“Flying in Middle East Oil” the Role of Middle Eastern Oil in Eisenhower’S ‘Containment’ Policy, 1953-60

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“Flying in Middle East Oil” the Role of Middle Eastern Oil in Eisenhower’S ‘Containment’ Policy, 1953-60 Master’s Degree in Comparative International Relations (Cross-Cultural Path) Final Thesis “Flying in Middle East Oil” The Role of Middle Eastern Oil in Eisenhower’s ‘Containment’ Policy, 1953-60 Supervisor Ch. Prof. Duccio Basosi Assistant supervisor Ch. Prof. Giovanni Favero Graduand Darya Paramonava Matricolation number 873038 Academic Year 2019 / 2020 “Flying in Middle East Oil” The Role of Middle Eastern Oil in Eisenhower’s ‘Containment’ Policy, 1953-60 “Plans are worthless, but planning is everything.” Dwight Eisenhower (quoting a statement from the war) Abstract Tema largamente inesplorato anche a livello accademico, la presente tesi si incentra sul ruolo del petrolio del Medio Oriente nella politica del containment di Eisenhower. In effetti, la carenza di studi specifici su questo argomento è particolarmente notevole se si considera l’importanza del coinvolgimento americano nella regione durante gli anni ’50 ed il fatto che le motivazioni che hanno portato a tale coinvolgimento rimangono in gran parte da chiarire. Il presente lavoro di ricerca si basa quindi sulla tesi secondo cui sarebbe impossibile comprendere la politica americana del containment durante la presidenza di Eisenhower senza la dovuta considerazione per gli interessi petroliferi in Medio Oriente. Per quanto riguarda la metodologia utilizzata, la tesi è basata su fonti sia primarie che secondarie. Le fonti primarie provengono principalmente, ma non interamente, dai documenti declassificati pubblicati sulle seguenti piattaforme: the Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS) series; The American Presidency Project; The Cold War International History Project; the CIA Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room. Le fonti secondarie includono una vasta gamma di volumi, articoli e documenti di lavoro, che discutono ogni aspetto specifico delineato nella tesi. L’analisi e la sintesi delle fonti secondarie supportate con le testimonianze disponibili nei materiali primari rappresentano il fondamento metodologico della tesi. 1 La tesi è suddivisa in tre capitoli: 1) “Eisenhower e la Politica del Containment: le Origini e la Revisione della Ricerca Contemporanea”; 2) “Ruolo del Medio Oriente nella Politica Estera Americana nella Metà del 20° Secolo”; 3) “L’importanza del Petrolio Mediorientale durante la Presidenza di Eisenhower e il suo Impatto sulla Definizione della Politica Estera Americana”. Il primo capitolo tratta la presidenza di Eisenhower, il suo posto nella storia dell’evoluzione della politica americana, nonché il concetto di containment e la sua interpretazione secondo Eisenhower una volta assunta la carica di presidente. Il capitolo è infatti suddiviso nelle seguenti sezioni: 1) “Eisenhower nella Storiografia: Valutazione Critica delle Questioni Più Controverse”; 2) “La politica del Containment: Valutazione Critica e Diverse Interpretazioni”; 3) “La politica del Containment durante la Presidenza di Eisenhower, le sue Origini ed i Principali Obiettivi Strategici”. Nonostante la ricerca sulla presidenza di Eisenhower non sia affatto carente, non può in alcun modo essere paragonata nella sua esaustività con altre presidenze sia precedenti sia successive. In effetti, fu considerato un presidente “di transizione”, colpevole di non essere riuscito a portare a termine nulla di significativo, lasciando molti problemi irrisolti e continuando semplicemente le politiche ereditate dal suo predecessore. Tuttavia, la rivalutazione del suo ruolo a partire dagli anni ‘70, sia positivamente ma anche e soprattutto criticamente, ha rivelato come Eisenhower fosse un importantissimo pensatore strategico in politica estera e come la sua presidenza abbia stabilito importanti precedenti in questo senso e le cui ripercussioni arrivano fino ad oggi. Si potrebbe inoltre sostenere che la politica estera di Eisenhower fosse fondamentalmente incentrata sulla Guerra Fredda. In questo senso, è necessario spendere qualche parola sulla politica del containment, teorizzata da George Kennan ed incarnata nella dottrina Truman. Nonostante la popolarità del termine, il concetto di containment non è affatto chiaro, e potrebbe essere pensato sia come una politica retrospettiva, reazionaria degli Stati Uniti nei confronti dell’aggressione Sovietica, sia come una politica espansionistica progettata per diffondere la cosiddetta Pax Americana. Il concetto potrebbe anche essere inteso come aggressivo e militarista (il rollback), o come preventivo e regressivo (contenimento vero e proprio, come previsto da Kennan). Ai fini della presente tesi, la politica del containment è intesa come qualsiasi violazione dello stato di sicurezza, reale o percepita, da parte dell’Unione Sovietica che ha spinto l’amministrazione di Eisenhower ad agire in modo preventivo, aggressivo o retrospettivo al fine di ripristinare questa percezione di sicurezza. In effetti, la politica del containment di Eisenhower, elaborata con la teoria del New Look, appare preventiva nel suo carattere poiché si basa sull’effetto deterrente delle armi 2 nucleari e su operazioni della CIA che mirano alla destabilizzazione dei regimi antagonistici. Il carattere preventivo di questa politica è ulteriormente illustrato attraverso l’analisi del coinvolgimento di Eisenhower in Medio Oriente, nonché degli interessi petroliferi in questa regione e della possibilità di un intervento sovietico. Pertanto, il secondo capitolo discute l'evoluzione del petrolio prima che Eisenhower salisse al potere e il coinvolgimento generale degli Stati Uniti in Medio Oriente a metà del secolo, introducendo così il contesto in cui la sua presidenza si è svolta. Il capitolo prosegue con l’analisi della situazione in Medio Oriente e della presenza Occidentale attraverso gigantesche compagnie petrolifere — le cosiddette “Sette Sorelle” — che spesso sono state la causa di sconvolgimenti politici nella regione. Inoltre, il capitolo delinea le crisi regionali più significative verificatesi durante la presidenza di Eisenhower. Il capitolo comprende le seguenti sezioni: 1) “La Crescente Importanza del Petrolio come Motivo di Coinvolgimento Occidentale in Medio Oriente prima della Presidenza di Eisenhower”; 2) “Coinvolgimento Occidentale in Medio Oriente nella Metà del 20° Secolo e L’elaborazione della Politica del Containment (in Arabia Saudita, Iran, Iraq)”; 3) “Grandi Crisi in Medio Oriente negli anni ‘50 e la Risposta Americana del ‘Containment’”. Il capitolo ha lo scopo di dimostrare che, sebbene l’importanza del petrolio in generale ed in particolare in Medio Oriente sia stata rilevante già molto prima di Eisenhower, fu lui ad essere il primo presidente ad adottare attivamente specifiche misure per garantire l’accesso americano, il che rende l’assenza di specifica ricerca su questo argomento una grave mancanza per la storia del petrolio e della Guerra Fredda. Questo coinvolgimento attivo è stato spinto dalla crescente importanza del petrolio già nel periodo precedente la sua ascesa al potere, in particolare per la ricostruzione nel dopoguerra dell’Europa occidentale e per le capacità militari della NATO. In questo contesto, il capitolo discute anche la presenza americana e le attività dei giganti del petrolio in Medio Oriente. Per ragioni dello spazio, la presente analisi si limita al coinvolgimento economico e politico americano in Arabia Saudita, Iran e Iraq in quanto si tratta dei paesi con maggiori risorse petrolifere. In aggiunta, il capitolo tratta le altre tre principali crisi mediorientali in cui l’amministrazione di Eisenhower venne direttamente coinvolta: le crisi di Suez, di Siria e di Libano. L’ultimo capitolo discute il significato del petrolio durante la Presidenza Eisenhower vera e propria e le misure adottate dall’amministrazione per garantire l’accesso occidentale al petrolio mediorientale, nonché illustra i risultati del coinvolgimento americano in questa regione così instabile. Il capitolo è suddiviso nelle seguenti sezioni: 1) “Panoramica della Ricerca su Eisenhower e L’importanza della sua Politica Petrolifera”; 2) “L’importanza 3 Nazionale e Internazionale del Petrolio durante L’amministrazione di Eisenhower”; 3) “L’importanza del Petrolio Mediorientale ai Fini del ‘Containment’ Dell’amministrazione di Eisenhower.” Il petrolio presente in Medio Oriente è rapidamente diventato una risorsa indispensabile per la ricostruzione del dopoguerra e per il potenziale militare dell’Europa occidentale e giapponese. Anche gli Stati Uniti hanno sperimentato un allarmante afflusso di petrolio a basso costo o in quantità tali che la produzione interna divenne superflua e sottosviluppata. Considerando le implicazioni di tale sottosviluppo domestico nel caso in cui il petrolio mediorientale non fosse più disponibile, come in effetti successe durante la crisi di Suez per l’Europa, Eisenhower introdusse le quote petrolifere obbligatorie nel 1959 nel tentativo di isolare l’economia dalla crescente dipendenza da una risorsa proveniente da una regione così instabile. La crisi di Suez del 1956 è forse l’argomentazione più significativa a sostegno della tesi secondo cui il petrolio mediorientale costituisse uno dei fattori più importanti nella politica del containment di Eisenhower in quanto le conseguenze della sua improvvisa carenza in Europa occidentale sulla sicurezza internazionale vennero considerate inaccettabili dall’amministrazione di Eisenhower. Fu perfino deciso di schierarsi con l’antagonista Nasser in contrapposizione ai tradizionali alleati Gran Bretagna e Francia nello sforzo di impedire all’onda del malcontento arabo di abbattersi contro
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