Bourdieu Letme itonce repeat 68. p. Ibid., 73. p. Ibid., 65. p. Ibid., Mario J. Valdés, "Rethinking the History of Literary History," in Hutcheon and Valdés (eds.), Valdés advocates forakindofhermeneu 251 Ahistorianofliterature,Valdésexplains,hastoexplicate p. 66. 66. p. constrain, repeatandinstitutio e functionfortheirusers,lite

of agivenliteraryculture. 249

113 hermeneutic wayoutfromconstraintsofa ing establishedandmaintained. Toputit belong: thesehistorie determine whobelongstowhichheritage, be avoided,andthisiswhyitimportant offer aneffectiveaccountofprocesses worksofliterature frompreviousperiods rminable, are necessarily inadequate," for "the inadequate," arenecessarily rminable, olic goods, sinceitisthroughthese ilar toBourdieu's conceptualization of of literaryhistory.While traditional tic approachtoliteraryhistory.If (The Field of Cultural Production, nalize writingaboutthepast, rary histories aresources of 250 AlthoughValdésdoes s atthesame time pp. 248 247

CEU eTD Collection constructive material, whatwasruined a explicate what wasrejectedthrough the in thename ofwhatvaluesandnorms, and legitimizing pattern.Itshouldratherdemonstr purpose ofsuchastorymust notbeto Serbian literature totellastoryabout thecontinuityof acollective. However,the accounted forinthecontext of theauthor's work,but rather in the m accurate representation oftheauthorandauthor's intentions, norinadetailedanalysis literary culture. Therefore, consists of material and institutional conditio works withanotionthat literaryhistorie sequence ofgreatmen andtheirdeadbodies that goesback tothecommonoriginsfromancient pastthrough an incessant ethnic solidarity.Inchapter5,anunderstand origins, sharedhistorical memories, elem These patternsservedas abasisforformation ofanethnicset patterns produced,reproduced,andsustained inevitably becomes ahistoryofliterary intentions are alsorealized withinacont a workof literature, initsintentionality relations betweenanauthor's e 252 Valdés, "Rethinking the History of Literary History," p. 64. In chapters5,6,and7,Iam describinga Based onwhatwaspreviouslydiscusse for Valdés, "literary historical truth lies neither inan

xplicit intentionsandrealiza of theauthor's community." historiographyandcriticism aswell. nd whowasdamaged bychosenmaterials. ovement betweentheone ovement 114 ext ofanauthor's community. Thiscontext s conferlegitimacy bycreatingimagery of confirm onceagainan ents ofcommon culture,and ameasure of process ofidentityformation asunworthy asaculturalartifact.However, these for whatpurposes.Itisalsoimportant to , isputforthbytheanalysis.Chapter6 ing ofcommunal continuity,continuity ate howthiscontinuity wasconstructed, ns of literary life, which Valdésterms within thefield of Serbianliterature. d, oneshouldexpectnewhistoriesof nd discussinganinve tions oftheseintentionsin 252 Thusliteraryhistory and the other fully

already established myths of common myths ofcommon ntory ofidentity CEU eTD Collection created throughimages of continuity. Chapter7looksatpatterns

collectivesufferings. 115 of ethnicunityandsolidarity,whichare CEU eTD Collection women isusedto treat them as state. what happenedwithindetentioncampsaf women ofoneethnicbelongingdonebymemb women inarmed conflicts.Iam referringin studies that exploreand analyzetosome extentsimilar crimes, thatis, theabuseof framework withinwhichwoman isviewed Ugreši Thisquestioncame acro relationship about? in detentioncamps inCroatiaandBosnia an Serbia inthelastdecades ofthetwentieth CULTURE MINISTRY OFPAIN:UNAUTHORIZED Chapter 5 253 women's bodies,especiallyintermsof what makes possibletotreatwoman's group definedinpatrilinealterms, thatis and thus defining the femalebody as the power to define the boundaries of its own 'ethnic group' by defining women of the 'Other' through rape, if not mortal, terms. Thus,rape is practice of the 'ethnic war', the female body physically present and, consequently, dealt with in bodily, Europe in Gender and Racism Nationalism, (eds.), Yuval-Davis Nira and Phoenix Helma Ann in Lutz, Former Yugoslavia," See, for example, DubravkaSee, for "Gender, Žarkov, Orie ć Central tothesestudies istheargument Is there a relationship between prevailing culturalpatternsinYugoslaviaand Is therearelationshipbetweenprevailing 's novel Ministry ofPain a 'natural'a element ofan'ethnic war'

. Myquestionisformulated intherhetoricspecificto ethnic female body" ethnic female ethnic female bodies. (London: Pluto Press, 1995, pp. 105–141): "In the political the political "In pp. 105–141): Pluto Press, 1995, (London: 116 body asethnicfemale body.Accordingly, century andsexualtortur their sexuality,procreation,andmarriage, , apointofentrance ter thecollapse of theYugoslavfederal ss mymind whileIwasreadingDubravka d Herzegovinainthe as apossiblesite of ntalism and the History of Ethnic Hatred in the inthe Ethnic Hatred the History of and ntalism IDENTITIES INAREPRESSIVE IDENTITIES particulartoplanned,mass rapesof thatsystematic sexualabuseagainst ers ofanotherethnicgroup,whichis ers (p. 113). 113). (p. . It is a 'natural'is a . Itelementmale of 253 Aspecificconceptual of 'foreign' blood,is pollution of ethnic pollutionofethnic 1990s? What isthis e ofmaleprisoners Crossfires. CEU eTD Collection between members of different collectivities" (pp. 26–27). members 26–27). (pp. between differentcollectivities" of preoccupied withthe'purity' oftherace would al joins thecollectivity bybeing born into it.[...] Itis not incident one usually collectivities, and national ofmost ethnic construction inthe plays origins' 'common of (or the myth that central reality) that,role the considers given when one becomes apparent discourses to generation. [...] The centralimportance ofwo these boundaries areconstructed in order to sort people into 'us' and'them' andstretch from generation [...] nations of boundaries constructing in areused discourses andpolitical legal cultural, of variety framework for the analysis of sexual abuse of men in nation. and exploresrelationsbetweenmale body,sexuality,andself-understandingofa issue either.Yet,thereisasignificant am "other" group.Massrapesare the "other"group.Moreover,communityofperpetrators triestoendangerprogenyof "other" community, perpetrators symbolically rapes ofwomen inpost-Yugoslavwars.Schol Croatia andBosniaHerzegovinawassignificantlylesspresentinmedia thanmass boundaries ofpatrilinea targets inarmed conflicts. Allthese things must bestrictlycontrolled.Bythesame 256 255 254 of thesexualabusemale warpris

Bosni," Bosni," of gender roles,man cannot beVictim ofRape." SeeDubravka Žarkov, "Silovanje tokom ratau cast "in differently, men. Put of withhumiliation than women of humiliation with easierto cope been that sexualtorture of male prisoners wasnotinth would say that some ofher theses and conclusions have limited validity, especially those which assume for frameworkher chose research. I analytical she an aresultof ispartly neglect Žarkov's committed. at context socio-cultural of elements constitutive Žarkov's neglect of specific cultural patterns of ethnic self-understanding. These patterns were prisoners in Croatia andBosnia andHerzegovina. It im some explain fails to sometimes often),she quite ces sour reliable (which articlespresent isthereason Žarkov's why Ireferarticles. Although toher work the in 1990 region the Yugoslav in she has been trying to draw scholars' attention to cases of sexual abuse of men during armed conflicts 1987). Press, translated by Stephen Conway, EricaCarterandCh Europe Modern in Sexuality However, this doesnot apply to researches andstudies done by Dubravka Žarkov. For years now, See,forexample, George L.Mosse, See,forexample, NiraYuval-Davis, 255 Temida, Systematic sexual tortureofmen im However,thisknowledgehasnotbeenus May 1998; also see an English version of the same text, in which the theoretical theoretical the which samein text, ofthe version English seean also May1998; l ethniccommunity. (New York: Howard Fertig, 1985); Klaus Theweleit, s. She herself dealtseriously with

used toovertakeanother NationalismandSexuality. Respectability andAbnormal oners inthepost-Yugoslavconflicts. Gender & nation token,women from"other"groupsbecome ount ofacademic literat 117 e focus of general discussion because ithasalways givereasontoargue men's reproductiverolesinethnic and national ris Turner (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Minnesota of University ris Turner (Minneapolis: so be preoccupied with thesexualrelationships the time, a context within crimes time,which within the acontext were portant aspects of planned sexual torture of male 254 seems to me that this failure might be caused by caused mightme failure be this that seems to prisoned indetentioncamps throughout the former Yugoslavia denyrights overacertain territory to Bydoingmass rapesofwomen from ars didnotpaymuch (London: Sage Publications, 1997): "A "A 1997): Publications, Sage (London: ed toitsfullpotentialin analysis group's territory andprogeny. this issue in a number ofacademic al, therefore, that those who are thatwomen embody ure whichestablishes is more elaborated, but attention tothis Male Fantasies, 256

CEU eTD Collection war." Duringseven yearsofresearch,Lon abuse of malewar prisoners in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina – "the biggest secret ofthe past mass the was about interview The sexual Tribunal. ofthe expert Hague an rights, forpeople center differential patterns andscal number ofmale sexualviolence prosecu incomparable with thewidespread and systematic rape ofwomen. However,"thehigh violence, suggestingatthesame time thatinterms ofnumbers,thesecasesare 260 259 258 257 pp. 155–169. 2007), Press, University Duke the Other Man," of Body inadequate: "The my still, in opinion, in Croatiandetentioncamps. men inSerbiandetention camps. Some researchersoperatewiththenumber differential scaleofgenderedassaultsprov upon sexualviolenceagainstwomen." both interms of mediacoverageand incomparison totheinstitutional and legalfocus as in"thegenerallackof agreed predominance ofsexualviolence against female victims intheconflict"aswell Criminal Tribunalforthe Fo Ibid., p. 423. 423. p. Ibid., 422. p. Ibid., Campbell, "TheGender of Transitional Justice: Law,Sexual Violence and the International OnDecember 9, 2004, women; with8unspecified. involve offencesagainstwomen; 31againstmen; 5againstbothmen and is, approximately 20percentofallcount sexual violence. total number of thesecasesincludechar These datagoagainst common expectati victims. secondnotableaspectisthat The victims, three against malevictims andfour involving both male andfemale cases heardbytheICTY.[...] There havebeen17casesofsexualviolence out of atotal of 35completed It hasbeenalreadynoticedthatvari [...] Ofatotalof476 Seven casesincludecountsofsexual Feral Tribune rmer Yugoslavia," p. 423. visibility of male sexualassau es ofsexualassault": 261

260 258 published an interview with Mladen Lon Mladen interview with an published Therearealsoevidencesforsexualtortureofmen č ar foundevidence for4,000casesofsexualtorture ofmen, counts, 108involvesexua

259 118 tions bytheICTY doesnotreflectthese Yet,accordingto otherresources, this ous reportsofferaccountsofmale sexual of 4,000 cases of sexual violence against of 4,000casessexualviolenceagainst ided bytheICTYdataisnot surprising. s. Ofthesesexualviolencecounts,64 ges inwhichmen arethevictims of 257 over40percent(7outof17)the ons thataregrounde

The Body of War violence solelyagainstfemale lt intheYugoslavianconflict; l violencecounts,that (Durham andLondon: d in"generally č ar from Medical from Medical ar

CEU eTD Collection for mistreatment ofprisoners students, astudent whorecently committed suicide.The student's fatherwasaccused character inthenovelan Slavic languages at the Universityof Amst the HagueTribunal.A professorof"Serbo-Cr narrative artthatdealswith attempts toformulate andanswerthisquestionineither academic literature or us aboutthecultureofcommunityperpetrators? an analogywithmass rapesofwomen, what 263 262 261 reasons to believe that sexual abuse was an inseparable part of the torturing plan. that is, Croats prisoners in Serbian detention camps. The analysis of these crimes gave him good 5.1. Fatherandson In thisrespect, Dubravka Ugreši translation]. translation]. imprisoned Serbs. abused forces sexually military context" (p. 429). 429). (p. context" of notions how identify necessary to is therefore "it continues, she conflicts", in particular sexual violence harmsof specific the identify "To conflict." in contestation to isitselfsubject ofthese content the and awoman – be to itis iswhat this aman, and be social specific to relation in content imaginary "with tied the Former Yugoslavia." The actsofsystematicma Justi Gender of Transitional "The Here it is useful to bear in mind suggestions th former ofthe Yugosla militarybarracks the In Dubravka Ugreši Dubravka them todeath. son" and"sontofather"intercourses. them tohavesexwitheachother. Heparticularlylikedtowatch"father to to nearbybarracks,wherehisneighbors, prove thatUroš's father,inhisspare A longandboringlistofdeta This chapter isanattempt toanswer thefollowing question: bearing inmind One oftheepisodes ć , Ministarstvo boli 263

d theI-narrator,wenttoHague ce: Law,Sexual Violence and the In the collapse ofYugoslaviaand in aBosnian detentioncamp: Ministry ofPain ć [Ministry of pain] (Beograd: Fabrika knjiga, 2004), p. 151 [my p.[my 2004), 151 knjiga, Fabrika (Beograd: of pain] [Ministry 's novelmight beconsideredanexception. ils, whichdoesnotmake anysensetous,had 119 sexual difference aregiven meaning inthat social erdam, whois,at the same time, themain ss sexual violence, explains Campbell, areclosely oroughly elaboratedin v People's Army in Split, members of Croatian Croatian of members Army Split, in People's v time, togetherwithothertwomen, went can systematic sexualabuseofmen tell When haditenough,hewouldbeat he Muslims, wereimprisoned. Heforced hasbeenlocatedinthecourtroom of contexts – in this society, this is what it is to itisto iswhat this thissociety, in – contexts oat" literatureat 262 to seeafatherof oneofher ternational Criminal Tribunal for Tribunal Criminal ternational Ihaverarelyencountered conflicts thatproceeded it. Kirsten Campbell's article article Kirsten Campbell's the department of

CEU eTD Collection stand theembarrassment. girl todiesothattheycan about women onlyifthosewomen arealreadyde experience several daysbefore hecommitted suicide. introduces anotherpossiblemotive for story abouthisfather:Urošwastooashame 267 266 265 264 that viewpointsinhisessa novel. Lovepoetryisanobjectofridiculeintheschoolworkonestudent,whosays in domestic lovepoetryallbelongtodifferent homosexual experiencefollowedbythesuicid want tocomment onthis.It's clearwhatitmeans." very much todevotetheirpoems tooneanother. Theysing toeachother. Idon't even description ofSerbianandCroatianlovepoe half ofthestory.Thetheme ofhomosexual homosexuality are equally im areequally homosexuality beautiful male souls, which canbealso termedmasculine homosocial bonding, and sublimated hero" male asa national homoerotic treatthe to concentrated insteadupon George's poetry and his loveofGreece, itsel itsstark homoeroticism Stefan circle downplayed and George andhis about have written who have allofthose almost malehis married. "Curiouslyforgave enough, got concluded: followers who Mosse body and a beautiful male soul –the former ismirror a image of the latter. Furthermore, George never re However, therestillisacentral sexual of desire. Mosse, asthe sublimation to interpreted might be ecstasies,according poetic George's homosexuality. however, stressed that in this casehomoeroticism ought to be clearly distinguished from when hespoke about acircle ofmale followers formed by German poet Stefan George. Mosse, Ibid., p. 81. George Mosse considered homoeroticism to be "aprincipal agent of national renewal," 288. p. Ibid., Ibid., p.136 Ugreši Ugreši Sexual abuse ofprisoners forwhich Uroš's fatherwasaccused, Uroš's Homosexuality, that isalmostaleitmotif in thenovel, isintroduced inthe first ć , Ministry of Pain, ć 's narrator creates adire p. 83. portant portant for my analysis. 264 make someversesabouther." y come from oneofhisfri However,asthenovelapproach

ct causallinkbetween 120 lationship that George saw between a beautiful male a beautiful sawbetween George that lationship (Nationalism and sexuality, and (Nationalism ity iselaboratedthroughandbyanironic suicide: Urošhadahomosexual d ofhisfatherandhesimplycouldnot try: "Furthermore, they[our poets] like levelsofnarrationandmeaning inthe e, andhighlightedhomoerotic features ad. Itisasiftheyhardlywaitedfora 265 266

267 ends. Thisdoubledistancing Also:"Ourpoetscanwrite

f aninterestingexample ofhow es toitsend,thenarrator Uroš's suicide and the p.60).Tiesbetween CEU eTD Collection this context andthey arepartlyshaped byit.Furthermore, theshortessayondomestic narrative threadthatdelineatesabroader apart into unrelated pieces. Ibelieve that segments contributetotheoverallnarra of thenovel? poetry andtherepetitionofcomplex homose suicide? Putdifferently: What isthe function of theinserted essayabout domestic to thetortureofwarprisonersand,al What istheroleof homoeroticism inthenovel? Howdoesthishomoeroticism relate Why doesDubravkaUgrešić any influence onthestory. Thissaid, itisreasonable toraise thefollowing questions: and Croatianpoetrytoothereventsthenarra experience. Itisimpossible tolinkasc significance ofthisrelati Uroš's suicideisestablishedafterthebotheventshadalreadytakenplace.But, relations. Infact,thecausal terms of of mockery. from thenarrator may beinterpretedasthe 268 presented views. mayasa strate seen narrative distancing be double a formerof puzzle everydaylife,that together putting post-Yugoslav states havebeen trying to erase. Thus, Igor's essay functions asanimportant element in written asa part ofthe teacher'san is The schoolwork question. the isbeyond narrative structure within position aprivileged occupies teacher hasaloveaffair.Also, Ig On the other hand, this schoolwork was written by Igor, the brightest student, with whom the with whom student, the the thiswaswritten Igor, brightest by schoolwork the hand, other On Basically, therearetwopossibleinterpretations. Either thesenarrative Above mentioned fournarrativeelements do sujet (sequenceofeventsinthestory) 268

on isundermined bytheepisodeaboutUroš's homosexual need the ironic analysis of or andtheteacherwent together relationbetweentheprosecu

d students' joint attempttorevived students' joint tive meaning, orthefragmentary novelfalls hool essayonhomoerotic motifs inSerbian 121 so, toUroš's homosexualexperienceand mentioned narrativesegments constitutea context. Thenovel's charactersactwithin author's intentionto gy that suggests detachment, that is, neutrality of is, thatsuggests gy neutrality detachment, tor tellsabout –this xual images inestablishing themeaning is, its destroyed is, its effectof frame. this the In light, destroyed norinterms ofthecause-effect notsucceedeachother,neitherin SerbianandCroatianpoetry? to theHagueTribunal.ThatIgor the past that ideologist of new, tion of Uroš's fatherand tion ofUroš's lessen the significance essaydoesnothave CEU eTD Collection in contemporary Europeansocieties. Sedgwick claims thatthereis does not deny validity ofthese explanations in the case ofcontemporary European societies. Yet, marriage. she However, e.g. heterosexual institutions, patriarchal of result inevitable isan homophobia that idea the sameshe reason, rejects Forthe members. male by dominated kinships to intrinsic mainly bymen. Atthesame time, theformul nationalism. This form links reproduction to another guy' isaconcise, sharp and ironic formula thatimpliesa specific form of extreme way, among theseelements isalso encompasses allotherhomoerotic narrativ poetry may bereadasanarrativeindi 269 the other,arereasonsstrongenoughto caused byfather's abuseofprisoners,onth needs tobeprotected atany cost. homosexuality, noblemale soulsfrom beautif Nevertheless, amembrane whichdivide biological reproductionofacommunitywould notbenefitfrom ahomosexualact. culture; yet,heshouldnothaveaninte guy', becausethisisawaytosanctionandreinforcemale powerwithin therealm of male sexualityistheobject fulfill ademand forpurebiological repr reproduction ofacommunity.Heterosexualmale A compulsory requestforpurityisnormative production usuallyindicatesacommunityobsessedwith a culture. nature ofexplanations accordingto which "compulsory eighteenth and themid-nineteenth century. Therefor mid- the between period the in culture English in homosexuality and male homosociality forms of ColumbiaYork: Press,1985). University Sedgwick Between Men. English Literature and Male Homosocial MaleDesire Homosocial SeeEve and Kosofsky Sedgwick, Literature Men.English Between Privileging of masculinePrivileging ofhomosocial no clear disruption of acontinuum between homosocial and homosexual of strictcontrol.A'guy' can

269 make someonetocommit suicide. Within suchacultural configuration, shame 122 oduction ofagroup.Thus,bothfemale and e onehand,andhomosexual experience,on cation ofanoverarchingpattern,which a sexualabuseofprisoners.'A guysinging r guy, because pure rcourse withanotherguy,becausepure e elements. Althoughinapervertedand s masculine homosocialbondingfrom of national spirit toaculture produced detected aclearlydrawn line between various a representsironicdistancingfromsuch e, she rejects apparent universal andtimeless heterosexuality"within pa ul male bodies,isveryporousandit bonding withinthefieldofcultural in thecase of patrilineal biological isauthorized,butalsoforced,to andshould'sing toanother maintaining itsownpurity. triarchal structures is (New (New CEU eTD Collection systematically rapedby members of Serbia 5.2. Imagesfromhell 270 boundary tothetorture inflictedonthepr small townontheBosniansideofriverDrina: from theTribunal.Itreferstocrim narrative episodeinthenovel. What follows isthe excerpt from oneof thetestimonies used actualtestimonies giveninthecourtroom oftheHagueTribunaltocreate a convincingsuicidecasetothereader.Unfort events ofsexualabusemen inoneofth the reader may thinkthatUgreši aformerUroš's father, officerintheY Ministry of Pain was almost noattentionpaidtosuchcases Bosnia andHerzegovinaatthesame time, wa it aswell,systematic sexualabuseofmen, which occurred 1990s, havebeenthoroughlydocumentedand 2010) 2010) www.icty.org/x/cases/slobodan_milosevic/trans/en/030310ED.htm As itwasalreadystressed,storiesofBosnianMuslim women, whowere Unlike systematic mass rapesof women, th sentenced todeath. when theyfoundthatthree detaineesdid penises, andallthiswasunderthecontro of variouskinds. Afterwards,thedetainees to climb ontothestageandtostrip.Then witness wasnotwithhisfather,sotheytookuncle.Andforcedthem uniformed men outeightofthedetainees,fathersandsons.Our whocalled that itwashorrific.There wereabout170detaineesth witness whospeaksofaserialrape We havequiteanumber ofwitnesses, might thinkthatDubravkaUgreši 270

ć constructedthestoryby es committed intheCulturalcenter ugoslav People's Army(JNA).Inotherwords, 123 e Bosniandetentioncamps, inordertooffer n militaryandparamilitary forces in the isoners wasthelimit oftheircaptors' s notgivenequalattention.Infact,there but Iwouldmention theexample ofone men, sexualabuseofmen.Hedescribes . Evenawellinformed reader ofthe unately, itismorelikelythattheauthor discussed. Ontheotherhand,torepeat l ofmen inuniform not fulfilltheir assignment, theywere theyforced them todosexualabuse wereforcedtobite offeachother's ese "visionsofhell,wheretheonly ć simply made upthestoryabout (lastaccessedJanuary 26th usingimagined possible throughout Croatiaand onthestage.And ere. Therewere Č elopek, CEU eTD Collection occasion of hisdeath,newspapersin Belgra to theSerbian-Albanianquestion.Martinovi versions tobetrueandthey and oversexed Albanianbecame thecentralsymbol oftheKosovoquestion." suffering undertheTurks andofviolatedSe Serbs lived.Eventually,"Martinovi mutilation inordertohidefrom thepublicgrave circumstances inwhich Kosovo population wasconvincedthatKosovo's authorities inventedthestoryofself- Martinovi him. later,however, Aweek theprovincial that whilehewasworkinginthefield, tw caused bythebrutalinsertionofagla to thelocal hospital withsevereinternal inju People's Army,whoworkedintheArmy's answers tothepreviously posed consequences giveusenoughreasonstobeli this chapterthanse violent actslessaccessible from theoretical panic, make peopleupset,andeventuallymake them dosomething? Werethese possible thatsystematic sexua Martinovi imagination" 272 271 Dragovi www.un.org/icty/transe3940/021218IT.htm On theMay1,1985, It didnottakelongforpeopletost ć ć ć -Soso, ontheMay1,1985.People generally hadhurthimself inanactofmast 271 "Saviours of the Nation," Nation," the of "Saviours werenotinthefocusofmedia atte xual abuseofwomen? Oneincident usuallydidsoinaccordance

l abuseofmen couldnotal Đ questions needtobenegative. or ć đe Martinovi 's case,whichcombined p. 132–133. 132–133. p. ss bottleintohisrectum.Martinovi

124 o masked men, speakingAlbanian,attacked op thinkingwhatreallyhappenedto CulturalCenterinGnjilane,wasaccepted standpoints mentioned inthe beginningof rbian masculinity bytheprimitive, brutal eve differently.Inotherwords,possible res. Itturned outthatthese injures were authorities issued anofficialstatement: de recapitulated theentire case.Itwas ć diedinSeptember 2001.Onthe ć urbation. Yet,majority ofSerbian , alowerofficeroftheYugoslav ntion oranalytical considered oneoftwooffered thatoccurredin1985andits arm thepublic,triggermoral with theirpersonal attitude potent images of Serbian exploration.Isit ć explained 272

Đ or đe CEU eTD Collection poetry [A Redundant Poem] (Beograd: Srpska književna zadruga, 1991); and Milan Komneni collection the from (1988), Gate"] ["Šumadija's Šumadije" "Kapija and (1986) Furrow"] monumental paintingentitled"1May1985": Academy ofArtsandSciences[SANU],Popovi artist Mi torture ofmentocreateimages andopinions 1989, "themostcompelling image ofMartinovi metaphor of Serbiansufferingfrom theverybeginning. Martinovi provincial, military and federalauthorit repeated that Albanians attackedandhur Martinović [Partisan's Book],from Ljubljana,pr said thatMartinović 276 275 274 273 Martinovi Martinovi in aBelgrade's downtownshoppingstreet.Similar toPopovi Dragovi Both the publishing house and the printing house were owned by state and run by state officials. Ibid., p. 133. These are excerpts from Stevan Rai fromStevan excerpts are Ibid., 133.These p. http://www.glaskim.co.yu/glasnik/brojevi/broj23.htm Izgon largest ofYugoslavpost-warart. This paintingwasnotonlythelargesthehadeverpainted,butalsooneof The caseofMartinovi In 1986,aBelgradebranchofSlovenianpublishinghousePartizanskaknjiga For many monthsPopović the image ofapoliceman watchingthe crucifixion of theSerbianChrist. pointing towards him ominously.Thecollusionof theregime isrepresentedby raised onthecrossbyAl depiction of'The Martyrdom ofSt ć ć ć ć ć -Soso, a Popovi [Expulsion] (Beograd: BIGZ, 1986). 1986). BIGZ, (Beograd: [Expulsion] ofself-harming. Anditwas [TheMartinovi 's bottle." asa"martyr withacrown ofthor "Saviours of the Nation," Nation," of the "Saviours ć 276 ." Assoonashereceiveda worked in the Army's Cultural Centerin Gnjilane.It was

ć Case]inBelgrade's printinghouseBIGZ.

ć clearlydemonstratesthatitispossibletouse sexual 's paintingwasexhibitedinthewindowofagallery banians (recognizablebyth pp. 133–134. 133–134. pp. inted 50000copiesofthemonograph 125 ies tried tocover upthecase byaccusing . Bartholomew', itshowedMartinovi Inspired byJosedeRibera's 17 t him.Itwasonceagain stressed that underlined th . In this particular ns," ordevotedtheirpoems to"

ć č asaSerbianmartyr wasprovidedby ć kovi showedtohisfellow colleagues a full membership intheSerbian ć 's poems "Krvava brazda" ["Bloody 273

at Martinovi ć , Serbianpoetsdepicted eir skullcaps),abottle case, thestoryabout 274 ć ć 's collection of 's collection Suvišna pesma became a became a In the year In the th -century ć 275 Slu Đ being or

č đe aj CEU eTD Collection what was there in the past'" (MilicaBaki past'" the in what was there martyrs who symbolically embody the suffering nation. images participated in creationofpower Martinovi 278 277 mean thatprevailingcultural patterns have sexual tortureofmale prisoners.However, circumstances intheearly1990s,whenno one incidentintoametaphor su of'the in SerbiatojoinSerbian military andparamilitary forces? horrific storiesaboutsexualabuseof impr Forexample,securing evenstrongersupportforwarendeavors? whywerenot strengthen thealready existingimageof the"victim" innational self-perception, Why werenottheyusedtocreatene Herzegovina usedtocreatesimilar images mass sexual torturesofwarprisonersinet Ottoman Empire. population and,consequently,thefivecen through, thebrutalpracticeofimpaling used inevitably broughttomind, duetoeducationa maltreatment ofSerbiancommunityin Martinovi Balkans] [Beograd: Institut za filozofiju i društvenu teoriju/"Filip Višnji teoriju/"Filip idruštvenu zafilozofiju Institut [Beograd: Balkans] familiar way, which results in, to use Bakhtin's phrase, Bakhtin's use to in, results which familiar way, aseemingly circumstances in toward current attitude of an articulation enables moon cross or of as to Turks referred that rhetoric original that means does not undermine effectiveness ofsymbolism e attempt tocompare victims ofthis abuse toĐ Croatian military forces sexually abused imprisoned Serbs. However, I did not come across asingle The fact thata historical"other As it was said, in the military barracks of the former Yugoslav Army People's members of Split, Asitwassaid, formerYugoslav military in of the the barracks in Circumstances inthesecondhalfofth ć ć providedcompellingimages ofth 's casewasmythologized andtransfor 277 Therefore,itispossibletoask: " has changed – i.e. now, the "others" are Albanians instead of Turks,

ć -Hayden, or Kosovo.Furthermore, Martinovi w images ofsuffering,oneswhichwould 126 đ ffering nation', were quitedifferentfromffering nation', were isoned Serbsusedtomotivate morepeople e Martinovi of victimized nation? Toputitdifferently:of victimized nation? also changed.Thequesti vokedthe"cross by againstmoon" battle."This 'others' is still valid, and that symbolic invocation invocation that symbolic and valid, isstill 'others' hnic conflicts inCroatiaand Bosniaand byOttoman rulersagainstlocalSerbian thechangeofcircumstances doesnot e 1980s,thatmade po l system allstudentsinSerbiahadtogo ful impression ofSerbsasvictims. Varijacije na temu Balkan temu na Varijacije one talkedaboutma 'ignoring what isreally what 'ignoring turies longtorment e 'suffering Serbiannation'. These med intoan effectivesymbol of ć Why werenot serialrapesand , nor the prisoners were presented as presented were the prisoners , nor 278 ć

", 2006], str. 126). 126). str. ", 2006], present inpresent and ssible totransform ss andsystematic on iswhetherit of Serbswithin [Variations on the the on [Variations ć 's wounds 's wounds CEU eTD Collection depersonalized. From theperspective of those women wasreferredonlyinplural,withoutusing names. Theywerecompletely of women andmen differed.When therewa in theprocessofmytholization. So,althoughtheprocesseswere similar, thetreatment their statusofunnamed victims inthenews, women whowererapedbyKosovoAlbanians.However,whilethosewomen kept ethnic Albanians' claims to"Serbian"territory represented penetration into theSerbian alotandexperiencedtheworsthumiliation, becauseKosovo Serbs suffered initiated and,also,permitted ametonymical And hewasinjuredinaspecificwaythat Serbs inKosovoexperienced.Hewasphysica was almost immediately transformed intoa notion of"theworsthumiliation" has worst humiliation for aman isto be turnedinto awoman" bypenetration. established arelationshipbetw libido dominandi "penetration, especiallywhenperformed on 5.3. Homoeroticismaspatriotism ground forbetterunderstandingofthepublicbehavior. possible toidentifypatternsthatareapplic 279 2001), pp. 21–22. 21–22. pp. 2001), Pierre Bourdieu, male In thesecondhalfof1980sSerbianmedia oftenreportedaboutSerbian When hetalksaboutmasculinedomination, PierreBourdieupointsoutthat body. thatisneverentirelyabsentfr Masculine Domination, Masculine

een sexualityandpower,Bour translated by Richard Nice (Cambridge: Polity Press, Polity Nice (Cambridge: Richard by translated a keyrolein explainingwhyMartinovi 127 able to both periods and, by doing it, set the able tobothperiodsand,bydoingit,setthe endangerednation,relationship between implied "theworst humiliation." Allthis move towardstheen Đ metaphor of"theworsthumiliation"thatmetaphor a man, is one of the affirmations ofthea man,isoneoftheaffirmations s atalkaboutrapedSerbianwomen, to lly injuredbothasaman andasaSerb. or đe Martinović om themasculinelibido."Oncehe dieu concludesthat"the kepthispersonalname tire nation:Kosovo 279 ć 's case This CEU eTD Collection unity ofSerbiannation: that functionsassemen toexplain–and Serbian Literature]byDimitrije Bogdanovi especially inSerbia)isfound (an understandingwhichstillprevailsin be amale. Onlythenispossible tore fulfilled beforehand: asuffering person,onewh almost one's "creative death." Indeed, there 'Great' of'great' works men alsoincl reproduced andreinforcedbyremembering names andpreservingworksofgreatmen. ethnic malebody, sexuality andpowerdoesnotgiveenoughma 280 cultural contentscreatedbynoblemale souls. precisely, thistraditionassumes aconti tradition isbelieved to represent adirect identifies withoneman. particular typeofculturethatmakes nameless Patriarchs: Gender and in and Nation Patriarchs: Gender (Katherine realm "From Family men" the Verdery, to Parent-State spirit: of the of qualities and deeds, heroic culture, through ensured life eternal, its is continuity nation's the to more fundamental but culture (created by men) orthrough men's creative d females oreven tosex." Thus, through the itsreproduction spiritstress isand "primar thenational ily on nationalism suggests "apeculiar kind of lineage [...] one that reproduces itself without recourse to sp understand fully to is sufficient not bonding" She explained thatGeorge Mosse 272. Next? Comes HereIam following arguments made by Katherine Verdery, whoanalyzed Romanian nationalism. An illustrative example ofsuchanunders The culture inquestion isshapedbythespecific notionof tradition. This ethnic femalebody, [Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996], pp. 61–82; here p. 73). See also footnote whichcantakeonbothcollec

's claim that "much nationalism restson homosocialmasculine Contemporary EasternEurope," whichcanobtainonlycollectiveidentity. Istorija staresrpskeknjiževnosti member thisgreatpersonbyhisname. ude personalsuffering nuous productionandmain possible thattheentirenation/ethnicgroup 128 also establish–synchronicanddiachronic is one important condition that needstobe eath – thatis, women may createlifeinthis world, ecific character of Romanian nationalism. This ć link tothe "ancient" past times. More the regionofformer Yugoslavia,and . Bogdanovi Within suchacultu o is inpain, andsometimes dies,must terial toexplaindifferencesbetween tanding ofnational tive andpersonal ć WhatWas Socialism and What usestheimageofabook and unbearablepain, re, nationalspiritis tenance ofvarious [History of Old culture and spirit identity, and 280 It is the CEU eTD Collection love fatherland"[ota in books,physicaldeathisnotathreatto established bySt.Sava."Sincewearediscussi rulers and archbishops from Nemanjić naturally developedandsustainedby"dev Bogdanovi have theirmost powerfulexpre within "lasting cultural community."Thec 284 283 282 281 identity of thenation. književna zadruga, 1991], pp.45, 47). Bogdanovi koje su se iš stara knjiga u srpskom narodu XVIII i XIX veka nazivala 'starostavnikom','knjigom starostavnom', iz time, suggests that pureandeterna Other (Ibid., pp. 10–11). All previously said points to the concept of masculinity, andfor acommunity asawhole,may beto crossthe boundary that divides him fromthe this simple fact: "male fantasy" is preoccupied by imagining how dangerous forman, for his the other sex, "he is born of the &Boundaries Cultural for purityand monism, both nationalsexual" and (RadaIvekovi as the exclusion of the Other thus means the atleastwithin[national] its highest understanding, self- national such within required isalso women of exclusion The community. ethnic of understanding glory. and timespride of inancient that isrooted lasting validity ever their svesti, verno predanje o prošlosti, autenti njegovu istorijsku svest. [...] Kao rastureno seme, nosile su [knjige] sa sobom klicu žive, podmla should be avoided in 'serious national matters' since they represent possible sites of pollution. which books are semen and seed of national consciousness. In other words, the presence of women However, death is not the only obstacle that needs to beovercome within described self- 92. p. Ibid., inare outdatedwords.Theirusagecontem These "...[knjiga] povezujeiobjedinjava razdvojene de firm, werereadfrom thosebooks. Knowledges abouttimes offreedomand reason called"bookonoldcustoms" or medieval culture. Every oldbookinXVIIIand XIXcenturywasforgood rejuvenated consciousness,truetestimony spiritual unityanditshistoricconsciousness.[...] For Bogdanović ... [abook]connectsandbindsseparatedpi ć , č ć itavala znanja, makar i maglovita, ali nesumnjiva, o vremenima slobode i sjaja" (Dimitrije Istorija stare srpske književnosti srpske stare Istorija , historicandpatrioticconscious Like dispersedsemen, [books]carried [New Delhi: Women Unlimited, 2005], p. 18). By his birth, man is related to č 284 astvoljublje] , "tobeconsciousoffa Quitetheopposite,Serbianmonasteries may beconsidered other l reproduction isonly possiblethr

sex." Many psychoanalytic theses come from interpretation of come theses from interpretation psychoanalytic sex."Many č an sadržaj srednjovekovne kulture. Nije sebez razlogasvaka 282 ssions precisely inliterature. negation of the origin in and with the in the other(s).and with origin the of negation issomething that brin [History of old Serbian literature] [Beograd: Srpska [Beograd: [History literature] Serbian old of 129 281 domains. "The basic principle of (male) nationalism "lasting culturalcommunit 's family, andfollowing thetradition onsciousness andlove(thatis,patriotism) love naroda iodržava njegovoduhovnojedinstvo i

eloping andpreservingcultsofSerbian porary Serbian language is supposed to suggest ng spiritualqualities –i.e. semen stored "ancient book"among Serbianpeople. ness ofSerbianpeoplehavebeen therland" [svest o'ota about thepast,authenticcontentsof glory, evenifvagueones,butstill eces ofthenation ć , withthem aseedofvivid, Captive Gender. Ethnic Stereotypes ough male culturalproduction, in vagina dentata gs onenationtogether 283 y," thatis,tothe Accordingto and sustainsits č and, at the same same the at and, astvu'] or"to Itisaclaim đ ene ene CEU eTD Collection community" intheexactsame founda other Serbian statesand preserved itthroughout centuries,untiltoday." identified asourceof"spiritual unityof of anauthenticity of spiritual heritage. some member from the holy dynasty[Nemanji to be"schools ofChristianandnational 289 288 287 286 285 heroes, aboutthestate's foundingfatherswholedpeople,aboutspiritualleadersof foundations containthestoriesabout"oldSe predecessors," indicates acertaincontinuity about spiritualunityandpermanence ofSerb church" Jankovi obnovnog pokreta on explaining"self-creationof community. Hedidnotspeakatallaboutth appreciated more spiritualreproduction are foundinthenineteenthcentury. of thisunderstandingcannotbe Kalemegdan. (Beogr Man] An Essay Kalemegdan. Belgrade's on SeeG.L.Mosse, to disciplined. be ought citizens which through states. itasanew standard He defined of respectability, formation, national i.e. men, on male citi behavior norms and of values century Europe,isconcerned, Ge Asfarasevocation, that is, invention of medieval imaginary of pride and glory in the nineteen- Bogdanovi Ibid., p. 57. 57. p. Ibid., 67. p. Ibid., Velmar-Jankovi Vladimir About fiftyyearsbeforeBogdanovi ć 285 , "arelationshipofprid in almost eachoneof them. Thissanc ć , Istorija stare srpske književnosti, staresrpske Istorija 288 hadalmost thesame meaning andsignificance as"blood ties".He ] and its"self-revival" [ ć , Pogled s Kalemegdana. Ogled o beogradskom beogradskom o Ogled sKalemegdana. Pogled orge Mosse claimed that it wasformation and imposition of aset of ofthespecificethnicself-

traced tosome ancientpast Serbian renewalmovement" [ e andglory,"basedon"resurrectionofrespectfor Nationalism and sexuality. and Nationalism tions "thatsavedSerbhoodofNemanjić p. 96. 130 tradition" becausethereisa"deadbodyof Serbian spiritual, nationa ad: Prosveta, 1992; first edition – 1938), p. –1938), 47. first edition ad: Prosveta, 1992; 286 zens of newly established, or still in the process stillinthe of or ofnewly established, zens than mere biologicalreproductionofa e latter,sincehewascompletely focused samooživotvoravanje ian community inthesame terms, which rbian state,aboutdeedsofthekingsand LikeBogdanovi ć , Vladimir Velmar-Jankovi tified dead malebody isaguarantor ć ] orofsome leaderofpeople's understanding. However,roots

times. Infact samotvornost srpskog ć , Velmar-Jankovi ].

l, state andsocial 287 č oveku ForVelmar- , its origins , itsorigins [View from from [View ć 289 thought Those 's and and 's ć

CEU eTD Collection completely devoted to some sort of eternal ethnic quasi-feudal elitism. toquasi-feudal someethnic sort eternal of completely devoted and populist impetus are implicit in Velmar-Jankovi in areimplicit impetus populist and of Kalemegdana, Kalemegdana, and farmers, villagers ordinary "Serbian by became aware of itsimportance. And the idea of fre they freedom that their theylost when Itwasonly against self-discipline." their selfishness, working feudal gentry, and sometimes even the subjugated people, all made mistakes due to their feudal their themselvesfreedom. and Kings, alwaysdowith to know not what state,"did their own within Bogdanovi Dimitrije migrations andescapes." together withtheirpeople, sharing with dead bodiesofrulers"thatalwaysremained people." 293 292 291 290 rather oddthatthismedieval patternhas features thatpervadedembodi historians, overtime thissuccessionacquired"trans-dynasticandtrans-epochal" present conferred legitimacy tocurrentrule The incessantsuccessionofhollykingssh dead bodies,hadsupernaturalpowerswerepr interesting overlapping:beliefs produced byintellectualandpoliticalelites its Christianity. Thistraditionwasembedded legitimizing patternscharacteri continuity, bothBogdanovi was compensated bytheirdeadbodies,andhollybooks, respected by theirsubjects. no dynasty in Eastern Europe that was respected asmuch asmonarchs from Nemanji Obolenski that Serbs developed the cult of holly king more than any other European nation; there was 2007), p. 98. There is something peculiar in a way in which Marjanovi Smilja Marjanovi Ibid., pp. 67–68. Indeed, there are some 67. p. Ibid., Thatis, glory and freedom and glory It isimportant here tosaythat in 290 books on old customs Unsurprisingly, within these stories one often comesacross "sanctified p. 63). Unlike Velmar-Jankovi 63).Unlike p. ć ć before Kosovo 's conceptualizations of nation. Velmar-Jankovi -Dušani 291 ć , or or

Sveti kralj ć andVelmar-Jankovi ancient books. ancient

ment ofanationalcommunity. . Itmay beargued thatso thatChristianmartyrs' deadbodies,orpartsoftheir stic ofmedieval European [Holly king] (Beograd: Balkanološki institut SANU/Klio, institut Balkanološki (Beograd: king] [Holly men who belonged to tribal, blood-community" totribal, blood-community" who belonged men ć , Bogdanovi differences between Vl 131

been broughtback,intothelatetwentieth- aring thesame bloodthatstretchedtothe rs. InthecontemporaryversionofSerbian them merciless fate thatfollows tragic withpeopleor"theywonderedinexile, edomwas taken away from kingsand gentry by theirconceptualiz ofthetime. Herewetalkaboutan ojected tothebodiesoflaterulers. ć elf incultsof hollykingsthatwere 's writings, whereas Bogdanovi whereas 's writings, ć ć did not have any reservations about times relied on apartic me traces of Vuk Karadži ć states,firmly groundedin said that before Kosovo, Serbs, before Serbs, that said Kosovo, 293 ć adimir Velmar-Jankovi adimir -Dušani indeed.However,itis 292 Lackofhollykings ation ofanethnic ć repeats afterDimitri ular traditionof ć 's family were ć 's democratic ć has been (Pogled s ć 's and and 's CEU eTD Collection translated by Milena Mari Hercegovini" ["Ethical duty of burial and its violation during the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina"], victims. SeeKeithDoubt, "Eti

to sonwouldend. group, wouldbedisrupted.Consequently,thechain ofsymbolic transferfromfather sequence, which servestopreserveandtransmit thecore identity of "other"ethnic territories andnationhood. as aguaranteeofethniccontinuityandpur there isnodistance towardsthemedieval co reference totheoriginsof hisconceptuali force them toperform differentactsofsexua it possibleforsoldiersofoneethnicgrouptopickimprisoned fathersandsons might beproduced.Thispattern–initsmo bonding, onethatalsoguarantees nation's purityofblood,thenaspecificpattern century discussionsonnationalissues. 297 296 295 294 of prisonersin sexual abuseofprisonersin particularly, entered those 5.4. Theworst humiliation 2003), pp. 27–39. 27–39. pp. 2003), 1999). 1999). See Katherine Verdery, of TsarLazar, in thelate 1980s, context within which preparations were undertaken. Bracewellisfocused on general concept of endeavor. In my opinion, her, otherwise adequate, analysis lacks acknowledgment of larger cultural Similar, perverted logic may be identified in attacks identified may logic be Similar, perverted inthe section. next issues I at length these discuss body withthe holly processions Amongthis mayof pattern, rathermention realizations one peculiar BracewellWendy analyzed Martinovi If aspiritualessenceof anationisbu First halfofthe1990swasmarked by Č elopek, torturingwasperformed onthestageinculturalcenter. 296 The Political Lives of Dead LivesofDead Bodies Political The Itis bitterly ironic that bothcases,Martinovi ć , in Sociologija nakon Bosne nakon Sociologija which delineatedborders of the pr 295 č ka obaveza sahranjivanja i njeno kršenje tokom rata uBosni i conflicts alreadyperceivingthemselves as victims.

Č

elopek, somehow relatetoculturalcenters.Inthecase ć 's casewithin the context of 294 132 Furthermore,Bogdanovi zation of anethniccon st pervertedsensethough–iswhatmakes ncepts; theywere alsotaken for granted l abuse.Inthisway, ity, whichconferhistoricalrightsover that served to interrupt and stop funerals of civil stop funerals ofcivil and interrupt to served that ilt onpatrilineal and male homosocial [Sociology after Bosn armed conflicts.Ethnic groups,Serbs (New ColumbiaYork: Press, University ojected new Serbianojected new nation-state. Serbian preparations for war tinuity. Notonlythat ia] (Sarajevo:Buybook, ć the logic of eternal didnotmake any ć 's injuries and 297

CEU eTD Collection masculinity and Serbian nationalism," Serbian and masculinity specific sexual abuse ofmale pr Bosni," p. 7). Bosni," Croat, or Serb – de-masculinization is symbolic in numerous ways" (Žarkov, "Silovanje tokom rata u –asMuslim, belonging terms ethnic in also of but man), isa'real' that (as heterosexual, sexuality and for men that it in itself presents aweapon in war. When man is not defined solely in terms ofgender other ethnicgroups.Masculinityofmen fromanotherethnicgroupwasdeniedbya national/ethnic group,butitwasalsopossible described genderedlogictohomogeniz applicable tomembers ofothergroupsin behavior of members of"our"community;ye guard anddefenderofthenation.These gendere could beseenasametaphor ofthesuffering were putforwardbythe"parti in conflict,usingethnicbel such among conflicted groups.This produced humiliation is experiencedinthewar,it Martinovi Images ofnewmartyrs, 299 298 dichotomy, onecannot sufficiently explain relationship between Martinovi go beyond it. It is unquestionable that this dichotomy operated in the 1990s. Yet, using only this masculinity found within a dichotomy oftwo gender roles, i.e. protectors and victims, and she does not one takesintoaccountallthehumiliati humiliate enemies, tomake themfrustrated, politi Č articulated that same ideaas"beingestranged of the world" [spasonosnim izuzimanjem srpskog sveta iz č Radomir Konstantinovi request for compulsory purity, this self-expulsion from theuniversal ethical order is quite expected. universal ethical norms donot. Ifone takesinto account while count, interests national only where sphere the in bad, and good beyond existed who warrior, character ofanegative hero fromthe period of romanticism. Željko Ražnatovi Đ crucified image The periods. of these in domain public inthe prevail that patterns masculinity different olovi or "Construction of masculinity through heterosexua through masculinity of "Construction Differences between circumstances from thelate đ ć e Martinovi č ki etnomit" ["Serbian Political Ethno-Myth"], pp. 9–79; here p. 66. 66. herep. 9–79; pp. Ethno-Myth"], Political ["Serbian etnomit" ki ć , Post-Yugoslav warswerecharacterizedas Politika simbola Politika ć , may haveunwanted effectsinwarcircumstances: was followed by the image of Željko Ražnatovi ofŽeljko image the by wasfollowed ć ironically named it "redemptive self-expulsion of Serbian world from the rest from rest world the ofSerbian self-expulsion "redemptive named it ironically [Politics of symbols] (Beograd: Radio B92, 1997), especially "Srpski ofsymbols] B92, Radio [Politics especially"Srpski 1997), (Beograd: created accordingto myth isoners intheearly1990s. See onging asadividingcriteri tion" demand: passiveroleofvictim, feminized, which Nations andNationalism, on "we"havealreadyexperienced. 133 would probablyproducefrustration.Yet,to from theworld" [otpadan conflict. So,notonlyitwaspossibletouse e andcontrolmen whobelongtoone seems tobeavalidwargoal,especiallyif lity and poweris,therefor lity and nation; masculinized, activeroleofsafe- 1980s and the early 1990s are alsoreflectedin apressingneedtodividecommunities to useitagainstth 'self-creation' and 'self-revival', together with a t, inaperverted way,they werealso ethnicwars.Theywerejustifiedas d patternspartlyse itavog ostalog sveta], while Ivan Vol. 6 (4), 2000, p. 563–590. 563–590. 2000, p. 6(4), Vol. Wendy Bracewell,"R Wendy ical transformation of on. Twodistinctgenderroles ć , produced in accordance with the ć 's casefromthe1980sand jem odsveta]. SeeIvan e men whobelongto e, of such importance importance e, ofsuch ć 298 was a fugitive and wasafugitive rved toregulate iftheworst ape inKosovo: 299

Č Đ olovi or đe ć

CEU eTD Collection samosvijest'" (Viktor (Viktor Ivan samosvijest'" narod', stiješnjen negdje u predjelu karlica dvaju velikana. Tamo gdje mu sejam strasti jošiza vo Velikoga uvijek iznova fascinira taj prizor nesuzdržanemuške ljubavi, taj znojni zagrljaj izme normative patternasanembrace ofth sexual abuse.Plannedtortureofma 300 particular ideologyorworldview. Infact 5.5. Ministryofpain that regardmale spiritualbonding Systematic sexualtorture of men andtheirhumiliation are possiblewithincultures me sayitagain,isthissame logicthat systematic rapesofwomen, andsystematic premises, ontheother.Itissame logicthatoperatedinMartinovi homoerotic premises oftheperpetrators' known topublic. worst humiliation" thatpreventedvictim as essential elements for thecommunity's su guarantors of itspurity, andbearers andtransmitters of its culture, which are allseen to humiliate them anddenytheir "Priznajemme, da bezobzira što senaovim prostorimave consciousness." are stuckintheplacewhichpromises shrieking, stucksomewhere inbetween one shouldbesurethat"people", in thistransactionofmasculine passion onehearsmoaning andshrieking,then interaction full ofsparklingemotions, ri male love,bythesweatyembrace ofGr have to admitthatIam Despite the fact thatinthisregion itisjust awell-tattered literary cliché, I I donotclaimthatperpetrators committed their crimes inthename of any However, thelogic of the worsthumiliation relies on homosocial and đ e, srazukojemu pršteemocije, liptesuzeikr č uje kakvo stenjanje i cvilenje, onda to zacijelo stenje i cvili sam 'narod', tj. 'hrvatski 'hrvatski tj. 'narod', sam icvili stenje zacijelo to onda icvilenje, stenjanje kakvo uje č i ć 300 , [Beograd: Croatica Animal Fabrika knjiga, 2007]), p.137.

every time fascinatedby theimage ofunconstrained asultimate value.ViktorIvan e GreatWriter andtheGreatRuler: 134 caused thesilencethat culture, ontheoneside s from making their suffering andpain le members ofothergroupswassupposed sexual tortureofimprisoned men. And,let status of defenders of thecommunity, , itismore likelythattherewasno rvival. Itwasprecisely them "persistence, happiness,and self- ver oftears,andcrackingbones,if is,"Croatpeople"aremoaning and twoGreatMen's groins.Thepeople ckaju kosti,aakoseutojrazmjeni mužja eat WriterandGreatRuler, by the ć radi o pohabanom književnom klišeju, klišeju, književnom pohabanom o radi surroundedthelatter. , anditspatrilineal č thelogicof"the i č ć đ i 'opstanak, sre u Velikoga piscai describes this ć 's case, ć č a i ke CEU eTD Collection Č 2001, DuškoVu "mental disorder" committed some ofthewarcrimes. there wasalargenumberofkilledMuslims furious becausehisbrothercommittedsuchcrimes. Histestimony confirmed that whose member Duškowas.Duringtheinvestigation, Vojinmade clearthathewas thinking atall.Thereisleast one Indeed, itwould becomfortingtosay(if ideological deliberation.Theydidnotneed on April15,1992.Duško wasreleasedfrom th arrested bythepoliceafteroneaction inZ passed military training underthesupe Petkovi chronic alcoholism." Togetherwith Joki similar institutionsinKovin,Vršacand mental problems." Hewastreated inthe mental institution "LazaLazarevi [Serbian RadicalParty]because"no oneel investigated. location and time ofeachcrime," specific inlistingthenames ofindividualswhocommitted thesecrimes, aswellthe and wereevenimpaled onsticks."Furthermore, although"Vu testified that "they[Muslim prisoners] wereforced toengage inmutual sexualacts elopek. VojinVu ć concludedthatVu According tothereportpublishedinBe ć andZoranRanki AsfarasDuškoVuč č kovi č kovi ć wasputontrialandaccused for the crimes hecommitted in č ć kovi , hisbrother,wasthecommande ć hemade aplantogothefrontline.DuškoVu ć wasactually"aseverepsyc kovi his partycolleaguesZoranDražilovi ć none ofthementionedcaseswasfurther case thatproves isconcerned,hesaidthatjoinedtheSRS rvision ofhisbrother and Ranki 135 Banja Luka.CourtexpertdoctorSvetislav vornik andwastakentotheprisoninŠabac only itwaspossible) that theywerenot se wouldhavetaken me becauseofmy ideologytomotivatetheirviolentacts. (70 inonlyoneincident).Vojinalso e prisonseveraldays lgrade's weekly "NIN" onJuly 12, hopath withsignsofheavy r oftheunitvolunteers, people sufferingfrom č kovi later"thanksto ć wasvery ć ć . Hewas , Ljubiša ć č " and kovi ć

CEU eTD Collection a form ofsong, Bora according tothesame patternthatinfl www.pressonline.rs/page/stories/sr.html?id=56972§ionId=41&view=story) www.pressonline.rs/page/stories/sr.html?id=56972§ionId=41&view=story) groups withinit. shape keyvaluesofacommunity andpartly imagined onlyinhisinsanemind. Thosecrimes werealsoimpliedbypatternsthat However, thereismore tothis case. Crimes committed byVuč these structures,andtobeprotectedfr such as organized political party and military formation, to behaveviolently within "insane" peopleweregiventheopportunityto participate in the activitiesofstructures would becomforting, yetagainwrong. ThecaseofDuškoVu simple andwrong. Tosaythathecommitted thosecrimes becausehewasinsane background enabledsomeone tointerveneinthecaseofVu party." the president of theSerbian Radical Part 302 301 from prison,regardlesshis the imaginary createdbyconstantrepetitionof Martinovi patterns alreadypresent inthe publicspace. the onlyboundarytotortur Serbian side.Onemight saythat was nottheonlyperpetrator.Similar crim Ulemek (sentenced for organizing assassination of Serbian primeminister Zoran haven's sake, don't fuck us. / You, black men, havelong cocks, we won't survive!" [Predsedni fucked, even when it was not necessary. / We were showing off, asking for a cock. / We beg you, for "President Obama, turn to us, / Look at us, black man, we are good people. / We Serbs have been message, almost aplea, to thenewly elected president of United States onhis inauguration day: crnci, kurati, ne kurati, crnci, /Mismo sami trebali. sekuražili, Obama, okreni seka nama.Pogledaj / nas, garavi, public face of Milorad Milorad faceof aswell.Oneaspect of apublic the2000s in Serbia in operates Similar imaginary http://free.freespeech.org/ex-yupress/nin/nin115.html 301 To accuseonlyDuškoVu

ć emo izdržati!"] 302 Đ Furthermore, thespecificculturalcontextand ideological or đ evi ć (former deputy ofthe Serbian minister ofculture) sent apeculiar evident responsibilityfor k****c tražili. / Molimo te, leba ti, nemoj nas i ti j****i. / Vi ste, i ti j****i. ti, nas te,leba nemoj tražili. /Molimo k****c

e inflictedontheprisoners uenced thecreationofŽeljkoRažnatovi the limitof captors'imagination č kovi ć 136 om prosecutionbythosesame structures. for committed crimes wouldbe way too mi smo dobre naravi. / Nassu Srbe jebali i kad nisu y inLoznicaand alawyerhiredbythe es wereperformed bymany otherson It wasjustamatter of time whenwould influencebehaviorofindividualsand (lastaccessedon January 29, 2010). the crimes. Afterall,Vu was marked outbyspecific ć 's caseand insistence on č kovi ć 's image in the public. In public. the 's image in č ć kovi andreleasehim Đ that represented kovi in đ ć i showsthat ć ć ) was shaped shaped was ) werenot č kovi č ć e

CEU eTD Collection destroying theenemy, inthis casean were important elements ofadeliberat abuse wasmassleadsustounquestionablyconcludethatthesecrimes andplanned occasional crimes imagined andcommitted by insane people. Thefact that sexual promotion ofimages ofthe"crucified" imagination particular patrioticvaluesprovokerealcr example, whenthelegitimizing groundforthe warendeavorisbeingprepared.Inthis which presentingpublicly aman as avictim "our" men asvictims wasunacceptable. the sufferingnation,torturedmen didnot men wasnotasubjectofsuchdiscussi women, theirprogenywas polluted. women servedtopreventbiologicalre community, bothbiologicallyandsymbo publicly rapedbyguardians.Inthiswa beaten ongenitals,forcedtohaveinterc women andcrimes committed againstimpris spiritually. Sexual torture ofwomen andmen was * However, Martinovi Yet, whilemass werepubliclydiscussed,sexualtortureof rapesofwomen There aresome parallelsbetween crimes committedagainst imprisoned that"discovered"impalingofMu ć 's caseclearlyshowsthatther Đ or 137 on. Whilst women servedasametaphor of production ofthecommunity: byraping other ethnicgroup,bot đe Martinović e warstrategy.Thisstrategyaimed at ourse onewithanother,buthardlyever . Inthewarcircumstances, theimage of lically, wastakenaway.Massrapesof y theirabilitytoreproduceown imes. Also,it ishardnottorelatethe oned men. Maleprisonerswere castrated, is not only possible but also needed, for is notonlypossiblebut also needed,for by nomeans accidental. Thesewerenot slims onstickstosixyear-long . e arecertainsituationsin h physicallyand CEU eTD Collection "interposed body," Penetration intoamale bodywasalmostalwaysdonebysome replacement, bysome deprived ofhismasculine power, case, the argument that "amale victim is 306 305 304 303 who penetratesintoherbody,men ofanother fulfilling his assumed roles.While awoman accept andcarrythe perpetrator's seed.Aman of anotherethnicityispreventedfrom ethnicity issupposedto fulfillherreproducti community andgeneratedifferencesinmale a cultural structure determine typesofsexualabuseagainst themembers from another martyr, asymbolicalembodiment ofanation. same patternsthatamanwhohasundergonetheworsttorture women areexcluded ensure thehighest degree biological reproductionofaco criterion isof anultimatenormative im line of'Great men' andtheir'great works' privilege masculinehomosocialbonding,and suffering, bothphysicalandspiritual, to representman asavictim insuchcases.Iftheman isonewhosuffers,thenthe concentration camp where tens where camp concentration martyr"(J. and Dragovi "a saint explain final transformation of the ma Other Man." "Jasenovac for one man," and demanded from the Serbian Orthodox Church to sanctified Martinovi On June 10, 1985, in thearticle in inweekly 10, 1985, June On 7. p. Bosni," tokom u rata "Silovanje SeeŽarkov, Claude Lefort introduced the phrase "interposed body" in his essay on Orwell's Ifthey were raped, a perpetrator usually took care not to beseen. See Žarkov, "The Body of the Distinct positionsthatmenandwomen To compare anentirenationtoamale vi 306 suchasabottle, stick,oraprisoner forced topenetrate into of thousands Serbs were killed killed were Serbs thousands of ć "Saviours of the Nation," -Soso, of the Nation," "Saviours

mmunity. Patternsofculturalreproductionfrom which in characterthe novel, from a 303 isinvalid.Infact,it willbethemostintensive. Duga, 138 notaman anymore,"sincehehasbeen portance whenitcomes tospiritual and . Within such cultural context, the purity Brana Crn Brana and female abuse.Awomanofanother andfemale 304 ethnicity arerarelyrapedinthisway. of anotherethnicity israped byaman ve role. Thus, shewillbeenforcedto of purity. Itisinaccordance with these occupy withinacomm ctim ispossible only in cultures which

perceive themselves asacontinuous during the World War Second.] Second.] the World War during č evi p. 132). [Jasenovac, Croatia, was a was Croatia, [Jasenovac, 132). p. ć called the attack on Martinovi on attack the called oftheutmost importance rebel to an obedient subject of becomes asaintand unity withsuch 1984 to order in ć 305 ć as –

CEU eTD Collection bonding. long anxietyintrinsictothecultureba victims. possible homosexualconnotations, sexually violentactsagainstmale prisoners another prisoner.Among else, 308 307 1–19. edited and translated by David Ames Curtis (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2000), pp. Lefort, "The Interposed Body: George Orwell's individuals awareness of who she or heis, and what she or he owns as her or his own. SeeClaude ar that emotions orintense of energy liberation excessive prevent and itssubjects of sexuality tocontrol order enemiesin – areimagined these regime itself,sa the acrime. Furthermore, committed own fear and confirms his full obedience to a regime (group, or idea), in the name of which he to their own body. By destroying "inserted body" and the victim, the perpetrator is getting rid of his their themselves, theirvictims,supplement criminalown is and asymboliclevel acts,a which on body Lefort's narrative about "inserted body," the perpetrators themselves, who inserted "body" between treat, terrifying sacrificed what they was most preci only male isin not question, torture of prisoners sexual were terrified (exposed tothe most what terrifies her or himmore than anything else –in inserts as abarrier between herself or himself and something to what she or he is being exposed, and least three aresignificant here. "Inserted body" is what aperson cuts off from heror his own body and rather than from what it denotes. Among different meanings and allusions that Lefort assigns to it, at contradictory meanings have been interwoven. Therefore, it derives its strength from what it connotes, an israther body" state."Interposed totalitarian his violated sexuality" (Žarkov, "Silovanje Bosni,"tokom p. "Silovanje rata u (Žarkov, 7). sexuality" his violated and masculinity violated his both concerning endangered: doubly thus and homosexuality, to connected However, he didnotit. do The officer is laying helplessly onthe ground. He could have embraced his suggested homosexual instinct. soldier. soldier. the viewers, the officer could have sexually abus sexually have could theofficer viewers, the to issuggested homosexuality whose Assomeone and homoerotic. homosocial between forced division played by Mustafa Nadarevi In theIn Oscar winning film"Ni "Incasesof physical violation, aman who has been raped or tortured by anotherman is often

307 308 Allthingsdiscussedthroughoutthischapterpointtocoupleofcenturies

ć , carries a photo of a naked boy in his wallet. It is just another example of č ija zemlja"ija [NoOne'sLand], only all thisclearly demonstrates that perpetrators of and transferallsuchasso put amine (that is, put "inserted body") under the injured ed an enemy's solder (played by Filip Šovagovi Filip by (played solder enemy's an ed 139 Nineteen Eighty-Four," Nineteen image than a clear concept, in which in various, evenwhich aclearconcept, image than sed onmale homosocialandhomoerotic e able to fragment collective body andevoke in anultimate case,deathitself. thedescribedWhen ous to them), but also, if we had correctly read read correctly them), ifwehad ous to but also, triedhardtodistancethemselves from ys Lefort, uses "inserted bodies" – in this case, this in – bodies" "inserted Lefort,uses ys directed by Danis Tanovi

Writing. The Political Test, Political The Writing. ciations sole ć ly to their ly totheir , an officer, ć ), who

CEU eTD Collection should provideaparticular understanding direct study ofliteratureboththeoreti about allpossibleanswers,it of Serbianliterature,orwhatista find some answer. acceptable Forinstance, wh plenty of justified someone ignorantenoughtodareasking tries to imply it.We can speculate: either Dereti [The PathofSerbianLiterature. Identity, sentences whichopenJovanDereti 6.1. Anemptycoreasaguaranteeofcontinuity to giveonceandforeverananswerthis them. So,itisrather clearthatthereis not mean anythinginitself.Thereisnoobvious ANDTOSCANA:CO TURKEY Chapter 6 309 Identity, borders, tendencies] (Beograd: Sr (Beograd: tendencies] borders, Identity, Jovan Dereti The questionevokesanumber ofgeneraltroubles.Beforewestarttothink So, whatisSerbianliterature? such aquestionisposed, indicate This bookattempts toanswerwhatisSe Various questionsmight beposed.But,thesolefactthattheyareposeddoes ć , Put srpske književnosti. Identitet, granice,težnje Identitet, srpske književnosti. Put reasons forasking

is essentialtoestablishageneralframework thatwill ught asSerbianlit NTINUITY INCHANGE ć pska književna zadruga, 1996), p. 5. 5. p. 1996), zadruga, književna pska 's 's what Serbian literature is, Put srpske književnosti. Identitet,granice težnje no necessary logicallinkbetweenthefirsttwo cally and methodologically. Thisframework s the necessity to talkabout it. 140 what isSerbianliterature?, of anationaswell.However, Dereti Borders, Tendencies],although theauthor question;orheassumed thattherewere at isthe subject ofstudythehistory reasontolookforananswerallof ć , astonished bythefactthatthere is rbian literature.The veryfactthat erature in schools? erature inschools? [The path of serbian literature. literature. ofserbian [Thepath and sohedecidedto wasdetermined 309

ć failed

CEU eTD Collection covered bywhathasbeensaidhere." relatedness." that readers wouldeasilylearnwhatSerb Since, inhis view,allthese issueswereamatter ofcommonsense,Dereti vertical relatednessoftemporal second problem thatthisbookdealswith,is,theproblemof That is,onthenextpageherephraseshissecondkeyquestionasfollows:"The "borders ofSerbianliteratur with answersto,asheclaimed, "twocentralquestions":firstquestionwasaboutthe to dothis.Hewroteabookas 311 310 emphasis onthe which resiststransformation,anultimate common thatithasbecome banal. detail here.First,thequestionofidentifyi Letme repeat various periods? all thechangesthatoccuroverscopeof relatedness withinasequence of temporalsegments whichallowsustoclaim, despite establish aborder)withintemporal segm literature andanationitself.What diachronic level,either way,weare facing identity issues related to botha(national) whether wearedrawingaborderlineons "horizontal relatedness," itlooks likeDereti synchronic leveltheborders-relatedquesti Ibid., Ibid.,

p. 7. p. 6. One thingissure:whetherwearesear 310 Althoughitindeedisamatter ofcommon sensethatonthe change bydescribingfunction, e"; thesecondwasabout"its

segments of Serbianliterature, isfar from beingfully twousefulremarks thatIwillnotagainelaboratein if heexactlyknewwhat Instead ofsearchingforan 311 comes toberecognized asthe

141 on hasthesame meaningastheoneabout ent; andwhatcomes to time, thatweindeed deal withthe ian literature was on guarantee ofsameness, couldputan we ć ng/preserving continuityinchangeisso ynchronic levelorconfirmingunityon claims otherwise,untilweturnthepage. ching forhorizontal range andconcept internal unity and horizontal literature andnationwere. unchangeable core,one ce heprovidedthem berecognizedasa internal unityand of literature in or verticalties, same ć (howwe assumed same in CEU eTD Collection impression onreaders, atthe least. Unw about problems concerningSerbianliter rather: howisnationhood asapoliticalandcu various periods.Thesame goesforanation: 314 313 312 independent statehood"hastoshowunde small country"whosepartsonlytemporarily mistaken: Dereti deprived himself ofath more questions,hiscentralpointsmightha offer validanswerstothekeyquestionsheposed.Hadtakenintoaccountonlytwo instead, hedecidedtousethe engagement withtheseprocesses. group, butareuselessinde ones whichinfact canbe effective ingathering andmobilizing members of acertain and politicsintothefieldof strong notion ofidentity hasbeen displaced about literatureor(national) introducing astrongcon as cognitiveframe?" among Howdoesnationworkaspractic states? well demands of social analysis" (Ibid., p. 2). torn between 'hard' and'soft'meanings, essentialist itsindispen whatever suggestiveness, ofid the concept of isusage problematic Equally See Rogers Brubaker and Freder and Brubaker SeeRogers Brubeker, See Dereti Second: tosolvetheconceptualpr Jovan Dereti ć Nationalism reframed, , Put srpske književnosti, književnosti, srpske Put ć wasaware ć 312 paidnoattentiontoabovedisc

cept ofidentity–and, itdoesnotevenmatter whetherwetalk eoretical and methodological ground.Butletusnotbe eoretical and social analysiswithoutlosing 314

ick Cooper, "Beyond 'identity'," 'identity'," "Beyond Cooper, ick scribing processesofa concept of asubstantial iden p. 16. sability in certain practical contexts, 'identity' is too ambiguous, to ambiguous, is too 'identity' practical contexts, certain in sability ofthefactthatahistorian p. 185,footnote 1. 313

group of people –iswrongandmisleading.Agroup ofpeople 142 illing toconsider thosequestions, Dereti ve beenequallyinco ary historywouldha connotations and constructivist qualifiers, to serve to qualifiers, constructivist and connotations from apracticalcontextofeverydaylife rstanding for"questionsofpurpose "We shouldnotask'what isanation' but entity in its less strong sense: "Whatever its sense: "Whatever itslessstrong entity in ltural form institutionalized within and enjoyedadvantagesofmoreorless oblem ofhistoricalpermanence by al category,asclassificatoryscheme, ussed preparatoryconsiderations; group formation andgroup's Theory and Society, its essentialistconnotations, tity. Thispreventedhim to faced withaliterature of a rrect, buthisthoughts ve made abetter 29, pp. 1–47. 1–47. pp. 29, ć

CEU eTD Collection phenomenon." national literature wefacethreephenomen establish thegroundforSerbian Petrovi 1964, allthesetopicswerereasonablyan nations [...]wasinmany wa prevented normal development of capitalist so also oftenintertwinednational,ethnic, and regional developments," where "history which aliterature emerged onaterritory w literature, itsrangeanddefinitionofconcept." 319 318 317 316 315 problems ofthestudySerbianliteratur such as whatis literature? literature anditshistory?" ourselves: what is literature? What ishistory of literature? Andthen:what is Serbian reminded hisreaders, mostlikely assuming thattheywererather ignorant: "After all, [Nature of criticism] (Zagreb: Liber, 1972), pp. 193–207; here p. 194. 194. p. here 193–207; pp. 1972), Liber, (Zagreb: criticism] of [Nature [Methodological issues specific for studies of our national literatures], specific national for issues studies our of [Methodological Svetozar Petrovi Ibid. 56. p. Ibid., Dereti 195. p. Ibid., ć At theconference"OnHistoriesofYugos ... hastothinkabouttherelationshipbe Not onlyitisunexpectedbutalso therefore we willnotdeal withthem. First twoquestionsareonlyindirectly related tothesubject of thisbook, and changes, ifheistoestablishpa question of continuity thatis achi national traditionandolderconceptsof ć . Yet,several decad Put srpske književnosti, p. književnosti, 34. , Put srpske 317 ć Inaddition,theauthorelaborat , "Metodološka pitanja specifi 318 and whatisliteraryhistory? ys disturbed,"ahistorian: Heconcluded:

es later,Dereti literary historytofirmly claim thatgeneralquestions rticular nationalliterarytradition... 143 č na zaprou na 319 e anditshistory.Furthermore,Dereti ith "verycomplex pastofparticularbut eved byandthroughsharplinguistic d convincinglydiscussedbySvetozar ć ciety, andnaturalformation ofmodern

tween themodern c contemplated: "In absurd ofsomeon a: literary, historical, andnational literaryunity,aswellaboutthe lav Literatures,"he 315 č ed: "Firstofallwemay ask avanje naših nacionalnih književnosti" Healsoknewthatincase onlyvaguelyrelatetothe

ć in S.Petrovi onceptualization of e whointendsto the history of a the historyofa ld inSarajevo , 316 Priroda kritike Priroda

ć

CEU eTD Collection unknown –isSerbian.However, Dereti ć her withexplanationwhythis answered, areaderatleasthopesthat Serbian literature. perceives listedquestionsasonlyindirectly andvaguelyrelatedtothestudyof purpose ofliterature, its rangeanddefinition ofitsconcept. What "strictlyaestheticsense"?Allthesequestionsarecl theoretical andmethodological me of) literatureandplainexplan standpoint (orstandpoints,forthatmatter), JovanDereti theory indoing literary not beofanyhelptoher. discipline arepreferredandutilizedby the author, ThePathof SerbianLiterature discipline – literary theory, would wantto there areanswers tothesequestions, many an 321 320 Serbian literature,since hewasready to literature." them here.The natureof literature isasubj Ibid., pp. 56–57. 56–57. pp. Ibid., Ibid. Although sherealizesth Only adefinitionofthestandpointfrom And, whilstitisundeniablethatcertainextentofpragmatism anddisregardof works whichareliterary inna to theoretical standards, andtoconsiderthem tobemore important than those literature, althoughthey cannotbeconsid ... acceptsome textsasrelevant and inmany casesverysignificant worksof 320 Yet, if a curious reader, who has just learnt thatthereis Yet,ifacuriousreader,whohasjust aspecific history are needed, itisalso

ation ofpurposes unidentified subject –entitled at thequestionof ss. What "theoreticalstan rrow, strictly aesthetic sense. The PathofSerbianLiterature suggests:"Nationaliden 144 ect of aparticular discipline –theoryof know what answersfrom thisfertile swers, but there is no need to discuss swers, butthereisnoneedtodiscuss whichtheauthorapproaches(works ered aspiecesofliterature according hisanalysiscouldclearoutthis important toidentify from which what isliterature osely tiedtothequestionof dards"? What "literature"? ć Nevertheless,theauthor studiedthehistoryof literature forreasons 321 tity ofaliteratureis

wouldprovide willnotbe will CEU eTD Collection border andaguaranteeofitscontinuit Despite thefact that he nevertoldtheread key questions"isvalid. domain of personal experience–i.e.beyond precise description,anyanswerto"two could beseen asliterary) andthequestionof national identity isplaced withina My main concern isthe following: sincetheconcept of literature is put asidethequestionof identity. Insuchacase,anydescriptionis author believed that,together withhim, theywould beabletoexperience itsnational a matter ofpersonal experienceratherth 324 323 322 main distinctivenessofbotholdSerbianl not giveupthinkingaboutbasicchar whose spiritualsubstancedoesnotsignifican be –nottotalkabout how upsetting anddi

Ibid., p. 196. 196. p. Ibid., 195. p. Ibid., 35. p. Ibid., layers; the substance that rema to acollectivespiritualsubstancein Literature wasabletosimultaneously transform itself andremain itsowndue Dereti It isthequestionof across allitsbasicgenres. way oranotherinallmain literature thataretypicallypresentthroughoutitsdur Taking this intoaccount, wecan poi Although itisratherunclear ć discoveredinternalunityofSerbia how weexperiencenationalidentitiesof characteristics

324 "segments" itconsists of, withinallits periods and

what anunconsciouslayerof aliterarytextmight acteristics of Serbianliterature: y, inits"deep,unconsciouslayers": ined unchangedinitsessence. 145 iterature andthe eight a success, whetherimprecise or not.Letme an amatter of apr thatwearefacinghere. ToDereti itsfoundations,indeep,unconscious sappointing an insightabout acollective ers whatliteratureis tly changeovertime is–theauthordid nt tocertainpheno n literature, a ground for drawing a n literature,agroundfordrawing ation, manifested inone eenth centurySerbian ecise description." inhisopinion,the foreign 323 mena inSerbian empty (anytext

literatures ć , the , the 322 .

CEU eTD Collection Abrams, 62. genealogy, chronologyprevail." literature, "formssuchasbiography,ch primarily inherent to historiographic works; literature isits"non-fictionality." 329 328 327 326 325 Literature play animportant roleinworksoffiction.Inthebeginning something thattheauthor wasawareof,sin imply historicityandthatfictionalityis fictionality andhistoricity arenot one a changed inthe modern literature: precisely, an overallclass –ofliterary fiction. genres, andthatallworksdepictinve Ibid., p. 200. 200. p. Ibid., 199. p. Ibid., 198. p. Ibid., Forthe difference between 24. p. Ibid., This canbereadasa has founditsplaceamong th Literary fiction(and,withinit,especi Such adescriptionof its parts. the main topic ishistory,whetherhistor documentary-artistic genres; second arethose literary compositions in which principle emerges invariousforms, well, although thisliterature isrelying onsystems basedonfictionality.This Historicity as aformative principle hasanimportant role in new literature as drama, thebasis forms of modern literature. A Glossary of Literary Terms Dereti 327 ć past tencenturies, noticed:

genre thekeyfeatureof

and overall and class, suggestion thatpoetrya (Holt,Rinehart and Winston, INC.:1988 [5th edition]), p.72, 325 326 This"non-fictionality"isofaparticularkindand Thesame goes, Dereti causesmany troubles.Tobeginwith,non- e leadinggenresand,t 146 nd thesame. Thatnon-fictionality doesnot notinevitablyopposedtohistoricityis nted eventsbelongtoagenre–or,more ce herightlyclaimed thathistoricitymay arter, chronicle,annals,hagiography, 329 therefore, ina system ofgenresold ally novel),previouslyunderestimated, y ofwholenationorhistorysome of and for fiction for and among whichtwopr Itisalsopossiblethatthe authorwas Serbian literature,onethathasnot 328

nd drama arenon-fictional as a literaryterm, see M. H. ogether withpoetryand ć claimed, for Serbian The PathofSerbian evail: first are are first evail: CEU eTD Collection fictionality, thatis,pret nation's collectivefate,andthenwithcertain formal qualities,firstofallnon- literature withsome of itsfeatures, prim such has emerged asaconstituent elemen Dereti moment the irrelevant almost which does yet, non-fictionalmay alsobeanytextwhic may represent everything thatis notlitera of hisvague concepts –non-fictionality. not true)hasincommon,everydaylanguage this meaning of aliterary term as poetryand drama since the nineteen a correctclaim thatliterarynarratives, pa fiction misled bytheEnglishliterary term 331 330 point is: (honestly, Iwouldnotknowwhattosayaboutit);instead,letussee Dereti third definition of non-fictionality andfictionality asformal literary qualities Ibid., p. 208. 208. p. Ibid., Dereti includesliterarynarratives Nonetheless, theconfusionregardingfi with aclearconsciousne since thelatetwelvecenturyonward, Se effective inallperiods identity. It[consciousness...]isanother nationality ofliterature,thatis,itsconsciousness aboutitsownnational its characteristicwhichwediscussed thoroughly whenweconsidered duration hasbeenstronglyfocusedonana From allsaidsofar, itisclear that ć p. 198. p. 198. književnosti, , Put srpske not lie.

ension tofactualtruth."

of itshistory.Throughout fiction ss thatitisSerbian. ; inthiscase,thequotedse fiction. withameaning which ć introduceshiscentral th century.But,unfortunately,Dereti 147 rticularly novels,became equallyimportant Thus, according tooneusage, non-fiction arily withthematic ry narrative,includingpoetryanddrama; Asaliterarytermofgeneraldenotation, Serbian literature allthe waythrough its t withinasystem, filling the worksof h describesnon-inventedevents,i.e.text , usingthelatterasagroundforanother ction/non-fiction problematic becomes of itsdevelopingconstants,whichwas 330 rbian literature has been produced tion as collective.Relatedtothisis Thereisnoneedtoelaborate this 331

autonomous development, fiction ntence shouldbereadas argument: "Historyas orientation towardsa (somethingthatis ć mixed ć 's CEU eTD Collection 221–251. 221–251. 332 Pa 1970s, SvetozarPetrovi which nationalhistoryisnotthedominant to itsspecificnature,suchahistorywoul how thesedifferentperspectives werereflect numerous –hadbeenholdingdifferentvi nineteenth centurywhentheprocessoffo different epochs–itisimportant tonot historic fateofSerbiannation.Thishistor write aninterestinghistoryofSerbianli identity, since "national"collectivewasSe related to and focused onpeopleas collective, whichdetermined itsSerbiannational suggest thatDereti Serbian. IfIam tomake some meaning it exists because itisSerbian; anditsperm consciousness thatitisSerbia Serbian literature"allth Matice srpske za književnost i jezik, (II)" [Studies on Pa Svetozar Petrovi č i ć : 332 Let usbrieflysummarize theprevious which national theme appearedwithanaes during his formative age, theSlavic love intimate theme; and,probably,hewouldnothaveunderstood,ifithadexisted tended tostrengthenpatrioti love poem; hewasnotfamiliar withautilitarian spirit of a lovepoetry that to national-politicalthemes. Hedidnot comes tothedestinyofhispeople,he Although itcanberightlyclaimed thatPa Indeed, there areandthere havealways been such literaryworks.Inthe mid

č ć i , "Studije o Pa ć 's canzoniereII], ć wanted tosaythatSerbian literature had beenalways strongly ć drewattention totheninete e waythroughitsduration"therehasbeena"clear č

n." Ifputslightlydifferently i XXIII/1975, 2, pp. 209–248; "Studije o Pa o "Studije pp. 209–248; 2, XXIII/1975, ć evom kanconijeru (I)" [Studies on Pa Zbornik Maticesrpskezaknjiževnost ijezik, c nationalvoicebyusingem terature focusedonworkswhichfictionalize 148 y, forexample, may showhowwritersfrom theme,orisnot atallatheme. ews on Serbian nation nation onSerbian ews anent andunchangeable feature isthatit rmation ofSerbiannationstarted,arenot out ofthesetautologicalclaims, Iwould d leaveasideallthoseliterarypiecesin rbian. Indeed,itisarguablethatonecan e that these epochs, startingfrom the ed withinvarious liter avoidedanykindoflinkinglovepoetry quotes: in"deep,uncon use patriotic phraseasanexcuse fora poetryofPetrarchaninspirationin č thetic reason(toputitsimply and, i ć wasnotunsympatheticwhenit enth centurySerbianpoetJovan : there is Serbian literature; : thereisSerbianliterature; č otional strength of the i ć 's canzoniere I], and itshistory, ary forms.Yet,due č i scious layers"of XXIV/1976, 2, pp. pp. 2, XXIV/1976, ć evom kanconijeru kanconijeru evom Zbornik CEU eTD Collection the latest, revised edition (Beograd: Prosveta, Prosveta, (Beograd: edition latest,revised the although he did take, without providing a reference, Petrovi a reference, providing without take, did he although done by Svetozar Petrovi (p. our literature" 536).Clearly, Dereti Pa space toPa censorship. Dereti perspective, theirengagement maybe critics were more tightlyconnected tostateinstitutions than didwriters. From that them. truethat,duetothenatu Itisalso able toperceivemore clearlywhatnational have beenalwaysmore awareofnationalin into variousdirections.Forex measure ofnationalintereststo would begiventoPa Serbian literature"asfollows: 335 334 333 Pa have beenalreadylaidbyPetrović 1983), only thing Dereti In the first edition of his ofhis firstedition the In 232. p. Ibid., Petrovi č č i ć i ć 's bitter lines lines were not 's bitter patriotic. 's Canzoniere]. a heroaswell,ofhisownartisticchoice. cultural andpolitical changes; he was al Unfortunately, itistrue thatSerbian literary criticism veryoften used a One may indeed conceivehistory ofSerbianliterature inwhich more space It is worth noticing that Pa Petrovi was caused bythe crisis of Christian c emptiness within the basic antinomy of to some extent, simplified, itappeared asan expression of aneedtofill inthe God). ć ,"Studije oPa č i ć ; still,accordingtotheauthor, thenineteenth 333 ć made hispointabout"thedoomed fortuneofPa

ć waswrongwhenhestated: ć had to say about Pa č ć č i (whose two parts were published in 1975 and 1976) to be a "resonance," to be a"resonance," 1976) and in 1975 published were two parts (whose i ć ć evom kanconijeru (II)," p. 231. [History of Serbian literature] (Beograd: Nolit, Nolit, (Beograd: literature] Serbian [Historyof književnosti srpske Istorija 335 andotherslikehim. Foundationsforsuchliteraryhistory

ample, itispossible to saythat Serbian literary critics judgevalueofliterarywork ć did not consider elaborated and convincing study on Pa 's "StudijeoPa č č i ć i ć wasnotonlyaninno is that Pa isthat 3 2002), publishedafter his death,Dereti 149 re oftheirjob,majority ofSerbianliterary needs wereandtheyreadier toserve viewed asanotherformof(implicit) terests thanSerbian writers: criticswere onception ofworld,or so avictim, whichcan alwaysindicate aworldofPetrarchanpoetry,which 334 č i ć century poet had no "actual resonancein

wasacavalryofficerinAustrianarmy. In č i ć ć 'sremark critical accordingtowhich evom kanconijeru"[Studieson s. Thispointmay leadus cent poeticvictimof bythedeathof č i ć 's poetryin ć gave more č i ć

CEU eTD Collection Dereti the finalstepsofestablishinganddiscussi fiction, thentherehastobe of ultimate values,"themostauthentic cr "political aspectsofexiste works ofDobrica Dereti making cardinal mistakes in hiscritical criticism. Yet,the question remains: W between two concepts of literature – 337 336 with "onlysymbolically conceived backgr literature, Dereti final resultofhisdiscu continuity uponit.However,itseems literature andnationalhistor literature? Althoughinteresting answers tosuchquestions.Afterall,what is"path"or"development" ofsome studies ofSerbianliterature.Besides,itis Ibid., p. 262. 262. p. Ibid., Dereti ć ć putsforward,alongsideSerbianclassicsIvoAndri 's historiographicalmodel occurwhenit this tensionhasbeenvisiblethroughoutallperiodsofitshistory. these extremes isoneoftheinternalsourcesSerbianliterature's dynamism; literature as art,literature freed from However, Dereti as culture.Yet,weapproachingth literature, literature ashist In thebeginningofallepoc Questions thatDereti ć p. 210. p. 210. književnosti, , Put srpske ć completely agreedwithArnoldT Ć osi ć ć , whichare"absorbedbycollectiv ssion wouldlooklike.Whenit wouldhavebeenrightifhe nce ofSerbdom," considering a hugemistakeinhisreasoning.

ć soughttofindanswerareindeedimportant for y is insufficient for cons and fairlygrounded,theideaofcloselytiedSerbian ory, literature inservice hs there isthe same modelof literature: functional that itwasnottooimportant toDereti judgments? Namely, themajor weaknessesof history 150 eative moments" of twentycentury Serbian ould suchself-reflectionsavehim from notatalleasytogiveclearandprecise ng essentialfeaturesofSerbianliterature ound," "againstwhich we candrawour anypragmatic purpose.Tensionbetween e ending,itturnsinto and comes tojudging literaryvalues.Ifin oynbee: thisproblem isconcerned aesthetic –toSerbian literary hadassignedsuchoscillating them tobetheembodiment of enlightenment, literature tructing representationof 337 comes tocontinuityofa e, national fate," that is, ć

andMilošCrnjanski, theoppositemodel: 336

ć what the whatthe CEU eTD Collection story of national identity of Serbian Literature was for Dereti perceptions ofdiscontin 338 culture by,forexample, thenineteen national-pragmatic viewonliterature, whichwas rather successfully promoted inthis origins to the mid twentiethcentury), admitti write an"overall" history of Serbianliterature (from itsallegedlySerbian medieval 6.2. Cultureaslegitimacy Yugoslavia. what is"theirs," comical iftheydidnotremind usonequallyabsurdclaims about primary purposeof literature ("national, social, andpragmatic"), wouldbealmost down totheargument thatinalltimes "something hasbeendonewithbooks"),or "not ethnicalSerbs,"aswellhisclaims Croatian), oraboutthesuspic borders andinternalunityof methodologicallyand empiricallywell-groundedassumption. usefulandtheoretically fiction. to dealwiththosewriterswhosometimes national categories that writers belong in"(this isparticularly thecase whenonehas within Serbian literature, whichcause "disagreements andconflicts when itcomes to problems, moreorlesstigh Ibid., p. 190. 190. p. Ibid., But, theproblem isinthe fact that Dereti One hastobefair toProfessor Dereti Since hedidnotofferadequateansw whichhadsetagroundforseverearmed conflictsinformer uity intheir actual diversity andcomplexity".

tly relatedtothem Serbian literature, Dereti

ion thatarisesregardingth th-century criticStojan Novakovi 151 about,say,continuity(whichcanbeboiled declaredasSerbian,and othertimes – ć ng thathe is notallalone inholdingthis , theonlyliteraryhistorianwhodaredto ers tohis"twokeyquestions"about . His theses about complex relations . Histhesesaboutcomplexrelations ć ć completely disregarded this wasnotabletosolveother e statusofwriterswhoare ć not more thana mere what is"ours"and ć 338 , inthepre- Thus,the CEU eTD Collection [medieval] sourcesbyspecificnational-t and believethattheyhave common ancestors to imply attachment toagroupwhosememb historians ofSerbianliteraturewouldnotha identities. Even if theyha therefore imprecise useoftheterm"nation" ideologists andrepresentativesofone only tosomeextent,thatis,medieval aut Skerli 340 339 elements thatarealso centraltoDereti "Serbian" literature in second halfofthetwentieth of nationsin Europeand itsdemocratic imp Skerli literary critics](Vrnja merilaca. Esteti merilaca. Prosveta, About Serbian literary criticism in the nineteenth century, literarycriticism see nineteenth M.Jeremi the Dragan Serbian in About Milan Kašanin, ć ć time. 's ideasinthelightofprevailingview The latterclaim (outside thecontext of "national affirmation") isimprecise they arenotonlyindividuals,but social, moral, andliterary; theyare not they haveconcreteandclearlyformulatedthoughts–state-related,religious, mirroring the time andsociety. enthusiasm, its originality initsnati narration, itisalsotruethatitspower in itsideas,essencereligious If itistruethatthebeauty of ourme In themid twentiethcentury,MilanKašaninwasthinkingaboutmedieval 2 1990 [1975]), p. 9. 9. p. [1975]), 1990 339 č ka shvatanja prvih srpskih književnih kriti Without playingwithwords or ente [...] Yet,whilewemay showso Srpska književnost usrednjem veku č ka Banja: Zamak kulture, 1974). Zamak1974). kulture, Banja: ka thefollowingmanner: d usedcategoryofethnicalbe century leaveusconfused.

also representativesofoneworld. 152 world. Theformer claim encompasses all ype names weresuch[group]bypolitical ć hors arewritersprecisely becausethey are 's "insights":firstofall,undefinedand ve solvedtheproblem. If"ethnic"isused lications, ideasofliterarycriticsfrom the for thepre-nineteenth centurycollective ers sharelanguage,territory,andhistory, , than"most SouthSlavs indicated in our [Serbian literature in the middle ages] (Beograd: (Beograd: ages] in literature [Serbian middle the points decisivelymarked by"discovery" meć understanding forNovakovi dieval literature liesinitsmagnificent onal affirmation, itsattractivenessin only writers,butalsoideologists,and č rtaining themselves withnarration, ara [Aesthetic firstof Serbian concepts longing insteadof"nation," ć , 340 Merila ranih

's and CEU eTD Collection Michigan Press, 2006), p. 3. p. 3. 2006), Press, Michigan Ivi mind, itbecomes clear howvastwasthe walked alongsidegreatEuropeannations." "From allourhistory,wehavetheleastknowledgeaboutuniqueperiodwhen are abletoknowhowvastwa Like Kašanin,PavleIvi impression of greatness comes, sincethere be consideredethnicCroats,Serbs,orwhatever." affiliation; namely, theindividuals so labeledserved thegiven state's ruler, andcannot 344 343 342 341 At theverybeginning,processwas within both"national"and"int come from? Furthermore: whyisitsoimpor national property–noteven question: wheredoesthe needtopresent medi spread among them); infact,itis much medieval Serbianaristocracymust havehad, zadruga, John V. A. Fine, Ibid. PavleIvi Kašanin, ć concludedonthebaseof widely spreadamong mediev read among gentrythroughoutEurope(i accidentally saved; itisknownthatsuch ... remnants orechoesofmedieval romance thathavebeenmore orless Kašanin oftenexaggeratedinhisvalu Formation of Serbiannation started inthe first half of thenineteenth century. There isnoneedtodiscussnumbers 2 1986), p. 119. 119. p. 1986), ć Srpska književnost u srednjem veku, , Srpski narod i njegov jezik When Ethnicity Did Not Matter in the Balkans Notinthe Did Matter Ethnicity When ć hadnoreservationsaboutth in ethnical terms, whichw

s theculturaltreasure,althoug ernational" (European) context? ernational" (European)context? [Serbian people and its language] (Beograd: Srpska književna al Serbianaristocracy). p.6. cultural treasurewe 153 342 is noenoughknowledgeaboutthatperiod. symbolically marked bytwoevents: the more interesting toposethefollowing so thatanythingmight havebeenwidely However,itisunclear from wherethis here (forinstance,how many members e judgments ofliteraryachievements: eval literature andliteracy interms of tant tohighly evaluatethis literature 341 entertaining lite t isalsoknownthatliteracywas

ould alsohardlyholdwater– e following:"Havingthisin (Ann Arbor: The University of of The University Arbor: (Ann 344 h ithadbeenlostforever, lostforever."

rature waseagerly 343 Thatwe CEU eTD Collection language donebyVukKaradži and thusforanationformation; alinguist rebellion againsttheOttoman Empire, whic 348 347 346 345 other words: revolution necessarilycausesdiscontinui according towhichthis workwasa"tur suture made byVuk's revolutionarystitcheswasnolongeracceptable. tradition, anationstabilizesitsidentity.Thepr already existedwithinit establishes nationalid language inwhichthenewnationcouldtellit to stabilizethisnewlyformed identity,Vu recognized by(untilthatmoment) fragment mirror stage be possibletosaythatinthemid nineteen believe itisaquiteappropriate comparison nation formation andpersonalidentityform throughout Europeinthenineteenthcentury. distinguishes Serbiannationformation fr performed the role of literary language and which he eliminated of this role" (Ibid., p. 239). 239). p. (Ibid., role" this of eliminated he which and literary language of role the performed language. His language was amuch more effective social instrument then the language that previously "Vuk's achievement is primarily determined fact determined isprimarily the by for thathe achievement set an literary "Vuk's our optimal ground Ivi Ibid., p. 321. 321. p. Ibid., 240. p. Ibid., ć , Srpski narod i njegov jezik, p. 238. between thelanguageofVuk's pred Vuk's languagerepresenteda Dictionary andourcontemporary literarylangu Continuous lineofdevelopment connects beenoftendescribedas"layingaground", Although Vuk's workhas . Theimagined borderssurroundedand entity: anationunderstandsitselfby s owntradition.Andtheotherwayaround,byimagining its

ć . 345 revolutionary break,there Neitherone of thesetwosymbolic markers 154 th centurySerbiannationpassedthroughits ty, sacrificeoftraditionalheritage." ecessors andourlinguistic times. k's linguisticreformprovidedpeoplewith ed nationasitsownembodiment. Inorder om thesimilar processesthatoccurred forexplanatorypurpos ation –thoughitmight seemimproper, I h laidthefoundationforaSerbianstate, ning point"prevailed:"Vuk's typeof ic reform ofSerb s own story. It is a kind of"suture"that s ownstory.Itisakind oblem arisedwhenitturnedoutthatthe If wemake aparallelbetweenSerbian language ofthefirst edition ofVuk's also defined territory which was also definedterritorywhichwas age. But,sincethevictoryof imagining itselfasifithad ian oralandwritten is nosuchcontinuity es –thenitwould 348 346

aview 347 In CEU eTD Collection 350 349 is rather clear that the continuity establis orientation, achoicemade undertheinfluence stabilize itsidentity.Given thefactthatit establish acontinuitywith a traditionwhichitusedto imagine itself and,bydoingso, with alanguage inwhich thisnation coul with aterritorysurroundedbyprojectedboundaries ofanation-state,Vukprovidedit another; thatis,Vukmade a Namely, while Vukdid sacrifice one continuity,he atthe same time established democratic interms nineteenth ofthe cen its waytoJovanSkerli srpska/Institut za književnost i umetnost, 1977), p. 479–489; here p. 488. here 488. p. p. 1977), 479–489; i umetnost, za književnost srpska/Institut Palavestra (ed.), Kašanin, Jovan Skerli time, therewasnootherpoetryorwe didnotknowofit. lives notonly becauseitissogreat, folk discoveries.Folkpoetryhadacentr poetry isjustafolkliterature,anditsvaluesignifi also, tostop believing that there isno The assessment ofVuk's achievements givenbyIvi At themoment whenanationdiscover It isabouttime tostopseeingourpast Yet, halfacenturylater,Kašaninsaidaboutthesame tradition: rulers. life isnotbuiltupondustyparchments andweddingagreements among "historical rights,"andwear people ontheearth.[...] "Serbian culture" andabsolutesuprem helmets. Thisisnolongerachildish greatness ofourraceisinmedieval ru We leave that feudal romanticism behi Srpska književnost u srednjem veku, ć 349 Kritič , "Obnova naše rodoljubive poezije" [Renewal of our patriotic poetry], in Predrag In spiteofalltherespectforapeopl

ki radoviJovana Skerli ć :

suture usingadifferenttrad e deeplyconvincedthatth ć a p.6. [Jovan Skerlić 155 tury, forcefulandunconstrained–hasfound hed byVuk's victoryhadtobeatthesame was amatter ofchoice d narrateitsownstory,make suture,and a butalsobecause, duringoneperiodof greater poetrythanafolk one.Anyfolk self-overestimating, anaivebeliefin ed itsembodiment byidentifyingitself lers andknightsinshiningarmors and of socialandpoliticalcircumstances, it nd us,andwedonotthinkthatentire throughtheeyesof acy ofSerbianpeople,thechosen al roleinournationalandliterary e's past, wedonotgiveadamn for 's criticism] (Novi Sad/Beograd: Matica Matica Sad/Beograd: (Novi 's criticism] ition. Thisothertradition– ć cance donotgobeyond isnotpreciseenough. e rightofonepeopleto 350

acultural-political folksingersand, CEU eTD Collection thus more desired: Limited sourcesallowresearcherstocons literature hasattractedhistorians preciselybecausethere cultural treasurelostforever. to dothis,historiansreferandput nation formationismarked byagap,instead time discontinuity withotherexisting tradit 352 3 351 do –tobridgethegapcausedbyVuk's linguisticturn. national identity,anumber ofhistoriansSerbianliteraturehadtried–andtheystill poetry wastoonarrowandinsufficientas usually happens when identitypatterns are Bogdanovi or people with whom Roman or Byzantine rulers had to fight or make compromises" (Dimitrije able tribes alliance of of sometribe, kind neither that thing only thisisthe and ancestors, "Albanians' tradition' ofgreatcultural 'inheritors considered quite inaccordance with Todorova's concept of region, then other stare srpske književnosti, Mediterranean Greek-Roman civilizationandbecam a a with contact established wide down Serbs region, to this theacross and settling "Arriving Balkans as South Slavpeople,became as this (Ibid., CatholicRome" 17). p. However, and Empire Byzantine Balkans: in touch with an old and developed civilization, they established active relationships with Slav people "appeared asa historic people in utter sense of these words, as soon asthey arrived to the of people who came just to look aftertheir cattle look to who came just people of insignificance demonstrated that a nationalistic logic does not leave room for neutrality. neutrality. leave room for not does logic a that nationalistic demonstrated Bogdanovi Todorova, before decades acoupleof However, stay neutral. should region, the determines Balkan provinces of Byzantine Empire 1986], p. 14). Thus, the One of the most persistent, Dimitrije Bogdanovi Dimitrije persistent, most ofthe One Kašanin, imagine thatmedieval Serbia wasmore alikeToscana than Turkey. illiterate people–hadneverlookeddifferently.Eventoday,itishardto looked atthetime –withoutcitiesa empire Bothweandothersbeli –Vienna. in factidenticalperspe as well itshistory and culturewere At thetime whentherewasascience

ć , Srpska književnost u srednjem veku, KnjigaKosovu o p. 90). If we accept Bogdanovi weaccept p.If 90). only thing that issure that thing only historic subject [The Book on Kosovo] [Beograd: Srpska akademija nauka i umetnosti,

ctives: small dukedom Belgradeandgreatcapitalof Itisplausible tosuspectthatmedieval "Serbian" (Ibid.). Todorova argues that and p.6. 156 to impose itselfasanactive historian actor, nor state forward medieval "S true daringimages ofthepastunknown,and inheritors, . However, it does not go, say, for Albanians: ć ions. Thus,thecrucialmoment ofSerbian e inheritors of itsgreat culturaltradition" did not hesitatemaketo claimsthe following: as bydesiredunity,whic about Albanians is the issure, did not representstrong ethnic group or a culturalgroundforconstructionof activated. Oncetheyrealized that folk seen fromtwoapparentlydifferent,but bout ourpast,Serbia nd roads,withneglectedvillagesand eved thatallSerbianregions,asthey ć 's argument about "inheritance," which is which "inheritance," about 's argument was established by

(Ibid.). Unlike Albanians, every South 351 active relationship active Interestingly, are sofew documents left. Balkan peoples should also be her concept of heritage, which ofheritage, her concept erbian" literature– h issomething that political and military military and political n landsandpeople quick robberies within in which Serbs, Serbs, which in in attempting 352

(Istorija (Istorija a ć

CEU eTD Collection and political integrity." century. "Acompletely formed nation" is legitimacy forastate andanation, asthey granted thatculture ingeneral andliterature 353 in periodsbeforeandafter th this standpoint,Dereti identity willbesuccessful if this identi continuity withrejected pastwhich assume discontinuity withcertainprevioustradit circumstances specifictotheEuropean Serbian Literature. establish continuityasitwas concepts of nationand literature are emptied; theseemptied concepts areusedto Serbian culturalparadiselost.However,th left, provides the most adequate materials for aliterary-historical construction of look. Inthislight,the"Serbian"medieval period,withaveryfewwrittendocuments proportion: thelessevidencetherewas, more impressive SerbianToscanawould look for"highercultura and literature inToscanian terms rather th what canbesaidabout"higherculturalin the ideaofstate is freefrom anyassumpti part ofdefinitiona"completely formed na Bogdanovi To date, Serbian historians andliterary Instead of implausible attempts todescribe essential unityof Serbianliterature ć Knjiga oKosovu, , Knjiga Shift incultural-political orientation caused bysocialandpolitical ć 's 's 353 l integrity."Oneshouldalsobe path Ifhigherpoliticalintegrit p.9. e mid nineteenthcenturyrevol seems asanimpasse ofSerbianliteraryhistoriography.

understood anddescribedbyDereti ty applies toeverythi 157 on aboutcommon originofitscitizens.But, only anation thatreached"ahigher cultural an Turkishones,givessome hintswhereto ions sodeep,that tegrity"? TendencytoseeSerbianculture tegrity"? inparticularareth nineteenth centurywassogreat,and s hardconceptsofnationalandcultural in fact oncedid–inthemid nineteenth is paradisecouldberegainedonlyif tion" isplausible totheextentwhich scholarshavebeenmainly takingfor y connotesstate,thanthe ar inmind asortofnegative utionary changes,itwould ng (oranything).From e domains thatprovide any insistence on the any insistenceonthe ć in The Pathof political

CEU eTD Collection autonomous path" "the path of Serbian literature –tothe exte reasons causedthisnewcultura be more interestingtoanswerquestionssuch 355 354 bring togetheronhis the past two centuries–precisely extent, isstillstronglysuppressedby two conflictingoptionswhichdominated over according towhichliterature, infact, might help ustounderstandwhyculturaloption historiography intheclashof decades ofthetwentieth century,and thero orientation bypseudo-feudal, understand, oratleastdescribe,thech ground thatcultural-politicalorientations relatedness, andstarttoperceiveessentiali would giveupestablishingbordersofSerbianliterature,itsinternalunity,andvertical decades ofsocialistconstruc artistic power,"which–tousebriefandqu is, "theparticularsetofworkspoetry orientation hadpreciselyfrom – "swooped" Ibid. Petrovi

ć ,"Studije oPa 354 onthisliterature.Itwouldbeequallyinterestingtotryexplainhow 355 path ofSerbianliterature. č –wasdetermined bysocial andcultural circumstances in i ć evom kanconijeru (II)," p. 232.

tion of newstate. Serbianl thesetwoorientations.Maybethisattemptwouldalso "artistic powerof folk poems inVuk's collections," that l-political orientationtoprev ethnic onethatoccurredin thosetwooptions thatDereti 158 of very specificfeaturesandextraordinary nt towhich,asalitera ite precisedescriptionbySvetozarPetrović ange ofVuk's revolutionary-democratic which putsindividualinthecentreand le of literature and literary criticism and are strugglingfor,wouldbeableto aswhat"significant socialandpolitical st conceptsof identityas legitimizing haveanautonomous pathto certain

iterary historiography that ail," andwhatbenefit this Serbiancultureinlast ture, ithadsomewhat ć clumsily triedto

CEU eTD Collection "good" literaturefrom the"bad."In the characteristics ofliterarypiecesthatare 7.1. Literatureasaresourceofidentitypatterns "FORGOTTEN BLACKMAN" Chapter 7 awarded novels: if literature doesnot havethepower tomake readers betterpeople, is way throughthesecond partofthechapter, of literature willbe important byPlato.Additionally, Plato' was formulated first partofthechapter.Aristotleestab their true value. drawing preciselyoncriteriausedbythecr outstanding. Iwilldemonstrate that thesenovels arefar from beingexcellentby the lightliterary criticisms thatconsidered piece ofliteraturethat could havebeenbetter. Secondlineofmyargument bringsinto argue thattwonovelsarecomplete literaryfa concerned withthecriticalevaluationof will follow twolines of argument inmy the prestigiousliteraryawardfornovel detail. Inaddition,Iwillgiveashortco This chapterconsists of twoparts.Inthe first part, Iwilldiscuss Two distinct approaches toevaluating lit when itcomes tothe question lished thefirstapproach,whilesecondone second, Iwillanalyze twoSerbian novelsin mment onathirdone.Allthreenovelswon 159 used tosetthecriteriafordistinguishing the qualityofthreenovels.While Iwill itics whoappraisedthem somuchbeyond of theyear,entitled these three novels tobenoless than ilures, third novel willbe assessedasthe analysis. First line of my argument is s andAristotle's insightsinto thenature thatis,throughoutthe analysis ofthe erary workswillbeelaboratedinthe I willbare inmind allthe "The NINAward."I CEU eTD Collection it possiblethathasthepowertomake them 356 limit validityofhisjudgment toconcrete we agreewithMihailovi author contrastedJoycewithDostoyevskya reaching, itdoesnotwork inalong run,it – 'beauty' inarthasthestrangetendency "lacks wisdom ofthedetails,it ofgradation yet, Icannothelpthinkingthatitisnotagoodnovel."Thiswork,Mihailovi brilliant narrativetext,abook it ishard to find anexample thatis more rate author.ThisiswhatMihailović despite thefactthathedemonstrated anex points ofviewtoacuriousreader. Forinstance, Mihailovi is agoodbook famous prosewriteratthetime. Twoof of thisjournal atthe time. Answ 7.1.1. Stylethatissomethingelse book which interviewerandintervieweesoughtananswertothequestion two philosophers,Iwillbrieflytalkabout literary criticism insuchaproject?But, Književna re č Mihailovi Vidosav Stevanovi . The mentioned interviewfrom 1973wa ć , Književna re [Literary word]. . Certainlyworthreading,thisinte ć , "Stil je nešto drugo" ["Style is something else"], an interview with Dragoslav with Dragoslav interview else"],an ["Style issomething drugo" , "Stiljenešto č 12, 1973, pp. 10–11. 10–11. pp. 1973, 12, ć ornot.What isimportant isthefactthatMihailovi

full ofsomany beautiesthat 356 ers weregivenbyDragoslavMihailovi TheinterviewerwasVidosavStevanovi hadtosayaboutUlysses them weretryingtoanswerthequestionwhat 160 before goingintodiscussionoftheideas beautifully written, more elaborated, more literary works.Instead, he generalized the to cause pollution –andthusitisnot far ceptional writingstyle,wasjust asecond- theinterviewdoneinyear1973, isterriblyoverfilled andwithoutfreshair only workstillthenextparagraph." The nd Tolstoy. Itisbesidethepointwhether worse people? And,whatistheroleof worsepeople? s publishedinaliteraryjournal rview offersseveralinteresting ć claimed thatJames Joyce, it takesone's breathaway, : "Inall world literature, what isagood ć , analready ć ć , aneditor wenton, ć didnot

CEU eTD Collection what areaderwouldexpecthim todo),hein completely reject" today. Namely: been unnecessarilyput forwardfordecades hauler, ahardworkerwhodoesalldirty termed 'fabula' laterinconve Furthermore, whathefirstregarded as that is,indeed,style.Ontheotherhand,in is whyhedidnotmention 'content'. Ontheonehand,Mihailovi and, atthetime, theoretically manner atthetime. Inotherwords,ifhe would haveengagedintheoreticaldiscussi he wouldhavebeenseverelycritiquedfo something more thanastyle: book good;form andstylehavenovalueinthemselves. Thestyleassuchhastobe previously mentioned viewpointandclaimed

literacy andseemingly interestinglangua carefully chosenbeau hills andto thesixth floor.Without hi who willcarryourpiano tobasements andintodeepholes pushit upthe decisively runs their lives, even if it[fabula] isthe"smallest" one– is the one worker, fabula,thatisseemingly subject A storyistheonethatplaysmusic, but Mihailovi read orhavejustread. real stylehasmore meaning andsounds the onewesee,and,ingeneral,itis words andsentences,differentpeople for sure,something wesee,butitisalso from allsides,butwedonotsee invisible, liketheairwe Style asasurfacewhichmirrors aw ć , ofcourse,didnotsaythatcont tiful words,would soonturnintoan emptyechooffine rsation. Accordingtohim, fa contested distinctionbetween breathe. Itisev it. Style is,Iwouldsay,something 161 'style whichissomethingelse', Mihailovi had talkedabouttheimportance ofcontent, r evaluating literature physical jobsonpure stead oftalkingabout a storydifferentfrom anarratedone.The troduced 'style whichissomething else'. on aboutliterature ," andwhom we"unnecessarilyagain, hole work,inmy oughttobe opinion, that "beauty"isnotenoughtomake a and landscapes,differentperiodfrom m, music ofnarrati ge, andfalltopiecesdown thehill. much morethanthat–itisdifferent thisforgottenblackman –thehard ed to literarycharacters, but, infact, erywhere aroundus,itembraces us better thantheactualsentenceswe ent matters. Hadhesaidit, bula is"atransporterora form by usinganoutdated andcontent ć heavens," who"had content (and,thisis in aninappropriate talkedabout'style' on, inspite ofall else. . So,this Itis, ć

CEU eTD Collection elements ofliteraryworkwhichhad been 7.1.2. Meaningfulnarrativeformulas also, byandthroughthistranslation,introdu is rightly chosen, sinceworkstaken from fo "introduced" literatures:ifone national and"introduced" 357 as important elements ofliterature. forward fordecades,andwhichis,unnecessarilyagain,co bit lessstrictly, a a one stepfurther:whenhesaidfabula,Mihailovi "much more"or"something else"than "other wordsandsentences."Infact,itis 'other story thatisbeingtold', because it term fabula inthiscontext,Mihailovi contributes decisivelytoth enough foraliterary pieceto that is,styleandfabula.Mihailovi i.e. theybecome itspart. But,letusstick [Monologue in Dragoslav Mihailovi Mihailovi Dragoslava forma "Monološka prozi u life"(VladislavaRibnikar, realityof concrete fr creative achieving and conformism about literature, he ofliterarylanguage; rebuilding and artistic canons importa out pointed he fiction; Serbian contemporary message Vladislava Ribnikar summed interview as this summed up follows: Ribnikar "Mihailovi Vladislava Central toabovediscussedinterv Dragoslav Mihailovi of aliterary workaswell. message might standforsomething that e qualityofthework.And,itismost likelythat,byusing ć (translated) talkedaboutmany interesti

thinkscarefully,itturnsou ć be "beautiful," thatis,to 's fiction], ć stated:inorder tobea valuablework,itisnot In fact,ifIinterpret Mihailovi ć literatures. Letme make ashortnoteon directly referredtocontent.He to is indeed possible toexpress contentby using iew –atleastasIunderstandit style. IwouldtrytotakeMihailovi 162 with adistinction betw Mogu already putforwardby reign literatures are notonlytranslated but the contentthat mi ced intoasystem of nce of creative risk and and risk creative of nce spoke about the 'domestic' and the 'foreign' in in 'foreign' the and the 'domestic' about spoke eedom, about richness of materials richness of offered by eedom, about ć nosti pripovedanja ć didnotpointonlytocontent,but ng things,among else,about haveafittingform; fabula t that the term "introduced" had beenunnecessarilyput mpletely rejected ć made commentson events in [Posibilities of narration] narration] of [Posibilities een formandcontent, ght bedescribedas need forchallenging of domestic literature, Plato and Aristotle ć 's wordsalittle 357 –arethose today ć 's point 's point . ć a" CEU eTD Collection quotations weuseoverlap. Ribnikar. Furthermore, it seems as if Ribnikar an to mo that (p. 74).whatbe Iconsidered It follows remembered because of aninteres achievement ofaspecifictragiceffect–i.e.pityandfear. moral; whathehadinmind whenhe formulated formodeling charactersoftrag purpose. ItispossibletoarguethatAristo which might beunderstoodasanaesthetic time asareversal. complex weave,themost successful are thos one withacomplex weavethanonewithasimple weave; since thebeautyconsistsofmagnitude andorder; literature. According toAristotle,goodlite 362 361 360 359 358 Mihailovi [Beograd: BIGZ, 1987], pp. 73–108; here p. 73). Yet, above all other things, Ribnikar stressed that acting steadilyandprudently,"whereasso has beenputinEnglishtranslation)oughttoimitate agoodman, whenheis "most subject itsroletotheofcontent:an honorablepoet(orthe"realgentleman," asit could berelatedtoitscontent. accomplishment ofawork,matter more than concept ofpoeticworkisconcerned,magnit fearful andpitiable things serves to Augustine's Press, 2002), 1450 b30–b35. b30–b35. 1450 Press, 2002), Augustine's Aristotle, Aristotle, Ibid., 1452 b35. b30. 1452 b25; 1449 Ibid., a30. 1452 Ibid., Ibid., 1452 b30. Let usre-freshourmemory aboutwh We may alsorecallthatPlato,whenhetalk ć spoke "about new attitude toward the language": "Mihailovi language": the toward newattitude "about spoke On Poetics, On 360 translated bySethBenardeteandMichaelDavis(SouthBend,Indiana:St. Speakingabouttragedy,Aristo ting and unusual contribution to this create pity andfearthatleadto 163 tle did not perceive moral requirements he he requirements moral perceive not did tle accomplishment freedofanynon-aesthetic edy asgeneralconditionfortragedytobe meone unworthyshouldbeonlynarrated st striking in the interview was not important was interview for important inthe not st striking rary workoughttobeputtogetherwell, d I read two different interviews, although the although interviews, d I two different read formulated theseformulated requirementswasan e inwhichrecognition occurs atthesame ude andorder,togetherwithaspecific educationalandrearing purposes that at AristotleandPlatosaidabout 358 ed aboutform, did among works,more beautifulis tle claimed that imitation of 359 kind of critical conversations"critical kindof andamong workswitha 362 ć AsfarasAristotle's 's interview is primarily isprimarily 's interview not hesitateto katharsis, 361

CEU eTD Collection sorts ofthings according tothelikely orthenecessary." him, poetryaimed torepresentwhat"falls was alsoaware oftheimportance patterns influence onviewers,listeners,andreadersshouldnotbeeasilydismissed. Aristotle premise accordingtowhich lite that theyshouldnotbeallowed. but, sincetheyhadbadinfluenceonpeopl and men." patterns ofbehaviorand"more poeticthey unblessed andunhappy. Suchworks donot represent proper and morally acceptable rearing. Thiswouldinevitablycauseape about. 368 367 366 365 364 363 some charactersarejust, othersarenot. Ofcourse,itdoesnotfollowfrom suchclaim added thatcertainbehaviorsar the "general,"ratherthan the"particular." were notjustmirror-images ofconcrete,r could violatethehierarchy of thesoulagainstwhole"; and readers. Heworried thatsome literary examine howcontentinfluencedthoughts,emo man is happy at the same time (Ibid., 353e-354). parts of the soul, that is, by subjecting spirited and desiring parts to calculating part. For Plato, the just meddlethat is with each other (Ibid., 443d). This is possible to accomplish by hierachical ordering of and just person is the one who does not allow none of these three parts tomind business of other parts, Plato says the soul consists of three parts – calculating, spirited, and desiring one (Ibid., 440e-441) – 444b. Ibid., Plato, Ibid., 1451 b5. b5. 1451 Ibid., Aristotle, 387b. Ibid., 363 Although itishard,evenimpossible, to The Republic, The But,contenthadnovalueinitself 366 On Poetics, On It is clear that Plato translated by Allan Bloom (BasicBooks, 1991 [second edition]), 396c-d. 396c-d. edition]), [second AllanBloom1991 by translated (BasicBooks, 1451 b5–10. b5–10. 1451 365

364 e moreacceptable thanothers; or,inother words,while withinthesoul,establishedthrougheducationand rature oughttobejudgedby theimproperrulingofthisrebelliouspartinsoul did notdenypoeticvalueto 164 contentsmay provoke"rebellionofapart eally existingpersons.Poetryspokeabout rson tobecome unjustand,consequently, e andmade them unhappy,Platobelieved are, the less should they be heard by boys are, thelessshouldtheybeheardbyboys 368 acertainsortofma of behaviorforliterature.Accordingto Inrelationtothis,Platocouldhave tions andbehaviorofviewers,listeners accept Plato's radicalconclusion, his for Plato: his main his Plato: for 367 Represented characters taking into account its takingintoaccountits theseliterary works; n tosayordocertain concernwasto CEU eTD Collection

Plato andAristotle, Icouldhavereferredto literature, people also build, c the testdifferentpossibilitiesofself- assign meaning totheirownexperiences,defi principles, norms, values,andidentity patterns. Byreadingliterature, peoplealso represents akindofinstitutionalized knowledgethatcomprises certainsetsof discourse. Itispossibletosaythatawork assigns meaning toher/hisexperiences.Litera identity patterns,according towhichone discourses. Theseknowledgescomprise certai articulated andeffectiveth various kindsofinstitutionalized understanding. literature offers toits viewers, listeners, an emphasized, bypresentingtypesandtheirty listeners, andreaders,asPlatohadalr draw attentiontopoet's failuretoacknowledgeit. morally unacceptable. And, ifapoethadfailed todoit, then aliterary critichad to and clearlyshowthatrepresented characte Plato couldhavestillinsisted that literaryworksre 369 place asthe social subjects ofpar on the one hand the discourses and practices which attemp suture, of point the meeting point, the referto to 'identity' "Iuse meaning": of "structure with Stuart Hall used the term describe the to Hallused "suture" Stuart All the previously said thingscould Two thingsareimportant here.First, present unjustcharactersshould notbeallowed.However, ticular discourses, and on the othe thatitwasnecessaryfor

rough relativelystablelingui onfirm, question,orchange knowledge. Thesedifferentknowledgesare understanding. Toputitsimply, byreading 165 an intersection, that is, matching between "subject" "subject" is,matching between that intersection, an eady pointedout.Second,asAristotle r wasunjust,andthat defines her/his place inthe worldand StuartHallandhisconceptofsuture. d readers, patterns of of literature–orlite n setsofprinciples,norms, values,and have beensaiddifferently.Thereare ne theirplaceintheworld,andputto literature hasan impactonviewers, ture isalsoadiscourse,orpartof pical behavior in certain situations, t to 'interpellate', speak to us or hail us into usinto to orhail us speak 'interpellate', to t a poeticworktoacknowledge r hand, the processes whichr hand,the produce their identities. Instead of stic practices,thatis, suchbehaviorwas behaviorandself- rature ingeneral – between 369

CEU eTD Collection 7.2. Whatisonthestock? meaning totheir –ourexistence. reading narrative fictions, sincethey find in the lastofhissixwalksthroughnarrativ Or, Icouldhavedrawn,evenmore plausi 372 371 370 5–6). pp. 1996], Sage, [London: 'Identity'," Needs Who "Introduction: which positions the subject attachmentto temporary whic assubjects us construct which subjectivities, chapter hasshownthatboth important and legitimate, since the interv crucial forpeople's existencewithinthesenovels. Ibelieve thatmy attempt isboth Will]. Č competently interpretandevalua messages, andformulas conveyedbyliteraryworks. literary life. such issues, sinceliterary criticism represents aninstitutionalized waytoregulate their roleislessimportant inthis matter; it is inquestion,writersandpublishersshouldnotbethefocusofdiscussion,since ought tobeexplicit.Therefore,ifanorgani izmaši Vidosav Stevanovi Vidosav Dragoslav Mihailovi Umberto Eco, 372

Let usnowlookattheformulas offeredbyDragoslavMihailovi First oneisaboutliterarycriticism.Thepurposeof But, beforeIstarttheanalysis,letme makemy two,in opinion,usefulnotes. [Solders], Iaim toidentifyconcreteformulasused Six Walks in the Fictional Woods the in Fictional Walks Six ć , 371 ć Testament , Č andVidosavStevanović [Solders]izmaši (Beograd: BIGZ/SKZ/Prosveta,

writers acknowledgedtheimpor [The Last Will] (Beograd: SKZ, 1986). 1986). SKZ, (Beograd: LastWill] [The in S. Hall and P. du Gay [ed.], Gay[ed.], P.du S.Halland in te literature.Criticaljudgm 370

166 bly, onUmberto Eco'sclaimed, ideas.Eco in (Harvard University Press, 1998). e woods, that peoplewouldnotgiveup zing ofliterarysceneorfieldliterature is rather literary criticswhoarecentral to discursive practices construct for us" (Stuart Hall, (Stuart forus" construct practices discursive h can be 'spoken'. Identities are thus points of arepoints thus Identities 'spoken'. canbe h iew discussedatthebeginningofthis them formulas that inhisnovelTestament toarticulatewhatisconsideredbe Questions of Cultural Identity Cultural of Questions tance offabula,contents, ents ofliterarycriticisments literary criticism isto 2 1987). 1987). theyusetogive ć inhisnovel [TheLast

CEU eTD Collection school curriculums. Thoseareliterarycritics. are peoplewhocreate institutionalized poweroverestablishing, equally careful.Themostsignificant decades aswell. only inapoliticalfield,butfieldof members ofothergroups(andinparticular Serbian peoplewereconsideredtobe its placeintheworld,formulas accordingto Serbian peoplewereproduced.Formulasused analyze Mihailović particularistic principlesthat a member ofanother ethnicgroup. society subscribed tothe principle that a life of "Serb" ismore important thanalife of values. Forexample, insteadofbelievingin norms, andvalues.Instead,itembraced ase In theearly1990s,Serbiansocietystoppedre aware thatmynextstatement willbehars 373 roughness isnottheproblem. Theproblem is (Bandovi happened, and only 18% of citizens believethatthese really that this Vukovar, believe in 24% ArmyYugoslav and civilians paramilitary troops killed more these were warcrimes,that slightly only but believe 75% and weretrue events the that believe 82% 'Flash', and 'Storm' operations during civilians areas These described warcrimes.events group. believe them to be trut if the victims wereSerbs and the perpetrators belonged to a different ethinc and events with isfamiliar ofcitizens percentage A significantly event. larger given the victim of is very bi events these to attitude and selective, "Memory and familiarity with events related to wars in the former SFRY (1992–1995) is very isvery (1992–1995) SFRY former the in wars to related events with familiarity and "Memory Although literatureshouldbereadcarefull The secondnoteisaboutSerbianliterature ć , The Activity of ICTY Crimes The Activityof War National Judiciary, and 's 's Č izmaši canons legitimizing patternsforthecrimes doneinthename of [Solders]andStevanovi

, make decisionsaboutliteraryawards,andproduce ased, depending on who was the perpetrator and who the who and perpetrator was the who on ased, depending 373 167 h andalsoabitrough. But,its harshnessor confirming, andtransmitting values.Those Itisagainstthebackgroundofsuch more worthythanlivesand interests of the universal value of human life, Serbian neighboring peoples),werenotarticulated Serbian literature of the previous three Serbianliteratureoftheprevious readings belongtothosewhohave 85% have heard that the Croats killed a lot alot of Croats thatthe killed heard have 85% than half of the population has heard that the that the heard has ofthe population half than Thisisthereasonw which livesand interestsofmembers of were true events andconsider them warcrimes" todescribe Serbia that thefollowingst t ofparticularprinciples,norms, and specting asetofuni y, notallreadersareexpectedtobe in thepastthirtyyears.Iamfully ć 's 's p.64). Testament n peopleanddefine hy Ihavechosento atement iscorrect. versal principles, [The LastWill]: CEU eTD Collection angažman oba pisca tokom'90-ih ne može dauti Stevanovi č nacionalisti na razli features, primarily with thematic orientation toward thematic orientation with primarily features, with its someof literature works of the a system, filling within element asa emerged constituent has literature: "History assuch Serbian (p. 200) of asaformative principle" "historicity about spoke picked novelwouldfit this exceptions, indeed.Evenifonerandomly chooses anovel,itishighlyprobablethat ideological pattern according towhich literaryworkshavebeenawarded,withrare award hasbeen given accident failures inthem. But,Iwillnot doit.Myin Semolj], awardedwith"NIN"intheyear2005. support theirvalu won NIN's award.What didliterarycritic 7.2.1. Unanimouspolyphony Stevanovi literary works,Iwillmention MiroVuksanovi best novel.Inaddition,tempted "continuity" bythe withinSerbian policyofawarding with themost prestigious literary award inSerbia –theannual NIN's awardfor the both novelswereassessedasoutstanding by prominent literarycriticsandawarded 375 374 toSerbianhistory, somehow related definition, all literary worksthat Serbian li on theclaimthat Unsurprisingly,novelist? critics' keyargument fortheirpositive judgment wasbuilt Zanimljivo je da su se Dragoslav Mihailovi An illustrative argument Dereti illustrative wasformulated An Jovan by č It wouldbeeasytoridicule twooutof Testament itim ideološkim pozicijama. Vidosav Stevanovi Vidosav pozicijama. ideološkim itim ć a iz'90-ih bliži, smatram dajeMihailovi ć ku politiku, dok ju je Dragoslav Mihailovi Dragoslav dokju je politiku, ku 's Testament [The LastWill]waspublished in e judgment ofTestament Testament [The LastWill]. offerednewperspectiveonnationalhistory.Almost by

ally orwithout deliberation patternwithoutproblems. ć 375 i Vidosav Stevanovi iVidosav č 168 e na razumevanje njihovih romana iz '80-ih. iz'80-ih. romana njihovih e narazumevanje andthisrelationshipisnearlyalways asagoodnovelandStevanovi s say,whatarguments didtheyofferto s a nation's collective fate, and then certain then with fate, and s a collective nation's terary critics consider tobe valuable are tention istodemonstrate that noliterary ć threenovels, for anumber of literary daleko bolji pisac od njega. Tek, politi Tek, njega. pisac od bolji daleko ć tiho podržao. Iako sumi Iako politi podržao. tiho ć ć 's novel ć javno je kritikovao zvani kritikovao je javno 1986. InJanuary 1987its author . In his ć u '90-im našli uslovno govore uslovno našli u'90-im Put srpske književnosti, književnosti, srpske Put Semoljzemlja in Serbia. There is a clear aclear is There in Serbia. 374 Letme start with ć [Lendof as a good asagood č č nu srpsku ki stavovi stavovi ki Dereti č ki ć ć i

CEU eTD Collection Panti 1986, onesthattheauthorof "boundless reinterpretation,"LjubišaJeremi critics compete with historians interpretations? Eitherway,wewouldbeal hard totell.Isit,say,providingnewhistoricalfacts? Stevanovi is "destructive"for"constrainingmystificat new perspective described usingthephrase"newperspective."But, whatisnew 377 376 (p. 208). ascollective" nation ona focused strongly been has itsduration waythrough the all literature Serbian that far,itisclear so first is, formal that of all pr non-fictionality, qualities, through oxymorons], rebellion: Vidosav Stevanovi Vidosav rebellion: LjubišaJeremi Mihajlo Panti ć , forexample, explained: reinterpretation ofnationalhistory. and horribleimages [...],toestab ... Thus, atleasttwomeanings aremade outoftheclaim that tradition... unrecognized, butconstraini considers ittoberevealing,andinso significance ofStevanović exposes ustoallsortsof manipulation. unquestionable truthisjust question; narrativelanguagedisclosesth challenged, andourattitudeaboutusual, conceptualizing world,embodied va in particularly novel,hasbecome amedi According toawidely accepted notion, About thesame LjubišaJeremi "reinterpretation," ć Testament 's fiction,consideringhi ć This perspectiveprovidesusw , "Vidosav Stevanovi ć inunderstandingnationalhi , "Poetika posredovane pobune: Vidosav Stevanovi 377 Aleksandrijski sindrom2

attempts, byusingseemingly chaoticshiftingofvariousvoices ć ], ], Glas izvremena Testament withintheirownfieldofre ć : oksimoronsko pripovedanje" [Vidosav Stevanovi story? Or,whatwerecommstory? 's attitudetoalangua amere fiction,ideol ng mystificationsof (Beograd: SKZ, 1994), p. 124. 124. p. 1994), SKZ, (Beograd: tried to destroy and reinterpret? triedtodestroyandreinterpret? (Beograd: BIGZ, 1993), pp. 325–326. 325–326. pp. 1993), BIGZ, (Beograd: 169 376 ć lowed toassumethat writers andliterary

ions ofthepast."What wassonewin etension to to etension factual (p. truth" 198); "From allsaid lish akindofpolycentric,boundless statesthatStevanović story. While MihajloPantić um throughwhichexistingmodels of me aspectsoftenverydestructivefor rious discourses,aredepictedand e factthatwhathas beentaken as "natural" beliefshasbeenputin ith thebestpossibleviewon narrative artin ourepoch, and ć said: search, i.e.history.Mihajlo ogical construction which ogical constructionwhich ge ofnarrativeart:he thepasttimes and ć on historicalnotionsin " [The poetics of indirect inthis Or newhistorical 's 's Testament new perspective perspective points to ć : narrating : narrating offered offered is

CEU eTD Collection other'. In any case, asingle eye cannot be – implicit beliefthatperiods comparison withstandardnotionsofhistor periods awfulthingshappenandsignificantly this trivialunderstanding,onewhichreduces perspective inunderstandinghistoryassuch down, thereisverylittle,ornothing,tobe of disastersandviolentacts.Inotherword history – something thatisawakeand activ sleeps. But,letusnotgo intosuchadiscus squinted 379 378 this wordis'to haveeyesof different color' or't Stevanovi Here, "squinted" stands for " Spreman sam dasvakom budem br [Mi smo Jugoslavijudovoljnopla za We may ask ourselveshowtime couldpassandepochschange,ifthehistory squinted waking uponlytocheckwhattime ofth stays calm andquite,sleepingasabeast behind itself,turningtheworldupsidedown,sparingnoone.Sometimes it Yet, whenit[history] comes, itpops bodies constantlyfloatinSava.They brother. Therumor hasitthatSerbsha Iamagain? readytobeeveryone's brothe We made greatsacrifices Another voicefrom One ofStevanovi urokljivo odravnodušnostiisumnje.] pogleda kojejedobanapolju i ponovozatvaralasvojejedino spavala jestotinama godina sobom, prevrtalasvetnaglavu,nikognije [Ali, kadjedolazila,banjavalajo eye. ć , Testament, 378 eye, merciless and suspicious, abletocast spells. p. 124. 124. p. ć 's narratorsdescribeshistoryasfollows: č akarasto," a very rare word in co Testament of peacearenot worthyof

forYugoslaviainthefirstwar.Shouldwedoit č kaozverušumskojpe akarasto. informs us: o have eyes thatlookin di 170 s, iftheworldhasnotbeenturnedupside y, thenoveltyofthisconceptmight bein saidorremembered. Ifthereisanynew e andthusworthmentioning –asaseries inthenovel,then at, aliakotajtoželi.Pri sion. Itisclearthat 379 call it"meatmarkets." forBelgrade's out,destroyingandleavingitsmarks change livesofamajority ofpeople.In ve beenslaughteredeverywhere,dead history toabanalclaimthatinsome

ć in aforestcaveforhundredsofyears, j sehtelo, rušilaiostavljala znake za ali uprvom ratu.Zartrebaopet? r, ifthatsomeone wantsme tobehis štedela. Nekiputjebilamirna itiha, e year is, andthen is, e year ntemporary Serbian. The meaning of testamentary it may onlybefoundin fferent directions from each ć ini, budila setek da the author perceives theauthorperceives lookofhistory's closesitsonly č č a se da svuda a sedasvuda akarasto oko,

CEU eTD Collection mystifications of thepasttimes" weredestro critics neveropenlysaidwhathistorywasreinterpretedand"constraining Yugoslavia" wasakindofcomm "truth." And, letme sayitagain,astatemen worthy than some (although simple artist history. thing altogether. But,the criticinsistedon repeated awell-knowntruthabou reinterpretation wasofferedby 1990s. So,althoughImight notbeabletosay a number ofcommon placesfrom thatperiod. point: theviewonhistorythat not perceivecitednarrator's wordsasa in Sava.Someone towhom topoi contrary, thequotedse excerpt. Thereisnoliterarydestructionofhist sacrifices onthealtarof Yugoslavia,unr as well,when itcomes to historical evaluation of ajointstate of SouthSlavs:Serbian 380 Ibid., p. 176. 176. p. Ibid., testamentary confirmation ofhistoricalmystif incontemporary Serbianhistoriography, Had Panti It seems tome thatthere isnothingnewaboutSerbian nation pijace".] kolju Srbe,daleševiploveSavom neprestano.Tozovu"meso zabeogradske Itseems thatPanti 380 ć

claimed thatStevanović ntences clearlyexemplify someth ć strongly believedthat reinterpretation in itself wasmore Testament

the novel,Iam surelyable Testament onplace in1986. Thisiswhyitsointeresting that t Serbianrecenthistory,it wasnotthefirstbooksh new perspective 171 eturned brotherlylove offeredmerely repeatedand reinforceda convincinglyandartis the boundless reinterpretation of national the boundlessreinterpretationofnational ically successful)re yed. Furthermore, criticsdidnoteven try t suchas"wemade greatsacrificesfor orical mystifications initeither. On the what wasrevealinginandwhatkindof and incontemporary Serbianliterature ications, whichculminated inthe . Shewouldratherseethem as ing thatmight beviewedas wouldhavebeenanother tosayagainmy starting , floatingdeadbodies e hasever readcould petition ofcommon tically successfully al historyinthis CEU eTD Collection reinterpretation wasclearly to identifyfrom whichhistorical 382 381 imagine and,also,lackmeaning: reader. Instead,thenovelisfullof descriptionsandimages thatareimpossible to abilities. Hisuseoflanguagedoesnotcreat argue thatStevanović critics wantedtosaythatStevanovi something life-giving spring Testament. dynamism" managed tocompensate foran"a the life-giving spring of Serbian narrative art." attitude tothelanguageofna demonstrate this,letme proceedwith would stillarguethatawardednoveldoe granted inthereading process, ascriticsim conceptualizing recentSerbian history. what purpose.Basedonall meant, fromwhichstandpointsthathistory mentioned issues. Critics simply assumed th critics, all dealt with commonplaces, therewa construct theirre spoke, whattheirhistoricalcompetencies were Panti Jeremi ć For thesake ofargument, letussaythat , "Vidosav Stevanovi ć , "Poetika posredovane pobune," p. 326. 326. p. pobune," posredovane , "Poetika bothsignalsome positive qualities.This 382 Whateverthis statement might mean, onemay assume that interpretations. But, sinceStevanović of narrativeartand , atleast inTestament, ć : oksimoronsko pripovedanje," p. 127. 127. p. pripovedanje," : oksimoronsko bound

rrative art,"claimed thecritic said, itis possible to and ideologicalstandpointsStevanovi by analreadyestablished andaccepted model of ć wasgoodwithwords.However,Iam readyto formal analysesof thenovel."Stevanovi 172 linguistic dynamismthatcompensates for gaveusareasontoquestionhislinguistic plied intheir interpretations. Evenif so,I at readersknewwhat e expected suspension ofdisbelief in the was destroyedorreinterpreted,andwith s notstandforagoodliterature.To s no needto explicitly address the above pparently staticand Iacceptthatsome thingsaretakenfor , andwhathistoricaldatatheyusedto 381 leadsme toconcludethatboth Furthermore, "thelinguistic , his narrators, and also his , hisnarrators,andalso conclude thatdiscussed , "derivesfrom depthsof constraining history slow narration"in depths ofthe ć 's narrators ć 's 's CEU eTD Collection 385 384 383 paragraph. literary termthatcoulddescribeorexplain"s completely inadequate,ratherweakterm..." Panti Stevanovi [Mycomments in brackets.] ć flying; Iam notevensurewhatIam from my shoulder),Iamon my wayb Carrying my right arm inthe left one women thatwerebroughttohim.So,whowaskilled? Who didthe warriorkill?Probably,hedidnotkillmen. Hesleptwithall killed others.Thestorydoesnot demanded tobringhim allgirlsand transformed into amuscular, ruthless warrior withaflaming sward;he unlike humans" soonashecame comefrom?].As fromtheNorth,he does thisidea todescribe a"seven-headed dragon"asa"creaturecompletely listens) [ The villagers ofKaotell(usingvoicesoldmen andwomen towhonobody Panti negde pogubioiženekojesre srce uradiojetodobro;ništane drugu mi zamenjuje granakojusam odlomio sadrveta.Onajkojimi jeizvadio mi jeodsekaojezikizatopri svetluca. Crevasumi ispa slep, nadrugojedvaneštonazire u Kao.Nitihodam nitiletim, neshvatam štaupravoradim. Najednooko sam [Nose have beenlost,didn'tthey? and ahalfleg.Nottomention aheart.Th right arm in theleftone, [ somewhere, andwomen thatImeet donot have anyreasontobeafraidofme. through thedust.Someone cutoffmytongue glitters tome. My intestines fell out from my slashedbellyandIdragthem [eye] Icanhardlyseeanything;thelight [ dragon, acreaturecompletely unlikehumans spentanightinthevillage time ago,whenthetime wasnotmeasur did itwell;Icannotheara in hisleftone,detachedfromshoulder? snatched from atree.[ do nothaveonelegbelowtheknee;inst , "Vidosav Stevanovi Imagine women–orsomeoneelseattackedbyaperson whocarrieshis Imagine aseven-headed dragonthatl ć , Testament, ć ć made afollowingremark: "...'naturalism' ishere,formany reasons, i desnuulevojruci(ionamisenekakoodvojilaodramena), vra So, isthereanyonewhohasheardthestoryandpassedit? p. 28. p. ć : oksimoronsko pripovedanje," p. 124. 124. p. pripovedanje," : oksimoronsko

How did he snatch it? With his rightarmthathecarries How didhesnatchit?Withhis almost blind, withhis intest nything inmychests.Fortuna la izrasporenogtrbuha ] 383 ć

č em nemaju raštadame seboje.] am sasobom. Jednunogunemam dokolena, č ujem usvojim grudima. Mošnicesam sre 173 saywhathappenedwithmen... [ m; svetlost mije tamna, no 385 tyle" usedineither previous orfollowing doing. Iamblindononeeye,withother young women; hesleptwiththemand Andhewasright.Infact,thereisno (this onewasalsosomehow detached ack toKao.Iam neitherwalkingnor ed andwrittendown,aseven-headed ooks likeahumancreature!Where ead oftheother[leg] Iuseabough ey gotreallyluckybecausetesticles isdark to me, thenight blurrily ] Theonewhotookoutmy heart and thisiswhyI i vukusepoprašini.Neko ] ines indust,without one tely, Ilostmy testicles 384 talk tomyself. I ć

mi nejasno ] thatlong Question: Question: ć am se ć om CEU eTD Collection of waterinabarrelmirrorssky,then leaning againstabarrel?Evenifitispossi 389 388 387 386 Yet, excerptsquotedfrom thenove someone todeclarethatnoonewrotebetternovelthanStevanovi decided within Serbiannarrativeart..." way..." narrative art,knowshowtom outstanding book."Testament have been(andwillalways be)criticswho wouldevaluate one wouldclaim differently.Therealproblem, continue: author's abilitytodothingswithwordsa Stevanovi 124. p. Ibid., Panti Stevanovi ć 387 šta jebilosamuškarcima...] dovedu svedevojkeimlade ženeiob u koš sasvim neljudskarugoba,zano nekada, dokvreme jošnije So, my questionis:howcouldsomeone's It goeswithoutsayingthatwriterma [Kaljani pri stoji; o da seumije, nagaosenadbureitako ostao–smrzao se.Nitimrda nitipada, [Ju his eyeswerepiecesoficethatmirrored acloudysky. that position–frozen.He didn't move, di barracks; hewentouttowashhisface, Yesterday wesawoneofour , "Vidosav Stevanovi Furthermore, č ć ć e smo jednog našeg(ne e smo jednog , , Testament, Testament, č atog, surovogratnikasaplamenim mač č i sumukomadi č aju (glasovima staraca istaricakojenikonesluša)kakoje p. 196. 196. p. 30. p. ć "Testament : oksimoronsko pripovedanje," p. 128. 128. p. pripovedanje," : oksimoronsko

ć provesthatStevanović 388 i ledaukojima seodslikavamutno nebo.] And,asifallthosea eet highstandardsinan bilomereno izapisivano,sedmoglavi zmaj, neka 386 ć emo pišemo da koje)našlipredbarakom; pošao people(wewillnotsay alsoopensnewpossibilitiesforexperiments

ć l raisesome doubtsregardingthe io u Kalu. 174 nd createimages thatmake sense.Letus ble, itwouldbeonlyindirectly:ifsurface eyes may mirror thisreflection.Yet,if ležao ih,aostalepobio. Pri y sometimes write atrulybadbook.No leaned against abarrel andremained in one thatbothersmeisthere most, dn't fall;hewasjuststandingthere; Č eyes mirror asky,ifheorsheis im jestigaosasevera,pretvoriose em uruci;naredio jedamu se , whenitcomes towriting ppraisals werenotenough, his name)infrontofthe artistically appropriate Testament č a nepominje 389 ć Testament

in1986. asan

CEU eTD Collection novel iscomprisedof"historical,myth polyphony." that reinterpretationis"polycentric So, whatcanonepossiblysayaboutthere critics thantheimpression thathistorywa Testament barrel, andinform usaboutthisrevelation. capable ofseeingwhatwasreflectedinth there wassome reflection.Insuchcase,we case, surface offrozenwaterwould notmirro someone gets immediately frozen,thenthewa 392 391 390 And fromwhichnarrativest follow frompreviousPanti animal fromthepast." which islinear andwith powerfultracesoftribal andpatriarchal,solid asapetrified constructed thepositionsoffe One andthesame voiceisdoingallthetalking. female voices in reinterpretations ofhistoryin thenovel.Butthiswouldbe patrijarhalnog, patrijarhalnog, ..."sistemakaljanskih rodbinskih odnosa [koj 127. p. Ibid., Panti ć There isanumber ofsimilar, artisti the worldthatweputindanger. than fathers; widowsrebuilddestroyed villages, onceinawhilewomen save Although noonefromKaowouldeverad From thenovel's beginning,itlooksasiftheauthorparticularlycarefully , "Vidosav Stevanovi . But,itseems thatthe fact that thes 390 č vrst poput neke okamineiz prošlosti" (Stevanovi ProbablythishassomethingtodowithPanti Testament 392

ć : oksimoronsko pripovedanje," p. 125. 125. p. pripovedanje," : oksimoronsko ć shows thatthepolyphonyisonlyapparentinnovel. 's comment thattherearevariousunderstandingsand andpoint isthisreinte

male narrators, within "the ical, fantastic,andoneiricvoices." 175 " andarticulatedthrough"novelistic s reinterpretedbyandthroughsuchimages. e eyesofamanwhowasleaningagainst a interpretation construc i] jelinearan, sajakim tragovimaplemenskog i wouldhavetoimagine someone whois r anything.However, letusassume that e wereliterary failures mattered lessto ter oughttobefrozen cally rather unsuccessfulimages in mit it,mothers aremore important rpretation given? Panti rpretation given? ć , Testament, incorrect.The analysis of system ofkinshipinKao, ć p. 31). p. 31). 's statement thatthe ted bysuchimages? aswell.Inthat 391 ć Itshould suggests CEU eTD Collection beat" theirwives,while"the males from afemale perspective:whenth strengthened bythefactthatthereisnodiffe truth fromthedominant, tribalandpa disbelief needstobekepton.Thisvoiceought using theirownvoice,iffornootherreas temper, those same women ("ill-tongued" from patriarchal, tracesofthepast: 396 395 394 393 Testament, instead oftellingdifferent,redeeming truth,whena to make them evenmore busy," communicate withthem through relations inwhichmen perceivewomen as Ibid., p. 155. 155. p. Ibid., 154–155. pp. Ibid., 125. p. Ibid., 30. p. Ibid., houses, withcattle,andinbeds,how robus It wasonly thenthat we realized ho [Mada nijedanKaljanintonikadane Furthermore: svega) nežne.] kod stokeiukrevetu,kolikosunjihovatelabila [Tek tadavidesmo kolikonamstvarno that beatenthem. everything, howtenderthei Women –"saviors" –areseemingly opposed mi ugrozili.] udovice obnavljajusatrvena itreadily and repentantly confirms 393 396

] ir" men "rob,beat,insult,and

394 "silence andbeating,""make pregnantonly them Exposedtomen's violen r stronghandswere.[ naselja, ženepovremeno spasavajusvetkojismo 176 ey getdrunk,"our"men "harass,swear,and "ill-tonguedandalwaysready toquarrel," on, thenbecause narrative suspensionof triarchal one.Suchanexpectationis rence inbehaviorofdomestic andforeign w much wemissed ourmen infields, bipriznao,majke subitnijeodo toverbalizeandstandupfordifferent themale perspective) oughttospeak muškarci nedostajunanjivi,uku t theirbodieswere, rock-solid tracesoftribaland totheworldoffixedpatriarchal č These arethesamehands ride vrsta, arukejakei(pored female voiceappearsin ce andunpredictablebad " women. and, inspiteof 395 However, č eva; ć i, CEU eTD Collection zemlja was (onceagain)foundbyMihajloPanti following twodecades. Theanswerissimple: need toworryaboutwhathappenedwiththewarm "we"ofSerbianfictioninthe reinterpretation through allthesevoices.Buttheproblem isth reinterpretation. What remains todoatthispointisdiscoverwhat"I"speaks forus all narrativestandpoints.Thereisneither 399 398 397 manner: Miro Vuksanovi 99–100. pp. Ibid., Ibid. [LandofSemolj], unapred poražen.] strepnju; moderan isprosja [Moje uznemireno "ja"ondasekrijeuprostranom itoplom"mi", pokušavada cultural heritage? reinterpretation exactlyinterpret within fail. [ does notrecognizeit,heis moment suppressanxiety;modern man doesnotknowforconsolationand giving springofSerbiannarrativeart. images [ Then, my "I"hidesinwide disturbed This isnearlyeverything There isnodifferencebetween narrative povedosmo kolaumesto doma robust, tough,andill-tempered.[ Most important, werearedoursonsandtaughtthemtobelikedeadmen, muškarci, [Ali smo podizalesinoveivasp najviše we ledkolo Redeeming "we"appearsinthisrein č of,Serbiannationalhistorythat ć This is,probably,thelanguage thatderives fromdepthsofthe life- i nekolikopoetskihslikakoje , č Semolj zemlja Semolj insteadofheadsourhouseholds.[ vrsti, grubiipreki.Kadsmo ihženile,mi zaigrasmo nasvadbama, ] 398 č 399 ovek nepoznajeipriznaje

MihajloPanti [Land of Semolj] (Beograd: Filip Višnji Filip (Beograd: ofSemolj] [Land

thatonecouldsayabout bitteranddisappointed, ć ina.] Recognition. 177 ć (literary)de(con)structionnorboundless 397 . AneditorofMiroVuksanovi ć recommendsthenovelinafollowing at itisnot"I"that and warm "we," begging for few poetic and warm "we,"beggingforfew

it moved fromKaotoSemolj,whereit thecontextofSerbiancommunitarian ], whichwilllessen my fear, forthe ć itavale ihdabudukaonašipokojni voices: wehearthesame voicefrom e ublažitistrah,privremeno oterati appeared in1986.Also,thereisno terpretation. But,whatdoesthis ] Ontheirweddings,wedanced; Complete identification. utehu,usamljenik jegoraki always alreadydoomed to new perspective ć speaks. Itis"we": , 2005). , 2005). ć 's 's on,or Semolj ] CEU eTD Collection

novels, theanswerwouldbe–nothing.Very Land ofSemolj,thatis,betweentheyears1986and2005.Accordingtothesetwo and Semolj's "we,"seem tobeimpo careful reader, similarities between Kaoand been writtenandawarded,asifnothinghappe reason toaskourselveswhathappe ancient people, especially ifthose people go 400 Ibid., note from the back cover of the book, italics are original. the cover italics areoriginal. of book, from back note Ibid., the [ means absolutelynothinginSerbian. as Iknowandfar endeavor."] Spyingputitseveningdresson, compared to somekindofweeds,ifwearetobelieve the author's "linguistic growing inuncult impure originsmultiply [ reinterpretation? nor inSemolj.One"we"-truthisallthereis. are nosomany truths;infact,there whom. sidehasitsowntruth.[ Every Many yearshavepassedsincewest In Semolj: mitu zač It ishard to tellhowwe(nowadays polazi, udrevnupri i gotovoneuporediveromansijerske jezi [Roman along theway. from ancientlands, are justfirststepswhichleadusth A novelLandofSemolj Vuksanovi but themeaning ofVuksanovi well. same, unfortunatelyhopeless, Clearly, allhousesareours, "we"-houses. ], andofanalmostnon-comparable novelistic,linguisticconcentration;

What happenedafterwardswasthesame asbefore. [Turningpointand (Villagers of Semolj posedfrequentlythisquestion.) eti, inegdeusputzagubljeni.] Semolj zemlja ć evog pripovedanjanipoštoutome ] Hatred spread out. It multiplied the same waythose of ivated field. [ č who arelikeUs, u odrevnim ljudima iz drevnih predela,

jerezultatjednognesvakidašnjeglingvisti isaresultofanextraordinary linguistic endeavor[ dictionaries ofSerbianl Who are"thoseofimpureorigins"? ssible. Still,heretheyare. ned betweenpublicationdatesof ć effort isexpectedfromreadersofthisbookas As wecansee,"thoseof 's narrationcannotbereducedtothese– 178 formed inmyth,andthen lostsomewhere rough anancientstoryofpeople t lost along the way.However, there isa 400 Semolj, andinparticularbetweenKao's are noteventwotrut op tothinkwhowasdiggingholefor But, aswehavealreadyrealized,there ned overthepasttwodecades.Tomore people) couldeverbesimilar tosome ] andsettleddowninallourhouses. similar, almostthesame,bookshave

] č ] What happened next? ] What happenednext? ke koncentracije,alisesmisao proceeded withawidehat[ ne iscrpljuje–onsamo otuda anguage areconcerned,this impureorigins"canbe hs, neither koji suistiMi, ], asweedswas Testament č kog napora, in Kao As far and The u CEU eTD Collection 404 403 402 401 from Semolj call"Kolakovi Ibid. Vuksanovi Stevanovi Vuksanovi da misle nasebe.] i prič [Svi Kaljanizasebemisle dasuBel and thosefromBlackKaoareall"we." if theywere talking about themselves. [ about them. Theydespisethemsopersis despise thosefrom BlackKaofrom thepi nastavilo širokukapuizakona jedna okodrugeumotale izamakle udim.] of tongue.Itseemed tome thatIsaw burning; shewasyoungandbeautiful,butsh All peoplefrom Kaoconsiderthemselves In Kao: nesoj kopao. Ijedniidrugiimaju svojuistinu.Štajebiloposlije? [Prošlo jedostagodinaotkakoneznamo kakojebiloikokome jamu Or, itmight bethatavillagerfromSemolj gotlostinKao –whichpeople zmijskom strijelom, umjestojezika. Pri crnoj marami, ucrnojširokoj Pri izverugana, dabježi izdima, palaca [Prič running fromorintoasmoke?] running intoasmoke. [ scarf wasflying,upwardandquickly,in smoke thatfrom theflame, togetherwith thesnake, awoman withablack quickly hertongue,thearrow flasks wouldbe,andtwisted,itwas It seemed tome thatIsawablack In Semolj, aswellinKao,wecome across"ill-tonguedwomen": č ć injelo misekroz dim,izplamena, zazmijom, navišeibrzo,leti žena u ć ć , injelo midimdolazicrnazmija, sedakroz duga , , aju strašneprič č Testament, Semolj zemlja, Semolj Semolj zemlja, Semolj ad kote,kaoštokor Poslije jebilo jednako.Mržnjase (Pitali su Semoljani, tako i p. 25. p. 402 p. 320. p.320. p.7.

e onjima. Tako upornopreziruitakopotankopri ć 's Valley"–andstartedtohallucinate.

The question fora careful reader is:wasthis snake ov rasteunekosini.Špijanjeseobuklosve č rašikojajegorjela,mlad that bites.Itseemed to ilo usvakojnam ku 179 č snake coming throughasmoke,longastwo esto.) okaljani; Crnokaljaneprezirusvom dušom a womanandsnake,twistedtogether, ] running awayfrom jezikom, strecastrijelom kojaujeda. tently andtellstoriessothoroughlyas č Indeed, since those fromWhiteKao a black,wideroug injelo mi sedasuženaizmija raskomotila. Umnožila sekaošto t of their souland tellawful stories 403 to befrom White Kao;theydeeply e alsohadasnake's arrowinstead

ć i.] me thatIsawthrougha 401 č ka kaodvijetovarije,

a, lijepa,aliionasa asmoke, moving h clothwhichwas 404 Allthisis not č aju kao č ano, CEU eTD Collection

not occupyanyspecial place inDragoslavMihailovi (according todatafromSerb the bestnovelpublishedin1983,andalsowas themost often readbookin1984 7.2.2. Endangeredvitality awards' committees. Vuksanovi particular thelatter,whoseems tobeafraidof"snakesandcontemplation." Namely: surprising. Whatelseone could expect fr 405 values, andpatternsofself-understandingofferedbyStevanovi temporarily suppressanxiety, "we" welcomes thekillingofcontem contemplation reader wassupposed formulas that give meaning to existenc and doomedtofail, Ibid., p. 9. 9. p. Ibid., In spiteofthefactthat pomo smrdljivu. Ali, umovanje neumijem ubiti. tojagom iobjesitidavisinatrnu.Znam danikone [Plašim sezmije iumovanja.Zmiju umijem ubitižitkim prutom, di story... kill. Icanuse neither a stick nor a thorn will besorryifhefinds it,stinking. strong stick,bringitupbyabough,and hang itonathorn.Iknowthatnoone I amafraidofsnakesandcontemplation.Asnakecankillbyathin It looksasiftheunfinis ć inLandofSemolj ć i. Ranosam navikaodasmo inordertogetreedofthef torephrasethealre

to finishit– ian NationalLibrary), the novel

soamodernmanwouldstopbeingmodern, or itwasawarded withNin's hed sentenceinthetext , readilyacceptedandre plation, becausesuchanactwould ... andthusdecrease,orreject,ifnotkill, ady usedquotefrom 180 e inKaoandSemolj.Thosewerenorms, č om narrators from KaoandSemolj,in im pri ear. WhetherinKaoorSemolj, But, contemplationIdo notknowhowto č to do it.Ilearnt early toprepare a u...] Pri tom mi nipruttrnnemogu 405 ć 's oeuvre.Mihailovi of thenovelsuggestedhowa

commended bycriticsand award inJanuary1984for Testament. Č ć izmaši e žaliti ako je na ć inTastament [Solders]does suspend fear, Those were ć 's novels worm alone ć and i je đe,

CEU eTD Collection explains: narrative line inthenovel. Solders could havebeen evenbetter,hadtheauthor remained faithfultothecentral some orderinandsense outof his own life by telling it. narrate: driven byexistentialnecessity tote narrative worldsofKaoandSemolj, thisnovel Mihailovi long time ago..." Kad sucvetaletikve 408 407 406 also a very skillful narrator. AsJeremi disregarded military rules of discipline andc entered military service in1932.Hewas Mihailovi appeared. Thismight bethereasonwhyLjubišaJeremi their publicationdatesandalreadyt [Petrija's Garland]wererecognizedbycrit Mihajlovi between suffering and recognition], Jeremi Ribnikar, "Monološka formau prozi Dragoslava Mihailovi LjubišaJeremi psychological constitution. language, onethatsuitstheirorigin accounts toaninvisible,butpresent Petrija, and ŽikaKurjak[Woolf]from Mihailovi In DragoslavMihailovi This central narrative lineistold Žika Kurjak[Woolf] isanuneducated ć , "Dragoslav Mihailovi ć ć ć 's books,Ithink that Solders 's narrativeart,our literarycritic withremark: "Regardingthevalu ć , "Dragoslav Mihailovi ć 406 's narrators–unfortunategirl Despitewhatitmay looklike [WhenMelonsBlossomed]and,evenmore, Petrijinvenac ć , izme

Glas iz vremena, ć đ 's worksthereisa"skaz"initspureform. 407 u stradanjau i priznanja," p.318.

ć , izme horoughly analyzedatthetime when ć rightlypointsout,he isaquitegoodnovel.Incomparisonwith 181 accused andimprisoned in 1939 becausehe đ ll his storytosomeone, hehopestomake p. 316. 316. p. ics asremarkable piecesverysoonafter u stradanja i priznanja" [Dragoslav Mihailovi onfronted a higher officer. Žika Kurjak is ism articulateditsaffirmative judgment as "skaz." Vladislava Ribnikarrightly lowerofficerofYugoslavarmy, who is outstanding. Yet, itseems tome that listener, theyusevividnon-literary s, education,life experienceand e andcharacteristics of Dragoslav Lilika, Ljuba Šampion [Champion], Lilika, LjubaŠampion[Champion], Č ć izmaši a," pp. 78–79. 78–79. a," pp. 408 in comparison withprevious ć in1984openedhisessayon Žika Kurjak tries toengage [Solders]–addresstheir has allgoodreasonsto Solders ć ,

CEU eTD Collection justice withhim. Jeremić them. Areadercaneasily identifywithŽikaKurjak's characterandshare asenseof is abletoarticulate clearly andprecisely hismoral beliefs, andtostickconsistently to made. Although heisroughanduneducated, Mihailovi Members ofthecommunist party aregiventheroleofSerbianinnerenemies. his listenerswithstory,sothathecouldexplainitandjustifyactions. 414 413 412 411 410 409 period. MembersofthesegroupswereCroats, activities ofvariousgroupsthatworked Yugoslavia beforetheWorldWar Second.In private archiveofN.Thesedocumen look atdocuments from ArchiveofMilitary the narrator, who,asitappears,editedthewhol voice, anothernarrativevoiceis Solders good novel.Unfortunately,thereismore. Ibid., p. 320. 320. p. Ibid., 319. p. Ibid., Ibid., pp. 128–131. 128–131. pp. Ibid., 199–201. pp. Ibid., Ibid., pp. 41; 56–59. Mihailovi to themselves [ and arguefortheirhuman dignityandse in hiscell,bothexpressoutstandingquali and deathofherdearest ones,andŽika component ofitsmost tragicepisodes.Pe probably constitutes thehighest valueof shows itsmost awfulsides,Mihailovi [...] inextremely dangerousandlife If thiswaseverythingthereistobesaid aboutthenovel,itwouldbeareally has beentoldin ć ć 's narratordoes notmake mistakes , Č izmaši, pp. 11–13; 254–256. 254–256. 11–13; pp. their ownbeliefs pure isrightwhenhesays: "skaz," thatisnotentirelycorrect.BesidesŽikaKurjak's

heardinthenovel,avoi ] eveniftheirlives 182 ondismantling Yugoslaviain theprewar e text.Thislineofnarrationenablesusto Although Ribnikarclaimed thatstoryof ts giveevidencea ć risking situations,whenhuman nature 411 fact, thesedocuments arereportsabout 's charactersdemonstrate afeature that Kurjak, faced withan outraged general which narratorsfrom KaoandSemolj HistoricalInstitute aswellfrom the nse ofjusticenoma ties ofcourage,willingnesstodefend Macedonians, is superiortothem. Furthermore, he his fiction,andcert trija, leftaloneto areendangered[...] ce ofapparentlyneutral 412 bout conditionsin andHungarians. decideaboutlife tter what,loyalty ainly isabasic 410 414

But, 409 413

CEU eTD Collection seemingly ordinary man whobecomesextr the problem is thatthesedocuments donot 415 represent justadetail(importa words, that heis incapable that Žika Kurjak isnot capab Mihailovi (non)authenticity –andviolatethenovel' and defend. awaythatone(we)couldreadilyaccept his ownhonorandsenseofjustice,actingin helping thearranger: why thearrangertriestohelpŽikaKurja with ageneralpicturewithinwhichhislifewouldhaveanadequatemeaning. Thisis life experience, and psychologicalconstitution. Kurjak simply hasanarrow narrative perspectiveduetohi own. Thearrangersuggests toreaders that, Jeremi historical and literarysignificance. vitality." nor "political"questions,thenthereis are presentinprivatesphere,andifone [ within these realms, fatally violating basi everyday life,withintherealms ofpriv present inMihailović In ordertoportrayagene interethnic conflictsand or politicalterms, onthecontrary;ev Why didMihailovi nets of idelogized official interpreta out, sotosay,keythemesofourrecentnationalandpoliticalhistoryfromthe thefirstin [...] among our literature,Mihailovi ć If oneapproacheskeyissuesofnational , "Dragoslav Mihailovi ć broughtinthesecondnarrativevoiceasasortof ], theyeventuallyreveal theirterrifyingface,that of explainingandjustifyinghi ć ć , izme 's workonlytotheextent towhichthey werepresent in

insertthesearchival ma le ofintroducingreaderswith nt andcolorfulthough), Mihailovi đ ral picture, against which betrayals, orpolitical u stradanjau i priznanja," pp. 319–320. 183 415 aordinary byuncompromisingly defending tions, approachingthem k, clumsily indeed.Si

despite howskillfulnarratorheis,Žika s narrative logic? Itisprobablethats narrativelogic? relatetothemain story,oneabout noroomforanationor"national Therefore, he cannotprovide readers ate, family,andeveneroticism. And c vitalityofanindividualoranation treats themasneither"ideological" en those sensitive issuessuch as history totheextentwhichthey ć bravelygrabbedandpulled s behaviorandactionsonhis conflicts from 1948,were terials – regardless their s origins,pooreducation, hissituationor,inother Žika Kurjak's lifewould text arranger ć increased thetime milarly, acritic is innoideological is, theiractual , thinking CEU eTD Collection of meaning arealwayssuccessful. of literature allows for such metonymical shifts. Yet, thisdoes notimply thatthese shifts and undoubtedlytestifyaboutendangeredv representation ofafatena colorful detail stands forawholepicture; additional historical frame createsspace within theframe arewaytoopreciselyand one report,powerful"devastati approaches toitsend,thisperiodbecomes moreandmore marked by,asit issaidin novel, byintroducingdocuments, sothatit span between1932and1939,encompassedbya"s 417 416 influenced asequenceofeventsinlifethe main character. ŽikaKurjak's fate is cannot bedescribedsoaccurately. neither historicaleventsnor frame depictedinthenovelistoosimple certainly bebetter if there wasnosuchframe. Letme putitlikethis: firstly, historical nation, was no(added) historical frame, onewhich case inwhichonemember ofametonymi presented, asitwasdoneinMihailovi circumstances thatwent much beyond to lastdue to chance no got 1939, which a agreementin to political led theseattempts Eventually, forsharing power. arrangements political agreement an on achieve to aswell opposition, power as in on Moslem politicians, and Slovenian, attempts Croats, Serbian, of numerous of picture a convincing Compromise. A History of Interwar Yugoslavia Not to mention that they may be, from the historical perspective, completely false. In completely false.In his perspective, from may historical be, they the that mention to Not Mihailovi Furthermore, inserteddocuments tellno After allpreviously said things, Ifind myself temptedtosuggest thatif there Solders ć , Č izmaši, wouldhavenotbeenawarded. p.86. tion; endangeredŽikaKurjak's

their actors areeverthat fl ng activitiesofourenemies." the borders of the the bordersof 417 ć Theymight also beunsuccessful, evenin the 's novel. (London: Hurst & Company, 2007), Dejan Dejan 2007), &Company, Hurst (London: 184 and monosemantic; second for asimple metonymical movement –a afateofanindividualbecomes avivid coversaperiodfrom 1923to1941.Asit draws attention toendangeredvitality of a perfectly distributed.Thetruthisthat Yugoslav state. itality oftheSerbiannation.True, cal pairisartist On theotherhand,novelwould thing aboutactions kaz" from thefirsttwopartsof at orsimple; hence,they vitalityought to clearly 416 Constructionofthe ically convincingly ly, historicalroles and eventsthat Đ ć oki Elusive gives CEU eTD Collection character andhislawyerthatcloses the secondpartof in lovewith.Thenovelcouldalsohaveendedbyconversationbetweenthemain belongs to, Therefore, alogicalendofthenovel,comple necessary, thatis,according toprinciples result ofhis andothercharacters' deeds, 419 418 inevitably norprobably. Th this isabanalend.Themain character's us thinkthatŽikaKurjakjusthasnotbeen though, especiallyifindividualdestiniesare asylum. Thisendingdoesnotfollowfrom character tospeakonceagain author decidedtomake anarrativeleap suggests thatŽikaKurjakw Mihailovi Here I have in mind a genre of picaresque novel. eto, videsamopojednu.] sve snage,kodvebudalekojeznaju datunegdemoraju bitidvebudale,aoni, udarile. valjamo, takosesmejemo. Zastomak sedržimo,suzenamodsmeja nao Neither PlatonorAristotlewouldobject u oč [Nasmejasmo semi,bogami, pase, izasmejasmo. Stojimo onde,jedandrugog around, buteachofthemseesonlyone. are laughing,liketwofoolswhoknowthat laughed. floor. Ourbellieshurtfrom laughter,andwecried,thatwashowmuch we another astwofoolswould.We laughedsomuch thatwealmost fallenonthe against each other, welookedeach othe We burstoutlaughing,and,Iam tel ć 418 , i gledamojedandrugome sekodve Č wouldbeaweddingofthemain char izmaši, Dve budalestojeipredsebesamo Two foolsstanding,butalltheycan pp. 264–265. 264–265. pp. ill bereleasedfrom prison): erefore, itisbo

in thethirdpart 419

185 whoallactaccording tothelikelyor traits couldnotcause luckyenough,andthatis intothe1970s,and"forced"hismain th unmotivatedandunconvincing ending. the likely orthe necessary; itispossible in question.Itistheendingwhichmakes tely inlinewiththe of a"sorthuman being"theyare. ling you,welaughedalot.We stood r intheeye,and welaughed one at of thenovel,butthistime from the to such an ending. However, the tosuchanending.However,the theremustbetwofoolssomewhere po jednubudaluvide.Ismeju seiz budale smejemo. Samo štosene acter andSofija,awoman hefell see isonefool. the novel(c novelistic traditionit such anend,neither And theirbodies allthereis.But, onversation č i CEU eTD Collection proceeded it? side anditsroleindismantling Yugoslaviaaswellinar Aristotle, StuartHall,andUmberto Eco)to committees supportedthem inthisendeavor,isthereanyreason(forgetPlato, patterns ofgivingmeaning tothepeople's exis misused himtoexpressandsendamessage a own character,neitherlikelynornecessary.Žika new perspective author actuallyendangeredvita On theotherhand,byviolatingnarrativecohe the biggerpicture within whichŽika Kurjak's However, that this endwasinevitable becomes clear if we consider twothings:first,

If Serbianwriters provided –and stillprovide –their readers withsuch onnationalandpoliticalhistory.ŽikaKurjakisnotavictim ofhis lity of hismain character. 186 besurprisedbythebehaviorofSerbian rence inordertospeakaboutnation,the tence, and if Serbia life isjustadetail; second, theauthor's bout endangeredvital Kurjakisavictim n criticsandawards' med conflictsthat of his author,who ofhis ity ofhisnation. CEU eTD Collection Reconciliation Commission, respectively.On by addressing categories: identityandculture.Iexplor policy. transitional justice's tool kithas to encomp arrangements, whosechangehasbeenre measures. Furthermore, thesemeasures context-specific features constrain effective implementation of transitionaljustice the main goalof transitional justice isto consists ofconceptsdevelopedwithinthe Serbian culture,andinparticular Therefore, Ifoundconceptsoftransitional conflicts giveenoughreasonstodesignate conflicts thatproceeded it.Thegrave wrongdoings oftheSerbiansidein thesearmed century fromtheperspectiveofcollapse ofsocialistYugoslaviaandarmed culture, andinparticularabout CONCLUSION

In chapters 2and3 thefocusis on formyanalyses.ThisframeworkIn chapter1,Iestablishedaframework This thesissuggestedaconceptual a) genderandtransitional justice,and Serbianliterature, its literature, from thisperiod. ed howthesecategoriesmay beunderstood 187 change societalfl domain oftransitionalju ass measures ofanappropriatecultural quested. Therefore, I argued that the quested. Therefore,Iarguedthatthe justice tobe appropriate for examining its cultureasacultu framework forthinkingaboutSerbian in factreinforce existing societal differentlevels, two closelyrelatedcontext-specific in thelastquarteroftwentieth b) theYugoslavTruthand awed foundations.The re ofaccomplices. stice. Iargue that both discussions both discussions CEU eTD Collection formed anethnicsetof Chapter 6criticallyanalyzed anotionthat ancient pastthroughan in elements ofcommonculture,and reproduced, andsustainedwithinthefieldof inevitability. Chapters5,6,and7present an inventoryofidenti Serbs in thisparticular way,assigned toth symbols, memories, myths,andtraditi of thefederalstatedisintegration.By time acceptedasthemost suitable fordesigning strategies of actionincircumstances 1980s, Iargued,athoroughlyet formed, andhowithasbeenmaintained assuch untiltoday. Inthe1970s andthe Serbian identity, withits'substantial', 'ine concepts ofbelonging,whichareused of literature andliterary criticism maybes may beseen asan arena of warof words, tradition asasubjectofattachment andiden national literatureanditshistoryatth for complete societaltransformation. Inth categories of cultureand identity, morecomp about contextualconstraints. demonstrated anapparentcombined force

In chapter5,Iexposedanotionofcomm In chapters5,6,and7Itriedtocontri In chapter4Iundertooktopresent

myths ofcommonorigins,sh cessant sequenceof great hnicized collectiveidentity a measuresolidarity. ofethnic in arivalryforpoliticaldomination. ons, citizenswhounderstoodthemselves as e same time produceandlegitimize certain 188 choosing that is, identity politics.Accordingly, works literaryhistoriesthrough creatingimagery of identity-andculture-related arguments e secondpartofchap vitable', and'constraining' qualities,was tification. Therefore, the field ofliterature eir identityfeatures een asarsenals of images, symbols, and atible withtransitional justice's demands Serbianliterature. bute toexistingexplanationsofhow an alternativeunderstandingofthe unal continuitythatstretchedtothe asetofethno-nationalistvalues, men andtheirdeadbodies. ared historical memories, wasarticulated,andover ty patternsproduced, of substantialityand These patternshave ter 4,Iarguedthat CEU eTD Collection transformation. Ihopethatthis necessarily limited impacts, is,inmyopini cultural and politicalarenas. Rather, asequenceof disciplinary researches, with which isassumed inthisthesis,cannotbedonesimultaneously withinallsocial, denying committed crimes. AsIstressed in in thefield of Serbianliterature. through interpretationsofiden acting inuniversalistterms. Therefore, demonstrated, contextualconstraintsloom collective self-understanding.Ialsosought unity andsolidaritythroughimages ofcollectivesufferings. of continuityconfer legitimacy. In chapter universalism. Yet,astheYugoslavTruth I believethat Serbian predicament isof However, myaim wassetbeyondcriticalanalysisofprev thesis presents,atleastto tified culturalpatternsandth 189 and ReconciliationCo I triedtodefinethenormative standpoint heavily overthepossibilityofthinkingand a kind that requiresacceptance ofmoral establishment normative ofthe standpoint. 7 Itriedtoexplainthecreation of ethnic introduction, anoverallcultural work, on, crucialforthesuccessful societal some extent,sucharesearch eir role in justifying or eir roleinjustifyingor mmission case clearly ailing patternsof CEU eTD Collection Bogdanovi Bell, Christine,andCatherine O'Rourke Bandovi Baldwin, Peter,"The Baki Arneson, Richard,"What, IfAnything,Renders Aristotle, An Americas Watch Report, Butler, Judith, Brubaker, Rogers,andMargitFreischmidt, Grancea, JonFox,Liana ------, Brubaker, Rogers, and Frederick Cooper, "Beyond 'identity'," Brubeker, Rogers, Nationalismreframed.Nationhoodandthenationalquestionin Brown, Wendy, "Wounded Attachments," Bracewell, Wendy,"Rapein Kosovo:masculinity and Serbiannationalism," Abrams, M.H.,"RationalityandIm Bibliography ------, Bourdieu, Pierre, Boraine, Alex,andJanetLevy(eds.), Boraine, ------, ć -Hayden, Milica, Istorija stare srpske književnosti A Glossaryof LiteraryTerms akademija naukaiumetnosti, Transitional Justice,Vol.1,2007,pp.23–44. AnIntroductoryEssay," Transitional Justice? (Beograd: Belgrade CentreforHuman Rights,2005). Press, 1990). the Past.Hitler,Holocaust,andHistorians'Debate (Beograd: Institut zafilozofiju idruštvenu teoriju/"Filip Višnji 1999). Jamieson (ed.), Indiana: St.Augustine's Press,2002). (Human Rights Watch, 1991). edition]). Routledge, 1993). Oxford: PrincetonUniversity Press, 2006). Politics andEveryday Ethnicity inaTransylvanianTown pp. 1–47. 113–134. with Texts (NewYorkandLondon:W.W. Norton&Company,1991),pp. New Europe Modernity (PrincetonUniversityPress). and Nationalism, Randal Johnson(Cambridge: PolityPress,1993). Polity Press, 2001). Transition, 1995). Press, 2000). Srpska književnazadruga, The FieldofCulturalProducti ć

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CEU eTD Collection Kašanin, Milan,Srpskaknjiževnost usrednjemveku Ivi Ivekovi ------, Ivan ------, Jauss, HansRobert,"Literaturgeschichte Ili MacKinnon, Catherine,"Legal Lonč ------, Laclau, Ernesto, "Universalism, Particularis Kristeva, Julia, PowersofHorror. AnEssayonAbjection Jovi ------, "Dragoslav Mihailovi Jeremić Jeremić Jefferson, Ann,"RussianFormalism," inAnnJeffersonandDavidRobey(eds.), ------, "Predgovor jugoslovenskom izdanju" Lefort, Claude,"TheInterposedBody:GeorgeOrwell's Margalit, Avishai, Logar, Svetlana,andSrđanBogosavljevi ć ć , Dejan,andVeranMati , Pavle, ć č ar, Mladen, interview, , Dejan,"ReassessingSocialistYugosla i ć New Reflections onthe Jugoslavija –državakojajeodumrla , Viktor,AnimalCroatica ages] (Beograd:Prosveta, (Beograd: Edicija Re Srpska književnazadruga, Delhi: Women Unlimited, 2005). anatomy ofascandal](S Example ofSerbia 117–142 Key IssuesandControversies(LondonNewYork:Routledge,2010),pp. between sufferingandrecognition], recepcije translated from German intoSerbian byDrinka Gojkovi ć http://www.b92.net/casopis_rec/arhiva/arhiva.html. 1995) pp.93–108. Rajchman (ed.),TheIdentity inQuestion (NewYorkandLondon:Routledge, University Press,1982). Dejan Djoki 1993), pp.325–326. indirect rebellion:VidosavStevanovi (Vrnja književnih kriti Modern LiteraryTheory in: Rhode (ed.), truth inSerbia], Writing. ThePoliticalTest, Press, 2002). Press, 1990). (Durham andLondon:DukeUn ć , Ljubiša,"Poetikaposre , DraganM.,Merilaranihmerilaca. Esteti To , Rada, č Estetika recepcije ka naU.Sluč Srpski narodinjegovjezik č ka Banja:Zamak kulture,1974). (Beograd:Nolit,1978). Captive Gender.EthnicStereo ć The EthicsofMemory andJames Ker-Lindsay(eds.), Theoretical Perspectives onSexual Difference č ara [Aesthetic concepts of first Serbianliterary critics] (Beograd:B92,2000). aj Šaki Feral Tribune, Re č (Beograd:Nolit,1978). ć ć , 2003). , između stradanjaipriznanj Revolution ofourTime (eds.),Truths,Responsibilities,Reconciliations: The č PerspectivesonSexualDi

plit: FeralTribune,2000). (London: B.T.BatsfordLtd.,1991),pp.24–45. dovane pobune:VidosavStevanovi (Beograd: Fabrika knjiga,2007). 2 62, June2001,pp.7–34;alsoavailable at 2 1990 [1975]). ć 1986). : Anatomijajednogskandala edited andtranslated byDavidAmes Curtis iversity Press,2000). its language] (Beograd: [Serbianpeopleanditslanguage](Beograd: 193 alsProvokationderLiteraturwissenschaft," December9,2004. ć , "Vi Glas izvremena (Beograd:BIGZ,1993). [Yugoslavia–thestatethatpassedaway] m andtheQuestionofIdentity,"inJohn ["Introduction tothe (Cambridge, MA.:HarvardUniversity via, 1945–90:ThecaseofCroatia,"in ć ], đenje istineuSrbiji"[Perception of types &Cultural Boundaries Glas izvremena(Beograd:BIGZ, New PerspectivesonYugoslavia. [Serbianliteratureinthemiddle (London:1990). č ka shvatanjaprvihsrpskih a" [DragoslavMihailovi fference," in:DeborahL. (NewYork:Columbia Nineteen Eighty-Four," Yugoslav edition"], [The Šaki [The ć (YaleUniversity " [Thepoeticsof , in: Estetika ć (New case: ć ,

CEU eTD Collection Petrovi Moody-Adams, MicheleM., Molnar, Aleksandar, ------, "Studije oPa Perovi Milosavljevi Mihailovi Méndez, JuanE.,"InDefenseofTransiti Mertus, Julie, Menon, Nevedita, Mehta, UdayS.,"LiberalStrategiesofEx ------, "Metaphysical Guilta May, Larry, Marjanovi Pavi Panti Osiel, Mark, MassAtrocity,CollectiveMemory,andtheLaw Nussbaum, MarthaC., Nadler, Arie,"From TelAvivtoUlcinj Müller, Jan-Werner, Constitutional Patriotism Mosse, ------, "Culture,Responsibil ć ć evi , Mihajlo,"VidosavStevanovi ć ć canzoniere I], Re knjiga, 2008). up theenlightenment ideaof constitu (Beograd: B92, 2002),pp.340–374. authority"] inNebojšaPopov (ed.),Srpskastranarata Zbornik Maticesrpske za književnost ijezik, 209-248. memory: anormal caseandpathologies"], Philosophy Dame: UniversityofNotreDame Press,1995). Transitional JusticeandtheRuleofLawinNewDemocracies (Women Waging PeaceProgram, HuntAlternativesFund,2004). Former Yugoslavia(ICTY): Transitional (University ofIllinois Press,2004). (University ofCaliforni Stoler (ed.), Ethics Collective Responsibility. FiveDecades University Press,2005). SANU/Klio, 2007). (Beograd: SKZ, 1994). Stevanovi Jersey: Transaction Reconciliation and University Press,2007),p.30. in ModernEurope (1994). , Latinka,"Teškobreme odgovornosti"[" George L.,NationalismandSexuality.Respectability andAbnormalSexuality , Svetozar, "StudijeoPa ć , ć č ć , Dragoslav, no.62,2001,pp.85–90. -Dušani Đ ć Crimes AgainstHumanity.ANormativeAccount or , Olivera,"Zloupotrebaautoriteta (Lanham: RowmanandLittlefield,1991). Women's Participationin đe, "Politi ć : narratingthroughoxymorons"], (Cambridge, Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress, ć , Smilja, Recovering Subversion.Feminist PoliticsBeyondtheLaw Tensions ofEmpire.Colonial Oproštaj od prosvetiteljske idejeustavotvorne skupštine č Zbornik Maticesrpske zaknjiževnost ijezik, i Sex &Social Justice Č ć evom (II)"[Studies onPa kanconijeru izmaši (NewYork:HowardFertig,1985). č Peace-Building," Publishers, 2000). ko pam ity, andAffectedIgnorance," Sveti kralj Fieldwork inFamiliarPlaces. Morality,Culture,and nd Moral Taint,"inL.MayandS.Hoffman (eds.), a Press1997),pp.59-86. [Solders] (Beograd: BIGZ/SKZ/Prosveta, ć č enje: normalni slu i ć evom kanconijeru(I)"[StudiesonPač [Hollyking](Beograd: ć theInternationalCrim 194 : oksimoronskopripovedanje"["Vidosav clusion," in:Frederic : CanWe Learnfrom EachOtherabout (OxfordUniversityPress,1999). Re onal Justice,"inA.J.McAdams(ed.), č 58,June2000,pp.33–39. of DebateinTheoreticalandApplied tional assembly] (Beograd:Fabrika JusticeforBosniaandHerzegovina (Princeton andOxford:Princeton Re Heavy weightofresponsib XXIV/1976,2,pp.221–251. č nauke" ["Misuse of scientific nauke" ["Misuseofscientific Cultures inaBourgeoisWorld 77,2008,pp.69-88. č aj ipatologije" ["Political Aleksandrijski sindrom2 Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge (NewBrunswick,New CooperandAnnLaura [Serbianroad to war] inal Tribunalforthe Balkanološki institut č 2 XXIII/1975,2,pp. i 2002). , Vol.104,No.2. ć 's canzoniereII], 2 1987). [Giving (Notre ility"], i ć 's 's

CEU eTD Collection Theweleit, Klaus, ------, Teitel, RutiG.,"Transi Swidler, Ann, "Culture inActi Stoler, Ann,"SexualAffronts Piper, E.(ed.), ------, "Stiljeneštodrugo"[Styleissomething else],an interviewwithDragoslav Smith, AnthonyD., Skerli Sedgwick, EveKosofsky, Rusinow, Dennison,"The YugoslavPeopl Robey, David,"Anglo-American NewCriticism," inAnnJefferson andDavidRobey ------, "Metodološkapitanjaspecifi Stevanovi Ribnikar-Periši Ribnikar, Vladislava,"Monološkafo Rhode, DeborahL.,"Definitions ofDiff Ramet, SabrinaP., Radzik, Linda,"CollectiveRes Puhovski, Žarko, Pouligny, Béatrice,"Theforgottendimens Plato, TheRepublic, ć Transitional Justice (NewYork:OxfordUniversity Press,2000). , Jovan,"Obnovanašerodoljubivepoezije" Historikerstreit Chris Turner (Minneapolis: Univer Vol. 16,2004. Review, Studies inSocietyandHistory Cultural Politicsof ExclusioninColonialSoutheast Asia," 193–207. literatures"], književnosti" ["Methodologicalissuesspecificforstudiesofournational Mihailovi umetnost, 1977),p.479-489. criticism] Sad/Beograd:Mati (Novi in PredragPalavestra(ed.), Desire (NewYork:Columbia UniversityPress,1985). American UniversityPress1995),pp.332–346. European NationalismintheTwentiethCentury (eds.), 1976). formalism literaryhistory](Beograd:Posebnoizdanje and Republic [Posibilities ofnarration],(Beograd:BIGZ,1987),pp.73–108. ["Monologue inDragoslavMihailovi Theoretical Perspectives onSexualDifference (Bloomington andIndianapolis:In Practice (Zagreb: Školskaknjiga,1990). 2005, availableathttp://www.ceri- meanings andimperatives forsurvivor ć , Vidosav, Modern LiteraryTheory, ć Vol.51,1986,p.273. Vol.27,No.3,2001. , Vladislava, (Oxford: BlackwellPublishing,2008). ć Forever intheShadowofHitler. Socijalisti , Male Fantasies, Književna re Prirodakritike translatedbyAllanBloomasicBooks, 1991[secondedition]). (B The CulturalFoundations ofNati Testament (NewJersey:Humanities Press,1993). Nationalism andFederalisminYugoslavia,1962–1991 tional JusticeGenealogy," Between Men.EnglishLiteratureandMaleHomosocial č ka konstrukcija zbilje ponsibility andDutiestoRespond," on: Symbols andStrategies,"American Sociological [Thelast will](Beograd:SKZ, 1986). č Ruski formalizam iknjiževna istorija and RacialFrontiers:Eur 12,1973,pp.10–11. translated by Stephen [Natureofcriticism](Z Kriti 34(1992). pp.73–91. 195 č č diana UniversityPress,1992). rma uproziDragoslavaMihailovi rma sciences-po.org/cherlist/pouligny.htm sity ofMinnesotaPress, 1987). ki radoviJovanaSkerli na zaprou erence," in: DeborahL.Rhode(ed.), es," in:PeterF.Sugar(ed.), ć ions of'justice' programs: Cultural ca srpska/Institutzaknjiževnosti 's fiction"], 's fiction"], s ofviolentconflicts",manuscript, [Socialistconstructionofreality] [Renewal ofourpatrioticpoetry], Harvard HumanRightsJournal (YaleUniversityPress,1990). ons. Hierarchy,Covenant,and Original Documentsofthe č avanje našihnacionalnih Conway, EricaCarterand Moguć opean Identities and the opean Identitiesandthe (Washington DC: The agreb: Liber,1972),pp. ć nosti pripovedanja Social Theory and Theory Social a [JovanSkerli č asopisa Comparative [Russian Eastern , Ideje ć ć a" 's 's

CEU eTD Collection Žarkov, Dubravka, Yuval-Davis, Nira,Gender&nation Young, IrisMarion, Wodak, Ruth,andRudolfdeCillia,Martin Reisigl, Karin Liebhart, Wellek, Rene,andAustinWarren, "Historyof Literature," in Wellek, Rene,AHistoryofmodernCriticism Wachtel, AndrewBaruch,MakingaNation.BreakingLiteratureand Vuksanovi ------, "Gender, Orientalism andtheHi Vodi ------, ------, Verdery, Katherine, Todorova, Maria,"Štajeisto Venice Commission, "Opinionon theConstitution OfSerbia, adopted bythe Velmar-Jankovi LiteraryHistory,"in:L.Hutcheonand Valdés, MarioJ.,"RethinkingtheHistoryof Ugreši č ka, Feliks,Problemi književne istorije ć What WasSocialism,andComesNext? 1990). Mitten (Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress,1999). Construction ofNationalIdentity, (New York:Harcourt,Brace&World, Inc.,1956). University Press,1981). Cultural PoliticsinYugoslavia Novog Sada,1987). from CheckintoSerbianbyAleksandarIli 1995), pp.105–141. Crossfires. Nationalism,RacismandGenderin Europe Yugoslavia," inHelma Lutz,AnnPhoe 2007). California Press, 1995). Ceausescu's Romania University Press,1996). University Press,1999). available athttp://www.venice.co Commission atits70thplenaryse 1992 [1938]). [View froma Kalemegdan. Anessayon M. J.Valdés(eds.), 2004). Bajazetov, a historical region? Meas , Dubravka, National IdeologyunderSocialism.Id ć , Miro, ć , Vladimir, PogledsKalemegdana.Ogledobeogradskom Re Semolj zemlja The BodyofWar Justice andthePoliticsofDifference Ministarstvo boli[Ministry of pain] (Beograd: Fabrika knjiga, č The Political Livesof Dead Bodies no.73,2005,pp.81–117. Rethinking LiteraryHistory... rijski region? Premeravanjerijski region? (Berkeley/LosAngeles/London:Universityof [Land of Semolj] (Beograd:FilipVišnji uring spaceinEurope"],translated byAleksandra (London:SagePublications,1997). (Durham andLondon:DukeUniversityPress, (Stanford: StanfordUniversityPress,1998). e.int/docs/2007/CDL-AD(2007)004-e.asp. e.int/docs/2007/CDL-AD(2007)004-e.asp. 196 translatedby AngelikaHirschandRichard story ofEthnicHatredintheFormer [Problems ofliterary history], translated ssion (Venice,17–18March2007)," Belgrade's man] (Beograd: Prosveta, , Vol.3(Cambridge: Cambridge nix andNiraYuval-Davis(eds.), entity andCulturalPoliticsin ć (PrincetonandOx (Novi Sad:Književnazajednica

(PrincetonUniversityPress, prostora uEvropi"[What is (NewYork:Columbia (London:PlutoPress, Theory ofLiterature The Discursive ford: Princeton ć , 2005). č oveku