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A Phonological Investigation Into Levelling and Diffusion from Across the Water Booth, A WestminsterResearch http://www.westminster.ac.uk/westminsterresearch Manx English: a phonological investigation into levelling and diffusion from across the water Booth, A. This is an electronic version of a PhD thesis awarded by the University of Westminster. © Mr Andrew Booth, 2020. The WestminsterResearch online digital archive at the University of Westminster aims to make the research output of the University available to a wider audience. Copyright and Moral Rights remain with the authors and/or copyright owners. MANX ENGLISH: A PHONOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION INTO LEVELLING AND DIFFUSION FROM ACROSS THE WATER Andrew Booth March 2020 A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Westminster Author’s Declaration I hereby declare that the research work presented in this thesis has been completed by the author. Where other sources of information have been used, they have been quoted. No part of this thesis has been submitted in support of an application for any other degree. Andrew Booth Copyright© 2019 University of Westminster All rights reserved i Acknowledgements I am indebted to my supervisor and advisor Dr Kelechukwu Ihemere for his tireless support and motivation. His guidance and experience have given me the confidence and skills to consistently progress through this challenging process. I am also extremely grateful for the feedback and help from colleagues and staff at the University of Westminster, in particular, Giulia Pepe, Dr Louise Sylvester and Dr Petros Karatsareas. I would also like to thank the kindness and generosity of the people of the Isle of Man. I received a huge welcome from everyone I spoke to and genuine interest and assistance from all that I met. Without those voices, this thesis would not exist. A special thanks to my sister and parents; Francesca, Nicole and Simon for all their love and encouragement throughout. Finally, the biggest thank you to my wife Jac, for taking every step with me. ii Abstract This study aims to locate the Isle of Man within the sociolinguistic field of language variation and change. Stigmatised features of speech on island communities are often cited as examples to discuss accent levelling (the loss of traditional features), in addition, the research into geographical diffusion (the inclusion of features from outside) on islands demonstrates the extent of spread that certain features reach. However, there are also certain resistance strategies and barriers islanders can put up. The English spoken on the Isle of Man (referred to as Manx English) has had little coverage within the investigation of linguistic issues. Both apparent- and real-time analysis methods are presented within this thesis. Previous phonological analysis from two separate studies (SED in 1950s/1960s and Recording Mann in 1999) were used to compare to the original corpus created for this thesis. Different generations of families were also analysed for synchronic changes in dialect features. Recordings were obtained through sociolinguistic interviews and were analysed auditorily and acoustically. The overarching aims of the research are to assess the influence of accent features from outside the community, investigate features, which may have been lost over time, and to discuss the social and linguistic factors, which determine the acceptance or resistance of some features. iii Findings vary from feature to feature. This thesis discovered that there are elements of traditional Manx English that are upheld (vowel lenghtening). The GOAT vowel is showing interesting variation from young to old speakers depending on influences (Liverpool for younger speakers, traditional Manx English forms for older) and the incoming tide of the glottal stop is reaching the Island’s shores. This thesis investigates the mechanisms of change and finds both internal and external factors affect the production of English on the Isle of Man. Table of Contents Author’s Declaration .......................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ............................................................................................ ii Abstract .............................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents .............................................................................................. iv List of Tables ...................................................................................................... ix List of Figures ................................................................................................... xii 1 Contextualising the Study .............................................................................. 1 Research Objectives ................................................................................................. 4 1.1 The Isle of Man ................................................................................................... 6 1.2 Language research on the Island ...................................................................... 8 1.2.1 Manx history ............................................................................................................... 8 1.2.2 The rise of English on the Isle of Man .................................................................... 9 1.3 Manx English ..................................................................................................... 13 1.3.1 Early records of Manx English ............................................................................... 15 1.3.2 Research with descriptive analysis of the phonology of Manx English .......... 19 1.3.3 The Survey of English Dialects (1962-3) and Recording Mann (1999) ............. 21 1.3.4 Influences on MxE ................................................................................................... 31 1.3.5 Manx English in the media ..................................................................................... 41 1.4 Real- and apparent-time studies .................................................................... 43 iv 1.4.1 Real-time study ........................................................................................................ 44 1.4.2 Apparent-time study ............................................................................................... 46 1.4.3 Implications for current research .......................................................................... 48 1.5 Summary and conclusion ................................................................................ 50 1.5.1 Implications for current study ............................................................................... 50 2 Literature Review ......................................................................................... 51 2.1 Dialect levelling ................................................................................................ 57 2.2 Geographical diffusion ................................................................................... 61 2.2.1 Models of diffusion: wave and gravity models .................................................. 66 2.2.2 Diffusion as an ‘under the counter’ or ‘off the shelf’ change ............................ 69 2.2.3 Age-grading .............................................................................................................. 71 2.2.4 Language variation and change: routes into the dialect .................................... 75 2.2.5 Language variation and change without direct contact .................................... 77 2.3 Resistance factors in levelling and diffusion .............................................. 80 2.4 Variation and identity ...................................................................................... 84 2.5 Internal mechanisms of change ..................................................................... 90 2.6 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 93 2.6.1 Implications for current research .......................................................................... 95 2.7 The variables ..................................................................................................... 96 3 Data and Methodology .............................................................................. 100 3.1 Data collection method and critique ........................................................... 100 3.1.1 Sampling ................................................................................................................ 101 3.1.2 Sample size ............................................................................................................. 108 3.2 Informants ........................................................................................................ 112 3.2.1 Language variation and sex ................................................................................ 113 3.2.2 Language variation and age ................................................................................. 117 3.2.3 Location ................................................................................................................... 120 3.2.4 Other requirements ............................................................................................... 122 3.2.5 Informant relationships ........................................................................................ 124 3.3 The interview
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