The Peoples & Cultures of

by Gail Saunders vage from wrecks and exported hardwoods, amber­ gris, and salt. Although many of the early Puritan THE LAND & THE SEA "Adventurers" (as they were called) left, some pio­ he Bahamian archipelago comprises about neers, including the Adderley, Albury, Bethell, 700 limestone islands and cays and over Davis, Sands, and Saunders families, stayed in The T 2,000 rocks stretching more than 500 miles Bahamas, and were joined by poor whites, rebel­ southeasterly from just off to Cap Haitien in lious slaves, and free Blacks and Coloreds, all put Haiti. The climate is temperate, the terrain is main­ out of . ly flat, and the soil is sparse. Primarily owing to the Before 1670, settlements were founded on poverty of the soil, the population of The Bahamas, Harbour Island and St. George's Cay (Spanish now numbering 255,000 people, has never been Wells), and by the end of the century there were large. Yet the sea is "more fertile and far more spec­ believed to be settlers on Current Island and tacular than the land" (Craton and Saunders Cupid's Cay (Governor's Harbour) as well. 1992:5), yielding fish, mollusks, and turtles and Sometime around 1666, Sayles Island or New encouraging the growth of coral. The color of the Providence, a sizeable island fairly near to the water varies from place to place according to the American mainland with an excellent sheltered har­ water's depth but is generally turquoise and an bor, was settled and soon had several hundred almost undescribable green. The name "Bahamas" inhabitants. Charlestown, later renamed Nassau, may be derived from the Spanish phrase baja mar became the Bahamian capital, and its main street, (land of shallow seas), or, as julian Granberry has Bay Street, the center of commercial and political argued, it may be of Arawak origin. activity. In 1670, the Bahama Islands were granted to six EARLY PEOPLING OF THE ISLANDS of the eight Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas. It is believed that the first inhabitants of the These Proprietors never visited The Bahamas and Bahama Islands were the Lucayans, Arawak-speak­ ruled by sending governors from England as their ing Amerindians, whom Columbus met on his epic representatives. The Crown bought the islands from voyage and landfall in 1492. By 1509 or so, they the Lords Proprietors, a sale that was not completed had been killed off by diseases and enforced labor until1785, however. both in the gold mines of and and The Proprietary period (1670-1717) was a time of in the pearl fisheries of Cubagua and Margarita. much lawlessness, due to the ineffectiveness of the The Bahamas remained depopulated for the next governors, constant invasions by the Spanish and hundred years. claimed the islands but French, and the instability inspired by such notori­ neglected them for much more profitable enterpris­ ous Bahamian residents as the pirates Edward es on the Spanish Main. The British formally Teach (""), Captain Henry Avery, and annexed The Bahamas in 1629, but no permanent . Conditions changed slowly for the settlement took place there at that time. better when the first Royal Governor of The In 1648, a small group of about 70 "Indepen­ Bahamas, , arrived in 1718. dents" from Bermuda and England, with a small In 1721, The Bahamas had approximately 1,031 number of slaves, arrived at , seeking reli­ inhabitants, living mainly at ( 480 gious freedom. Their life was extremely harsh, but, Whites and 233 Blacks), Harbour Island (124 as time passed, they learned to live from the Whites and 5 Blacks), and Eleuthera (150 Whites resources of the land and sea. They collected sal- and 34 Blacks). Not much is known about the sub-

FESTIVAL OF AMERICAN FOLKLIFE THE BAHAMAS 61 ,-;~=~=~=~=~=~=~=~=~=~=~=------, I Origins of Majority of Bahamian Inhabitants ! l ~ 1640s-1860 • African Slave Trade j : in The Bahamas j I ~ 1648 • Britain & Bermuda ' : ~ i I ~ 1783-1785 • Loyalists from U.S. South · ~ '-----~-- ~~ Os _-_Pr~~ent __• H~~ ------~ l I . :I .i : NORTH AMERICA j i i

AFRICA I i I ·= ! I

....______--.loo ______-_ ... ______...,__ i stantial number of Blacks in New Providence. Most in The Bahamas, putting Blacks in the majority, were slaves, but some were free. However, what is where they have remained and now comprise 85 clear from slave regulations passed in 1723 is that percent of the population. The creole society which the White settlers felt threatened by the Black pres­ evolved during the Loyalist era reflected strong ence (Saunders 1990b:ll). influences from Europe, America, and Africa. Some efforts were made in the early 18th century Many of the Loyalists tried their luck as mer­ to diversify the economy. The most lucrative chants. They also developed the boatbuilding sources of trade remained woodcutting, salt raking, industry, which, although not prevalent today, is the gathering of turtle shells and , and the still practiced especially in Abaco, Andros, and collection of monk seal oil for export. Because the Long Island. Farmers with large families and 10 to inhabitants were not inclined to farm, no staple 100 slaves were induced by land grants to establish crop was developed; they seemed to prefer seafaring cotton plantations on the . These activities, and the essentially maritime nature of the thrived for several years, but by 1800 cotton as a Bahamian economy would continue into the 20th commercial crop had failed, and most farmers were century. facing ruin. Many Whites left The Bahamas as a result. THE LOYALISTS &. THEIR SLAVES Among the Blacks accompanying the Loyalists By 1773 the population of The Bahamas had grown to The Bahamas, many claimed to be free, by to 4,000, with an almost equal ratio of Whites and virtue of having been born free, having purchased Blacks living mainly on New Providence. However, their freedom, or having been granted it by official in the space of two years, between 1783 and 1785, decree. Among them were Joseph Paul, the first the population of The Bahamas doubled with Methodist in The Bahamas, and Prince William arrivals from the recently independent United and Samuel Scrivens, who set up the Society of States of America. Known as Loyalists because they Anabaptists in 1801 and established Bethel Baptist wished to remain British subjects, the majority of Church, out of which St. John's Native Baptist these American colonists came from the South, and Church grew. The Baptist Church quickly gained they settled in New Providence and the Out converts among the Black population. While the Islands, many of which had had no permanent pop­ Established (Anglican) Church took little interest ulation before. The Blacks they brought with them, in the slaves, the Baptists, with their stress on mostly Creole slaves born in the Americas, West freedom, rousing music, emotional sermons, lively Indies, or Bahamas, tipped the population balance singing, hand clapping, and spirit possession,

62 THE BAHAMAS FESTIVAL OF AMERICAN FOLKUFE Three women go to market in Grant's Town in the that are highly regarded today display stylistic ele­ early 20th century. Grant's Town was founded in the ments brought by the Loyalists from their homes in early 19th century by the governor of The Bahamas to the American South. settle newly arrived Africans, thus keeping them sepa­ The slaves had kept alive many of their African rate from Nassau's White citizens. This photograph customs, even though these were diluted by their was published in 1936. Photo courtesy Nassau Magazine new environment, and brought these as well as and the Department of Archives, The Bahamas beliefs and folklore from America to The Bahamas. There they were reinforced by the coming of the appealed to the Bahamian slaves as well as to the liberated Africans, and still affect Bahamian culture freed Blacks. today. The slaves brought by the Loyalists comprised a youthful and healthy population that was increas­ LIBERATED AFRICANS ing naturally at Emancipation in 1834 (Saunders After the abolition of the British slave trade in l985a:50). They were used to build the plantation 1807, many African slaves were liberated from for­ system; when it failed, they worked as field laborers eign ships by British naval patrols, and between on farms and were utilized as salt-rakers, seamen, 1808 and 1860, about 6,000 were settled in The domestics, and artisans. Bahamas, mainly at New Providence. They were This migration of Loyalists and Blacks exerted a first "apprenticed" to "masters" or "mistresses" and significant and long-lasting influence on countless performed many of the same tasks the slaves had, areas of Bahamian culture. For example, the color under similar conditions: "fishing, , cut­ and class barriers characterizing the social structure ting wood, raking salt and agricultural and domes­ during slavery were intensified after the coming of tic tasks" Qohnson 1991:20). As Howardjohnson the Loyalists and would continue well into the 20th argued, a proto-peasantry emerged in The Bahamas century. On the positive side, the Loyalists in the late 18th century. Liberated Africans formed improved record keeping and started a lending the nucleus of the peasantry that developed during library. John Wells from Charleston, South slavery. They also were a part of the free Black Carolina, founded the first Bahamian newspaper, community, enjoying some independence and "a the Bahama Gazette, in 1784. Vernacular architec­ measure of prosperity" Qohnson 1991:24). ture reflects the introduction by slaves of thatching Although many lived in the town of Nassau, techniques and outside rock ovens. In Nassau, a there were in the 1830s at least eight free Black vil­ number of public buildings and private residences lages or settlements elsewhere. For at least a hun-

FESTIVAL OF AMERICAN FOLKLIFE THE BAHAMAS 63 While the construction of shipping vessels has declined were linked to organizations in Britain and the in The Bahamas, the popularity of regattas sustains . Both the Friendly Societies and affili­ the demand for racing boats. Abaca is well known for ated lodges are still important in the lives of many its boatbuilding industry. Photo courtesy Department of . Archives, The Bahamas Liberated Africans also gave added vigor to other cultural forms and practices with African roots. dred years after Emancipation these villages These included john Canoe Qunkanoo) (see Keith retained strong African characteristics and an iden­ Wisdom's article) and dances such as the Jumping tity of their own. Dance, Ring Play, and (to a lesser extent) the Fire African Bahamians learned to fend for themselves Dance. Goombay or rake and scrape music, after Emancipation. They were able to survive in a although Bahamian, contains strong African influ­ depressed economy which offered few opportuni­ ences (see Kayla Edwards's article). Clement Bethel ties for wage labor Qohnson 1991:185) by thrifty believes that much of the music found in The habits and through the custom of the asue. A sys­ Bahamas today, especially in Cat Island and tem of financing with roots in West Africa (Eneas Andros, contained a spiritual quality derived from 1976:17), the asue is still popular in the contempo­ the songs of the ante-bellum slaves from the rary Bahamas. Ex-slaves and liberated Africans also American mainland (Bethell978:9l). Death rites, formed Friendly Societies to provide "by mutual which originated in Africa, evolved into the custom assistance, for periods of sickness, old age and bur­ of holding a wake. African influence on the foods ial expenses" Qohnson 1991:183). "While the early eaten and the methods and types of cooking is friendly societies in the Bahamas were based on manifest. English antecedents," the organizations "reflect "Bush" medicine, the use of local medicinal African cultural values" and resembled associations plants (see Tracey Thompson's article), is utilized and secret societies of the Efik and Igbo peoples of in the practice of obeah, a phenomenon West Africa Qohnson 1991:184). Until the latter that almost certainly originated in Africa and that part of the 19th century, these Friendly Societies persists today, even if more privately. Obeah is operated as pressure groups on the White power based on the belief that all good and evil, illnesses structure as well. Other affiliated societies provid­ and cures, result from spirits, sorcery, or magic. ing for the physical welfare of their members and Marketing, as it had in Africa, played a significant mobilizing the Black community on political issues part in the lives of Black Bahamians. Inheriting tra­ became more popular in the 20th century; these ditions from their slave and African forbears,

64 THE BAHAMAS FESTIVAL OF AMERICAN FOLKLIFE African Bahamian populations traditionally grew By far the largest minority in The Bahamas are much produce in their own garden plots and sold it the Haitians. They began migrating in the 1950s either from door to door or at small homemade because of sociopolitical unrest and economic hard­ stalls in the streets, often in front of the houses. ships in Haiti; as conditions in Haiti have deterio­ Most of the vendors were women and, according to rated in recent years, the number of Haitians land­ Cleveland Eneas, nearly all were of Yoruba descent. ing in The Bahamas, many of them illegally, has The Nassau Market, in existence since the early increased. Most Haitian men work in gardening and 1800s, was the central node of local commerce. farming, and many Haitian women work as house­ For some years, even until the early 20th century, keepers and cooks, although quite a few have set many African Bahamians kept their native lan­ up small retail businesses, following the African guages alive. Most Blacks, however, spoke custom. Numerous Haitians also are employed in , a syncretic dialect which resem­ the Royal Bahamas Police Force and the Defence bled the Black English spoken on the U.S. mainland Force; others are lawyers and teachers. in the 18th century. Shilling and Holm argue that There is friction between the Creole Bahamian the slaves of the American Loyalists preserved and Haitian populations, arising from Bahamians' American Plantation Creole of the 18th century. resentment of the competition by Haitian women in is the country's official , retail trade, and the demands that Haitians put on but many Bahamians of all colors and classes still health services and the educational system. speak varieties of English (Holm and Shilling Many children born of Haitian parents have 1980: iii-vii). become Bahamianized to a large extent. More research is needed, but, although they usually live LATER MIGRATIONS in all-Haitian communities, it seems that some During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Haitians desire to distance themselves from their demands for labor encouraged the immigration of Haitian roots and culture. Some have converted significant groups of "trading minorities" Qohnson from Roman Catholicism to Baptist and other non­ 1991:125-48) including Chinese, Greek, Lebanese, conformist denominations. and skilled laborers from the West Indies. The first Greeks who arrived in the late 19th century CONCLUSION engaged in the sponge trade, and by 1925 the The society of The Bahamas has been mostly influ­ Greek community "was firmly established in the enced by Africa and Britain and more recently by Bahamas" Qohnson 1991:130). The Lebanese, who America and the Caribbean. As Winston Saunders also arrived in the late 19th century, were peddlers wrote in 1989: and later successful shopkeepers. A small number of Jews also began retail businesses. Chinese immi­ Culture in The Bahamas today is an amalgam grants established restaurants, although many of our British heritage, our African heritage worked in other capacities. The descendants of the and the effects of our closeness to North original immigrants have branched out into profes­ America. Our language is English, our sional areas such as law, medicine, and architec­ Parliament follows the judicial procedure set ture, and some are still engaged in lucrative down in England .... Our courts follow the businesses. English system .... Marry the above with the In the 1920s, the "immigrant groups occupied an practice of obeah, the girating movements of intermediate position in Bahamian society" Qohn­ the ring-play, the pulsating rhythm of son 1991:136). At least until the 1950s they were Junkanoo and the goat-skin drum, the hand­ seen as a threat to the local mercantile elite and clapping jumpers, the use of bush medicine, remained on the margins of society. Although there the songs and the drinking of a wake and the are distinct Greek, Lebanese, and Chinese commu­ consequent outpouring of public grief at the nities in The Bahamas today, some members of death of a loved one, our African-inspired these groups have intermarried with other Bahamians. neighbourhood banking system called asue, West Indian laborers migrated to The Bahamas, and you almost have a Bahamian. The final many via Cuba, during the prosperous Prohibition touches comes in the form of the American years. Better educated than local Creoles, these Jerri curl, the American Afro, American televi­ immigrants and their descendants later played a sion, American and Japanese technology, the large role in sensitizing Bahamians to political American system of higher education and its movements in the Caribbean. graduate degrees, hamburgers and hot dogs,

FESTIVAL OF AMERICAN FOLKLIFE THE BAHAMAS 65 coca cola, the Chevrolet ... the satellite dish. Holm, John, and Allison Shilling. 1982. A Dictionary of . New York: David K. Barnhart Lexik. Frivolous though some of these things may seem, they fuse to form a representative cata­ Johnson, Howard. 1991. The Bahamas in Slavery and logue of our cultural heritage and the patterns Freedom. Kingston and : Ian Randle Publishers. that dictate our reaction to any given situa­ Johnson, Howard. 1989. The Emergence of Peasantry in tion (W. Saunders 1989:243). the Bahamas During Slavery. Slavery and Abolition: A journal of Comparative Studies 10(2). Indeed, despite the powerful influence of North Marshall, Dawn I. 1979. The Haitian Problem. Illegal America, The Bahamas continues to forge a cultural Migration to the Bahamas. Mona: Institute of Social and identity of its own. Economic Research, University of the West Indies. Outten, Kim. 1989. A Brief Historical Review of Straw SUGGESTED READINGS Work in the Bahamas. In Aspects of Bahamian History . Bethel, Edward Clement. 1978. Music in The Bahamas, Department of Archives, Nassau Guardian , 23 March. Its Roots, Saunders, Gail. 1983. Bahamian Loyalists and Their Development and Personality. M.A. Thesis, UCLA. Slaves. London: Macmillan Caribbean. Cash, Philip, Shirley Gordon, and Gail Saunders. 1991. __. 1985a. Slavery in the Bahamas. Nassau: Nassau Sources of Bahamian History. London: Macmillan Guardian. Education Ltd. __. 1985b. The Social 1890- Craton, Michael. 1962. A History of the Bahamas . London: 1953. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Waterloo. Collins. (Revised and reprinted 1986). __. 1990a. Bahamian Society After Emancipation. Craton, Michael, and Gail Saunders. 1992. Islanders in the Essays in Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries . Stream. A History of the Bahamian People, Vol. I. Nassau (privately published). Now revised and reprint­ Athens: University of Georgia Press. ed as Bahamian Society After Emancipation. Kingston, : Ian Randle Publishers, 1994. Eneas, Cleveland. 1976. Bain Town. Nassau: Nassau Guardian. __. 1990b. Life in New Providence in the Early Eighteenth Century. journal of the Bahamas Historical Granberry, Julian. 1991. Lucayan Toponyms. journal of Society (October). the Bahamas Historical Society Vol. 13, No. 1 (Oct.): 3-12. __. 1992. The Early Settlers in the Bahamas. journal of the Bahamas Historical Society (October). D. Gail Saunders heads the Department of Archives in Saunders, Winston. 1989. The Cultural Arts in the The Bahamas and is Bahamian curator for the Bahamas. In Modem Bahamian Society , edited by Dean Smithsonian-Bahamas program. She received her Ph.D. W . Collinwood and Steve Dodge. Parkerburg, Iowa: from the University of Waterloo, Ontario, . Caribbean Books, USA.

66 THE BAHAMAS FESTIVAL OF AMERICAN FOLKLIFE