The Global Network Le Reseau Global

THE GLOBAL NETWORK

LE RESEAU GLOBAL

NO. 4-5 Le Reseau

The Network

Communication and Society in Eastern Europe • Communication et Societé en Europe de l’Est No 4-5 MARCH / JUNE 1996

Peter Gross & Ray Hiebert Departures on an Old Fashioned Track. Broadcast Laws in Romania, Poland and The Czech Republic

Vesella Tabakova Women and Media in Bulgaria: Access to Expression and Decision Making

File / Dossier Detailed presentation of some Central & Eastern European Schools of Journalism Contents / Sommaire

ESSAY ESSAI Tapio Varis Global Communication in the Age of Cyberspace

SPECIAL EMPHASIS LE POINT SUR

Peter Gross & Ray Hiebert Departures on an Old Fashioned Track. Broadcasting Laws in Romania, Poland and the Czech Republic

Marius Lukosiunas & Skirmantas Valiulis Lithuanian Mass Media and Its Legal Regulation Between 1991 - 1995

AR T I C L E S AR T I C L E S

Vesella Tabakova Women and Media in Bulgaria: Access to Expression and Decision Making

Daniela Frumusani New Role Models for Journalists in Eastern European Countries

Teresa Sasinska-Klas Transformation of the Polish Media System

FI L E DO S S I E R Detailed Presentation of some Central & Eastern European Schools of Journalism

Facultatea de Jurnalism si Stiintele Comunicarii Universitatea Bucuresti FJSC PUB L I S H I N G DIR E C T O R / DIR E C T E U R DE L AP U B L I C A T I O N Mihai Coman „A strong publisher creates a corporate culture that can leave its EDITOR / REDACTEUR EN CHEF Oscar Stanciulescu mark on an organisation long after he or she is gone.“

ADVISORY BOARD / COMITÉE DE LECTURE Jean-Pierre Bacot France Philip Meyer Claude Jean Bertrand France Peter Gross US „An editor should tell the writer Andrei Marga Romania his writing is better than it is. Not Kent Middleton US a lot better, a little better.“ Pierre Mory Belgium Todor Petev Bulgaria T.S.Elliot Walery Pisarek Poland Zoltan Rostas Romania „No passion in the world is equal Slavko Splichal Slovenia to the passion to alter someone Kenneth Starck US else’s drafts.“ Gina Stoiciu Canada H.G. Wells

COVER ILLUSTRATION DESIGN & L AYOUT Pablo Picasso - „Don Quijote“ Oscar Stanciulescu

SUBSCRIPTIONS / ABONNEMENTS 3 issues per year

Romania Europe Outside / Outre Europe

Students / Etudiants 12.000 lei 36 USD 44 USD

Individuals / Particuliers 20.000 lei 48 USD 56 USD

Institutions 30.000 lei 75 USD 80 USD

Checks should be payable / Chèques doit être payé à: Banca Internationala a Religiilor, Bucuresti, Romania Account no: 40205002080016 for USD payments Please send the money order to the publisher.

Abonamentele în lei se fac în contul 4010500208, deschis la Banca Internationalã a Religiilor din Bucuresti, România. Vã rugãm sã trimiteti dispozitia de platã pe adresa editorului. ISSN 1223-5199 The Global Network / Le reseau global 5 Global Communication in the Age of Cyberspace

BY TAPIO VARIS

Abstract not only the information technology but the human and social di - H E m a i n mensions of assisting thesis of this research, learning and paper is to instruction. Cultural di - say that the versities are real and the structure they should not only be Tof communication, uni - understood but also sup - versities, research and ported in order to make learning institutions will intercultural communi - grow in a qualitative cation work. Culture is way. This means that not any static concept but there will not only be an interactive, changing more information to deal process which with but new ways of will give meaning dealing with it and serv - and sense of be - Tapio Varis ing the public, media, longingness to is professor at the faculties, students and people. Further - University of professionals. The pro - more, my view is Helsinki, Finland cess of globalism support - that although we and ed by the new technology try to bring some visiting-professor at is full of contradictions kind of an order the University of which are cultural in to the increasing Santiago, Spain nature. The question is information flow The Global Network / Le reseau global 6 and media environment, the nications and the introduction world around us, including the of new telematic services. arts, is not in any predeter - mined order but rather in a cre - The almost unavoidable global- ative form of anarchy, chaos. isation is promoted by technology which in turn favours simplified answers to most compli- ck d cated social, cultural and religious conflicts that are bound to emerge in this globalisation H E rapid development in process. Already in the begin- T information and communi- ning of the 1960’s a French cation technology, especially in sociologist Jacques Ellul spoke computer and telecommunica- of the new media as „technolog- tion systems, is creating pro- ical bluff.“ He thought that found changes in the structure each new medium does bring of the world economic system. something new in the organis- It is changing political and cul- ing, processing and utilisation tural institutions, education of information but also makes and research, as well as the something disappear. The new nature of diplomacy. Two inventions, though, always issues will dominate the future have consequences that could of communications for some not have been foreseen (Varis time to come. First, the expo- 1965). Culture is a changing, nential increase in the quantity interactive process that deals of information and communica- with human values which are tion in the emerging global hard if not impossible to pre- information society; and sec- di c t . ond, knowledge is becoming the most important resource in a When studying the policy dis- global information economy course of global television (Melody 1994). The key con- Michael Curting criticised the cepts are interconnectedness utopian discourse of the early and network economy. 1960’s that television would play an important role in pro- There are at least two techno- moting an „imagined communi- logical trends in the late 1990’s ty“ of citizens throughout the that affect world business, world. This notion of cultural institutions and everyday life. and geographic integration One is the rapid exploitation of was, according to Curting, Internet by corporations and some kind of official interna- institutions, and the other is tionalism decided from above the deregulation of telecommu- analogous to the official nation- The Global Network / Le reseau global 7 alism of Russification in the the audiovisual space of televi- nineteenth-century Russia - sion and video -has intensified and both turned out to be fail- in two decades in an unprece- ures (Curting, 1993, p.131- dented way: in order to believe 132). Today, European Union we have to see things (Gubern speaks of cultural diversity 19 9 6 ) . instead of one European culture in trying to avoid these The period of transition that problems but the share of we are now living differs from Eurosceptics in all EU coun- the periods of change of older tries is still large. dominant media. Radio, television and cable were introduced A Galician film historian Juan within a period of reasonable A. Hernandez Les observes length and when we moved to that we have to make a differ- the active use of a new form of ence between the use of the communication we could also new audiovisual media and have a rough estimation of the learning. More information economic and social impacts of does not mean more culture. it and train new professionals More information is saturation, for the media and support peo- not reflection nor analysis. To ple for the institutions. read a book with a high voice or using radio and television loud- Now different forms of commu- speakers is to recapture the nication and technologies inte- mediaeval sense of knowledge grate and converge with a and communication - particu- speed that hardly anyone has larly during an era when peo- the time or ability to assess all ple do not know any more how of the consequences, real possi- to read. Telematic human bilities or problems. beings, says Hernandez Les, are nonalphabetic who can no We are probably living in an more name things, separate era of transition equal to the the significant from non-signifi- introduction of steam engines cant. The images dominate peo- in 1760-1830 or electricity dur- ple in the major media like ing 1880-1930. The period of rhetoric dominates the spoken transition and confusion was of word (Hernandez Les 1996). a length between 50-70 years, a life of a generation. Now the Professor Roman Gubern from information and communica- the Autonomous University of tion technology, multinational Barcelona concludes that enterprises, and the weakening between the peace in Vietnam of the welfare state and nation- and Sarajevo our iconosphere - al state are creating a new The Global Network / Le reseau global 8 global system which is not yet like classic love, they can an order but is often called easily cross borders. information society. Italian Fiats clamber up the cliffs of Norway. Ever- The Italian philosopher Gianni worried specialists in Vattimo has recently called Renault taxis jolt around this age as „the end of employ- the bumpy streets of ment“. According to him the Moscow. Ford is ubiqui - new technology has made man- tous, he’s in Australia, ual work obsolete. He also he’s also in Japan. asks if the Latin mind is better American Chevrolet prepared to face the existing trucks carry Sumatran instability than the Anglo- tobacco and Palestine Saxon, Northern mind which is oranges. A Spanish more prepared to live in social banker owns a German stability, in „order“ (German Mercedes. 10-H.P. „Ordnung“). The new electronic Citroens in display win - industries might, however, cre- dows in Piccadilly or ate new jobs like the automo- Berlin cause dreamy bile industry once and an passers-by to halt. The example would be a company automobile has come to like Bill Gates’ Microsoft, or show even the slowest Larry Ellison’s Oracle. minds that the earth is However, our thinking of edu- truly round, that the cation is based on work, than heart is just a poetic relic, human beings learn when they that a human being con - shape and give form to exterior tains two standard things (in German „Bildung“, gauges: one indicates in Latin „educare“, culture is miles, the other min - based on „agri-cultura“, etc) utes...“ (Ehrenburg 1976, (1 9 9 6 ) . p. 129)

Sometimes we may forget how It was Jostein Gaarder who fundamental change was creat- realised how the very simple ed by the introduction of the basic truths of philosophy are automobiles. Ilya Ehrenburg changing as a consequence of describes in his book „The Life the ongoing scientific and tech- of the Automobile“ (1929) how nological processes. We may radical was the penetration of claim that only technology inte- the new technology to thinking: grates the world today, almost all other processes, political, „Cars don’t have a home - cultural, economic, and reli- land. Like oil stocks or gious, separate people. What The Global Network / Le reseau global 9 once was known as „Fordism“ cation age of today. following the ideas of Henry Ford could now be something The French philosopher Regis like „Gatesism“ according to Debray divides media culture Bill Gates. in three eras after writing, From the point of view of the printing and the audiovisual: human being one of the main questions could well be defin- - Logosphere was the regime of ing of own individual and social the idol, with principle of its identity in the rapidly chang- efficacy being the presence ing media and communication (transcendent). The continent environment where time and of origin and city of transmis- space are claimed to have lost sion was Asia-Byzantium, their traditional meanings - in between Antiquity and McLuhan’s words: „space has Christianity. The truth was vanished and time ceased to theological in nature. exist.“ Although the truth may not be that simple, basic under- - Graphosphere was the regime standing of knowledge and of art, dominant since printing objectivity has changed, to the emergence of colour tele- morale, ethics and the sense of vision. The principle was repre- social justice increasingly con- sentation (illusory) and the fused, and the social security centre was Europe-Florence th r e a t e n e d . (between Christianity and modernity). The truth had also In the beginning of this centu- aesthetic nature. ry and particularly in the 1920’s the intellectuals debat- - Videosphere is the regime of ed the pessimistic cultural phi- the visual. The principle is sim- losophy of Oswald Spengler as ulation (numerical), the image well as his prediction of the is viewed. Its centre is decadence of Western world. America-New York (between Spengler did construct exten- modern and postmodern). The sive historical visions of the nature of the truth is economic; relations between culture, the centre of money is also the newspapers, democracy, money centre of world media. and religion. Spengler blames the worship of money as The Spenglerian thoughts have destructive to the spirit and puzzled me more than a quar- culture. But it is the money, ter of the century and they really global in nature, that is came again to my mind when I the only identifiable value of heard leading Finnish Inter- the information and communi- net-philosophers ask why do The Global Network / Le reseau global 10 we not yet have a religious, uous repetition. As a truly world-wide spiritual Frenchman Pierre Babin says movement in the Internet. the largest immersion possible Perhaps because the net and was to create belief. related digitalisation in itself have become a kind of a system It has been estimated that the of beliefs - with its own charac- information available would teristics of liturgy and a way of increase during a human life life close to a religious behav- thousand times larger. Human io u r . lives are not, however, dominated only by increasing informa- An American communication tion - it is also dominated by researcher Frank Biocca beliefs in witchcraft and simpli- believes that it is extremely fication. When things around us interesting to study virtual and the problems turn out to to technology now because the dif- be superfluously complicated fusion of the new technology is and absolute truths are only in its early stage but we replaced by relative truths, can expect a fundamental qual- uncertainties and threats of itative change like what hap- future, there will be a great pened when we moved from temptation to resist new knowl- still photos to moving pictures edge by maintaining simplified or from radio to television. and stereotyped beliefs and imagined security of the past. Central conceptions of virtual technology include, for exam- By this I mean the possibility ple, the feeling of presence cre- that the enthusiasts of the ated by computers in some vir- information society may in tual world or telepresence in a their lack of criticism face a distant place and global setback. Social and immersion.Immersion refers to human communication always the level of our senses being functions in a world of cultural connected directly to computers values, ideals and beliefs creat- which deliver stimuli directly ed by human beings. Only they to the brain. create moral principles and ethical ideals which can give In audiovisual communication, answers to questions like what however, immersion could kind of knowledge do we need, mean a return in form to medi- what is important in life and in aeval catholic education where general what is good life? individual life was submitted to the dogmas of the religious Vattimo asks what could community, liturgy and contin- replace work as a base for the The Global Network / Le reseau global 11 construction of one’s personali- The messages have travelled in ty? In his view, we are in an the echo of the drums or in the analogical situation now to the line of smoke. Already the one when there was the disap- ancient empires of Rome, pearance of confessional belief Greece, Egypt and Babylon cre- in truth as the measure of ated their means of getting the objectivity. Today the objectivi- messages through the whole ty as measured by the opinions empire. Consequently, interna- of experts and intersubjectivity tional communication has no has replaced objectivity. precise beginning. Neither do the electronic media although In my view, the experts never electronic Morse code experi- can have a holistic view of ments started as early as 1837. things, or a generalist understanding of knowledge. They In the everyday use of the word may be very advanced from a communication we usually particular point of view but the refer to the transmission and totality of things and their mediation of information. It is interrelationships may be essential, however, to observe beyond the understanding and that media are much more knowledge of everybody. The than only means of transfer- generalists of primitive soci- ring information. The media eties, the priests, have their extend human senses and the successors among the funda- dominant media of different mentalist simplifiers of today’s era determine much which spiritual leaders who are fluent sense is primarily used in the in the use of modern media. search of information and in the process of thought. Thus WE WANT the process of thinking also TO COMMUNICATE depends on the media and the media characteristics to deliver stimuli to the brains. In differ- NE of the basic character- ent eras the dominant media O istics of human beings is have been very different in the ability to communicate. We these characteristics and, in have always tried to share consequence, the way of think- information, feelings and ideas ing, constructuring science and with others; only the means belief systems have been differ- and media have changed dur- en t . ing different times. We call „media“ all the means and Different countries and cul- ways in which human beings tures can be studied with a spe- co m m u n i c a t e . cial emphasis of the dominant The Global Network / Le reseau global 12 media culture there. In throughout the rest of the Finland, for example, the gen- wo r l d . eral level of literacy and the role of the printed word have It has been estimated that just been strong and the printed now electronic communication word has been respected per- doubles in a year. How do haps even uncritically too human beings behave when mu c h . they have to make choices of an information amount thousands Roughly generalising we could of times greater in a few years divide media cultures in three time? Some experts speak of groups. The first one could be the mutation of world commu- called reading culture which nication, a new „teleinfo- could be exemplified with ga l a x y . “ Finland, Germany, and Iceland. Also in Sweden and The multiple applications of Norway book and newspaper telecommunications extend reading are highly valuated. from private life to the gover- nance of whole economic com- The second group of media cul- munities. They make possible tures could be composed of oral services more individually than traditions. Many Latin coun- before, save of time and new tries are rich in their oral tradi- forms of work. People them- tions like Italy, Spain, France, selves can learn to master ways Latin-America and the Arab of communication which before region. Rhetoric skills are val- were privilege of media profes- ued which can be observed in sionals only. At least they can everyday situations of busi- get access to the sources of ness, restaurants or sports cov- information if they can operate erage in the media. High level the new technology. Most like- book and print publishing exist ly, however, it is erroneous to but they are not necessarily think that an ignorant user shared with the great public as would get very far by leafing much as in Scandinavia for though superficial information. ex a m p l e . In the thinking of a French The third group is made of the philosopher Régis Debray countries of the new audiovisu- „communication“ is a modern al media culture. The United but late answer to a much more States is leading in the new difficult and permanent prob- media culture and most media lem of mediation. Mediation contents and styles from the has also been a central concept United States have diffused of Christian theology. The Global Network / Le reseau global 13

The Finnish translation of ism again. People in general, „mediation“ carries double and particularly the young meaning. First, it refers to ones, get together every day in mediating something from front of their own electronic someone to somebody. But the media, own music, daily news, second meaning would be sports or games. It creates a something like „caring“, to take feeling of togetherness which is care of someone. The word based on similar audio repeti- „communicate“ refers to „comu- tion and the use of own magic nicare“, communion between signs and beliefs as in the people which in Western think- primitive societies the rituals of ing also implied Holy Union. the spiritual leaders.

Debray calls the study of mediation with the word „mediolo- FROM ATOMS TO BITS gy“. He is interested in the power of images, making peo- HE central elements of this ple believe. In the Finnish T new information society debate I prefer to use the word are „bits“ and no more „atoms“ „medialogy“ referring more to with which we have measured media culture and media edu- world trade, for example cation although I have the (Negroponte 1995). The change same interest in the relation- is made possible by digital ship between technical struc- technology which allows the tures and more higher forms of introduction of multimedia. consciousness as Debray. Television, video and other media integrate with comput- The new multimedia applica- ing and information sciences tions return media culture to and all integrate with telecom- the era prior to the domination munications creating a whole of the print media, to the era of new field of telematic services magic and mythology. There and applications. This is com- the communication elite was bined with the unprecedented formed of primitive priests, speeding upon the storage and shamans and soothsayers processing capabilities of infor- whose technology was oral in mation. With the introduction all of its forms. The cohesive of a broad-band fibber optics order of the society was created and networked economies we by a regular, repetitive oral cul- are moving from electronic to tu r e . photonic processing systems and networked societies. The postmodernism of our era has possibly created neo-tribal- In the university life, this The Global Network / Le reseau global 14 means the creation of an the information society, con- entirely new type of a virtual sumption depends on knowl- university. Programs, units, edgeable consumers.“ he said professors and students can be that the foundation of the infor- interconnected according to the mation society is widespread specific needs and new commu- intelligence: intelligence in nities of learned scholars can products, in business, in the be created. Most ambitious pro- public sector, and among con- grams include an effort to cre- sumers. Therefore, and also ate a Global University because digitalisation and the (Utsumi 1996). All university growing use of computers are institutions are affected, creating new forms of illiteracy including the library. There the and poverty, governments are question is frequently asked: urged to take action to improve how to use the scant resources - educational systems (De for buying new information Benedetti 1995). hardware or traditional books? I do not think this is the right The media and information question. Both are needed field and programmes of relat- which means a qualitative ed education, however, are still growth in the service functions much dominated by technical of the library. The traditional people only. As Nobel-econo- universities everywhere have mist Kenneth Boulding once considerable difficulties in said, the economists and tech- understanding the ongoing nologists bring the „bits“ but it changes but the growth of poly- requires the social scientist and technics and other forms of the humanist to bring the higher learning challenges tra- „wits“. In other words, the ditional institutions. mere increase of information and new systems of informa- The world economic leaders, tion processes do not bring the representatives of the meaning or wisdom. Human transnational corporations, and social analysis will always have realised that a conver- be needed to evaluate the rele- gence between computers, elec- vance of the information tronics, telecommunications according to human and cultur- and media is already highly al values. visible in the marketplace. Mr. Carlo De Benedetti, Chairman In fact, there is a tendency to of Olivetti, wrote in the context confuse globalism and univer- of a recent meeting of the salism and forget the unique- world’s leading industrialised ness of cultures. markets, traf- nations, the Group 7, that „in fic, money and information are The Global Network / Le reseau global 15 global but cultural values like edly pointed out the different human rights, democracy and myths about globalisation. The freedom are not and could not process is full of counter-global- be treated like selling a product ising tendencies of cultural and or a service as often happens political resistance to suprana- no w . tional hegemonies. Further- more, one of the paradoxes in In recent years, communication terms of global media colossi is researchers and media scholars that two relatively small states, as well as also media philoso- Canada and Australia, have phers have paid attention to been singularly successful in the characteristics and contra- exporting media empires and dictions of globalisation, and barons from Beacerbrook and also to the disappearance or Thomson to Packer, Murdoch emergence of different cultural, and Black (Ferguson 1993). ethnic and social identities. Since the early 1990’s it has In Britain, Peter Schlesinger been obvious that we are mov- speaks of an emerging area of ing away from the concepts of scholarly attention which is mass-society, mass-production formed of the relationship and mass media even though between global media and col- the existing dominant media lective, cultural,and national empires prefer to ignore this identities (Schlesinger 1993). (Varis 1992). They try to con- The collective identity is creat- vince public bodies by the use ed when people have a sense of of audience research and public themselves by self-identifying opinion surveys that people communities, using signs pro- like what they have now and vided by their cultures. The col- that there is no signs of change lective consciousness is being in their behaviour. By doing so defined in „we in relation to the media monopolies try to they“. The process extends impress the policy-making though time, involving both organs that what they are memory and amnesia. It also doing is what the audience like extends in space like in the and that there is no ground to efforts to create a new Euro- criticise what and how they are identity, Europeanness, or doing what they do. Research is European audiovisual space. being used like the famous Some even prefer to speak of a effect studies in the 1950’s to world citizenship. convince that violence, low aesthetic and cultural level, and The Canadian researcher maintenance of ignorance do no Marjorie Ferguson has repeat- harm to audiences and would The Global Network / Le reseau global 16 be what people like to have. in history. The Japanese culture, for example, does not con- Two radically different tain a precise conception to thinkers have approached refer to this phenomenon. The these problems in recent years. problem is that the belief in the The thesis of the American universalism of western values bureaucrat Francis Fukuyama is original western thought but about the end of history is well equally little exportable to known. But less thought is the other cultures than any other view of Fukuyama that by loos- original thought. Probably a ing his ideals and community fundamental Islamic thought life human beings may instead in its belief of universalism is of coming to an end of history close to western thought in this „return to being first men re s p e c t . engaged in bloody and point- less prestige battles, only this It may be by no chance that it time with modern weapons.“ is precisely the extremist fun- (Fukuyama 1992, p.328). damentalism of Islamic and western thought that confront In another culture and from a each other even today. For the different point of view this Europeans, it is worth remem- problem has been analysed by bering that the history of mod- the French philosopher and ern universalism and globalism sociologist Jean Baudrillard. started in Spain, which the He has emphasised the differ- Arabs called al-Andalus. There ences between globalisation the Christian Catholics liqui- and universalism (Baudrillard dated violently the Islamic 1996). Baudrillard says that Arabs in 1492. Tariq Ali globalism refers to such quali- describes the subsequent loss ties as technics, markets, of identity and violent destruc- tourism and information. tion of culture as well as the Universalism, however, deals extension of this thought later with values like human rights, in America which was „discov- liberties, culture and democra- ered“ (Ali 1996). His book „The cy. Globalism today appears Shadow of Pomegranate Tree“ almost irreversible but univer- was awarded with the salism is withering away. Archbishop’s high prize in Galicia in 1996. The industrialised countries of the West have made the values However, a culture that makes of modernism into such an herself universal looses her val- industrially produced value- ues and withers away, says system that have no precedent Baudrillard. Becoming global The Global Network / Le reseau global 17 ends the universality of values. ment, history and identity Sameness in thought wins (Varis 1995). value-based universalism. At the end, the only thinks that Instead of making different are global are the markets, languages and habits enrich- exchange of products, and the ment to people in their lives, endless flow of capital. they become in the global techno-structure barriers and fac- In cultural terms, there is a tors of inefficiency. In solemn chaos of all kind of messages, declarations like in the „White signs and values. Baudrillard Book“ of the European Union calls the flow of all kinds of they speak willingly of cultural messages in world-wide net- diversities. But the concepts of works as pornography. It does freedom, democracy and not need to be of sexual nature human rights have become but, for example, the images of tools of a political game and democracy and human rights they do no more have a value- are disseminated world-wide as based moral or intellectual if they were oil or capital. po w e r .

In fact, we face three compli- It is interesting to note that cated problems. The first one is another French thinker, Vice- the global nature of markets, President of Centre d’Etudes et the second is the universality of d’Actions Européennes in values, and the third the u- Paris, Mr. Emmanuel Aubert niqueness of forms. Languages, wrote at the time of the open- cultures, individuals, charac- ing of the inter-governmental teristics, random chances are conference of the EU in March unique. When we have lost val- 1996 about the stagnation of ues, the global techno-culture European thought. According captures uniqueness and trans- to him, this mental and opera- form them into sameness. tive stagnation can be over- come only by a new political Great empires have degenerat- opening. Only a small nucleus ed earlier due to the time- of states is capable for such biased communication infra- opening, says Aubert - like structure as observed by Ha- Prussia for Germany, Castilla rold Innis in the early 1950’s. for Spain, Isle de France for According to him it is equally France, and Piedmont for Italy fatal to have a space-biased once were. Today such a nucle- media and communication, the us could be composed of Spain, excessive dissociation of mes- France, and Germany, he con- sages from peoples environ- tinues. The opening of a new The Global Network / Le reseau global 18

Europe cannot be made only by The whole process is full of con- means of monetary union, tradictions and we have not yet institutional developments or seen all the positive or negative increasing the membership. social consequences that the What is needed, according to chaos in value systems may Aubert, is politics based on val- create. Hans Magnus Enzens- ues (Aubert 1996). berger speaks about violence without any ideological content Baudrillard concludes to which has become a way of life emphasise the importance of for this television age. The post resisting globalisation by politi- Cold-War world is close to what cal and social means by empha- Enzensberger calls „civil war“, sising values that go above everybody’s fight against every- economy and existing politics. body else (Enzensberger 1994). Universalism has had its historical options but today we INFORMATION SOCIETY face a new world order with no WITHOUT ENEMIES? alternatives. The unifying globalism, however,also creates co u n t e r - f o r c e s . H E information and com- T munication technologies, One small but illustrative particularly in telecommunica- example is the change of time tions and computer applica- in our summer and winter peri- tions, are creating an entirely ods. When the rich industri- new kind of world economy. In alised countries where shocked a world-wide scale, the Inter- by the oil crisis in 1973 they national Telecommunication decided to remove their clocks Union (ITU) estimates that with one hour in summer time information and communica- in order to save energy. This tion industries were in 1994 as demand of efficiency and global much as 6150 billion FMK, saving, however, has had sev- which equals to 5,9 % of world eral negative consequences to economy. ITU also estimates peoples habits and even health. that the business also grows In 1996, for example, Portugal twice faster than the rest of the refused to follow the move into world economy. summer time. In the Czech Republic these global changes World economy is becoming a brought into people’s minds the networked economy. Ope- memories of 1849-1945 when rations cross borders and the Nazi-Germany forced equal become global, regulations change of time (La Voz de change and the pace of change Galicia 28 & 30.3.1996). is unprecedented. The giant The Global Network / Le reseau global 19 entertainment industries are great deal of communication fusing with giants of delivery research approaches communi- technology and new mega- cation with a technical deter- giants are created with a minism. The great communica- strength of hundreds of billions tion experts of our era have of FMK. The equipment and developed communication and service markets of telecommu- information technology into an nications alone in the world are ideology which as if would worth 2600 billion FMK. replace political ideologies. Communication ideology ap- As a consequence of the infor- pears as harmless since it has mation and communication no enemies like political ideolo- revolution some philosophers gi e s . like Gianni Vattimo speak of the „end of employment“ In addition to this, the ideology (Vattimo 1996). People have of the communication and constructed their identity and information technology is personality through work and believed to solve social prob- though information and mes- lems better that value-based sages that have a meaning to political ideologies. People as if them, usually through work. were in a great consensus of the nature of the new „informa- The Canadian-French resear- tion society“ (Breton & Proulx chers Philippe Breton and 19 8 9 ) . Serge Proulx have a critical approach to the problems of The visionaries of global infor- social communication and mation society believe that the information society. The pre- development of information sent communication research technology and telecommunica- and its concepts were created tions will create a new era of by American-based empirical techno-culture which would be study of mass-society when it global. But what are the uni- was necessary to find common versal values of such a culture? values in a multicultural society and evaluate the public In his book „Being Digital“ opinion. The German influ- (1995) Nicholas Negroponte enced, European sociology of does not even observe the dif- knowledge (Wissensoziologie) ference between global and uni- has not been dominant in the versal. His starting-point is the study of information and com- problem of world-wide markets: munication technology. the GATT system that regulat- ed world trade counted atoms Breton and Proulx write that a when in modern global interac- The Global Network / Le reseau global 20 tion important will be bits, the the idea of atomised people amount of information not without governments and for- material things. getting that governments of national states with the rule of Negroponte, however, has a law are to guarantee social jus- clear vision of the future world tice and not depress people, is community. The system on shared by other world business national states will face a strong leaders, too. Mr. Patrick globalisation. In fifty years the McGovern, Chairman of the nations will be simultaneously International Data Group, much greater and much smaller. responds to the worries of Europe is a good example of this, Olivetti Chairman Carlo De says Negroponte. Benedetti about the destabili- sation of nations around the He writes that while contempo- globe as a result of the growth rary politicians stick to history in global communications by a new generation without such saying that „people now have prejudices is growing. These the ability to communicate to young people would be those of everyone else through electron- the digital era who would no ic means.“ He continues that more be limited by geography „when people have the informa- in creating friendship and coop- tion and know what’s going on, eration. In addition to this, they don’t need a chain of com- Negroponte believes in the mand to tell them what to do.“ emergence of a new common (McGovern 1995). language that did not exist before and which would help We can raise the critical ques- people to understand each tion if these views simplify too other without crossing frontiers much the complexity of world’s (Negroponte 1995). political, cultural and economic systems? We can also ask what In his recent newspaper contri- happens to the public sphere? bution Negroponte develops What will be the role of public and emphasises his view that broadcasting, public libraries, the governments are the prob- public institutions of learning, lem: cyberspace should remain public debate, and democracy? a private territory, says Will the new transnational, Negroponte, where nobody global actors also take the should be able to control what responsibility of maintaining other people communicate and and developing these institu- how (Negroponte 1996). tions for the good of all, with universal services, training and The same thinking of glorifying ed u c a t i o n ? The Global Network / Le reseau global 21

The problems of the informa- will it end with information tion society include digital van- society. Most interactive social dalism, robbery of software and communication may have been misuse of information. We can in churches throughout thou- argue whether we should con- sands of years. Freedom and centrate us on intelligent soft- individuality will be deter- ware programs for home com- mined by the values that each puters (Bill Gates) or intelli- culture recognises. gent networks (Larry Ellison) - or in other words, develop One of the consequences of the everybody’s „Volkswagen“or information and communica- public transport (Terceiro tion revolution is the introduc- 19 9 6 ) . tion of new concepts. We may speak of the „mediamorphosis“, But what are the human and the change of the traditional social values of the world-wide media into a new one. Old, information society and the printed newspaper may appear identity of the digital human in an electronic form, too, in being that would no more be the World Wide Web, or tradi- dependent on time and space? tional books and journals are A great deal of socially relevant becoming part of electronic knowledge is contextual to time publishing. Television and and space. Most likely it is a video become multimedia tele- question of time only that the vision etc. In a way, we are new elites will become interest- approaching what in Aristotle ed in the old sociology of knowl- work could be called esoteric edge or in general realise that publishing - unfinished hasty such a scholarly field of human notes of lectures which charac- curiosity exists. To understand terises many of the e-mail the uniqueness is the only exchanges today - as separate means to preserve values in the from finished, carefully pressure of global simplifica- finalised exoteric publishing. ti o n . According to the McLuhan’s The new communication elites approach, the media are exten- willingly speak of individuality, sions of human senses in the interactive and free communi- same way as the wheel is an cation instead of the old mass extension of feet, and the media of the mass society. But media change the internal bal- communication has always ance of senses. been social and this basic characteristic did not start with the The basic question probably emergence of mass society nor remains the same that The Global Network / Le reseau global 22

Aristotle and Plato took up, in any ready-made interpreta- other words, what is the relations nor punish them on the tionship of sensual stimuli to way they use the new media human thinking and knowl- te c h n o l o g y . edge. Aristotle „Poetics“ is in my mind an excellent starting- We in Finland have started to point to study modern multi- develop multimedia with the media. He emphasised the know-how of technical and importance of sensual informa- industrial art professionals but tion and pleasure in „Poetics” it may be more proper to give and in rhetorics he stressed the more attention to theatre art in importance of knowing the this. Some conclusions of this audience which are fundamen- sort have also been made in tal also in the modern media Ho l l y w o o d . cu l t u r e . The information society brings One of the basic values of our forward many kinds of popular- time is economic profit but the ists of knowledge who give over-emphasis of economic util- their audiences more or less isation may prevent sensual emotional certainty of the and spiritual reality to be importance of things and order found. Perhaps also the organ- of significance. Some American ised science when done in the techno-priests convince that in extreme may prevent us to see the computer-dominated civi- the changes around us and lization it is important to have trust our sensual observations. communication based on We may remember that the friendship: „The rose is impor- world theories of Ptolemy were ta n t . “ quite perfect. The world only was not Earth-centered and the Much quoted John Naisbitt globe was not flat. says when studying mega- trends that communication Those who have sensitivity to civilisation may succeed only know the sensual reality may when it is combined with be best placed to express the human input. His saying „high essence of the audiovisual era. tech - high touch“ means that The artists are most sensitive always when new technology is to observe changes in sensual brought to a society it must observations. In fact, the meet with equal human artists may be the only profes- response, touch and feeling of sional group which may face proximity which is based on the media technology very mans natural inclinations. freely. Nobody forces them to Otherwise there is a danger for The Global Network / Le reseau global 23 the technology to become is the enemy, there is a re j e c t e d . demand to bomb it. Multiplied social problems are expected to The brave new world of the be solved rapidly with techno- information society appears to logical means. Security is a social critic and poet much believed to be created by more barbaric and different strengthening the military, not than in the technological pro- by social and human means nor jects and visions. political action.

The new book by a German Although many claim that the professor and poet Hans new technology liberates man Magnus Enzensberger has a it often dominates him. title „Civil War“ (1994). With Therefore we have to be able to the honesty of a poet continue developing technology Enzensberger sees the post- and media so that human Cold War changes more bar- beings are masters of technolo- baric than politicians in their gy and not the other way speeches. He rejects the idea around. Otherwise we might that wars take place some- face a situation where a new where only far away in the elite which can seek, use and developing countries. In fact disseminate information and a the civil wars have long since large majority only ostensibly moved in the midst of our own gets much information but is societies, in the metropolis of not able to use it or is media the world.Violence has become illiterate. Human beings may an end in itself without any become again slaves like in the ideology, our societies develop Middle Ages. everybody’s war against everybody else. In this process, tele- NECESSARY SKILLS vision due to its nature is most corrupt, says Enzensberger. N Finland, for example, it I has been a Government poli- We may agree with Enzens- cy to favour policies conducive berger at least in that the information society and related audiovisual media like televi- needs for education. It has been sion does not favour intellectu- recognised, too, that traditional al analysis without emotional forms of literacy are not passions. Instead, it favours enough and the Ministry for picturesque action, pathetic use Education is actively formulat- of words and body language ing new programs for introduc- and rapid reactions. Even ing media literacy, computer though we do not yet know who literary and other forms of The Global Network / Le reseau global 24 media skills and communica- ROM (La Vanguardia, tion competence to schools of 23.4.1996). As a matter of fact, all levels. when Nicholas Negroponte wrote his book „Being Digital“ The new dimensions of commu- he also said that one of the per- nication require also image lit- sonal reasons for him to write a eracy and competence to pro- book is that the written word duce messages combining tra- creates images and metaphors ditional texts with sound, to which the reader gives music, images, animation and me a n i n g s . vi d e o . But it seems to be true that the It may be possible that the new ongoing information revolution social communication works and technological change have against old forms of totalitari- thorough consequences on the anism but it may also create methods and nature of work, new groups of power. Those information search, learning have the power who know the practices and environments, new information technology. and in situational solutions. Membership in traditional We are able to construct learn- social organisations, parties ing and teaching in an entirely and movements seems also to new way. It is popular to call decrease. What will be the new this new approach as construc- forms of social activities? tivism as separate from the earlier instructivism. We already have some experience of the phenomenon „video- Essential elements in the new on-demand“ but less of such approach include first facing things as „book-on-demand“. In epistemic conflicts which the context of the Day of the means that there are always Book in April 1996 some of the new and new problems to be leading book experts and writ- solved without prior knowledge ers were interviewed in and the type of knowledge is Barcelona. Nicholas Negro- rather generalist than particu- ponte from the M.I.T. said that larist. Second, it includes self- in the next century a large reflection which means that a majority of the books will be learner must response to the electronic. But some authors, conflict. Third, self-regulation like Daniel Pennac, believe means that the learner recon- that no major changes will take structs his or her thinking place. Jostein Gaarder is of the (Klemm 1996). In the institu- opinion that a traditional book tional level, it is less important is more interactive than a CD- to work and study in a given The Global Network / Le reseau global 25 physical place or space but camera angels but that does more important to be intercon- not replace the mind of a nected and in telepresence or trained, professional journalist. cyberspace with the instructor and other learners. Physical Equally, professional or acade- buildings mean less, work-sta- mic people searching material tions and interconnectedness and information for research more. Of course, we are still and teaching or producing own unaware of the possible new teaching material with the new psychological and sociological media or participating in problems that might arise in telematic distance learning relation to alienation, loneli- projects always need the sup- ness, identities, etc. port and assistance of professional library people. The LIBRARY SERVICE nature of assistance and extent FUNCTIONS of cooperation, of course, varies considerably between individuals, faculties and situations. N these processes of change I the service functions of But it is already very clear that libraries will grow. There are the service function of universi- some who might believe that as ty libraries (and other libraries people’s capabilities to use as well) is growing notably. In information tools and search some universities in the United systems will grow there would States, like in Southern Illinois be less need for service people University at Carbondale, the between sources and users. library has integrated a whole This argument is sometimes unit of „learning resource ser- heard of the role of journalists, vices“ (Snyder 1996). This too, as mediators and critics of includes personnel and information in the public media resources to assist faculties in between sources and audi- the preparation, use and devel- en c e s . opment of all kinds of learning materials from information and Such arguments are in my multimedia material to distant mind completely wrong. The learning classrooms and relat- computer-programmed auto- ed technical support. matic cameras do not make visual choices or value judge- The older view of an atomistic ments of human nature to any user of university libraries is television viewer. the audience giving way to a collaborative may preprogram their choices vision where groups of students or select desired sources or or researchers or teaching staff The Global Network / Le reseau global 26 actively work together with the modern industrial societies and support people of the library their logic there are trends of unit to prepare courses, demon- emphasising less the perfect strations or research. A distant nature of human rationality. learning unit could well be con- Rather, their is a need to study nected to the library unit and more mentalities, more flexible provide libraries with new aspects of human behaviour, resources and mandates. The and spiritual dimensions service people have to gain the including belief systems. confidence of the faculty people and they should not in any way GLOBAL CHAOS AND interfere into the internal BELONGINGNESS affairs of the faculties.

The Finnish Ministry for H E ostensible globality Education is supporting pro- T that modern media brings jects to promote the use of dif- to the awareness of people also ferent media by libraries. This provides them with the feeling includes the active use of tradi- of powerlessness in front of tional and new media by such conflicts and processes libraries in schools, universities like the war in the former and other institutions of learn- Yugoslavia (Bosnia), or the for- ing. In fact, we should view the mer Soviet Union (Chechnya), process of life-long learning as nuclear tests, or simply world a continuum where the tradi- economy and unemployment. If tional school is extended into the world’s free market econo- the new environment of public my would have created any media, including the spe- order how can we have such cialised sources and means like atrocities like Rwanda and Internet and the traditional Liberia now In Africa? In envi- forms like book. All of them are ronment affairs, however, cer- needed and have their advan- tain action groups maintain the tages and functions. belief that it is possible to change human behaviour by What is needed now is a new individual activities. vision of the totality of things and the social impact of the The nature of knowledge is no information and communica- more as certain and absolute as tion technology and its applica- in the world view of Galileo and tions. In many fields of the arts Newton but increasingly trans- including theatre and poetry disciplinary and contextual. the rationalistic and rigid Different disciplines are more views of life characteristic to in favour of the use of the theo- The Global Network / Le reseau global 27 ry of chaos than before. century may be an indication of Complexity and unpredictabili- the type of answers technology ty characterise their scholarly is provoking among intellectu- efforts to know and understand als: alternative technology, things. Chaos theory, in alternative media, and alterna- essence, implies that very sim- tive culture. ple dynamical rules can give rise to extraordinarily intricate, As has been observed by Carole surprising and essentially Gray and Ian Pirie the study of unpredictable behaviour like complexity as a phenomenon fractals, turbulence, or the has brought science closer than we a t h e r . ever to art, closer than perhaps the Renaissance. Knowledge The appearance of chaos may has gone through a cycle from be quite different in the differ- non-specialism to specialism ent fields. In the political life and compartmentalisation, and where the problem could be now back to interdisciplinarity that there are simply too many (Gray & Pirie 1995). New ways states, mini states, and no of thinking must be applied to leadership in the world politi- complex phenomena, new cal order. In the economy and methodologies must be devel- financial markets there is the oped which are capable of han- new dimension of information dling changing, complex data. resources, digital world, which is not yet understood in the Art and artistic approach is rel- world trade organisations but evant here because art deals which continue to measure with the sensual world, „atoms“ (word introduced in metaphors, intuition, and the this context by Nicholas holistic concept of a human Negroponte). In the cultural being. The dominant view of field we are facing even a deep- humans as defined by the cog- er confusion of mixing globali- nitive sciences may be too nar- sation and universalism and ro w . forgetting the uniqueness of each culture, language and Planning an engine or even a value system. computer and designing a building are intellectually The technology itself may be demanding but they are quite the only world-wide integrating different processes than creat- force but it is also creating ing social reality, communicat- chaos in people’s awareness ing with humans and defining with the speed of change. The identities. People have their Frankfurt school of the 20th individual and collective memo- The Global Network / Le reseau global 28 ries, their history and the past, strategies of its companies and which defines where they op e r a t o r s ; belong and how they are approaching the existing or the 2. ensuring, at the same time, fu t u r e . that the systems developed take due account of European Even the European Union is characteristics: multilingual- concerned of the weak level of ism, cultural diversity, econom- „Euro-consciousness“, „Euro- ic divergence, and more gener- identity“, or „Europeanness.“ It ally the preservation of its is too much defined from the social model; and above without creating possibilities for people to construct 3. creating the conditions the meaning for „European- whereby, in an open and com- ness“ by themselves, if it is to petitive international system, have a meaning to them. The Europe still has an adequate failures for efforts to create col- take-up of basic technologies lective consciousness from and an efficient and competi- above or force „official interna- tive industry. (White Paper tionalism“ are known to fail. 1994, p.110). Examples include the American attempts to create a A recent study of the media free-world with the introduc- and the European Union by tion of international television FUNDESCO in Spain showed, in the 1960’s, or the Russian among other things, that there efforts to create an all-Russian are predominantly nationalist empire by imposing Russian attitudes and even occasional language and culture to other touches of xenophobia in the people within the empire in the European media (The Media middle of the 19th century. and the European Union 1995).

The „White Paper“ of the The study defined Europe as an European Union defines the empty gap between the local development of an „information and the global. Europe’s image society“ in Europe as a global is statistics and economic infor- phenomenon where Europe mation but not human nor should aim at achieving three social aspects. Since there are ob j e c t i v e s : no common values or ideological substance there is a compen- 1. from the outset, placing its satory tendency to seek refuge approach in a world perspec- in nationalist introspection. tive, and therefore encouraging Sometimes this is manifested the international alliance merely in a domestic viewpoint The Global Network / Le reseau global 29 with well defined local interests and growing slums. New but they coexist with a modern migrant waves are possible. sense of globalisation. One of the principles of the But there are two overlapping European Union is the free scenarios. One is that of the movement of people inside the real environment, constructed Union but only a few by the media with an emphasis Europeans move to work in on proximity that can be another country. In 1994, for summed up in a single phrase: example, out of the 13 million the territory is the message. migrant workers 9 million were The global scenario, on the non-Europeans. Furthermore, other hand, is a virtual one, the hostility against foreigners and ultimate desire of a technologi- even xenophobia is strongly cally advanced society subject existent in European many to highly beneficial processes of co u n t r i e s . intercommunication and inter- action. This in itself results Rapid changes have destroyed from a process of induction great civilisations. In the begin- originating in the circles of ning of the 20th century Arnold power that govern world mar- Toynbee identified 21 great ket forces. civilisations. Only six of them exist today. But in today’s Human beings have always awareness one can find many tried to express and preserve elements of the past. things that correspond to their values. Culture is not a static As to the past, we only know of but an evolving concept, it is a those who have left some signs changing process that has or works of art for later gener- space and time. Collective iden- ations. The prehistoric draw- tity defines people in relation to ing in Lascaux cave in other and gives a meaning to Southern France is approxi- social information. mately 15 000 years old. The oldest Finno-Ugric rock paint- The rapid population growth, ings are in the Eastern coast of migrant movement and organi- the Viena Sea and Äänisjärvi sation make a great deal of lake. According to the mankind rootless and ahistori- Estonian researchers and cal with not great feeling of artist Kalju Pollu they were belonging to anywhere. It has created two thousand years been estimated that by the ag o . year 2025 half of the world population will live in megacities Pollu finds common features in The Global Network / Le reseau global 30 the rock paintings: in the large ate replicate images of reality and complex graphic composi- but in modern media images tions one can find the efforts of are the reality, there is no artists to dig stories in the other reality that they would rocks. The foundations of re p r e s e n t . thought are cosmogonic - dealing with the creation and exis- According to Aristotle „Poetics“ tence of the world. the justification to the existence of art is that it appeals to The curious mind of modern man with pleasure, creates sat- human beings is puzzled with isfaction. It is sensual and the similar questions. He or she modern media technology has has now as an extension of his expanded the reals of human nerve and sense system a huge sensual experience. The world galaxy of information and is increasingly intercultural. telecommunication which does There are parallel trends of not recognise any boundaries integration and disintegration. nor order. It seems that technology is a strong, global integrative force The President of Estonia, but almost all other forces sep- Lennart Meri, once said that arate people and societies. when the world was divided during the Cold War, the The Western concept of social Estonian people found Siberia justice and security are strong- where there were equally space ly linked to the concept of a for concentration camps as well national state. But the process as untouched virgin nature. In of globalisation and technolog- order to learn to understand ical integration has weakened culture the Estonians returned the nation-state. The new to the roots of their culture and technology favours new tribal- found fishers and hunters in ism, new civic societies and the peaceful waters of mighty new identities while the mem- rivers who lived their tradition- bership of and loyalty to old al life poor in terms of money political and social organisa- but rich in spirit. There was tions decrease. Some authors much to learn from them. like Alan Minc claim that the political thinking of the Euro- Some researchers are of the pean Union favours regional- opinion that when speaking of ism, city-state concepts, and art one should ask what kind of even a rebirth of the old mid- things the works that have dle-age duchies (Minc 1994). been called art have performed. In the past art has tried to cre- Deep in the minds of people The Global Network / Le reseau global 31 there is the collective memory, computer is „ordenador“). But and there could also be collec- it is the constructive mind of tive amnesia. Cultural identity human curiosity that gives exists in time and space. The meaning to the information Europeans want to redefine and that is, in my understand- Euro-identity and smaller geo- ing, what universities are graphic and ethnic regions and ab o u t . units want to exist on their ow n . o

The emerging new cultural world order would be different from the present state-based political order or the one super- power military order that has existed since the Gulf War. As Elise Boulding has said no single society can impose others such universal order which would be acceptable to other value systems. New identities mean cultural diversity. But it is not at all sure how the new technologies, cyberspace and telepresence with the constant manipulation of images and confusion of time and space would contribute to such an or d e r .

Why do we need any „order“ at all? It may be our Northern and German bias (German word „Ordnung“). As Vattimo observes, the Latin mind is better prepared to face instability which is the essence of our time. Information and library people certainly have to give some order to the exponential growth of information. This is also what the machines, computers do (the Spanish word for The Global Network / Le reseau global 32

SOURCES

ALI, TARIQ: A La Sombra del Granado. Barcelona 1996. Original title: „The Shadow of Pomegranate Tree“ 1992.

ARISTOTLE: Poetics, London 1956.

AUBERT, EMMANUEL: Un nucleo politico europeo: Espana-Francia-Alemania. El Pais, 29.3.1996.

BA U D R I L L A R D, JE A N: Lo mundial y lo universal. El Mundo, 22.3.1996. See also Politica Exterior, Vol.X, Nóm.50, Marzo/Abril 1996, „carta a los Lectores“, p.6. I have written of similar things without knowing then the views of Baudrillard but basing my ideas much on the writings of Majid Tehranian. See Tapio Varis: Tiedon ajan media, Helsinki 1995, s. 133-140.

BOULDING, ELISE: paper Ivory Coast 1989.

BR E T O N, PH I L I P P E Y SE R G E PR O U L X: La explosion de la comunicacion. Barcelona 1989, s.8-9. Original work: „L’explosion de la comunicacion“ 1989.

CURTING, MICHAEL: Beyond the Vast Wasteland: The Policy Discourse of Global Television and the Politics of American Empire. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, Spring 1993, Vol.37, No 2. p.127-145.

DE BE N E D E T T I, CA R L O: Education and the information society. Toronto Globe and Mail, June 12, 1995, p.13.

DEBRAY, RÉGIS: The Three Ages of Looking. Critical Inquiry, No 21, Spring 1995, p. 529-555.

EHRENBURG, ILYA: The Life of the Automobile. Petropolis Verlag 1929, English translation by Urizen Books, Inc. 1976.

ENZENSBERGER, HANS MAGNUS: Civil War. London 1994.

FERGUSON MARJORIE: Contribution in Proceedings of a CIRCIT Conference, Melbourne 10. December 1992, edited by Marcus Breen, June 1993.

FUKUYAMA, FRANCIS: The End of History and the Last Man. London 1992.

GRAY, CAROLE & IAN PIRIE: Artistic Research Procedure: Research at the Edge of Chaos? Paper presented at „Design Interfaces“ Conference, University of Sanford, 11-13 April, 1995.

HERNANDEZ LES, JUAN A.: Desnudo delpudor. Manuscript 1996.

LA VANGUARDIA SUPLEMENTO,Martes, 23 Abril 1996.

LA VOZ DE GALICIA, 28 & 30.3. 1996.

MCGOVERN, PATRICK: Liberation E-mail. Newsweek, September 18, 1995, p.54.

MELODY, WILLIAM H.: Communication and information studies: The moulding of a new social sci - ence. Manuscript 1994.

MINC, ALAN: Das neue Mittelalter. 1994 The Global Network / Le reseau global 33

NE G R O P O N T E, N I C H O L A S: El mundo digital. Barcelona 1995, s.272. Original work: „Being digital“ 1995.

NEGROPONTE, NICHOLAS: El mundo digital. El Pais Semanal, Numero extra. Domingo 5 de Mayo de 1996, p.77-78.

ROMAN, GUBERN: Ver para creer. El Pais Semanal, Numero extra. Domingo 5 de Mayo de 1996, p.246.

SC H L E S I N G E R, SC H L E S I N G E R: Wishful thinking: Cultural Politics, Media, and Collective Identities in Europe, Journal of Communication No 2, 1993, p.6-17.

TERCEIRO, JOSE B.: Sociedad digital. Madrid 1996, s.63-64.

THE MEDIA AND THE EUROPEAN UNION. FUNDESCO 1995, Madrid.

UTSUMI, TAK: President, Global University in the U.S.A. (GU/US), paper presented in Philadelphia 19th April, 1996.

VARIS, TAPIO: Massamedioitten loppu - tavallisuuden tuho? Tiedepolitiikka no 4, 1992.

VARIS, TAPIO: Kulttuuri, viestintä ja riippuvuus. Tiedepolitiikka No 1, 1993.

VARIS, TAPIO: Tiedon ajan media. Yliopistopaino, Helsinki 1995.

VATTIMO, GIANNI: El fin del empleo. El Pais, sabado 4 de Mayo de 1996.

WHITE PAPER: Growth, competitiveness, employment. The challenges and ways forward into the 21st century. European Commission, ECSC-EC-EAEC, Brussels - Luxembourg 1994. Manuscripts should be prepaired in accordance with the Publication of the American Psychological Association (IIIrd edition 1993) and four copies submitted. Manuscripts will not be returned. A separate, front page, should include:

1. Headline of the manuscript. 2. The author’s name, title and affiliation. 3. Any necessary acknowledgements.

A second separate page should include the title and an short abstract of no more than 100 words. Manuscripts should be typed and double spaced, with notes and references on separate sheets, immediately following the text.

Les manuscrits doivent respecter les normes de style con- tenues dans la publication de l’Association des psychologues américains (III-ème edition). Ils seront envoyés en quatre exemplaires.

Sur la première page doivent figurer le titre de l’article ainsi que le nom de l’auteur et sa présentation. Sur la deuxième page, au dessous du titre, incluez un résumé de tout au plus 100 mots. Les manuscrits seront dactilographiés à deux interlignes; les mots et références apparaîtront sur des feuilles séparées, à la fin du texte. Les manuscrits transmis à la redaction ne sont pas rendus.

Mail manuscripts to / Envoyez manuscrits à:

FA C U LTAT E A D E JU R N A L I S M S I ST I I N T E L E CO M U N I CA R I I OP 16 CP 170 BU C U R E S T I, RO M A N I A THE GLOBAL NETWORK provides a forum of scientific discussion that includes exchange and comparison of ideas for academics and professionals.

THE GLOBAL NETWORK publishes manuscripts emphasizing philosophical, evaluative, empirical, legal, historical and critical inquiry into relationships between communication and society in the post-communist period of Eastern Europe.

DIRECT QUERIES , MANUSCRIPTS , SUBSCRIPTION ORDERS SEND TO :

EDITOR OF

THE GLOBAL NETWORK / L E RESEAU GLOBAL Faculty of Journalism and Mass Communication Studies, University of Bucharest and Start Media Foundation Bd. Iuliu Maniu 1-3, sector 6, Bucharest, Romania Tel / fax: (+401) 410 06 43

THE GLOBAL NETWORK WAS FINANCIALLY SUPPORTED BY THE SOROS FOUNDATION . Summary / Sommaire

ESSAY / ESSAI

Tapio Varis Global Communication in the Age of Cyberspace 5

SPECIAL EMPHASIS / LE POINT SUR

Peter Gross & Ray Hiebert Departures on an Old Fashioned Track. Broadcasting Laws in Romania, Poland and the Czech Republic 35

Marius Lukosiunas & Skirmantas Valiulis Lithuanian Mass Media and Its Legal Regulation Between 1991-1995 57

ARTICLES

Vesella Tabakova Women and Media in Bulgaria: Access to Expression and Decision Making 67

Daniela Frumusani New Role Models for Journalists in Eastern European Countries 87

Teresa Sasinska-Klas Transformation of the Polish Media System 97

FILE / DOSSIER

Presentation of some Central & Eastern European Schools of J ou r n a l i s m 107 The Global Network / Le reseau global 35 Departures on an Old-Fashioned Track

• Broadcast Laws in Romania, Poland and the Czech Republic

New laws need to be enacted to give expres- I. Introduction sion, direction and form to de-communization, establish the rule of law T has only been and steer the evolution of six years since media in these newly Central Europe’s freed societies. In a dis- c o m m u n i s t tinct signal that old ten- regimes inelegant- dencies and mentalities Ily and, with the excep- and politicians’ tion of Romania, quietly universal predi- made their exits from the lection to manip- Dr. Peter Gross world’s stage. ulate are difficult is professor of Journalism at to change, Cen- California State The system that codified tral European University at Chico the lack of freedoms, countries have running the gamut from filled or attempt- Dr. Ray Hiebert is speech to press, travel to ed to fill the legal professor of choice of domicile and vacuum left by Journalism at careers, came to an c o m m u n i s m ’ s the University of abrupt end. melt-away by Maryland The Global Network / Le reseau global 36 enacting or drafting new press now clear signals the fight for and/or broadcast laws that cur- media freedoms must continue tail media freedom and democ- (Koven, 1993; Johnson, 1993; ratization. In fact, in the broad- Brown, 1994, p. 34; cast field, they have not been Jakubowicz, 1995). They also able to wean themselves away show the reforming political from the tendency to dominate culture is no yet one that can television or, at the very least, support a true democracy with to neutralize it vis-a-vis the all its attendant elements and new government. Johnson’s characteristics. Thus, the new accurate summation (1993, p. beginnings in Central Europe 3) of post-revolution develop- are departing on the old-fash- ments is also a warning the ioned tracks of paternalism. In demands for and expectations the words of Polish President of a free media nurtured under Lech Walesa, who has also the communist regime have been guilty of this paternalism thus far not been fully met: vis-a-vis the media, (Speech at The Freedom Forum World All of the post-communist Center, April 21, 1993): rulers of Eastern Europe have tried fervently to hold on to "We have entered the new real- state control of radio and tele- ity carrying old habits, but vision broadcasting. Just like with a mentality burdened by their communist predecessors, the old way of thinking. It is they have argued that as the our greatest weakness and our people’s elected representatives biggest obstacle in this task. they must be able to deliver their message directly to the Indeed, the “old habits” and people, and not have to com- “old way of thinking” are evi- pete in the marketplace. dent in the new broadcast laws (1) National broad- Indeed, while local, non-public enacted in the cast or audio-visual broadcasting (inclusive of Czech and Slo- councils or boards cable) have made their appear- vak Republics, were by law estab- ance all over the former Romania, Latvia, lished in each country to oversee the Central Europe, competition Poland, Estonia, workings of radio for nationally disseminated S l o v e n i a , and television broad- public radio and television is Ukraine, and casting. Their man- non-existent. And, the Croatia. (In other dates are varied, but attempts to control and manip- Central Euro- each has a modicum ulate national television news pean countries of power, making and the newly-established and republics of them important new audio-visual councils (1 ) are by the former Soviet institutions. The Global Network / Le reseau global 37

Union provisional mechanisms Central European broadcasting for licensing private stations laws. The most “important” have been instituted in lieu of revision being, according to broadcasting laws). Milan Smid (March 5, 1995), the December 1993 one, The first three countries to “Arrangements in the Field of enact new broadcast laws in Broadcasting,” coming on the post-1989 Central Europe were heels of Czechoslovakia’s parti- Czechoslovakia (in October tion into the Czech and Slovak 1991, before the Dec. 31, 1992 republics. The 1991 broadcast- breakup into the Czech and ing law is also the most suc- Slovak Republics), Romania cinct one of the three examined (May 1992) and Poland he r e . (December 1992). These laws are the principal focus of this The Polish broadcasting law of paper because they serve as a December 1992, “The Act on guide-post for judicial develop- Radio and Television,” is the ments in the broadcast field in longest one of the three under Central Europe and symbols consideration here. Its 70 arti- and models for other countries cles also cover the structure in the region. Throughout this and workings of public radio article, we will attempt to com- and television. Public radio and pare broadcast laws in television are addressed in sep- Romania, Poland and the arate laws in the Czech Czech Republic with one anoth- Republic (Act. No. 483 on the er and, to enlarge the context, Czech Television, November 7, with some Western European 1991 and Act. no. 484 on the countries, plus Canada. The Czech radio, November 1991) Western European countries and in Romania (“The Law considered here are Austria, Concerning the Organization Denmark, France, Germany, and Functioning of the Italy, The Netherlands, Romanian Radio Sweden, Switzerland, and the Society and of United Kingdom (2 ) . the Romanian (2) The data for this comparison comes Television soci- primarily from an II. The laws ety,” June 18, undated publication 19 9 4 ) . from the UNESCO HE Czech broadcasting law Communication T of 1991 (“The Operation of The 45 articles of Division, entitled Radio and Television the Romanian “Database on Broadcasting”) is, at the time of broadcasting law, Broadcast Laws in this writing, the most revised “The Audio- Western Europe and one in the small line-up of new Visual Law,” con- North America.” The Global Network / Le reseau global 38 tain the more numerous and and the arts and the use of serious problems of the three education and of the achieve- broadcast laws examined here. ments of science, as well as supporting national audio-visu- A. Freedom of Expression al production (Art. 1). It and Responsibilities assigns the safeguarding of “freedom of speech on radio and television, the independence of E S T E R N European coun- broadcasting companies and W tries have felt the need the interests of viewers and lis- to make a legal statement teners,” as well as ensuring “an about press and broadcast free- open and pluralistic character dom. Canada, Denmark, of radio and television” to the France, Italy, The Netherlands National Radio and Television and Switzerland all have broad Board (NRTB) (Art. 6). constitutional guarantees protecting freedom of speech and These provisions of the Polish press. Austria and Germany broadcasting, lend themselves have a “basic law,” and Sweden to restrictive or liberal inter- has an “Instrument of Govern- pretations thanks to Art. 18 of ment.” Among these countries, the same law. Such wording as only the United Kingdom has “Broad-casting must not dis- no constitution or basic law play actions contrary” to “atti- concerning speech and press tudes and views contrary to ri g h t s . morals and social well-being”; they “should display respect for Poland, Romania and the the religious beliefs of viewers Czech Republic also address and listeners and especially it the issue of freedom of speech should respect the Christian and press, first and foremost in system of values, (emphasis their respective constitutions added)” allows for the possibil- and again in their broadcast ity of curtailing freedom of laws. The latter also contain speech and information, as well descriptions of the envisioned as restricting diversity and roles of broadcasting, as well as op e n n e s s . certain restriction to the freedom of broadcasters, implied or Reinforcing these broadcast clearly stated. restriction are some criteria for granting licenses (Art. 36) and The Polish law describes the for withdrawing them (Art. 38). tasks of radio and television as In the former case, licenses will that of providing information, not be granted if the applicant’s facilitating access to culture programs are “likely to The Global Network / Le reseau global 39 cause...a threat to the interests reverse itself in Art. 2 which of national culture, to good places the broadest and most manners and propriety, to the ambiguous responsibility on security and defense of the broadcasters: defamation of the state, as well as state secret country and of the nation, (em- abuses.” In the latter case, phasis added) incitement to more reinforcement by way of war, to national, racial, class or repetition is build into the law. religious hatred, incitement to For instance, broadcasters may discrimination and territorial lose their licenses if the pro- separatism (emphasis added), to grams broadcast “causes a public violence, as well as ob- threat to the interests of scene attitudes contrary to good national culture (emphasis morals are forbidden by law. added), to the security and defense of the state and works “Defamation of the country and against good manners (empha- of the nation” can be broadly sis added).” No definitions of interpreted to mean just about what the “interests of national anything the prosecution cares culture,” or “works against to make of it. And, it is clear, good manners,” might mean that “incitement to… territorial are included. The former could separatism” appears to have be interpreted and applied in been drafted explicitly to the most negative nationalistic addresses the Hungarian se n s e . minority in Romania as a way of forbidding any public discus- In Romania, Art. 1 of the broad- sion of territorial secession or cast law spells out the obliga- even autonomy. tion of both public and private broadcasters to “ensure accu- In (slight) contrast to Roman- rate information” (Art 1, para. ian and Polish laws, the Czech 2) and for “rectification or for broadcast law of 1991 laid the ensuring the right of reply” (Art. groundwork for, or anticipated, 4, para. 2). Nowhere is “accurate the separation of the Slovak information” defined nor is it and Czech republics. In Part 1 stated who will be the judge of of that law, the issuance of whether information transmit- licenses was assigned to the ted is accurate or inaccurate. newly created Federal Broad- Art. 1 also calls for the protec- casting Council and to the tion of free expression of ideas, “authorities of the national opinions and communication of re p u b l i c . ” information, and the prohibition of censorship. Yet, the law The Czech law (Art. 4) while almost immediately proceeds to guaranteeing “free and inde- The Global Network / Le reseau global 40 pendent broadcasting,” places press or speech freedom can be the responsibility on broadcast- forfeited by “abusing the demo- ers to provide “objective and cratic order.” In Italy anything balanced information...” comes contrary to morality can be for- closer to an American defini- bidden. And in The tion of good journalism. It Netherlands, anything harmful clearly forbids censorship (Art. to the morality of persons 17). And, while Art. 17 of the younger than 16 can be regu- Czech law explicitly states that lated and restricted. freedom of expression and the right to information is protect- All the compared countries, ed, its 4th paragraph states including the United Kingdom, these freedoms, may be have separate and specific laws restricted by law when such a relating to broadcast media. measure is necessary in a Three of these countries men- democratic society for the pro- tion broadcasting in their con- tection of the rights and free- stitution. The Austrian consti- doms of others, in the interests tution stipulates that broad- of national security, public casting is a public activity. The safety, for the protection of Netherlands constitution pro- public health and morals. hibits government’s “prior supervision” of radio and televi- Prior restraint of media, sion, but adds that roles con- including broadcasting, exists cerning broadcasting are the in parts of Western Europe as responsibility of an act of par- well. It is specifically illegal in liament. The Swiss constitution Austria, Denmark, Germany, says broadcasting is indepen- Italy and The Netherlands. dent but must contribute to Yet, four of the Western “cultural development” and European countries considered reflect the plurality of opin- here, France, Germany, Italy, ions,” for which an independent and The Netherlands, place complaint authority should be some constitutional restrictions es t a b l i s h e d . on media. B. Public broadcasting and In France, freedom of expres- the state sion can be constrained for reasons of “public order and national security.” In Germany, HE Czech broadcasting law fundamental human rights are T does not specifically restricted by the “law on youth address the obligations of pub- protection,” and the “right to lic broadcasting vis-a-vis the inviolability of personal honor;” state. On the other hand, both The Global Network / Le reseau global 41 the Romanian and Polish laws law mandates that public tele- do. In Poland, the broadcasting vision and radio provide politi- law, encompassing the rules cal parties, as well as national under which public radio and labor unions and unions of television is to operate, clearly employer with opportunities to states that they “shall in a present their position. direct manner enable the state Furthermore, political parties organs to present and explain are to be given the opportunity the policy of the state” (Art. “to beam election broadcasts.” 22 ) . (Art. 24).

In Romania, more specificity is In all the compared countries, included in a similar article. broadcasting has a specific While a separate law addresses public role, either with a corpo- public radio and television, the ration or commission or author- broadcast law specifies that ity to undertake public broad- “National public companies… casting. All except Austria are obliged to broadcast, on a allow private broadcasting, priority basis and free of licensed by government. In charge, communiqués or mes- Austria, the public ORF sages of public interest coming (Austrian Broadcasting from the Parliament, the Authority) is the only economic Presidency or Government” entity authorized to broadcast (Art. 9). on either radio or TV. In The Netherlands, private broad- The role and nature of political casting is really “association” campaign is also treated differ- broadcasting, where certain ently in the three countries. associations are granted broad- The Romanian law directs the cast time by a Media Authority, National Audio-Visual Council depending on the number of (NAVC) to establish “the dura- association members, coordi- tions and the conditions of pre- nated by a public foundation. sentation of electoral campaign programs” (Art. 32, para. 1) for C. Children’s’ both the public and private programming broadcasters. (3 ) (3) The NAVC The Polish law, while also spec- O M A N I A ’ S changed the rules for ifying that the NRTB will out- R b r o a d c a s t the 1992 elections line procedures, is exceedingly law does not in and are expected to specific and, in this matter, any way address make yet another pertains only to public broad- children’s pro- change for the 1996 casting. Art. 23 of the Polish gramming or elections. The Global Network / Le reseau global 42 programming that may have to minors,” and films that are pro- be monitored in some way if hibited to minors under 14 can there is a potential for children only be televised or screened to be exposed to it. However, between 10 p.m. and 7 a.m. In the law does not preclude the The Netherlands a board of NAVC outlining rules pertain- film censors rates programs not ing to children’s programming. suitable for persons under 12 or under 16, and those pro- The Polish law quite specifical- grams are not to begin until 8 ly addresses “programs which or 9 p.m., respectively. may be hazardous to the mental, emotional and physical D. News programs development of children and youth,” forbidding their broad- HI L E mention of informa- cast between 6 a.m. and 11 W tion dissemination and p.m. The Czech law, too, education is made in all three addresses broadcasting that countries’ broadcast laws and may touch the young viewers, their outlining of responsibili- but in a more general way (Art. ties for broadcasters, the Czech 5) . and Polish laws specifically point to their country’s Press Six of the Western European Laws as governing news seg- countries in our comparison me n t s / p r o g r a m s . have no laws stipulating broadcast requirements to protect In Romania, there is no new minors. In France the Conseil press law and it is not clear, if superieur de l’audovisuel and when one will be enacted, (CSA), which issues licenses whether it will have a bearing and oversees broadcast coordi- of broadcast news/journalism. nation and control, must take into consideration the protec- Defamation laws, in all three tion of children and adolescents countries, are incorporated in in issuing program rules. In their respective Penal Codes. Germany, public broadcasters In the Czech Republic, many must not show programs that defamation cases are now would “endanger the education brought into court on the basis of children and adolescents” of the Civil Code. before 9 p.m., and private broadcasters must now show In every country we compared, any such programs at any time. except The Netherlands, broad- Italy prohibits programs that cast regulations speak to some could harm the “moral or psy- aspect of responsibility in news chological development of reporting. In Austria, ORF has The Global Network / Le reseau global 43 to observe the principles of ognized religious bodies.” In objectivity, impartiality in France, public broadcasting reporting, a plurality of opin- has to air religious programs ions, and balanced program- once a week in cooperation ming. And these values are with recognized religious bod- reflected in the other countries’ ies. In Germany, both public regulations as well. United and private broadcasters must Kingdom broadcasters also allow “appropriate” time for have to be accurate as well as religious programs, although impartial, and Canadian broad- private stations can charge casters must provide opportu- “prime” rates for such pro- nities for the expression of dif- grams. In The Netherlands, fering views. religious organizations can form broadcast associations, E. Broadcasters and religion but the time they are allotted for broadcasting must be devot- HE R E is no direct mention ed entirely to religious matters. T of, or specific rules out- And in the United Kingdom, lined for religious broadcasts, the law says only that private or for religious groupings in broadcasters must allow a “suf- either the Romanian or the ficient amount of time” for reli- Czech laws. On the other hand, gious programming. the Polish broadcast law not only calls for respect for reli- F. Who is broadcaster/ gious beliefs and “especially” Who can broadcast for the “Christian system of values,” but Articles 59, 60, and N Western Europe and 62 specifically include amend- ICanada, there are no laws ments spelling out various stating who can or cannot be a aspects of the relationship broadcaster, but ownership is between radio and television another matter. Studios and companies and the Catholic transmitters can only be owned Church, the Polish by the public broadcasting ORF Autocephalic Orthodox Church in Austria. In Canada broad- and “other denominational cast companies must be owned un i o n s . ” “mainly” by Canadians and non-Canadians cannot be direc- Five of the ten countries we tors of public broadcasting compared have regulations (CBC). In Denmark the Post about religious programs. The Telephone & Telegraph (PTT) ORF in Austria is supposed to is in charge of “establishing” “take into consideration the stations but there are no importance of the officially rec- restrictions on foreign owner- The Global Network / Le reseau global 44 ship. France has no restrictions “public judicial entities” such on ownership of studios or as state institutions and public transmitters except that non- companies or Romanian com- nationals cannot be involved mercial companies with state directly or indirectly in more capital can be broadcasters than 20 percent of the capital. (Art. 5). “Private judicial enti- In Germany the “Lander” or ties,” such as Romanian com- regional authorities provide the mercial companies with full or technical facilities for broad- partial Romanian or foreign casting but no restrictions on capital, are also entitled to be foreign ownership. broadcasters. Any individual, public or private judicial entity In Italy the facilities can be pri- may invest in a broadcasting vately owned but the majority operation or be a majority of ownership must be Italian. shareholder. No mention is In the Netherlands, the nation- made of any requirements of al Broadcast Production citizenship in the Romanian Company owns the facilities. law. Neither are the extent or Foreigners do not have permis- limits of foreign investments sion to possess or operate radio mentioned in the law, this area transmitters, and are not of regulation being left to the allowed to hold any financial NAVC. The caveat is that for- interest in broadcasting. The eign or domestic Swiss PTT provides transmis- companies/inves-tors can be sion facilities and only Swiss involved, as such, in only one citizens can be licensed to broadcast company and “cannot broadcast. The United hold more than 20 percent” of Kingdom has no restrictions on shares in another broadcast ow n e r s h i p . company” (Art. 6). Public radio and television are exempt from In Poland, Romania and the this provision in the law. Czech Republic we find permu- tations of the Western The Poles’ approach to defining European rules. who is and who is not a broadcaster is similar to the Czech corporations and Czech Romanian and Czech one. citizens with permanent residency in the Czech Republic Art. 2 of the Polish Broadcast may become broadcasters. law simply states that the right There are no limits to foreign to broadcast is given “public investments in broadcasting radio and television companies co m p a n i e s . and to persons who have In Romania, the broadcast law obtained a license to carry on The Global Network / Le reseau global 45 this business.” And, Art. 4, G. Licensing procedures/ para. 1 states that “a broad- Authorization and criteria/ casting company shall be any fees person who produces or arranges programs and broadcasts them or gives them to technical vs. other criteria other persons for the purpose of broadcasting...” Public radio N Poland, the chairman of and television act “exclusively I the NRTB makes decision as as a one-man joint-stock com- to who shall get a broadcast pany of the State Treasury” license “on the grounds of a (Art. 26). National Board resolution.” (Art. 33) The qualifications for As in the Czech Republic, the applications are announced Polish broadcast law specifies after “consultation with the that broadcast licenses may be Minister of Communication.” granted to a Polish citizen with (Art. 34). permanent residency in Poland “or to a legal person having a Similarly, in Romania broad- registered principal office in cast licenses (Art. 12) and Poland” (Art. 35). Foreigners or authorization (Art. 16) are foreign companies may invest issued by the NAVC to appli- in Polish broadcast companies cants “who have first obtained and these companies may technical approval from the obtain a broadcasting license Ministry of Communications.” as long as the foreign partners’ (Art. 12). The number of licens- shares or “stock capital” does es issued has to be approved by not exceed 33 percent, Polish the Ministry of Communi- citizens and residents are in cation. (Art. 13). the majority on the management board or board or direc- The Czech Broadcasting tors, and that the votes of for- Council (CBC) (Act. no. eign partners do not exceed 33 103/1992) issues and with- percent. (Art. 35) draws licenses for radio and television broadcasts. In 1992 the Czech Parliaments Act. No. 474 frequency spectrum alloca- tion for broadcasting was shift- ed from the Czech Telecom- munication Office authority to the CBC. The former retain authority “as the guarantor for the use of frequencies as The Global Network / Le reseau global 46 regards the international pants, promotion of the nation- agreements.” (Smid, 1995) al A-V product and of the national culture, the indepen- The Czech Republic’s broad- dence and objectivity of pro-

Rules of foreign investment/ownership in broadcasting outlined in broadcasting laws Allowed/Not Specific Rules Poland Yes no more than 33% investment/stock and decision-making votes

Romania Yes made by the NAVC Czech Republic Yes no limits specified casting law’s first criteria for grams broadcast by public judi- issuing licenses is the need to cial entities. ensure plurality and balance in the broadcasting system, with Furthermore, paragraph 5 of a small anti-monopoly expres- the Art. 12 also states that sion that examines any license “access of socio-cultural, politi- applicant for the possibility of cal, religious organizations and gaining “a dominant position in other applicants” for broadcast the mass media” (Part 2). The programs “will be achieved promised contributions of the within the provisions set forth applicant to access to informa- in para 4…” tion, opinions and “cultural values” are also examined. The In Poland an applicant for a law allows for a wide interpre- broadcast license must first tation of these criteria. and foremost provide information, facilitate access to culture The same is true of the and the arts, “facilitate and use Romanian broadcast law. It of education and of the achieve- specifies the criteria for granti- ment of science.” According to ng a license (Art. 12,para. 4), Art. 36 of the law, an applicant must ensure pluralism of opin- must also have the financial ions, an equal treatment for all potential for investments for participants, quality and diver- programs, etc. Most instructive sity of programs, fair competi- are the criteria for NOT grant- tive conditions for all partici- ing a license to an applicant. The Global Network / Le reseau global 47

Length of License (years) Czech Republic Romania Poland Radio 6 5 7 Television 12 7 3-10

Art. 36, para. 2, states that a license vary from country to license will not be granted “if country, with many having no the applicant’s programmed limits. In Italy a TV license is broadcasting is likely to cause good for six years. In Denmark (emphasis added), a radio license cannot exceed three years. 1. a threat to the interests of national culture, to good H. Advertising manners and propriety, to the security and defense of OTH the Czech and Polish the State, as well as state B broadcast laws address secret abuses (sic), the issue of advertising in some depth. In contrast, the 2. a dominant position in Romanian law only specifies the mass media of a given that “Advertising through area to be achieved by the radio or TV must be presented applicant. in such a way by acoustic or optical means as to be easily These sentiments regarding distinguished from other pro- “threats to the interests of grams” (Art. 3). It assigns the national culture,” while what responsibility of establishing these interests might be is not advertising norms and those defined anywhere, are rein- related to sponsorship to the forced in Art. 38. It states that NAVC (Art. 32, para. 1). such threats may be cause for license withdrawal, as is “pro- In the Czech Republic the stan- grammed broadcasting” that dards of advertising and spon- “gives the broadcasting compa- sorship outlined in the 1991 ny a dominant position in the law are “compatible with those mass media of a given region.” promulgated in the Europe Convention on Transfrontier Licensing appears to be less Television” (Smid, 1995). Spon- restrictive in Western Europe sorship of news or current and Canada but still complex. affairs programs is prohibited Limits on the length of a (Art. 8). The Global Network / Le reseau global 48

The law sets a limit of 10 per- ship of some programs or cer- cent advertising content to tain types of sponsorship. daily transmission time in the private television sector and a In all the comparison countries 3 percent limit in public televi- except for Sweden, advertising sion; 20 percent in daily, pri- is allowed. In Sweden commer- vate radio transmission and 5 cial advertising is prohibited on percent in public radio trans- both radio and TV. In Austria mission (Art. 6 and 7). In one radio channel must remain amendments outlined in the free of advertising. Most coun- 1993 “Arrangements in the tries maintain that ads must be Field of Broadcasting,” the distinct from other program- inclination to prefer develop- ming and should not influence ment of private broadcasting is program content. In Italy ads evidenced by a flat imposition can’t “infringe human dignity.” of 1 percent of advertising in public sector broadcasting and Canada, France, Switzerland virtually NO limitations in the and the United Kingdom set no private sector. limits on the amount and frequency of advertising. Canada, In Poland, the NRTB is The Netherlands, and the charged with setting limits on United Kingdom have no advertising time for public restrictions on ad interruption radio and broadcasting (Art. of programs. Canada, Den- 16, para. 3). The Board is also mark, Germany, Italy, and The mandated to “provide a code Netherlands place no prohibi- governing advertising stan- tion on advertising content. In dards...” (Art. 16, para. 4). In Austria, no programs can be the private broadcasting sector, interrupted by ads. In Italy, the broadcasting law specifies programs that would not be advertising to take up a maxi- interrupted in live presenta- mum of 15 percent of daily pro- tions cannot be interrupted on gramming time and “not more the air, and other programs than 12 minutes per hours.” have to be longer than 45 min- (Art. 16, para. 2). Sponsorship utes to be interrupted. In Ger- of programs is allowed in many they have to be longer Poland (Art. 17), provided the than 60 minutes, and in Swi- sponsor is identified and does tzerland longer than 90 min- not “influence broadcast con- utes. In France, no “audiovisu- tent in a way restricting the al or cinematographic works” independence of the broadcast- may not be interrupted, nor ing company.” The NRTB has can any public broadcast or the right to prohibit sponsor- pay-TV program. The Global Network / Le reseau global 49

In Austria, not more than 120 the monopoly of state TV over minutes a day for radio or 20 the broadcasting of political minutes a day for television information” (Ionescu, Oct. 6, can be devoted to advertising, 1995, pp. 52-54). and on certain religious holidays no advertising is permit- The Polish law is a bit more ted. In Denmark, only 15 min- detailed, devoting 7 articles to utes a day on TV2 can be given cable broadcasting and specify- to ads, or 10 percent of daily ing the order that must be fol- broadcast time, and that per- lowed by cable broadcasters in centage also applies to all local program introduction (Art. 43): TV. In private broadcasting in Germany, the limit is 20 per- 1. national public radio cent of all broadcast time. In and television programs, Italy, the limit is 4 percent for 2. local public radio and public and 12 percent for pri- television programs, vate broadcasting, and ads 3. other programs by must not exceed 18 percent in national and foreign any one national broadcast broadcasting companies. hour, or 20 percent of local. In The Netherlands, the limit is 5 Art. 43 appears to limit the percent of total time and none nature of the cable programs on Sundays. and place undue control over cable operators, certainly much I. Cable more so than does the Ro- manian or the Czech law. H E Czech law pays little T attention to cable broad- Of our comparison countries, casting. The Romanian law five require government per- devotes three relatively vague mission for cable transmission: articles to it addressing the Denmark, Germany, France, issuance of licenses by the Sweden and Switzerland. The NAVC (they have to meet the others have no requirements. same requirements as other Only Switzerland has a restric- broadcasters, as spelled out in tion on receiving cable or satel- Art. 12), the application proce- lite transmissions, and the dures, and the authorization Swiss are only required to have steps taken by the Ministry of a “subscription” - possibly so it Communication. In March can be tracked by the govern- 1995, the NAVC rules the me n t . scope of cable TV programs are to be confined to entertainment Austria, Canada, Italy, and the and cartoons, “thus reinforcing United Kingdom have no The Global Network / Le reseau global 50 restrictions on the content of to Art. 32 of the broadcast law cable transmission. While other and, in the Czech Republic by countries have legal statements the CBS, according to Part 2 of on cable content, none of these the Broadcast Act (Part 2 was statements amount to more the subject of a myriad of than the obvious, i.e. “all pro- amendments in subsequent grams by Swiss broadcasters,” legislation). In Romania, Art. or “according to the laws of the 12, para. 4 of the broadcast law German Lander,” etc. The addressing criteria for granting same generalizations are basi- a broadcast license speaks to cally true of the content of the issue of program origin only satellite transmissions in these by mentioning “promotion of co u n t r i e s . the national A-V product.”

J. Program production-origin In the Czech Republic the issue of programs domestically pro- N most of the comparison duced is only mentioned in I countries, the norms for passing in Art. 9, addressing broadcast programming are set solely the public service broad- forth in general regulations on casting sector. broadcasting. In France, when a license is granted it is accom- In Poland, while the law allows panied by a schedule of condi- the NRTB to establish the min- tions to which the broadcaster imum proportion programs pro- must comply. In Denmark, the duced domestically (Art. 15, law gives the Ministry of para. 1) and by other European Communication authority to producers (Art. 15, para. 3), it create special rules for public also sets some limits itself. For broadcasting. Six of the ten instance, a minimum of 30 per- comparison countries set forth cent of broadcast time must be generalized program quality assigned to indigenously pro- standards. Sometimes these duced broadcasts (aside from include diversity of informa- news, sports, advertising, panel tive, cultural, educational, and games and teletext relays). entertainment programs This issue is also of import in (Italy), or standards of accura- the license granting proce- cy, integrity, fairness, thor- dures, according to Art. 36. oughness, and balance (C a n a d a ) . K. Leadership councils/ boards - memberships, etc. Norms for broadcast programming in Romania are estab- H E Czech Broadcasting lished by the NAVC, according T Council (CBC) established The Global Network / Le reseau global 51 in 1992 (Act. no. 103) exercises (1995) writes: “within its jurisdiction - the state administration in the This heavy CBC depen - field of broadcasting.” The CBC dence on the Parliament is distinct from its Polish and stems from the belief pre - Romanian counterparts, the vailing in many East NRTB and the NAVC, respec- European post-communist tively, by the fact that it is countries in those early accountable exclusively to the days of political change, Czech Parliament. The parlia- that the best and only rep- ment has the right to appoint resentation of the public is six of the CBC’s nine members the parliament because the and three are appointed by the legitimity (sic) of democrat - president of the republic. ically elected deputies is indisputable. However, this In Romania, the parliament, state of affairs raises the government and the presi- doubts about the indepen - dent get to appoint the nine- dence and impartiality of members of the NAVC (Audio- the CBC in the future, Visual Law, Art. 25). In since the legislation not Poland, the 1992 Broadcast only does not protect them Law (Art. 7) gave parliament sufficiently, but also and the president the right to enables very easy transfor - appoint members of the NRTB. mation of the independent However, in June 1995, the and professionally minded parliament amended the law, CBC to the quasiparlia - taking away the president’s mentary commission con - right to nominate the chairman trolled by the instant party of the NRTB (Karpinski, Oct. 6, political interests. 1995, pp. 13-15). All the comparison countries The Romanian president and have an independent body of his government have more coordination and control, and power over the make-up of the laws establish their membership. NAVC and, therefore, at least Denmark and Italy have two bod- theoretically have a greater ies, one national and the other ability to manipulate the rules local or regional. The governing broadcasting. Netherlands also has two bodies, a Media Council to make adviso- However, the rules regulating ry reports, and a Media Authority the CBC and appointment of for coordination. In most cases, its members have also come the membership of these bodies is under fire. For instance, Smid complex and carefully spelled out The Global Network / Le reseau global 52

Composition of Broadcasting councils/boards

MEMBERS APPOINTED BY: Parliament Government President Term (yrs.) Poland + – + 6 Romania + + + 4 Czech Republic + – + 6 to provide some input from all In Poland, broadcasters who segments of society. fail to meet the rules regarding percentage of broadcast pro- L. Penalties grams produced indigenously, those addressing advertise- N seven of the ten compari- ments, their nature and per- I son countries, penalties for centage of minutes per hours or failure to abide by broadcast percentage per day, or the regulations are detailed in the advertising standards outlined laws. In France, Italy, Sweden, by the NRTB (see Art. 15, 16, Switzerland, and the United 17), may be fined “up to 50 per- Kingdom, fines can be imposed cent of the annual fee for the on broadcasters. In France, use of the frequency allocated licenses can also be suspended. for programmed broadcasting” In Germany, laws of the (Art. 53). Lander contain various penalties applicable to broadcasters. In Romania, if the license hold- And, in The Netherlands, er fails to adhere to the “obliga- “penal sanctions” can be meted tions enumerated in the out for operating a transmitter license,” sanctions may be without permission. levied ranging from (Art. 37):

Broadcasting without a license a. a fine, between 2 and 5 brings about similar penalties percent of the previous in Romania and Poland: six annual earnings, months to two years in prison or a fine or confiscation of b. a 1 to 3-month suspen - equipment and two years sion of the broadcast prison or 2 years prison and a authorization, fine, respectively. The Global Network / Le reseau global 53

c. a reduction by half of Czech broadcast laws address the length of authorization “defamation of the country and or license to broadcast, of the nation.” The Romanian Parliament, by its inclusion of d. withdrawal of autho - these words in the broadcast rization of license. law, leaves the door wide open for the prosecution of journal- The far more serious differ- ists who have anything nega- ences in penalties, and there- tive to say about the state of fore also in the dangers to free- affairs in or the direction taken dom of expression and to infor- by Romania at any national mation, arises in the area of and international level. non-compliance with the arti- Theoretically, writing that cles of the laws addressing Romanians discriminate broadcast content. In this against Gypsies or Hungarians respect, Art. 39 of the could also be considered “defa- Romanian law, spelling out the mation of the nation” and, penalties for violating the pro- therefore, action- visions of Art. 2, para. 2, in par- able. The men- (4) Polish Broadcasts ticular, potentially negates any tion of defama- Law, Art. 18, para. 1 guarantee of diversity and free- tion in the broad- - broadcasting must dom of expression/press guar- cast laws creates not display action anteed in Art. 1 of the same a double threat contrary to law, to la w . for journalists the Polish reason of who also are state, as well as attitudes and views con- In Poland, violations of Art. 18, liable for defama- trary to morals and para. 1-3, (4) are not even mention under the social well-being; tioned in Articles 52-56. The Penal Code. para. 2 - broadcast- latter cover responsibilities and ing should display the penalties for not fulfilling In the Czech respect for the reli- them. Paragraph 4 of Art. 18 Republic and in gious beliefs of view- only mentions penalties (fines) Poland, defama- ers and listeners and “if a broadcast company contra- tion is dealt with especially it should venes the duty arising from solely in their respect the Christian Art. 18, para. 4.” The latter respective Penal system of values; addresses the NRTB’s code Co d e s . para. 3 - programs which may be haz- governing standards of pro- ardous to the mental, grams that may harm children emotional and physi- and their broadcast during the cal development of 6 a.m. and 11 p.m. daily time children and youth frame. must not be broadcast between 6:00 Neither the Polish nor the a.m. and 11:00 p.m. The Global Network / Le reseau global 54

In Romania, violations of: Penalty Art. 2 (para. 1-4): - freedom of audiovisual expression cannot 6 mo. - 5 yrs. prison prejudice a person’s dignity, honor and private life as well as the person’s right to his/her own image. - defamation of the country and of the nation, 2 yrs.-7 yrs. prison incitement to war, to national, racial, class or religious hatred, incitement to discrimination and territorial separatism, to public violence, as well as obscene attitudes contrary to good morals are forbidden by law.

- broadcast of information, which, according to 3 yrs.-10 yrs. prison the law, is secret in its nature, or may prejudice national security, is forbidden. - programming and broadcast of obscene 3 mo.- 2 yrs. prison shows contrary to good morals are forbidden. III. Conclusion Romanian, Polish and Czech broadcast laws reveals a ten- H E S e p t e m b e r / O c t o b e r dency in those countries to to T 1995 issue of the IPI curb and manipulate some Report (International Press aspects of broadcasting. Institute) and the October 1995 Perhaps even more dangerous issue of Transition (Open is (a) the imprecise, nebulous, Media Research Institute) re- non-defined wording used and emphasized the continuing left open to interpretation by struggle for media indepen- regulatory agencies and by the dence in Central Europe. still-not-independent judicia- Writing about the general situ- ries, and (b) the degree of ation in all of the world’s new power assigned to national democracies, Adam Feinstein councils in charge of broadcast- (September/October 1995, p. ing - councils that are open to 16) points out, “The barriers to manipulation and control by the free flow of information the government, dominant have not been removed - political parties in parliament, they’ve only been penetrated and/or by the presidency. and in some cases re-erected with more vigor than before.” Conceptually, Polish, Ro- manian and Czech broadcast The examination of the laws are rooted in the larger The Global Network / Le reseau global 55

European broadcasting and Romanian, Polish and Czech political culture and there is no societies mature and evolve, reason to believe they will not these laws will be revisited and remain so. European tenden- their interpretations fine- cies and traditions of control- tu n e d . ling broadcasting varies from country to country. These ten- One thing is certain, the battle dencies and traditions are in for a free mass media rages in large measure greater than every region on every conti- those in the U.S. and any com- nent. Central Europe, liberated parison of new Central Euro- from totalitarianism, is not pean broadcast laws have to be exempt from fighting this bat- carried out in a European and tl e . not an American context. o The new laws are by no means written in stone. As the

Bibliography

J.F. B R O W N ( 1 9 9 4 ) Hopes and Shadows. Eastern Europe After Communism. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, pp. 1-49.

AD A M FE I N S T E I N (Sept./Oct. 1995) “The Barriers Are Up. Media Under Pressure in Newer Democracies", in IPI Report, pp. 16-18.

DAN IONESCU (Oct. 6, 1995) “Romanian Media’s Independence Struggles", in Transition (Open Media Research Institute), vol. 1, no. 18, pp. 52-54.

KA R O L JA K U B O W I C Z (1995) “Lovebirds? The Media, the State and Politics in Central and Eastern Europe", in The Public (Ljubljana, Slovenia), pp. 75-94.

OWEN JOHNSON (1993) “Whose Voice? Freedom of Speech and the Media in Central Europe", in Al Hester and Kristina White (eds.) Creating a Free Press in Eastern Europe. Athens, GA: The Henry W. Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication, The University of Georgia, pp.1-51.

JAKUB KARPINSKI (October 1995) “Information and Entertainment in Poland,” in Transition (Open Media Research Institute), vol. 1, no. 18, pp. 13-15.

RO N A L D KO V E N (Summer 1993) “The Meddler’s Itch,” in Uncaptive Minds, vol. 6, no. 2(23), pp. 103-112.

MILAN SMID (1995) “Broadcasting Law in the Czech Republic.” Mimeo. UNESCO (N.D.) Database on Broadcast Laws in Western Europe and North . The Global Network / Le reseau global 67 Women and media in Bulgaria: access to expression and decision making

BY VESSELA TABAKOVA

H E N I country are completely s t a r t e d feminized”. For example, t h i s when I called some of my study, I colleagues in the private had to radio stations, they ans- Wface a problem. On one wered immediately: “It is side was a complete lack the same with us every- in my country of any where - a complete femi- research whatsoever on nization”. In the course of the position of women in my research I came upon the mass media. On the an interview with a other side - the significant famous Bulgarian artist, presence of women in published in the only mass media was obvious. Bulgarian professional edi- The need of gathering and tion of the Jour- systematizing the neces- nalists College. Vessela Tabakova is sary information in each He stated in professor and vice- and every case met a uni- this interview dean at the Faculty form response-summary: the following: of Journalism from “Everything is obvious and the University of clear - the media in this “The radio sta- Sofia, Bulgaria The Global Network / Le reseau global 68 tions have some good broad- He added that although there casts, but they become femi- were a lot of ladies in the nized. One could hear on air Bulgarian National Radio and mostly female voices. It is not the Bulgarian National that they are not nice. The Television, both were not woman as such is something threatened by matriarchy, very good. But she is emotional because they were headed by and in this sense - a little men”. (24 Hours, September superficial. There must be 20th, 1994) more male voices. I can see the same problem in the printed So, things are clear at first press as well. When you open a sight, if a parliamentarian newspaper, you could only see appeals for equality of sexes in only female names. And this the mass media and for a pro- started happening after tection of man’s right in them. November 10th, 1989 (the Also at first sight one could ask beginning of the democratic itself the question whether in changes in Bulgaria - author’s Bulgaria and also in the other note). It is interesting why”. Central and Eastern European countries exists a problem as At this point the interviewer, in far as the access of women to this case - a man, put in a expression in the mass media remark: “But almost editors-in- is concerned. And even chief are men…” (Bulgarian whether while focusing our journalist, 6, 1994) attention on females’ problems, on the access of women to the A little before completing this mass media and their partici- study, the following short infor- pation in the decision making mation appeared in a in them, we are not about to Bulgarian daily newspaper: analyze problems, topical for “The invasion of the fair sex in the Western cultures, but not the mass media brought up a for our societies? Those ques- dispute during the last session tions, however, as it turned of the parliamentary out, have risen from first sight. Commission for television and radio. The Deputy Chief, Ivan Are the mass media Gaytandjiev, complained that feminized? feminization has flooded the air and appealed for equality of sexes. The head of the H E position of women in Commission, Michael T the mass media in Nedeltchev, opposed that he Bulgaria as well as in all Cen- liked tender faces and voices. tral and Eastern European The Global Network / Le reseau global 69 countries, is exposed on the occurred in the field of the background of the general ten- mass media, which have and dency of females invading the continue to change the counte- non-productions sphere - in sci- nance of the mass media them- ence, health care, education, selves. Pluralism in society has culture etc. Also, in Bulgaria, its most visible reflection upon as almost everywhere in the mass media and market Europe, females comprise the economy made its way into larger part of the country’s pop- them before everything else. ulation. The tendency of massive invasion of women in the At the end of last year mentioned spheres is idiosyn- Bulgaria, a country with a pop- cratic not only for the recent ulation of 8 million, had 2664 years. In this respect the registered newspapers and national statistics are definite. magazines. That of course does For example, in 1970, 72% of not mean that all of them were the persons, employed in the of printed and even less - that education were women and in they all still exist. But it could 1993 - 76.8%. In the field of sci- be said without exaggeration ences and scientific services in that there was a period when 1970, 50.3% were women, almost every week a new edi- while in 1993 - 54.5%. As far as tion came into existence and culture is concerned, and sta- another one disappeared. Apart tistics place the mass media in from that until quite recently this sphere, in 1970 the share the number of privately owned of women was 64.9% and in radio stations in Sofia and the 1993 - 63.8% (Source: country was 44 and that does “Integrated statistics of not mean that some new one women”, National Statistics has not been established. All Institute, 1993). The situation this very much complicates the in the mass media undoubtedly attempt to collect precise infor- reflects a general tendency in mation. In the same time, this the society. radical change is one of the explanations for the more mas- Regretfully, it is impossible to sive penetration of women in present a completely precise the mass media, which could picture of women’s presence in not be covered by any study in the mass media because, as it such over mobile situation was already mentioned, no wh a t s o e v e r . such research has ever been done in Bulgaria. In recent For example the data used by years in our country extremely the Union of Bulgarian dynamic processes have Journalists (UBJ) and which The Global Network / Le reseau global 70 are naturally related to jour- reasons to believe that the nalists only, have already excited Bulgarian parliamen- become only partial following tarian, mentioned at the begin- the establishment of many pri- ning, draws his conclusion on vately owned publishing hous- the grounds of the presence of es. In them found employment reporters in the Parliament - not only a lot of completely parliamentary reporters in young journalists, but there Bulgaria, and that means not they have no structures of the only for the press, but for the UBJ either. According to the radio and television, are almost latest figures of the UBJ, from women. Almost exclusively 4680 journalists, members of feminine is another new the Union, 1956 are women, i.e. Bulgarian press activity - 40%. Because of the peculiari- advertising. The permanent ties of the UBJ’s functioning, advertisements’ agents of most the number of retired members of the studied newspaper are is not so small. In the same almost women. time the countenance of most of the mass media at the moment, Radio and that is more profoundly expressed in the newspapers, is XA C T figures could be pre- created mainly by such young E sented for the Bulgarian people, by completely new faces National Radio and its regional in this profession. centers. 1,333 are the women, or 59%, out of altogether 2,265 The facts, which were collected, employees of the Radio. The gave the following picture: National Radio is a ladies radio, was the conclusion of the Press colleagues, who kindly gave me access to the information. N F O R M A T I O N from the I national daily newspaper According to the kind of activi- shows that approximately half ties, the picture at the National of their journalistic staff con- Radio is as presented in table 1. sists of women. Most significant is the presence of women The picture in the new, private- among reporters, where ladies ly owned radio stations, has no are considerably more than the significant discrepancies. half. Least represented are Particularly strong is the pres- women in the Departments for ence of women in the creative international politics, sports, positions - in some of the pri- among photojournalists and vate radio stations their per- graphic designers. There are all centage is more than 80%. The Global Network / Le reseau global 71

TABLE 1 Staff Total Females Percentage Creative positions 1311 796 61% Technical personnel 470 161 34% Administrative personnel 191 156 82% Subsidiary personnel 145 134 92% Laborers 148 86 58%

There are radio stations out- ferent programs. side of Sofia whose creative The facts, which were offered personnel comprises only by the Bulgarian National women. In almost all those Television, present the follow- cases we are talking about ing picture for its two channels women at the age of up to 40. (table 2). The administrative position are also taken mainly by women. Film production

Television N order to achieve a better I thoroughness on the ques- H E general opinion con- tion of females’ access to the T cerning the feminization of mass media as well as in accor- the Bulgarian National dance with researches done by Television is apparently due to UNESCO for different coun- the particularly visible fact for tries, this study also present a solid creative presence of the data available on the place women on the television screen, of women in the film produc- particularly of female reporters tion industry. The data, avail- and the ladies, conducting dif- able at the moment, was sup-

Table 2 Staff Total Females Percentage 2919 1135 38.9% Creative positions 808 391 48.4% Administrative positions 298 158 53% Technical positions 949 245 25.8% Auxiliary personnel 675 254 37.6% Laborers 189 96 50.8% The Global Network / Le reseau global 72 plied by the Union of Actors, tion the real and significant but it should be accentuated creative presence of women in straight away that due to the the media. As it is obvious from present situation of restructur- the presented data their partic- ing and changes in the film ipation in the staff of the print- industry, the picture presented ed press and the radio stations here is not complete. is at least half and in a number Nevertheless it could claim pre- of cases even considerably more se n t a b i l i t y . than half. Almost half of the creative positions in the Within the Union of Actors Television is taken by women. there are ten associations. The Interesting is the fact that in total number of members is one of the new and most lis- 872, of which 272 are women tened privately radio stations (see table 3). (Radio 99), where women are approximately 40% of the If we have to summarize all the whole staff, about 70% are available information, undoubt- engaged in creative work. As a edly it has to be pointed out matter of fact it has to be noted that females are comparatively that creative positions are not en force coming into the mass limited to only journalistic posi- media field and particularly in tions, but also music editors, the printed press, the radio and sound producers etc. The gen- te l e v i s i o n . erally accepted attitude in regard to total feminization is Therefore the following conclu- founded on the “sounding voic- sions could be made: es” and the “appearing faces”. This situation is not a result of 1. It is impossible not to men- some kind of special privilege of Table 3 Association Total Females Percentage Producers 173 37 21.4% Cameramans 164 10 6.1% Playwright 77 16 20.8% Artist 58 29 50.0% Composers and sound producers 71 20 28.2% Montage 78 77 98.7% Movie critics 77 38 49.3% Actors 86 21 24.4% Legal, financial & technical specialists 28 3 10.7% Animation 65 20 30.8% The Global Network / Le reseau global 73 women, but of the real fact of 3. There are fields of activities their competitive power. It which could be differentiated must be noted - although this is as explicitly “feminine” or a problem, which needs a spe- “masculine”. Perhaps the most cial research of another kind - obvious example for a “femi- that from the point of view of nine” activity is the “Montage” communication in the Radio Association, where only a man and the Television, the signifi- is employed. It is not accidental cant presence of Females caus- that even the word for that pro- es a number of serious profes- fession in Bulgarian sounds sional problems, connected more in a female gender. This with the peculiarities of the is not an exception from the audience’s perception. It is a general tendency. The expres- fact, however, that in each com- sion for the same profession in petition for Radio or Television English sounded like “continu- - without this being defined ity girl”. A reserved female ter- anywhere, men are actually ritory are also a number of preferred, but most of the com- administrative professions at petitions are won by women. routine level. On the other “There are good male voices for hand females have consider- speakers, but not for conduct- ably less presence among engi- ing programs” - this is the sum- neers and technicians. mary of the director of the regional centre of the 4. The mentioned tendencies Bulgarian National Radio in will not apparently undergo Plovdiv, which is the second any significant changes in the largest city in Bulgaria. near future. One of the indica- “Women are better communica- tors for the permanent tenden- to r s ” . cy towards an active presence of women in the mass media as 2. Most conservative in respect a sphere of creative expression to female access to creative of women, could be the result positions is the film industry. from the students’ entry exams This fact, however, does not for the Faculty of Journalism make any exceptions in regard and Mass Communications at to tendencies in Europe and the the Sofia University this year. world as a whole. Even a glance After the eliminating exam in at the data from the Union of the Bulgarian literature, out of Actors shows that females have almost 1,000 candidates, a better presence in those cre- among which the number of ative fields, in which they are men and women was almost less dependent on the hierar- equal, 251 candidates were chical interrelation. admitted to the written and The Global Network / Le reseau global 74 oral exam in journalism. Only situation a look back towards 51 of those were men. If at the past - towards what was enrollment there were no pre- then called the emancipation of liminary defined equal quota women in the socialist society - for men and women, it is is more than necessary. beyond any doubt that the Faculty of Journalism would Well known is the fact that have become a girls’ school. egalitarism was a basic idio- syncrasy of socialist doctrine. The same applies to a number “Equality” was a key concep- of humanitarian specialities as tion, under which it was under- well. The existence of quota stood that all people have equal creates a situation where men- access to life’s bounties, equal candidates enroll at the distribution of income and, of Faculty with considerable infe- course, equality between the rior results. Naturally that two sexes. raises disputes and objections in respect to the privileges of Totalitarian socialism pre- men and the caused damages ferred uniformity and unidenti- to women. Analogic situation, fiableness, unification and but a negative sign of equality, sameness. Women’s emancipa- also exists in many engineering tion in totalitarian socialism, and technical specialities. closely connected with egalitarian ideology, ment equal oppor- Paradoxes of “feminization” tunities for participation in the and access production and non-production spheres. One of the results of to the decision making that was the real appearance of women in the public sphere, H E analysis of females’ taking positions and entering T access to expression in the into professions, which were mass media and their place traditionally considered as inside cannot ignore some fac- masculine. Women’s emancipa- tors, which determine the pic- tion, understood as equality of ture of the present situation sexes through equal work, com- and which is widely being char- pletely changed the status of acterized as “feminization”. women. They were not only Those factors will help us granted certain economic inde- understand the paradoxes of pendence, but also began to feminization and its ambiva- identify themselves through le n c e . their own social status and ed u c a t i o n . In the analysis of the present The Global Network / Le reseau global 75

Of course, women’s profession- the woman-socially active per- al engagement, materialized in son. In some jokes that “super- a great scale in the countries woman” looked like a super- from Central and Eastern being, who held in one hand Europe, was not some specific her job, in other hand - her and isolated phenomenon. We children and carried on her are talking about a general back her husband and social- process of liberalization and ism itself. changes in the status of women as a whole after the II World The access to the education and War. In the same time, howev- work was realized on the back- er, that process in the former ground of the inherited tradi- socialist countries was of an tional structure for division of excessive scale, determined by work not only at home, but also the development of the econo- in the professional sphere. my and the turning of women However, it could hardly be to the mass media follows in talked about any discrimina- time the state activities pri- tion against women in the con- marily in the economic field. ditions of totalitarian socialism. In the same time, the tradition- Women’s emancipation in the al division of work naturally conditions of planned and cen- lead to a certain segmentation tralized economy has always in some professions as far as had two dimensions. Intended sex was concerned. Anyway, for public consumption was the women came in mass into pro- fact of the real coming of fessions, traditionally regarded women into all spheres of social as male. The officially pro- life. In the same time, in the claimed “triune role model” of public discourse the other side the “super-woman” objectively of emancipation was almost continued to impose and the kept silent about - the double heritage of inertia continues to burden of women, their double create certain obstacles before working day. The traditional women-journalists in some sec- division of home obligations not tors of this kind of activity. only remained, but the state socialism failed to create a net- Feminization during the era of work of public services. In the socialism, i.e. the massive on- public discourse, and that rush of women into the public means that it was proclaimed sphere, placed women in some- in the official doctrine, was the what paradoxical situation. On so called “triune role model” of one hand feminisation best of the woman, i.e. the woman- all symbolised the proclaimed mother, the woman-worker and egalitarian-collectivistic aims of The Global Network / Le reseau global 76 centralized socialism. On the The most immediate relation to other hand, however, it contin- our analysis have the facts ued to develop and presently about women’s presence in the continues to develop even after hierarchic structure and their the beginning of the democratic access to decision making. changes in the context of well Feminisation in its positive established mechanism and meaning is accompanied by a views of the patriarchal society. heavily underlined masculini- When it comes to the mass sation, particularly at the high media the clashes and paradox- levels of hierarchy. The dispro- es here are more evident. portion here is particularly sig- Women’s urge towards creative nificant and that applies for all professional work - and that former socialist countries. The also means forcing their way drastic lack of women in the out of economic constraint - top echelons of decision making faces the general attitude of is a fact, valid all spheres of women’s inequality as an intel- activities, including the mass lectual and professional poten- media. The problems here are ti a l . many and different. Even today the professional career of It could be said that although women is negatively looked there was a lack of purposeful upon by society. Sacrifices in discrimination, inequality kept favor of the profession to the reproducing itself through dif- detriment of the family’s inter- ferent means. In Bulgaria, for ests or merely sacrificing the example, there is no informa- family are severely punished tion about women’s salaries. by society. The professional The existing data about the woman really came out of her other former socialist countries home, but that did not change - like Poland and Czecho- neither the traditional concept, slovakia - gives us grounds to nor the traditional divisions. believe that for equal work there were unequal salaries for At the same time the so called men and women. (In 1989 in “glass ceiling”, if we could use Poland the salaries of women this metaphor, which widely were with 21% less than those spread in the Western coun- of men, in Czechoslovakia at tries during the 1980’s, shows the same period salaries of the barrier before the hierar- women in the industrial sphere chic progress of women, which were 65% of those of men. (See in a number of cases are con- Corin, C./ ed./ Superwomen and nected with them. Although the Double Burden, London, the researches on the “glass 19 9 2 ) . ceiling” have been done under The Global Network / Le reseau global 77 different circumstances, un- garian press as the exceptions doubtedly some of their conclu- here only confirm the rule. The sions are relevant to the situa- same applies to the whole top tion in the former socialist decision making echelon. The countries. Among the factors in highest position a woman could those researches, which repre- usually reach in the hierarchy sent obstacles for the hierar- of the press, and that is again chic progress of women, point- as an exception, is Head of ed out are fear for failure, hesi- Department or member of the tation to take risks, the inabili- Editors Council, if such one ty of women to be firm and def- exists. The information, which inite etc. Other researches was given to us by the privately show women’s fear of success owned radio stations unam- because of factors present in biguously show that even at the society. (e.g. see Morrison, such great, even overwhelming A. and Von Glinow, M. - creative presence of women, Women and Minorities in their participation in the Management, American Psy- process of decision making is chologist, 1990, 2). more of an exception. Interes- ting is the data given to us by So, it seems that male lamenta- the Bulgarian National Tele- tions about feminisation of the vision. In the top managerial mass media in Bulgaria are echelon of the Television there caused by compatibility of is not even a single woman. women as intellectual and cre- According to the presented ative potential and because of data, 87 of altogether 189 man- that - their real creative pres- agerial posts are held by ence in the printed press, the women. But as it turned out radio and the television. This is that significant number is to a presence which corresponds large extent due to the man- to the share of women in the agerial post at different levels society as a whole. Completely are held by women. Among the different is the situation, how- “three big bosses”, i.e. among ever, when it comes to the the top management of the place of women in the process Bulgarian National Radio there of decision making. Femini- is one woman. Out of 13 Direc- sation, treated as real partici- tors of Sections eight are wo- pation of women in the mass men. Out of 34 Chief, Deputy media, does not necessarily Chief Editors and Producers lead to their presence in the 17, i.e. half of them are women. process of decision making. There are almost no women Of course, quite mechanical Editor-in-Chief in the Bul- would be the presumption that The Global Network / Le reseau global 78 the access of women to decision greater extent than men, making should be treated in express their nostalgia for direct correlation with their socialism. The egalitarian spir- number in the mass media if it, expressed through views on we want to search for some pro- equal distribution of income portion in the presence of the and for remuneration according two sexes in managerial struc- to the needs of a person are tures. This problem is connect- shared by more women than ed not only with relations with- men. Other researches show in the society, but also with the that women are more skeptical determined by them structures about the economic potential of in the former socialist countries private enterprises in Bulgaria meant a domination of the col- (See T. Kotzeva, “The end of lective principle and the collec- the feminist socialism or what tivistic interests. Inevitably shall be the Bulgarian woman that brought about underdevel- in the next years”, Political oped individualistic motiva- research magazine, 1993, 3, p. tions and ambitions of women. 63). It is apparent that In this sense feminisation has women’s position in the process another face as well - the mar- of decision making and particu- ginalization of women towards larly in the mass media, is a the decision making positions. multifaced problem, in whose development a significant influ- Now gradually comes the time ence will have the changes in when individualism and the society and the individual idea for personal success and transformations of values of career arranges the women’s life, which will be caused by value scale in a completely dif- th e m . ferent manner. However, the circumstance that the process Between the “triune role of restructuring the values of model” and the image life is ambivalent, should not be underestimated. of the lady-seducer

Information from the sociologi- RR E S P E C T I V E of the complexi- cal researches, held during the I ty of the processes of recent years show women con- restructuring and women’s servative and resistant towards attitude towards them, it could the social changes position. For be surely stated that the eman- example, data from interna- cipated model of the socialist tional research “Acceptance of utopia completely failed. The justice in the East and in the raised to the skies in the public West” shows that women, to a discourse and ridiculed outside The Global Network / Le reseau global 79 of it “triune role model” of the The quite expressive and very woman was demystified. Its often stated reactions towards demystification has different “dominance of women” could be effects and reflections from the also viewed as bringing into the point of view of the problem of public discourse something the women in the mass media. which until very recently was never talked about. It was I would like to draw your atten- already mentioned about the tion to two of them: key conception in the society in which we lived until recently. 1. The demystification of the That egalitarian model “triune role model” brought for- changed the social status of ward in the public discourse women. It was based upon the the attitude towards women view of lack of discrepancies such as really existed, but it between the sexes, a view did not add up to its ideology which in its mass media reflec- for equality. This is particular- tion had plenty of absurd ly obvious in the reactions to a transformations and in real life truly significant creative pres- - tragicomic expressions. The ence of women in the mass opposition “female-male”, me d i a . which is much more intrinsic to Western culture, also has its As a matter of fact, interesting deep roots in the way of think- is the fact that according to a ing of the Bulgarian male. completely new study of the Woman is associated with emo- journalistic profession and tions and expressiveness, while journalism ethics the percent- men - with rationality and age of female journalists, who knowledge. These associations think of the journalistic profes- could be extended, including sion as being very prestigious, the feminine principle being is smaller than that of men- treated with professional indif- journalists. According to ference and conformity, while respondents outside the jour- the male principle - with activi- nalistic profession men and ty and independence. It could women equally evaluate the be maintained that this model prestige of the journalistic pro- of thinking was brought out in fession as “very high” (See “The the public discourse in respect trust in the mass media and to the attitude towards in the the ethics of journalists”, July mass media. Not only towards 1994, study of NOEMA Ltd. - part of them are addressed rea- “Social studies and market- soning like “She writes like a in g ” ) . man” or “She does not think like a woman”. These reasoning The Global Network / Le reseau global 80 are one of the illustrations for We are talking not only about the model of thinking, men- the reflection of women’s prob- tioned earlier. It appears that lems upon the mass media, but is difficult to “swallow” the also upon the woman’s image striking presence of women in it s e l f . the mass media, particularly now when in all the media Women in the post - totalitari- quite a number of women are an societies had to face a com- engaged in the political life of pletely new existential situa- the country. tion. The changes released them from the paternalistic The objective analysis requires tutelage of the state. But to point out, that contrary to women not only were not the expectations for tolerance released from their former and softness, at least at the problems with the “double bur- beginning of the democratic den”, but had to face new prob- changes the mass media mes- lems. To a certain extent sage of the women-journalists women turned out to be more was marked by implacability. affected by the first stage of Some researches would have market economy. Well known explained that phenomenon is the fact that due to the with the attributed to women restructuring of the economy conformism - no matter wether and the specifics of female the question is about the adhe- occupations, unemployment sion to the past or for a quick became feminized in almost all demonstration of unconditional former socialist countries. agreement and support of the new. When looking more However it could positively be deeply into the realities of the stated that in Bulgaria at least present time the significant this problem is present in the role of the females-journalists national media from time to in the formation of the values time as some statistics or as of life of the democratic politi- tragic faces of utter poverty. cal culture must be accentuat- The new problems, which ed . women had to face are not adequately reflected in the mass 2. The demystification of the media, nor are they adequately “triune role model” found treated neither by the Parlia- expression in the media and I ment, nor by executive power. would characterize this expres- This is only one side of the sion as the revenge of the “tri- problem. The other one, no less une role model” itself. significant in a situation where the media create its new image, The Global Network / Le reseau global 81 is connected with the image of drastic problem and turn women themselves, which is towards the national press, we being imposed by them. will establish the same repeat- Exactly here comes the very ing itself presence of the sinister laughter of the famous woman-sex symbol, the “triune role model”. The “super- woman-seducer, the woman, woman” in its media reflection whose degree of feminineness of a few years ago, who used to is determined by the number of work, to bear children and on divorces, the woman-killer and top of everything had to be violator in the name of her some kind of activist, was a stormy passion or love, the creature, which lacked the woman-victim of sexual abuse. charisma of its sex. Even We could continue to particu- actresses in Bulgaria talked in larize, but anyway it will be in their interviews only;y about the same order. And it could be their professional roles, about said without exaggeration that their children and their social often the whole of the named engagements. A whole spec- spectrum could be found in a trum of problems was a tabu as single issue of a newspaper. In it did not fit into the pro- the understanding for a com- claimed model. petitive newspaper, imposed by the decision-makers in the The rejection of tabus, the press, such an image of the democratization of society and woman is compulsorily includ- the relative freedom of speech - ed . in their essence being very positive processes - brought how- The colleagues-researchers ever the image of the woman - from the Western European sex-symbol, the woman-seduc- countries could be sure that the er, the woman-an object with Bulgarian readers, even those particular dimensions. The who follow mainly the “serious absurd of the “triune role quality press” know all the model” revenges now in the back stage gossip about the top post-totalitarian societies western stars and top models. through the absurd of a com- It is impossible in Western pletely degraded image of Europe to combine in one con- woman. One of the most strik- cept of a newspaper such styles ing problems of the newspaper as “Daily Telegraph” and market now is the existence of “Daily Mirror”, “Le Monde” and numerous pornographic publi- “France soir”, “Frankfurter cations whose sale is not regu- algemeine zeitung” and “Bild lated by law in Bulgaria. But zeitung”. But exactly that con- even if we leave aside this most ceptual symbiosis did not by- The Global Network / Le reseau global 82 pass even newspapers, which the forming of values of life in appeared with the ambition to the society. establish the new model of independent serious press. A particular attention deserves When we talk about the the image of the woman on the Bulgarian woman as a person television screen due to the fact with professional ambition, of a strong influence of the tele- here things are reduced to the vision image upon the estab- image of the businesswoman, lishment of orientations and although only 7% of the regis- attitudes. In our conditions tered in Bulgaria private com- least of all because of the sig- panies are managed or owned nificant creative presence of by women. Nevertheless exact- female-journalists on the tele- ly this media image has posi- vision screen it is not possible tive implications during the to talk about the “syndrome of transition towards a market the invisible woman”, as this economy, in which new values phenomenon is referred to in of life and new behavioral mod- some researches. But the els are being formed. In the image of the “visible woman”, woman’s image classification in which is imposed by television the mass media a business- mainly through broadcasting of woman is somewhere far back not a high quality film produc- from the sixteen-year-old tions, is the same image which provincial Bulgarian girl, who causes professional discussions have won some kind of beauty in the developed countries over contest somewhere and whose the years. It spreads over the dream is to become a top whole spectrum which was mo d e l . characterized in the analysis of the woman’s image in the It is well known that the prob- ne w s p a p e r s . lems, connected with the image of women in the mass media For the Eastern European soci- are also known to our col- eties, which now have to face leagues from Western Europe, these problems, the fact that although it has different the discussion in the developed dimensions when being differ- countries is quite active and entiated at the mass media the real changes quite insignifi- market and in societies with cant could hardly be comfort- stabilized values orientation. In in g . the transitional situation of the Eastern European societies, The coming of advertisements however, the accent is on possi- into life on the television screen ble reflections and effects upon - a new phenomenon for the The Global Network / Le reseau global 83 post-totalitarian societies - will thing with the product offered probably attract a far more by the manufacturer. The active attention of researches of woman is the one who with the mass media. The problem “Ariel” makes her husband’s here is that the effect of adver- shirt glare white again. He is tisements is greater than the the person who will be delight- purchase of products and ser- ed and so on. When the ques- vices. Advertisements suggest tion is about an advertisement models of behavior and creates of a more “superior” matter, attitudes towards life. In this like an advertisement about sense the television advertise- office equipment, she is also ments in Bulgaria could often present - this time as the good be characterized as a prerequi- business secretary. But if the site for erecting additional bar- manager appears, he is a man, riers before women and of course. strengthening the sexists attitudes according to them. It The woman as a sexual object should be pointed out here that is the other image, imposed by a significant part of the adver- the television advertisement. tisement clips have not been The body of the woman-seduc- created in Bulgaria and are er is capable of advertising offered by the producer-compa- everything - both men’s and nies themselves. Our own woman’s accessories. Of advertisement production is course, neither the erotic acting in the defined by the attraction itself, nor the sug- advertisements’ psychomotiva- gestion that the woman should tors of the West appeals and in be beautiful, are subject to the established stereotypes for rejection. The problem is in the the Western society. The prob- imposed suggestion about the lem here gets more complicated aims and meaning of the by the fact that advertisements woman’s life itself. are to a greater extent addressed to women as poten- This article presents only some tial buyers. of the problems, specific for the Bulgarian society as well as for The major stereotypes are two the most of the post-totalitari- and they are connected with an societies in Central and the image of the woman from Eastern Europe, connected the television advertisement at with women in the mass home - the woman at home and media. We are talking about the woman-object of sexual problems which will attract desire. The woman at home public attention as well as the washes, cleans and does every- attention of researchers. The Global Network / Le reseau global 84

Women in Bulgaria would bilities of the decision making hardly give up the already pe r s o n s achieved creative presence in the mass media. In the same - The effect of advertisements time, however, different prob- and the sexists’ attitude lematic spheres and making of strategies are defined: - Women and the creation of mass media strategies in the - Feminisation of the mass democratic society. media - realities and obstacles

- The place of women in the o decision making in the mass me d i a

- The effect of the changes in the society upon the status of women and its covering by the mass media - The woman’s image in the mass media and the responsi- The Global Network / Le reseau global 87 New Role Models for Journalists in East European Countries

BY DANIELA R OVENTA -FRUMUSANI

U R d i s c u s- trouvé qu’elle représente sion of the très bien l’attitude de image and l’ethnologue regardant sa role of jour- propre société, non comme nalists per- il la voit en tant que mem- Oceived by themselves and bre, mais comme d’autres the public could be legiti- observateurs, placés loin mately situated under the d’elle dans le temps ou sign of Milan Kundera’s dans l’espace la regarde- famous remark of “The ront”. (C. Lévi-Strauss, Book of Laughter and 1990: 215). Forget-ting”: “All the life of people between people In this battle “for the oth- is only a battle for the others’ ears”, me- ers’ ears” and Claude dia elites have Lévi-Strauss’ japanese a significant Daniela Roventa- expression “regard weight. For Frumusani éloigné”: “Le créateur du that reason is professor at the théâtre nô dit que peut we’ll try to cir- Faculty of Journalism être bon acteur il faut cumscribe their and Mass savoir se regarder soi- social role and Communication même de la façon don’t les image in a Studies from spectateurs vous regar- s e m i o t i c - s t r u c- Bucharest University, dent et il emploie l’expres- tural manner Romania sion regard éloigné. J’ai permitting to The Global Network / Le reseau global 88 suggest a grid and a meaning elites or political elites?); not the meaning, but a possible signification as Lévi-Strauss • the types of demands and pertinently maintains for the resources they use in social myth: “Dans tout ce que j’ai actions: claims to the monopoly ecrit sur la mythologie, j’ai of knowledge, competence, voulu montrer qu’on n’arrive truth (cf. M. Foucault) or the jamais à un sens dernier. Y possession of symbolic capital arrive-t-on d’ailleurs dans la (B o u r d i e u ) ; vie? (…) Un mythe propose une grille, definisable seulement • the discourse they construct par ses règles de construction. and disseminate (as Bauman Cette permet de déchiffrer un defines intelligentsia as tempo- sens, non du mythe lui-même, rary occupiers of a privileged mais de tout le reste: images du space of formation and trans- monde, de la société, de l’his- mission of discourses, thus con- toire avec les interrogations stituting the means through que les hommes se posent à which society is thought by its luer sujet”. (C. Lévi-Strauss, me m b e r s ) ; 1990: 197) • their space of legitimity: Or the intellectual elites claims of a specific (sociological defined by Mannheim as social and anthropological) expertise groups whose task is to offer an recognized as symbolic capital interpretation of the world for as opposed to political posts the society and by Coser as (p o s i t i o n s ) . people living for and not through ideas (apud Katherine This legitimity space doesn’t Verdery, 1994: 35) are these always serve the existing social actants who try to sup- power, on the contrary it can press alternative messages in become the scene of elaborating order to capture the ears of the other images of the social reali- audience and facilitate a broad- ty . er perception of their discourses . Cultural and knowledge values play a central role in the main- If intellectual elites have a taining and transformation of charismatic sense of the voca- social order and the defense of tion we’ll be interested to ana- one or other value participate ly z e : in it.

• the vocation of media elites As a result intellectual activity (as part of the intellectual and culture are inherently The Global Network / Le reseau global 89 political (not grounded on poli- which regards its aims as tics but interweaved with it at ab s o l u t e . two levels: that of meeting with alternative values in the same Even it is obvious that the rev- sphere and that of the place in olutionary 1989 change set up the reproduction of society. new models, new techniques, new writing practices a parallel Contrary to the first position of between the ante and postfunc- Raymond Aron reluctant to tioning of the media and the analyze the concept of elite journalists’ task could provide because of its equivocal reso- the main tendencies of the nances: “Est-il possible, est-il actual mechanisms and indi- utile de constituer un ensemble cate the change affecting the qui englobe tous ceux qui ont place of journalism in modern réussi, y compris les rois de la postcommunist society: “Is the pègre (…) Il n’est ni très facile, issue the emergence of a new ni très utile de tracer le cercle à legitimate model or is it the l’intérieur duquel les réussites creation of an area that will assurent l’entrée dans l’élite” remain fragmented and in (R. Aron, 1960: “Classe sociale, which several strong competing classe politique, classe models will come to the fore?” dirigeante”, p. 264), we adopt (J.M. Charon, 1994: 52). his second view when he relates the elite taxinomy to the practice of pluralist democracy, distinguishing: The following dicho- tomies emerged from the spiritual aristocracy interviews with jour- (priests and intellec - nalists (in the print- tu a l s ) ; ed and audio-visual the political leaders press), analysis of (helped by the police what journalists and the army); have written about the managers; themselves, working the mass leaders who papers of profession- express and orient al associations (SZR - de m a n d s . Society of Romanian Journalists) and A pluralist democracy supposes ob s e r v a t i o n : negotiations and compromises between these divided elites, while tyranny is the result of the hegemony of one elite, The Global Network / Le reseau global 90

• from the propaganda • to the objectivity myth described by model (Lenin’s famous Gaye Tuchman 20 years ago as the definition of 1901: “A journalist’s self protective “strategic rit- newspaper is not only a ual”. Journalists believe they are keep- collective propagandist ing their values out of the news by rely- and a collective agitator, ing on facts gathered from standard it is also a collective sources that reinforce each other’s or g a n i z e r ” ) quotes, by creating the “web of factici- ty ” .

• from a conception of • to a conception of autonomy where force feeding where the the new media technology makes an reader is imagined as a adult of him fragile child incapable of any judgement

• from a state controlled • to a market controlled or politically and subsidized press controlled press. The key to avoiding government control may lie in the political strength and legitimacy of the journalists themselves. “The strongest defense against both state and owners has always been the independent organization of those who work in press, both journalists and production workers” (Colin Sparks, 1992: 48)

• from the bolshevik • to a mediator between events and “driving belt” audience (Henry Grunwald, editor in chief of “Time”)

• from strict specializa- • to multimedia and interdisciplinarity tion (anachronic after the end of the Cold War: military correspondents as well as kremlinolo- gi s t s )

• from a stachanovist or • to a transnational human perspec- fordist production per- tive. In this direction press is the anti- spective under the sign dote of the iron curtain, the instrument of a unique view (social- of transparency. Journalism could even ist or capitalist) replace diplomacy (like in 1977 when The Global Network / Le reseau global 91

American correspondents have achieved the historical simultaneous interview between Menachem Begin and Anwar Sadat who said that he is ready to go to Jerusalem if he is invit- ed; also the Americans’ decision to interfere in Somalia’s tribal war as reaction to the terrible images of hun- gry and suffering).

• from a redundant, • to a creative one, both referential and “incantatory” discourse poetical, able to discuss new issues: actualizing only the Balkan history, tribalism and ethnicity, phatic function violence and gender subjects. Lawrence Eagleburger trying to sketch the post Cold War society emphasized the stability of the previous period in the sense of the predictivity of relationships between the superpowers. Now press is searching other explanatory principles: North/South tensions, religion and secular thinking, nationalism and internationalism

• from a monolithic • to a convivial, interactive, narrative “langue du bois” dis- modality. Mass media have to educate course, transmitted in a for mutual storytelling and storylisten- telegraphic left-right ing of real biographies (not only Stasi unidirectional manner archives and figures but also and particularly how people resisted or decided not to leave their country) • to a real mastery of the discourse, that is of a conceptual network, a vocabulary, a system of categorization and a criteria for distinction, evaluation and hierarchical arrangement, which enable us to organize the field of communication and account for our practices. “This language is not first and foremost representative or descrip- tive; it is constitutive. It is not only used to categorize, name and report accurately what we do; it articulates The Global Network / Le reseau global 92

our practices, provides them with depth and with an horizon” (Louis Quere, 1992 apud D. Ruellan, 1993: 86)

• from the subordinate, • to the ombudsman who keeps an eye obedient, reproductive on the non distorted transmission of ac t o r ne w s

• from the iconic, echo • to an indexical role (journalists are image of the “new man”, Zeigers in Heidegger’s terminology “new society”, “golden anticipators-good journalists have to er a ” foresee social conflicts or disfunctions and signal them before the child falls in the fountain)

• from a stable function- • to a fuzzy integrative view. A lot of alist unique image fields are in permanent exchange with jo u r n a l i s m : art (in particular photography and literature), performance (in the TV shows), education, marketing, politics and thinking (the expert function, the participation to debates are the apanage of mass media and mediators)

• from a fetishist jour- • to the paranoid one which produces nalist who is the master hyperbolic texts, tortuous of quotations, ready In the attempt to diagnose the maladies made formulas, ideologi- of the posttotalitarian press (characters cal cliches etc searching for an author like in Pirandello’s play - the search being here for a new model, for a new role, for a new social task) we could use the term forged by Lucien Sfez tautism (tautol- ogy and autism or redundancy and soli- tude) put otherwise a sensationalist voyeurist yellow press with a unique table of contents: rape, murder, abnor- mal events. The second malady could be the paranoia of failure (perpetuance and generalization of failure - many edi- torials have the same demolishing style The Global Network / Le reseau global 93

based on the metaphorical network of destruction, illness, ruins etc, combined with a unique temporal dimension - the past - or in best cases the present (it lacks a vision or project future oriented ) .

The schizophrenia of communist acting defined by V. Havel as thinking black and saying white becomes now mono- mania: thinking black and saying bl a c k .

• from a restricted ideo- • to a professionalization linked to a logical access to the technical rationality (news gathering, journalist class cross-checking of information) and interdisciplinary education (communication sciences, public relations, social sciences, rhetoric etc)

In strengthening the relation- If the task of the first period ship between communication (1990-1991) is accomplished: and democracy, mass media the quantitative aspect (more are bound to give a solution means for the people), the goals (attenuate) the triple crisis of of the present stage are quali- our society: of credibility, of tative aspects of media democ- integration, of participation; ratization (credible agents, this could be achieved by coherent and consistent mes- underlining their role of: sages, congruent corporate - imago mundi (icon and index strategies, adequate training). to use semiotic terms); - fountain of values that have o to be kept, known, defended; - lubricant of the dialogue between institutions and individuals, dialogue able to reduce social tensions by argumenta- tion, negotiation; - watch-dog of the civic society. The Global Network / Le reseau global 94

Bibliography

BARTHES, ROLAND, 1994 - Placerea textului, Cluj, Echinox

CHARON, JEAN-MARIE, 1994 - “The fragmentation of Journalism” in Reseaux-The French Journal of Communication, vol 2, no 1.

CORNU, GÉRARD, RUELLEN, DENIS, 1993 - “Thechnicité intellectuelle et professionalisme” in Reseaux 62.

ELITE in Encycolpædia Universalis

HOLSTEIN, LISA, 1992 - “Reinventing Freedom of the Press: The Search for a Post-Soviet Model in Russia” in ICB, 27: 3-4

JO U E T, JO S I A N E, 1994 - “Communication and Mediation” in Reseaux The French Journal of Comunication, vol. 2, no. 1

LÉVI-STRAUSS, CLAUDE, 1990 - De près ou de loin, Paris, Odile Jacob.

MAC MANE, ARALYN, 1992, - “Vers un profile du journalisme occidental” in Reseaux 51

RU E L L A N, DE N I S, 1993 - “An Undefined Profession” in Reseaux - The French Journal of Communication, vol 1, no 2

SPARKS, COLIN, 1992 - “The Press, the Market and the Democracy” in Journal of Communication 42, no 1

VERDERY, KATHERINE, 1994 - “Compromis si rezistenta”, Bucuresti, Humanitas The Global Network / Le reseau global 107 Brief / Dossier The network of Central & Eastern European Schools of Journalism

T the beginning 3. STR U C T U R E of the year, the a. Number of chairs Network of b. Professors (name, age & Central & Eas- teaching fields, knowledge of A tern European foreign languages, internation- Schools of Journalism decided al affiliation as individuals) to make a survey in order to 4. CUR R I C U L U M (title of courses, obtain data about every mem- short presentation, number of ber of the network. So, with a hours per semester) little help from Freedom 5. FA C I L I T I E S (description of Forum, the following informa- la b s ) tion was requested from the 6. ADM I S S I O N journalism schools: 7. DIP L O M A & ST A T U S OF DI P L O - MA 1. GEN E R A L DA T A 8. RES E A R C H PR O G R A M S (in last a. Name five years) b. Address (tel, fax, e-mail) - realised c. Board members - in progress d. Contact person 9. PU B L I C A T I O N S, A U D I O-V I D E O e. Dependent on (University, BR O A D C A S T Foundation, Professional - realised by students As s o c i a t i o n ) - realised by professors f. Number of students 10. PR I N T E D C O U R S E S ( t i t l e , 2. SHO R T HI S T O R Y ye a r ) The Global Network / Le reseau global 108

11 . INT E R N A T I O N A L ME M B E R S H I P a. Department of Journalism, (of the entire school or of sepa- Tartu University (Estonia); rate departments) 12. SUM M E R SE M I N A R S (if any) b. Department of Journalism, Comenius University, Bra- tislava (Slovakia) The Faculty of Journalism and c. Department of Journalism, Mass Communication Studies Lviv State University (Ukraine) from the Bucharest University, as the acting president of the d. Department of Communi- Network, received this informa- cation, Faculty of Social tion and now starts to publish Sciences, Ljublijana (Slovenia) it in this issue of Global Network journal. You will find e. International School of the most complete data about Journalism, Minsk (Belarus) the following schools of journal- is m : f. School of Social Communi- cation and Journalism, Catholic University of Lublin, Poland.

Department of Journalism, Tartu University

1. GENERAL DATA:

A. NAME: Department of Journalism, Tartu University

B. ADDRESS: Ülikooli 18, EE2400 Tartu, Estonia tel.: (+ 372 7) 435188 fax: (+372 7) 435440 e-mail: [email protected]

C. BOARD MEMBERS: Peeter Vihalemm, Head of the Department, professor, Ph. D. The Global Network / Le reseau global 109

Juhan Peegel, professor emeritus, Ph. D. Marju Lauristin, professor, Ph. D. Epp Lauk, researcher, M.A. Halliki Harro, researcher, M.A. Krista Aru, doctoral student, M.A.

D. CONTACT PERSON: Peeter Vihalemm

E. DEPENDENT ON University, state budget

F. NUMBER OF STUDENTS: Bachelor program: 90 Master’s program: 23 Doctoral program: 3

2. SHORT HISTORY

The beginning of professional journalism education in Estonia goes back to 1954, when the students of Estonian philology at Tartu University were offered a special program of study in journalism. In 1976, the first 20 students were enrolled as journalism students.

The Department of Journalism was established in 1979. Today 15 Estonian and 5 foreign students are matriculated each year.

During the period from 1957-1995, about 500 students have graduated. About 20% among the journalists of Estonia today are our graduates.

In 1988, the Department of Journalism became independent to make its curriculum without any commands of obligatory subjects from Moscow. Even before the independence, the prescribed curriculum was interpreted flexibly at Ta r t u University - for example, the compulsory course about the history of Russian journalism consisted mainly of lectures about the history of the Estonian journalism.

Until 1989, the curriculum for journalism students con- tained a big course of literature (Estonian, Russian, world history of literature). At the same time, the block of so called “red studies” (history of the Communist Party, political econ- The Global Network / Le reseau Global 110

o m y, dialectical and historical materialism, scientific athe- ism, scientific communism) was reduced.

Until 1990, all subjects in the curriculum were obligatory and common for all journalism students, except for the subjects containing specialization in TV, radio or printed press. (Students had to specialize in one branch of mass media during the third year of their studies.) Now, about 40% of all the subjects in the curriculum are chosen by students themselves.

3. STRUCTURE

One chair - mass communication and journalism.

Professor Peeter Vihalemm (52) - Social Psych o l o g y, Psychology of Persuasion, Public Opinion, Audience Research; - Russian, Finnish, English.

4. CURRICULUM

The academic program in journalism consists of up to three degree programs: bachelor (4 years), master of arts (2 years) and doctoral (4 years).

The bachelor program consists of three modules:

1) The main course in journalism - 105 points 2) A subsidiary subject - 15-45 points (for example: political science or history etc. It could be taken at a primary or medium grade) 3) Optional courses - 16-40 points

The main course in journalism is divided into three grades: - primary grade 18 points - 1st term - medium grade 35 points - 2nd-3rd term - upper grade 52 points - 4th-8th term

The aim of the primary program is to give an overview about mass communication, the social and cultural functions of the media and the structure of journalistic organizations and to provide basic journalistic knowledge and skills. The Global Network / Le reseau global 111

The medium program provides the courses on history of journalism, international mass media, media ethics and law. The practical training in journalistic production for various media such as newspapers, weeklies, magazines, radio and TV continues. The upper grade program provides theoretical and practical courses in order to specialize (by subject and by medium).

During the first two years almost all the subjects are compulsory. The 3rd and the 4th year students can build up to 50% of their program individually. The Department of Journalism provides (arranges) each year a number of optional courses. A student should take some of these up to 10 points.

One should create academic thesis to obtain a bach e l o r degree.

LIST OF SUBJECTS

Primary grade Points (hours) 1. Introduction to mass communication 2p (32 h) 2. Estonian mass media system 1p (32h) 3. News writing I 3p (96h) 4. Basic TV reporting 2p (32h) 5. Basic radio reporting 1p (32h) 6. Techniques of spelling and speech 1p (32h) 7. The Estonian language I 2p (64h) 8. Introduction to sociology 2p (32h) 9. Introduction to political science 2p (32h) 10. Estonian history 2p (64h) Medium grade program

1. History of the mass media 2p (32h) 2. Process of journalistic work 1p (32h) 3. News writing II 2p (64h) 4. The Estonia language II 2p (64h) 5. TV reporting 2p (32h) 6. Radio reporting 2p (32h) 7. Information technology 2p (32h) The Global Network / Le reseau global 112

8. Lay-out 2p (32h) 9. Photo reporting 2p (32h) 10. Feature 2p (32h) 11. Methods of scientific research 1p (32h) 12. History of Estonian press 3p (64h) 13. History of Estonian press in exile 2p (32h) 14. International media 3p (64h) 15. Introduction to psychology 2p (32h) 16. Academic thesis 2p 17. Practical work 2p Upper grade course

1. Column 2p (32h) 2. Stylistics 3p (64h) 3. Media law and ethics 2p (32h) 4. Investigative journalism 2p (32h) 5. Media management 2p (32h) 6. Psychology of persuasion 2p (32h) 7. Public opinion 2p (32h) 8. Audience of Estonian mass media 2p (32h) 9. Estonian culture history 3p (64h) 10. Mass communication theory 3p (64h) 11. Advanced English 4p (126h) 12. Advanced journalistic skills 2p (32h) 13. Graduation thesis 3p 14. Practical work 2p 15. Graduation thesis (bachelor degree) 8p Optional courses

Advanced radio journalism Advanced TV journalism Advanced Information science Techniques of spelling and speech Media systems in Eastern Europe Introduction to economics Introduction to law studies Philosophy Social psychology Communication psychology Content analysis Advertising (introduction and advanced courses) The Global Network / Le reseau global 113

This list will be amended each year.

5. FACILITIES

TV and Radio studio (3 rooms, about 80 sqm, Super VHS camera, SVHS editing system Amigo Computer) Computer class (6 computers PC 486 + server)

6. ADMISSION

15 Estonian students each year on the basis of the results of creative tests and 3 entrance exams.

5 foreign students (from Finland and Russia - representatives of small fino-ugric nations) will be matriculated without the exams. Foreign students are also studying in the Estonian language (they stay one additional year in Tartu to learn Estonian). They must pay for their studies, Estonian students are studying without paying tuition.

7. DIPLOMA

Bachelor of Arts Master of Arts Doctor of Philosophy

8. R ESEARCH PROGRAMS

Realized in last five years:

Norwegian-Baltic comparative research of media and journalism development.

In progress:

1. Estonian press history 2. Norwegian-Estonian comparative research on professionalization of journalism 3. Balticom: Changing values and orientations in the Baltic sea countries. Estonian-Swedish comparative research 4. Estonia project: Swedish, Finnish and Estonian comparative research on the coverage of ferry catastrophe in the media. The Global Network / Le reseau global 114

9. P UBLICATIONS

The Department of Journalism has two publication series in Estonian: “Fakt, sõna, pilt” (Fact, Word, Picture - from 1961 to the present time 12 issues) and “Ajakirjanduse ajaloost” (About the history of journalism - from 1961 to the present time, 9 issues). In both of them are students also participating.

The main publication in English: Svennik Hoyer, Epp Lauk, Peeter Vihalemm (eds). Towards a Civic Society. The Baltic Media’s Long Road to Freedom. Tartu: Baltic Association for Media Research/Nota Baltica Ltd. 1993. 366 pp. ISBN 9985- 60-014-2.

10. P RINTED COURSES

H. Harro, Legal Regulation of Estonian Media, 1994 (in Estonian) R. Kurvits, T. Hennoste. Newspaper’s lay-out. 1995 (in Estonian)

11. INTERNATIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Associate member of European Journalism Training Association

Member of Baltic Association of Media Research, the latter is an associate member of International Association pf Mass Communication Research and a member of International Communication Association.

12. NO

13. NO The Global Network / Le reseau global 115 Department of Journalism, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia

1. GENERAL DATA:

A. NAME: Department of Journalism of the Faculty of Arts

B. ADDRESS: 818 01 Bratislava, Stúrova 9, Slovakia Tel: ++ 427 364192, 364194, 364196, 364198 Fax:++427 326530 E-mail: [email protected]

C. STAFF MEMBERS: Full-time: 29 Part-time: 19

D. CONTACT PERSON: P r o f. Juraj Vojtek, Ph. D., Head of the Department of Journalism

E. DEPENDENT ON: Comenius University

F. NUMBER OF STUDENTS: 254

2. SHORT HISTORY

Comenius University in Bratislava set up a chair of journalism at its Faculty of Arts in 1952. The first academic staff was composed mostly of graduates of humanities (history, literature etc.) and law. Later, the first graduates of journalism studies became members of the department. In the early 6 0 ’s, the so called “Bratislava theory of journalism sch o o l ” was founded by the late professor Mieroslav Hisko and his closest colleagues. They laid the fundamentals of journalism education in Slovakia. The Global Network / Le reseau global 116

The period from August 1968 to the Velvet Revolution in November 1989 brought about the most problems in the whole history of the university education of journalism in Slovakia. Journalism was supposed to be primarily a political issue. This approach strongly influenced journalism studies, too.

The Revolution of November 17, 1989 brought new tasks - mainly to transform journalism education program so it could prepare students for the work in free democratic media of the sovereign Slovakia. The whole Department of Journalism has undergone serious changes both in the sphere of journalism curriculum (many new courses were introduced) and in the sphere of teaching methods (new facilities available). New contacts with journalism sch o o l s from abroad have been established.

3. STRUCTURE

A. NUMBER OF CHAIRS:

The Department of Journalism is an integral unit of the Faculty of Arts of Comenius University. It may be subdivid- ed into four subdepartments: - Theory and History of Journalism - Press and News Agencies - Radio and Television Journalism - Advertising

B. PROFESSORS

Full Professors: Vojtek Juraj, Ph.D. (60) - History of World Journalism, Theory of Editing - English, Russian - Member of the Association for Education in Jo u r n a l i s m and Mass Communication, US

Emeritus Professors:

Jacz Ludovit, Ph.D. (71) - Mass Media Law and Ethics, Agency Journalism - German, English The Global Network / Le reseau global 117

Associated Professors:

Droppa Boris, Ph.D. (61) - Heuristic, Journalistic Methods, Interpretation of Science and Technology in Mass Media - German, Russian

Holina Vladimir (61) - Mass Communication and Journalism Theory, Information Policy - French, Russian

Hradiska Elena, Ph.D. (45) - Psychology of Mass Communication, Psychology of Advertising - English

Sand Ján, Ph.D. (51) - Radio Journalism, Journalistic Methods, Jo u r n a l i s t i c Genres, Media Studio - German, Russian

Serafínová Danusa, Ph.D. (46) - History of Slvak Journalism, History of World Journalism, History of Advertising - French, German

Tuser Andrej, Ph.D. (58) - Introduction to Journalism Studies, Journalistic Genres, Typology of Periodicals, Media Studio - German

Tvrdon Emil, Ph.D. (60) - Language and Style of Mass Media, Language and Style of Advertising - Russian, German

Vatrál Josef, Ph.D. (51) - Interactive Media, Typography and Design, Master’s Thesis Seminar, Media Studio - Russian

Velas Stefan, Ph.D. (60) The Global Network / Le reseau global 118

- Journalistic Methods, Journalistic Genres, Economy, Media Studio - Russian

Vircík Josef, Ph.D., (63) - Sociology of Mass Communication, Sociology of Advertising - English, Russian

Assistant Professors:

Benická Stanislava (43) - Broadcast Journalism, Journalistic Genres, Theory of Editing, Media Studio - English

Dobis Igor (54) - Television Journalism, Journalistic Methods, Jo u r n a l i s t i c Genres, Media Studio - German

Follrichová Mária, Ph.D. (42) - Journalistic Genres, Domestic Affairs, Media Studio - Russian

Hlavcáková Svetlana, Ph.D. (41) - Journalistic Methods, Agency Journalism, Media Studio, Advertising Campaigns - English, Russian

Hornák Pavel, Ph.D. (43) - Theory of Advertising, Production of Advertising Means, Introduction to Advertising Studies - German

Ivantysyn Roman (49) - Public Relations, Media Management - English, Russian

Jenca Imrich (46) - Interactive Media, Media Studio, Theory of Editing, Journalistic Genres - English, Russian The Global Network / Le reseau global 119

Konecna Vlasta, Ph.D. (42) - Moderatorship, Communication with Public, Program Production - English, Russian

Krizova Bohuslava (42) - International Relations, World Affairs, exhibitions and Fairs, Fundamentals of State and Law - French, Russian

Lofaj Ján (54) - Journalistic Photography, Photojournalism, Photography in Advertising, Media Studio - German, Russian

4. CURRICULUM

Besides four- y e a r, one major graduate study, the Department of Journalism has been combining the M.A. in journalism study for the fourth year with another major subject, e.g. political science, philosophy and philology. This two- major M.A. study lasts for five years. in addition, it also provides and independent two-major M.A. advertising program. Both programs are for full-time students.

Within the curriculum, there is a core of obligatory courses and a variety of optional and special courses. Each student has the possibility to shape his/her orientation from the very beginning of university studies.

The academic year runs two terms (semesters). Presented below are journalism program schedules for the academic year 1996-1997.

M The Global Network / Le reseau global 120 Journalism Program

1. First-major M.A. degree program First academic year

Winter Summer term hours term hours

History of World Journalism 24 24 Heuristic 24 - Interactive Media 24 24 Language and Style of Mass Media I 24 24 Media Studio I + 60 60 International Relations - 36 Journalistic Methods I 36 36 Introduction to Journalism Studies 36 - Journalistic Photography I - 36 Journalistic Genres I 36 36 Optional Courses I - 24 Second academic year

History of Slovak Journalism ++ 36 36 Information Policy ++ - 36 Language and Style of Mass Media II 24 24 Media Studio II + 60 60 Journalistic Methods II 48 24 Research Project ++ - - Theory of Editing - 36 Fundamentals of Economics - 24 Journalistic Photography II 36 - Journalistic Genres II 36 - Journalistic Genres III 36 - Optional Courses: Optional course I 24 - Optional course II - 24 Optional course III - 24 The Global Network / Le reseau global 121

Third academic year

Master’s Thesis Seminar 12 - Language and Style of Mass Media III 24 - Cultural Studies 24 - Mass Media Law and Ethics - 36 Media Studio III + 60 60 Psychology of Mass Communication 24 24 Public Relations - 36 Mass Communication and Journalism Theory I - 24 Theory of Editing 24 - Fundamentals of State and Law 24 -

Branches of Journalistic Work. Students pick out one of the following:

Photojournalism 24 24 Economy 24 24 Culture 24 24 Sports 24 24 Science and Technology 24 24 Domestic Affairs 24 24 World Affairs 24 24

Specialisation. Students pick out one specialization:

Press and News Agency:

Management - 36 Opinion Journalism I - 36 Reporting 36 - Typography and design 36 -

Radio and Television:

Management - 36 Moderatorship 36 - Opinion Journalism I - 36 Reporting 36 - The Global Network / Le reseau global 122

Optional courses:

Optional course I 24 - Optional course II - 24 Fourth academic year

Master’s Thesis Seminar - - Philosophical and Methodological Issues in Mass Communication 24 - Media Studio IV + 60 - Sociology of Mass Media 36 - Final Examination Special Seminars - 48 Mass Communication and Journalism Theory II 36 16 Interpretation of Science and Technology in Mass Media - 16

Specialisation. Students are required to take the spe - cialization of the previous academic year.

Press and News Agency:

Photo Editing 24 - Opinion Journalism II 36 16 Regional and Local Press - 24

Radio and Television:

Opinion Journalism II 36 16 Television Documentary - 16 Program Production 36 -

Optional courses:

Optional course I 24 - Optional course II 24 - Optional course III - 16 Optional course IV - 16 The Global Network / Le reseau global 123

+ Media attachments (5 hours/week) supervised by a teacher in charge. ++ Courses obligatory for a special comprehensive examination at the end of the second academic year. Final Examination Courses:

1. Master’s Thesis 2. General Theory of Journalism 3. Journalistic Reporting and Writing 4. Journalistic Editing and Production

2. Second-major M.A. Degree Program First academic year

Winter Summer term hours term hours

History of World Journalism 24 24 Heuristic 24 - Interactive Media - 24 Language and Style of Mass Media I 24 24 Media Studio I + 60 60 Journalistic Methods I 24 24 Introduction to Journalism Studies 24 - Journalistic Genres 24 24 Second academic year

History of Slovak Journalism ++ 24 24 Information Policy ++ - 24 Language and Style of Mass Media II 24 24 Media Studio II ++ 60 60 Journalistic Methods II 24 24 Research Project ++ - - Theory of Editing - 24 Journalistic Genres II, III 48 - The Global Network / Le reseau global 124

Third academic year

Master’s Thesis Seminar - 12 Language and Style of Mass Media III 12 - Media Studio III + 60 60 Psychology of Mass Communication 24 24 Mass Communication and Journalism Theory I - 24 Theory of Editing 24 - Fundamentals of Economics - 24

Specialisation. Students pick out one specialization:

Press and News Agency:

Management - 24 Opinion Journalism - 24 Reporting 24 - Typography and Design 24 -

Radio and Television

Management - 24 Moderatorship 24 - Opinion Journalism I - 24 Reporting 24 - Fourth academic year

Master’s Thesis Seminar - - Mass Media Law and Ethics - 24 Media Studio IV + 60 - Public Relations - 24

Mass Communication and Journalism Theory II 24 24 Fundamentals of State and Law 24 - Journalistic Photography 24 - The Global Network / Le reseau global 125

Branches of Journalistic Work. Students pick out one of the following:

Photojournalism 24 24 Economy 24 24 Culture 24 24 Sports 24 24 Science and Technology 24 24 Domestic Affairs 24 24 World Affairs 24 24

Specialisation. Students are required to take the spe - cialization of the previous academic year.

Press and News Agency:

Opinion Journalism II 24 - Regional and Local Press - 24

Radio and Television:

Opinion Journalism II 24 - Program Production - 24 Fifth academic year

Master’s Thesis Seminar - - Philosophical and Methodological Issues in mass Communication 24 - Culture Studies 24 - Media Studio V + 60 - International Relations 24 - Sociology of Mass Media 24 - Final Examination Special Seminars - 48 Interpretation of Science and Technology in Mass Media - 16

Optional courses:

Optional course I 24 - Optional course II - 16 The Global Network / Le reseau global 126

+ Media attachments (5 hours/week) supervised by a teacher in charge. ++ Courses obligatory for a special comprehensive examination at the end of the second academic year. Final Examination Courses

1. Master’s Thesis 2. General Theory of Journalism 3. Journalistic Writing and Editing Advertising Program

Second-major M.A. Degree Program First academic year

Winter Summer term hours term hours Introduction to Advertising Studies 36 - Theory of Advertising - 36 History of Advertising 36 - Marketing 24 24 Macroeconomy - 36 Slovak Language and Stylistics 24 24 Second academic year

Psychology of Advertising 24 24 Sociology of Advertising 24 24 Production of Advertising Means I - 24 Photography in Advertising I - 24 Communication with Public - 24 Advertising and Law 48 - Fundamentals of Aestehics 24 - Third academic year

Production of Advertising Means II 24 24 The Global Network / Le reseau global 127

Language and Style of Advertising 24 24 Exhibitions and Fairs - 36 Advertising Campaigns - 24 Photography in Advertising II 24 - Advertising Graphics 24 - Master’s Thesis Seminar - 12 Typography and Design in Advertising 24 - Fourth academic year

Advertising Agencies 36 - Music in Advertising 24 - Public Opinion and Social Advertising - 24 Advertising in Domestic and Foreign Trade 36 24 Master’s Thesis Seminar - - Management in Advertising - 36 Fundamentals of Fine Arts Studies 24 24 Fifth academic year

Ethics of Advertising 24 - Master’s Thesis Seminar - - Final Examination Seminar - 16 Optional courses 60 40 Multimedia 24 -

5. FACILITIES

- TV studio - closed circuit TV facility for laboratory and classroom use - Radio station “Studio Academica) - Computer room - 4 PC computers (IBM compatible), the Internet (via Comenius University Computing Center) - Photogallery ”FOCUS” - an exhibition room

6. ADMISSION

All applicants for admission to the Department of The Global Network / Le reseau global 128

Journalism of the Faculty of Arts of Comenius University in Bratislava have to take a special test of talent, prior to the regular admission examination (obligatory for all applicants for university studies). In addition to the application form and application fee, a high-school academic record is required. Journalism applicants have to submit copies of their journalistic work for print, broadcast and advertising media. Their acceptance is based on the excellence rate of both examinations.

7. DIPLOMA AND STATUS OF DIPLOMA

At present, courses at the Faculty of Arts of Comenius University in Bratislava are provided on the following levels:

A. UNDERGRADUATE STUDIES

- leading to the first, bachelor’s degree (3 years), graduates hold the degree of Bachelor (Bc)

B. GRADUATE STUDIES

- leading to the second, master’s degree (4 or 5 years), graduates hold the degree of Magister (Mgr)

C. POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

- post-graduate courses (full-time 3 years, part-time 5 years) - leading to the academic degree of Doctor (Dr).

8. R ESEARCH PROGRAMS

In the last five years (1990-1995), the Department of Journalism completed the first part of a research program “The transformation of University Journalism Studies with Regard to the Needs of a Free Democratic Society”. It has been a long-term research project, still in progress. Its results have already been implemented in the new curricula and teaching methods. They also gave rise to many textbooks and research papers written by the academic staff. The Global Network / Le reseau global 129

9. P UBLICATIONS , AUDIO -VIDEO BROADCAST

The radio station “Studio Academica” is operated by the students of journalism supervised by two teachers in charge. Its broadcasts extend primarily to academic public, but they are popular among general public, too. It broadcasts twice daily on weekdays, except for examination periods and holidays.

The E-mail periodical “Our Words” (Nase slova) is produced by journalism students under the supervision of a teacher in ch a r g e. This electronic bi-weekly (in Slovak and English) contains up-to-date information on life in Slovakia. Through the Internet it can be reached all over the world.

Students of the Department of Journalism, together with a t e a cher in ch a r g e, produce one page for each issue of “Our University” (Nasa univerzita), a bulletin of Comenius University.

Students of journalism studies are active participants in the EJTA program “Euroreporter”.

Since the early years of its existence, the Department of Journalism has been publishing its own miscellany “ Journalism” (Zurnalistika). Up to the present, twenty vol- umes appeared. The volume 21-22 (1994-1995) is published this year.

10. P RINTED COURSES : NO

11. INTERNATIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Since 1992, the Department of Journalism has been an associated member of EJTA - The European Jo u r n a l i s m Training Association (Maastricht, Netherlands).

12. S UMMER SEMINAR : NO The Global Network / Le reseau global 130 Department of Journalism from Lviv State University

1. GENERAL DATA

A) NAME Department of Journalism

B) ADDRESS 290000, Lviv, 1 Universytetska Str. Tel: (0 322) 72 58 45, 79 47 51 Fax: (0 322) 72 26 86 E-mail: journft%[email protected]

C) BOARD MEMBERS: Volodymyr Zdorovega, Stepan Kost, Vasyl Lyzanchuk, Yosyp Los, Oleksandra Serbenska.

D) CONTACT PERSONS: Volodymyr Zdorovega, Stepan Kost

E) DEPENDENT ON: Lviv State University

F) NUMBER OF STUDENTS: 576

2. SHORT HISTORY

Department of Journalism is one of the two existent in U k r a i n e. It was established in 1954. Since then well over 4000 students majoring in various fields of mass communication have graduated from the Department. They now work in and outside Ukraine.

3. STRUCTURE

A) NU M B E R O F CH A I R S: 4 (Ukrainian Press, TV and Radio B r o a d c a s t i n g, Foreign Press and Information, Language of Mass Media). The Global Network / Le reseau global 131

B) PROFESSORS

Volodymyr Zdorovega, Professor (65) - Theory and Practical Course of Journalism, Psychology of Creative Work - Russian, Polish, English

Stefania Andrusiv, Assistant Professor (44) - History of the Ukrainian and World Culture - Russian, Polish, German

Volodymyr Hoj, Assistant Professor (49) - Theory and Practical Course of Journalism, Principles of Broadcasting - Russian, Polish, French

Zinovij Dmytrovskij, Assistant Professor (52) - Principles of Television - Russian, Polish

Fedir Dysak, Assistant Professor (58) - History of Ukrainian Literature and Journalism - Russian

Anatolij Kapelyushnyj, Assistant Professor (44) - Editing, Stylistics - Russian, Polish

Ivan Krupskij, Assistant Professor (44) - Te chnics of Mass Communication, History of Ukrainian Journalism - Russian, German

Stepan Kost, Assistant Professor (50) - History of Ukrainian Journalism, Theater - German, Czech, Russian Olena Kuznietsova, Assistant Professor (42) - Theory of Mass Communication, Principles of Media Law and Media Ethics - Russian, English

Natalia Melnichuk, Assistant Professor (46) - Economics and Mass Media The Global Network / Le reseau global 132

- Russian, English

Ihor Motorniuk, Assistant Professor (62) - History of Ukrainian Literature - Russian, Polish

Ihor Lubkovich, Assistant Professor (43) - Sociology of Mass Media, Social Psychology - Russian, English

Vasyl Lyzanchuk, Professor (58) - Theory and Practical Course of Journalism, Principles of Broadcasting - Russian, Polish

Yosip Los, Assistant Professor (58) - International Journalism - Polish, Russian, Spanish

Mykhailo Nechytaliuk, Professor (74) - History of Ukrainian Journalism - Russian, Polish, German

Boris Potiatynik, Assistant Professor (35) - Foreign Press, Phenomenology of Mass Media - Russian, English, Polish

Mykhailo Prysiazhny, Assistant Professor (44) - Theory and Practical Course of Journalism, Principles of Editorial Work -Russian, Polish, German

Nina Radvanska, Assistant Professor (59) - History of Foriegn Press - Russian, English

Oleksandra Serbenska, Professor (66) - Language of Mass Communication - Russian, Polish, German

Olga Fedyk, Assistant Professor (47) - Language of Mass Communication - Russian, German The Global Network / Le reseau global 133

Maria Jatsymirska, Assistant Professor (41) - Language of Mass Communication - Russian, Polish

Zinovij Partyko, Assistant Professor (42) - Desktop Publishing Systems, Publishing Networks, Editing, Text Processors - Russian, English

Andrij Yurash, Teaching Assistant (25) - Theory and Practical Course of Journalism, Religious Press - Russian, English

Natalia Gabor, Teaching Assistant (31) - Press of US - Russian, English

Nadia Lobur, Teaching Assistant (28) - Slavic Languages - Russian, Czech

Marijan Zhytariuk, Teaching Assistant (24) - History of Journalism, Sport Journalism - Russian, English

4. CURRICULUM

COURSES HOURS / SEMESTER I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX Theory and Practical Course of Journalism 72 64 72 80 - - - - - Introduction to Journalism 36 ------Theory of Literature 36 ------Technics of Mass Media 36 32 ------Technical Journalistic Facilities 36 48 ------History of Ukrainian Journalism 36 32 36 32 36 32 - - - Bibliography - 16 ------History of Foreign Literatures - 16 36 32 18 16 - - - The Global Network / Le reseau global 134

Foreign Languages 36 64 64 48 36 32 - - - History of Ukrainian Literature 36 32 36 32 36 32 36 - - Language of Mass Media 72 64 64 64 - - - - - Ukrainian and Foreign Culture - - 36 32 72 64 72 64 18 History of Religion - - - - - 36 - - - Principles of Ukrainian Economy 36 32 ------Economic Analysis - - 36 32 36 - - - - Social Psychology and Sociology - - - - 36 32 - - - Political History of Ukraine - - - - - 32 36 - - Foreign Press - - - - 36 32 54 32 27 Stylistics - - - - 36 32 - - - Specialized Courses: a. Press and Press Agency - - - - 144 128 144 160 54 b. Television - - - - 144 128 144 160 54 c. Radio - - - - 144 128 144 160 54 d. International Journalism - - - - 144 128 144 160 54

Phenomenology of Mass Communication - - - - 36 - - - - Principles of Law ------36 - - Ethics and Aestethics ------36 Editing ------32 - Politology ------36 32 - Ukrainian Business Language ------18 Socioecology ------18 History of Philosophy ------32 18 Modern Philosophy - - 54 48 - - - - - Logic - 32 ------The Global Network / Le reseau global 135

5. F ACILITIES

Broadcasting Studio, Printing Laboratory, Photo Laboratory, Typewriter and Computer Laboratory.

6. ADMISSION

85 persons annually (60 - full-time, 25 - part-time). Education is free, but extra number of student (usually 15 persons) pay for their tuition. All applicants take entry examinations or undergo a publications competition.

7. DIPLOMA AND ITS STATUS

After completion of five years (six years for part-time students) study, students will get Diploma of “Specialist” majoring in “Journalism”.

8. R ESEARCH P ROGRAMS

Major research projects: “Mass Media and Strengthening of Ukrainian Sovereignty”

Other projects: Moral Codes of Ukrainian Journalist; Computers in Educational Process; Linguistics and Computer Means of Promotion Ukrainian Language; Mass Media and Moral Reformation of the World; Mass Media and European Integration of Posttotalitarian Countries.

9. P UBLICATIONS , AUDIO -VIDEO BROADCASTS

Annual scientific publication: “Vishnik Lvivskoho Universytetu” (Lviv University Herald) - “Jo u r n a l i s m ” . B e s i d e s, faculty and students do occasional TV and Radio programs jointly with local Radio and TV stations.

10. P RINTED COURSES

V. Zdorovega, Introduction to Journalism , 1994.

O. Kuznietsova, V. Ly z a n chuk, Methods of Newsgathering , 1991. The Global Network / Le reseau global 136

O. Kuznietsova, Reasoning in J o u r n a l i s m , 1992; Ukrainian Journalism and National Revival , 1992; Mass Media and Ukrainian Consolidation .

Y. Los, Awareness of Our Mission , 1993.

B. Potiatynyk, Totalitarian J o u r n a l i s m , 1992; Fo r e Theories of the Press and Ukrainian Journalism , 1993.

O. Serbenska, Ukrainian Language for Beginners , 1991; Ukrainian Language , 1983; How to Behave Oneself and Speak Correctly , 1994.

11. NO

12. NO The Global Network / Le reseau global 137 Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana

1. GENERAL DATA

A. NAME Faculty of Social Sciences

B. ADDRESS: Kardeljeva ploscad 5 (PO BOX 47) 61109 Ljubljana, Slovenia Tel: (+ 386 61) 168 14 61 Fax: (+386 61) 168 23 29

C. BOARD MEMBERS Dean: Ivan Svetlik, Ph.D., Full Professor Pro-Dean for Research Activities: Anton Grizold, Ph.D. , Professor Pro-Dean for Study and Students Affairs: Bojko Bucar, Ph.D., Assistant Professor

D. CONTACT PERSON Marusa Gros Ahlin, Ll. B., Faculty Secretary

E. DEPENDENT ON University of Ljubljana

F. NUMBER OF STUDENTS: not mentioned

2. SHORT HISTORY

The Faculty of Social Sciences is a member of the University of Ljubljana. The University was founded in 1919.

The Faculty of Social Sciences was established in 1961. Over the past thirty years, it has been defining social sciences in Slovenia through its teaching and researching work. Within the framework of its basic areas, which are sociology, political sciences and journalism, the faculty’s teachers and scientists contribute to the development of communication stud- i e s, defence studies, social science informatics, culture sci- The Global Network / Le reseau global 138

e n c e, anthropology, religious studies and many other social sciences disciplines.

The faculty is the largest social science center in Slovenia. It cooperates with many foreign universities, institutes and expert associations active in the area of social sciences. Further confirmation of the faculty’s central position and significance is provided by the Institute of Social Sciences and the Joze Goricar Central Library, which operate as part of the faculty.

The faculty has been establishing itself as a publisher and editor of social science literature in various collections of work in the field. Under the aegis of the faculty, or in conjunction with it, major Slovene social science journals are being published:

Theory and Practice Papers in Social Sciences Phainomena The Public Journal of International Relations

The faculty have 133 members of staff. Over the last 34 years, 2165 social scientists graduated from the faculty, 198 students were awarded master’s degrees and 83 received Ph.Ds.

3. STRUCTURE

A. THE FACULTY CONSISTS OF FOUR DEPARTMENTS:

1. The Department of Sociology (Head: Niko Tos, Ph.D., Full Professor)

2. The Department of Political Science (Head: Bogomil Ferfila, Ph.D., Professor)

3. The Department of Communication Science ( H e a d : Tomo Korosec, Ph.D., Full Professor)

4. The Department of Culture Science (Head: Fr a n e Adam, Ph.D., Assistant Professor) The Global Network / Le reseau global 139

Each department includes several chairs and research centres. There are 11 chairs totally:

Sociology: - Chair of Theoretical Sociology - Chair of Personnel and Social Management - Chair of Informatics and Methodology

Political Science: - Chair of Theoretical Political Science - Chair of Analysis of Politics and Public Administration - Chair of International Studies - Chair of Defence Studies

Communication: - Chair of Communication Theory - Chair of Journalism - Chair of Market Communication

Between all Departments there is the Chair of Fo r e i g n Languages. A. Department of Sociology

• Chair of Theoretical Sociology (Head: Mirjana Ule, Ph.D., Professor)

• Chair of Personnel and Social Management (Head: Miroslav Stanoevic, Ph.D., Assistant Professor)

• Chair of Informatics and Methodology (Head: Ve s n a Omladic, Ph.D., Assistant Professor)

The Department of Sociology offers 3 undergraduate study courses.

THE ANALYTICAL AND THEORETICAL COURSE educates experts in scientific and analytical research, planning, advisory and teaching work.

THE PERSONNEL AND SOCIAL MANAGEMENT COURSE provides the basis for analytical, managerial and advisory work in personnel and employment offices in various administrative The Global Network / Le reseau global 140

bodies responsible for personnel organization, employment and education. THE SOCIAL SCIENCE INFORMATICS COURSE provides training in using information technology in research work and in development, management, analytical usage and maintenance of information systems and databases in the social sciences.

The Department of Sociology currently offers 5 post- graduate study courses.

TH E S O C I O L O G Y O F E V E R Y-D AY L I F E P R O G R A M introduces students to new approaches in the analysis of every-day life and guides them towards the sociological and sociopsychological analysis of social crisis and its consequences.

TH E S O C I A L E C O L O G Y P R O G R A M offers studies in the area of social factors in preserving and protecting the environment, as well as methods and techniques for assessing the social consequences of environmental changes.

THE SEXISM AS A (CONTEMPORARY) TRADITION PROGRAM focuses on discovering the key determinants of the continued reproduction of the hierarchy between the sexes and on strategies for complete removal of negative consequences stemming from the subordinated position of women. The program is also available as a specialist study course.

TH E EU R O P E A N S O C I A L P O L I C Y A N A LY S I S is an international program run in conjunction with the Universities of Bath, R o s k i l d e, Maynooth, Tilburg, Lisbon, Complutense and Crete. Students consider the institutional and political context within which a social policy is created and implemented, within individual European countries and at the European Union level

TH E M A S T E R’S M A N A G E M E N T S T U DY P R O G R A M is organized in conjunction with the Institute of Management of Ljubljana. It is divided into social management and management in public administration. The study of management produces experts for managing work processes or organizations in the area of social services and public administration. The Global Network / Le reseau global 141

B. Department of Political Science

• Chair of Theoretical Political Science (Head: Adolf Bibic, Ph.D., Full Professor)

• Chair of Analysis of Politics and Public Administration (Head: Drago Zajc, Ph.D., Assistant Professor)

• Chair of International Relations (Head: Bojko Bucar, Ph.D., Assistant Professor)

• Chair of Defense Studies (Head: Marjan Malesic, Ph.D. , Teaching Assistant)

There are four regular undergraduate study courses within the Department.

THE THEORETICAL-ANALYTICAL COURSE examines the theory of p o l i t i c s, the Slovene political identity and an intensified involvement within the European space.

TH E C O U R S E O F P O L I C Y AN A LY S I S A N D P U B L I C A D M I N I S T R AT I O N introduces the “policy” approach. Graduates are capable of conducting expert-analytical work in state institutions and other major administrative systems and institutions of local self-government, as well as in political and other organizations and associations. The international relations course conveys to students specific knowledge to be applied to work in state, diplomatic, political, representative and other services which are active in foreign policy and the international arena.

TH E D E F E N C E S T U D I E S C O U R S E is based on interdisciplinary study. Graduates may conduct scientific research, teaching, organizational-administrative and advisory work.

There are 5 post-graduate study courses in the Department of Political Science.

THE POLICY ANALYSIS - EUROPEAN ASPECTS COURSE conveys to students the policy approach in analyzing political phenomena. It enables the development and application of acquired knowledge in the chosen policy area in the light of the The Global Network / Le reseau global 142

European context.

THE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION COURSE produces experts in various areas of public administration and personnel appropriate for managerial positions in public administration.

THE AMERICAN STUDIES COURSE is designed for individuals or members of institutions dealing with the US presence in the world. Through interdisciplinary studies, it attempts to clar- ify various important aspects of the US.

TH E I N T E R N AT I O N A L R E L AT I O N S M A S T E R’S S T U DY C O U R S E d e e p- ens interdisciplinary knowledge of international study on r e g i o n s. It particularly enables students to deepen their knowledge about the new united Europe.

THE POST-GRADUATE DEFENCE STUDIES PROGRAM covers the theoretical and empirical knowledge in the area of defence systems and policies, military sociology and political science, s t r a t e g y, operational and defence studies’ methodology. Students focus on analytical-research or expert military areas. C. Department of Communications Science

• Chair of Communication Theory (Head: Slavko Splich a l , Ph.D., Full Professor)

• Chair of Journalism (Head: Manca Kosir, Ph.D., Professor)

• Chair of Market Communication (Head: Nada Sfiligoj, Ph.D., Full Professor)

The Department of Communications Science includes under-graduate study programs of journalism and communication theory . The latter includes the marketing and market communication course and the theory and methodology course.

Within the journalism program, students are trained to work in the media. In addition to general knowledge, communication and language skills, the program also conveys practical skills useful to journalists, publicists and editors. The Global Network / Le reseau global 143

The journalism program can also be taken up as a second subject or as a subject in a two-subject study arrangement with other faculties of the University of Ljubljana.

TH E M A R K E T I N G A N D M A R K E T C O M M U N I CAT I O N C O U R S E i s intended for personnel who will plan, manage and implement activities in the area of marketing and market communication. It conveys to students strategic marketing management, market research, public relations, advertising, media planning and similar knowledge.

TH E T H E O R Y A N D M E T H O D O L O G Y C O U R S E is designed for r e s e a r chers working on informations and communications’ systems in various research, advisory and similar services, as well as in public media, information and documentation centres etc.

The post-graduate communications science study includes two courses.

THE COMMUNICATIONS COURSE produces experts on research of the communication behavior of the audience, opinion-forming processes and public opinion, and on planning communication activities, political communications and mass media.

THE MARKETING COURSE covers knowledge in the area of marketing and market communications. It produces experts for the needs of profit and non-profit organizations in the business environment in Slovenia. D. Department of Cultural Studies

The cultural studies program is a single four-year course covering the distinctive range of approaches to the study of culture and society at the faculty of Social Sciences. It is based on the increasingly important role of culture in (post- )modern society. The course is predominantly oriented t o ward theory. By providing an appropriate categorization and operational apparatus as well as epistemological and methodological knowledge, it aims at providing the students with the basis for analytically interpreting developments in the area of culture. Graduates will be able to continue their study at the post-graduate level and may be employed, The Global Network / Le reseau global 144

among other things, in the school system, as publicists or as culture promoters.

B. PROFESSORS

1. Full Professors:

Z d r avko Mlinar - Member of the Slovenian Academy of Science and Arts, full professor of spatial sociology and social development indicators. Researching autonomy and regional links.

Veljko Rus - Corresponding member of the Slovenian Academy of Arts, full professor of industrial sociology and social development. Researching national welfare and the privatization of social services.

Vlado Benko - Professor emeritus. Full professor of international relations. Researching the positions of small countries in the international community. Collaborates implementing the subjects of international relations.

Zdenko Roter - Professor emeritus. Full professor of sociology of religion and faiths of the world. Researching Slovenian public opinion and structural and spiritual forms in the post-modern society.

France Vreg - Professor emeritus. Full professor of public opinion, otherwise an expert in general communications s t u d i e s, communications theory and the history of world journalism.

Adolf Bibic - Full professor of general political science and the history of political thought. Researching contemporary, pluralism, the theory of democracy and the development of the political science.

Janez Jerovsek - Full professor of organization theory, evaluation of work, education and staff planning. Research i n g developmental changes in organization.

Maca Jogan - Full professor of development of sociological theory and sociology of gender. Her main research is in the The Global Network / Le reseau global 145

field of contemporary theoretical perspectives in sociology and in the field of gender studies

Stane Juznic - Full professor of modern history, social and political anthropology, developing countries and the history of civilization. Researching national identity.

Andrej Kirn - Full professor of epistemology of the social sciences and the sociology of science and knowledge. Analytically and theoretically studying scientific research activities and the social aspects of ecological problems.

Tomo Korosec - Full professor of Slovenian language, military terminology and the stylistics of message communication. Researching different aspects of message communication in the social sciences.

Jan Makarovic - Full professor of the sociology of the young and of the sociology of creativity. Researching vocational careers and conditions of self-actualization in personal, national and world history.

Janko Prunk - Full professor of recent history. Subject head for The History of Slovenian Social and political Thought.

Dimitrij Rupel - Full professor of the sociology of culture, the sociology of fine art and the history of Slovenian culture. R e s e a r ching new forms of spiritualism in the post-modern society.

Nada Sfiligoj - Full professor of economics and marketing. Researching the market and market communications.

S l avko Splichal - Full professor of communication, public opinion, theory of mass communication, informations sys- t e m s, political propaganda and methods of communication research.

Niko Tos - Full professor of sociology and the methodology of social science research. Head of the Slovenian public opinion project and collaborator in the international research of values (ISSP, WVP), of voting processes, etc. The Global Network / Le reseau global 146

Anton Zabkar - Full professor of defence science. Subject head for “The Basics of Leading and Commanding”, as well as Modern Weapons Systems.

2. Professors

Ivan Bernik - Professor of general and theoretical sociology. R e s e a r ching post-socialist societies, especially the emergence of new nation-states, as well as topics in social regulation.

Bogomil Ferfila - Professor of comparative economics and management systems, public finances, government economics and post-socialism. Concerned with American studies.

Anuska Ferligoj - Professor of statistics. Concerned with methods of multi-variant analysis, network analysis and methodological problems of public surveys.

Anton Grizold - Professor of defence and security policies and systems. Concerned with research on Slovene national security and security in international relations.

Manca Kosir - Professor of journalistic reporting and the mass media. Studying journalistic discourse, especially types and genres and journalistic ethics.

Stane Kranjc - Professor in the filed of political parties. R e s e a r ching and concerned with theories of and empirical processes in contemporary pluralism and democracy.

Marjan Svetlicic - Professor of international economic affairs and current international community affairs. Research i n g the position of the Slovenes in international relations, foreign investments and transnational enterprises.

Ivan Svetlik - Professor in the field of the labor market and employment. Concerned with research into the quality of life, social policies and employment.

Mirjana Ule - Professor of social and political psychology, as well as the psychology of communications. Research i n g everyday life and the political culture of youth. The Global Network / Le reseau global 147

Slavoj Zizek - Professor of contemporary philosophical prob- l e m s, research consultant at the centre for Philosophical Studies. Ambassador of Science of the Republic of Slovenia for 1990.

3. Assistant Professors

Frane Adam - Assistant professor of general sociology and senior research worker at the Centre for Theoretical Sociology. Researching processes of modernization and social transformations in the post-socialist societies. Also concerned with sociological theories and political sociology.

Smilja Amon - Assistant professor of the history of journalism. Researching the development of journalism, especially the role of the newspaper in Slovenia. Subject head for the Development of World Journalism.

Vojko Antoncic - Assistant professor of methodology and information science. Subject head for “Forecasting and P l a n n i n g, Staff Planning”. Researching the quality of life and the problems of public surveys.

Bojko Bucar - Assistant professor of international affairs. Concerned with international affairs, international law, modern law, regionalism and foreign policy. Studying the role of Slovenia in international relations.

Nevenka Cernigoj-Sadar - Assistant professor, senior r e s e a r ch worker at the Centre for Welfare Studies. R e s e a r ching the quality of life, especially leisure time, the family and lifestyles.

Danica Fink-Hafner - Assistant professor of policy analysis, political parties and interest groups. Developing autonomous Slovenian policy analysis and research in changes in the Slovene interest-group system and party arena in Slovenia. Recently specializing in the EV policy-making and lobbying.

Pavle Gantar - Assistant professor of regional sociology, social planning and social development. Research i n g changes in the social territorial organization of the environment. The Global Network / Le reseau global 148

Vesna V. Godina - Assistant professor of social, political and cultural anthropology. Concerned with comparative analysis of anthropological theory, with the process of the transfer of cultural samples (inculturation) and political socialization.

Ljubica Jelusic - Assistant professor of military sociology and polemology. Concerned with research on peace studies and international security.

Zinka Kolaric - Assistant professor of the sociology of social policies. Researching welfare systems, but above all the role of voluntary organizations in the Slovenian welfare system.

Miran Komac - Assistant professor of political science. Collaborates in the subject Recent Political History.

Igor Luksic - Assistant professor of general and political science and the theory of the modern state. Researching contemporary pluralism, corporatism, liberalism and democracy.

Franc Mali - Assistant professor, associate professor of the Institute. Problematically and analytically studies scientific and research activities in Slovenia.

Mojca Novak - Assistant professor, associate professor of Sociology at the Centre for Welfare Studies. Researching the quality of life, especially the prosperity and poverty and peripheral modernization.

Vesna Omladic - Assistant professor of information management sciences. Researching the dynamics of sociological systems.

Tanja Rener - Assistant professor of the sociology of the family and the sociology of gender. Researching the sociology of the family and the gender structure of everyday life.

Miroslav Stanojevic - Assistant professor of the sociology of work, also a research collaborator at the Centre for Theoretical Sociology. Concerned with the research of industrial relations. The Global Network / Le reseau global 149

Janez Strehovec - Assistant professor of the sociology of culture. Subject head for Cultural Policies and the Sociology of Mass Cultures.

Barbara Verlic-Dekleva - Assistant professor, scientific collaborator at the Centre for Welfare Studies. Researching the quality of life, especially the social development of the environment and urbanization, as well as housing problems.

Drago Zajc - Assistant professor at the Centre for Po l i t i c a l Science Research. Concerned with the analysis of politics and its application, researching the operation of the Slovenian parliament.

Alojzija Zidan - Assistant professor of the sociology of education. Researching the political culture of youth.

4. Teaching Assistants

Marijan Brezovsek - Research assistant, researches political s y s t e m s, national affairs, federalism and local administra- t i o n s. Researching the role and operation of the Slovenian parliament.

Ales Debeljak - Research assistant for the sociology of cul- t u r e, sociology of religion and culture studies. Research i n g the structure of spiritualism, especially the role of religion and art in the post-modern society.

Mitja Hafner- Fink - Research assistant of social science methodology. Was concerned with the ideology of social stra- ta in Slovenia, presently researching Slovenian public opinion.

Marko Lah - Research assistant for economics and market- i n g. Researching marketing management and market communication as a factor of effectiveness of (non)profit organizations.

Dana Mesner Andolsek - Research assistant for the theory of organization and the sociology of work. Researching developmental changes of organizations and their structural man- The Global Network / Le reseau global 150

agement, business ethics and organizational culture.

Milivoja Sircelj - Research assistant for social demography. Teaches the subject of Social Democracy.

5. Research Assistants

Majda Cernic Istenic - Associated specialist of the Centre for Welfare Studies. Researching the quality of life, fertility and privatization in health care.

Drago Kos - Senior associate specialist at the Centre for Spatial Sociology. Researching the factors for Slovenian integration into global modernization processes.

Gregor Tomc - Senior research assistant at the Centre for Theoretical Sociology. Researching the process of modernization and youth subcultures.

5. FACILITIES

Not mentioned

6. ADMISSION

Not mentioned

7. DIPLOMA & STATUS OF DIPLOMA

Not mentioned

8. R ESEARCH PROGRAMS

The Institute of Social Sciences (Head: Anton Grizold, Ph.D., Professor) conducts scientific research related to the education programs at the faculty. It also implements other scientific research projects from the area of sociology, and political and communications science. The institute annually implements some 80 research projects, which are funded partly by the state and partly by the contracted commissioners.

All infrastructures necessary for empirical social science research in Slovenia is concentrated within the Institute of The Global Network / Le reseau global 151

Social Sciences. The largest projects so far are “Slovene Public Opinion Survey” and the “Quality of Life”, which have been running for many years. The two projects provide Slovene social scientists with a database. All research e r s have free access to it.

The work of the institute has been organized in 14 research centres: Centre for Public Opinion and Mass Communication R e s e a r ch, Centre for Welfare Studies, Centre for Environmental Sociology, Centre for Political Science Research, Centre for Religion and Church Research, Centre for Social Communication Research, Centre for International Relations Research, Centre for Theoretical S o c i o l o g y, Centre for Philosophical Studies, Centre for Methodology and Informatics, Centre for Defence Studies and Research, Centre for Social Psych o l o g y, Centre for Anthropological Research and Centre for Evaluation and Strategic Research.

9. P UBLICATIONS , AUDIO -VIDEO BROADCAST

Not mentioned

10. P RINTED COURSES

Not mentioned

11. INTERNATIONAL MEMBERSHIP

Not mentioned

12. SUMMER SEMINARS

Not mentioned. The Global Network / Le reseau global 152 International School for Journalism, Minsk, Belarus

1. GENERAL DATA

A. NAME International School for Journalism

B. ADDRESS F. Skariny st. 15A, 220072 Minsk, Belarus Tel/fax: 0172 3945 36 E-mail: [email protected]

C. BOARD MEMBERS: Vladimir Dunaev, EHU, Vi c e - R e c t o r, Prof. of History and Philosophy Barys Sachanka, Byelorussian Encyclopedia, Editor- i n - Chief, Journalist Vince Malmgreen, Internews Network Piotr Martsev, “Belorusskaya Delovaya Gazeta”, Newspaper publisher Tamara Vorobiova, Mass Media Center, Chief Manager, Journalist Svetlana Plashch i n s k aya, Manager, Associate Professor of English Victoria Kozlova, Executive Director, Journalist

D. DE P E N D E N T O N Soros Foundation, Mass Media Center, EHU

F. NUMBER OF STUDENTS: 14 students

2. SHORT HISTORY

The program began in early 1994 as part of the training programs of MMC. Later on it became a special faculty for journalism and mass communication and was named “International School of Journalism” operated jointly by Minsk Mass Media Center (MMC) and European Humanitarian University (EHU). The course of study is 1,5 years, Purpose - improving of professional skills for working The Global Network / Le reseau global 153

journalists. We are planning to make it a permanent higher educational institution with a 5-years period of study.

3. STRUCTURE

A. NUMBER OF CHAIRS -

B. PROFESSORS: no full-time staff professors, only visiting professors from different countries: Russia, Belarus, Po l a n d , US, Czech Republic etc.

4. CURRICULUM

List of subjects Hours

English 600

General sciences (during the 1st and the beginning of the 2nd semester):

1. Policy and Mass Media 20 2. Sociology of Mass Media 20 3. Economics and Mass Media 20 4. Law and Legislation in Mass Media 22 5. Diplomacy and Ethics 16 6. Environment and Mass Media 30 7. Practical Belarussian Language 30 8. Practical Russian Language 30

General professional subjects throughout 2nd semes - ter:

9. Ethics of Journalism 30 10. Theory of Communication: Psychology of Perception 32 Psychology of Video Information Perception 10 Psychology of Sound Perception 10 Phenomena of Printed Information Reception 10 TV as a Form of Mass Media 26 Video-news of Today 28 Radio as a Form of Mass Media 24 The Global Network / Le reseau global 154

Informational Radio Programs 26 The Press as a Form of Mass Media 26 Printed Informational Reviews 26 Information Agency 34 12. Informatics (Computer science) 36 electronic communication possibilities (e-mail, databases, electronic libraries and related topics)

Special disciplines throughout the 2nd and 3rd semes - ters:

13. Basics of Reporting 66 television reporting 22 radio reporting 22 reporting in the printed media 22 14. Analytical reporting 14 15. Topical reporting 14 16. Commentary 14 17. Business reporting 16 18. Political reporting 14 19. Principles of Journalism Investigation 10 20. Principles of Gathering and Distributing Information 16 21. International Journalism 18

Special disciplines at the end of the 2nd and 3rd semesters:

22. Photography 22 23. Work with a Video Camera 22 24. Interviewing Technique 56 (total) how to ask questions 5 how to keep to one theme 5 listening skills 5 how to get an answer 5 working in front of the camera 18 moderating techniques 18

25. Editing 58 (total) rules for written material editing 22 sound editing techniques 16 The Global Network / Le reseau global 155

video editing techniques 20 26. The work of the executive producer 10 27. Computer Design 16 28. The Work of Information Department 14

29. Newspaper Publishing 20 (total) the structure of a newspaper 10 design of a printed publication 10

30. TV Program Production 30 (total) script writing 20 design 10

31. radio Program Production 20 32. TV Station Management 16 33. Radio Station Management 16 34. Newspaper Management 14

5. FACILITIES

One large classroom equipped with 4 DTK computers, 1 editing computer for students newspaper production, a TV set, a tape-recorder. TV studio with 2 Betacam SP, 2 S-VHS cameras, each system with a VCR and an editing unit “Matrox”.

We have a possibility to use the equipment and a broadcasting time of “Belorusskaya Molodezhnaya” radio studio.

6. ADMISSION

H aving undergone testing done by a highly qualified commission of 5 members.

7. DIPLOMA

At present - the certificate for completing the course “Advanced skills” and the English language. In future - the diploma for second higher education in journalism. The Global Network / Le reseau global 156

8. R ESEARCH PROGRAMS

No at the moment.

9. P UBLICATIONS , AUDIO -VIDEO BROADCAST

- realized by students: monthly supplement to the students paper “Takaya Zhyzn”, TV-program “Students discussing club” - realized by professors: weekly information program “Post Scriptum”, one video story for CNN World Report per week or two.

10. P RINTED COURSES : NO

11. INTERNATIONAL MEMBERSHIP “Internews” (US)

12. SUMMER SEMINARS :

Early beginning of June: “Psychologic aspects of person reception on the screen” (style and “face” make-up of a pre- senter, fitness to the program character)

The end of June: “Coverage of cultural events” (what is a news in cultural life, making of a cultural report). The Global Network / Le reseau global 157 School of Journalism, University of Zagreb

1. GENERAL DATA

A. NAME School of Journalism

B. ADDRESS Lepusiceva 6, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia Tel: 412 731 Fax: 412 283

C. BOARD MEMBERS dr. Tomislav Jantol, this year dean of the Faculty; dr. Pavao Novosel, director of the School of Journalism; d r. Miroslav Vu j e v i c, president of the Communication and Journalism Department of the Faculty

D. CONTACT PERSON: dr. Pavao Novosel, Lepusiceva 6, Zagreb, tel. at home 445 327

E. DEPENDENT ON Faculty of Political Sciences, University of Zagreb.

F. NUMBER OF STUDENTS: 500

2. SHORT HISTORY

Founded in 1970 as a one year study. Already next year promoted to the two years study with a partial diploma. In 1986 further enlarged to four years study with full professional journalism diploma.

Main orientation since foundation was toward the objective, professional journalism as performed in western democratic c o u n t r i e s. It was never conceived or realized another “Marxist” education like in some Eastern European communist countries. The specifics from the start on was to integrate communication theory with journalistic skills, so as The Global Network / Le reseau global 158

not to produce “journalistic morons”. This was then reflected in the curriculum profile (see below).

3. STRUCTURE

A. NUMBER OF CHAIRS.

We don’t have “chairs” in the classical sense, but the study is conceived as a whole.

B. PROFESSORS

Dr. Pavao Novosel, professor, founder of the school - Communication Theory, Interpersonal Communication, Organizational Communication - English, German, Italian, French, Russian

Dr. Marko Goluza, docent - Press and Advertising - German, English

Dr. Marko Sapunar, docent - Radio, Introduction to Journalism, History of Journalism, Modern Media - English

Dr. Stjepan Malovic, docent - Press, Photography, Media Management - German, English

Dr. Branko Polic, lecturer - Croatian Language and Journalistic Style - Russian

Dr. Miroslav Vujevic, professor - Research Methodology in Social Sciences - English

Dr. Tomislav Jantol, professor - Public Opinion and Propaganda - German, English

Dr. Nenad Prelog, professor The Global Network / Le reseau global 159

- Computer Science and Skills - English, German

Vlatko Cvrtila, MA, assistant - in charge with Computer Lab and Journalist Library - English

Karlo Blagus, MA, assistant to professor Novosel - English Marija Nemcic, MA, assistant - TV Skills - English, German

Jadranka Rilovic, MA, assistant - Radio Skills

Ivanka Lucev, MA, assistant - Radio Skills - English

Also, a number of prominent professional journalists deliver lectures on their specific field of activity.

4. CURRICULUM

Not mentioned.

5. FACILITIES

a. Computer lab with 20 modern machines in LAN. Host computer with Pentium 100. Printer, Scanner, direct line to Internet.

b. Journalistic library with more than 200 most recent books.

c. Editing room for student journal “PULS” with 4 computers and a direct telephone line. The journal is published once a month and is self-financing.

d. Radio station (“Radio Sveuciliste”), with most modern gear, working on the frequency of 100.5 MHz, covering the whole city of Zagreb (about 1.000.000 inhabitants). The Global Network / Le reseau global 160

Broadcasting 16 hours/day and is self-financing.

e. Modern Video and TV gear in lecture rooms (for about 100 students at a time). Includes graphoscopes and other lectur- ing hardware.

6. ADMISSION

Middle school diploma. Admission upon the entrance exams on a competitive basis. The school inscribes about 60 students each year financed by the state, as well as some 50 self-financing students. The self-financing students are subject to the same entrance exams as other students.

7. DIPLOMA

Full professional diploma after four years study which enti- tles for the vocation of the “Diploma journalist”

Parallel journalist diploma after two years specially organized study which is frequented parallel with some other full study (e. g. Law, Medicine and so on). This diploma can be received only after the main study is fully finished.

MA diploma in journalism after finishing MA studies of two y e a r s. This study is the prolongation after the four years study mentioned above.

8. R ESEARCH PROGRAMS

Upon special request.

9. P UBLICATIONS , AUDIO -VIDEO BROADCAST

“PULS” - the students monthly in its third year of publishing. Realized entirely by students.

“Radio Sveuciliste” - broadcasting 16 hours/day, five day in week. Programs are realized by the students under to supervision of their professors and three professional journalists. The Global Network / Le reseau global 161

10. P RINTED COURSES

N o n e. However, there exist a number of textbooks for the courses our professor give.

11. INTERNATIONAL MEMBERSHIP

None by now.

12. SUMMER SEMINARS

None. The Global Network / Le reseau global 162 School of Social Communication and Journalism, Catholic University of Lublin

1. GENERAL DATA

A. NAME School of Social Communication and Journalism

B. ADDRESS: Al Raclawickie 14, 20-950 Lublin; Poland; Tel: (081) 304 32 Fax: (081) 304 33 E-mail: [email protected]

C. BOARD MEMBERS: ?

D. CONTACT PERSON: Prof. Leon Dyczewski OFM Conv., Director of the school Mgr. Robert Szwed, secretary of the school

E. DEPENDENT ON: SSCJ is an autonomous Department of the Catholic University of Lublin, Poland

F. NUMBER OF STUDENTS: 49

2. SHORT HISTORY

It is common knowledge in our days and age, that the mass media and journalists play an immense role in the formation of the human attitudes and in making people aware of their needs.

In Poland, during the last forty years, the media were in the hands of the communist government or were at least controlled by it; journalists were submitted to a training based on governmental directives. The Global Network / Le reseau global 163

In 1989, the political system in Poland changed. One observed an increase of the process of democratization and liberalization in the field of mass media, but there is still a great need for people who could help in the organizing of this sphere of social life. Our society needs journalists, who would be able to fulfill their duties in a responsible way, bearing in mind the benefit of each human being and the fate of society. A very particular need is felt for people of a democratic and Christian orientation. As a result of a state of affairs, Christian thought, the principles of Christian ethics, and a Christian way of life are all inadequately represented or completely oblivious on TV, radio and in the secular press.

In the present situation, new specialists ought to be trained for the mass media, as well as new journalists with a democratic and Christian outlook. This is an absolute necessity.

The Catholic University of Lublin, wishing to satisfy this great need of society, on the 20th of February 1993, resolved to found a School of Social Communication and Journalism, which is to open in October 1993.

3. STRUCTURE

The purpose of the School is: - a complete professional training, accounting for the press, radio, video, TV, advertisement, editing, text analysis, marketing; - the training of journalists in meritorial line of their own choice, within a context of Christian formation; - to help communicate with other social communication centres and journalists.

Students are required to identify one of six domains as their principal area of study:

1. Social and Political Problems 2. Economic Problems 3. Iura and State 4. Philosophical and Theological Problems 5. Culture and Artistic Creativity 6. Health and Ecology The Global Network / Le reseau global 164

The study of journalism includes many varieties of communication. Our program emphasizes professional ethics and responsibilities in the broad study of social communication and society.

Courses last for two years: a total of 2180 hours (including 200 hours of practice)

B. PROFESSORS

Baginski Dobroslaw, director of Lublin TV - Journalistic Genres

Dabala Jacek, Doctor, Journalist of the Lublin Television - Journalistic Genres

Dyczewski Leon, Professor - Theories and Principles of Social Communication

Fr e d r o - B o n i e cki Tadeusz, Director at 1st channel of the Polish Radio - Journalistic Information

Gajlewicz Michal, Professor, Warsaw University - Public Relations, Advertisement

Ilowiecki Maciej, 1st channel of Polish TV - Creative Writing of Journalistic Genres

Jarmul Michal, Doctor, University of Lublin - Public Relation and Management of Mass Media

Jurga Andrzej, Professor, University of Silesia - Journalistic Technology

Klauza Karol, Doctor - Church and Mass Media

Krapiec Mieczyslaw, Professor - Human Rights, Philosophical Anthropology

Loth Roman, Professor, Polish Academy of Sciences - Editing The Global Network / Le reseau global 165

Letowski Maciej, Doctor, Editor-in-Chief of Lad - Reportage, Essay, Review

Marguaritte Bernard, Journalist of France TV and Radio - News, Interview

Marszalek Halina, Director, Polish TV - Journalist Style

Michalski Bogdan, Professor, Warsaw University - Social Communication and Mass Communication Law

Nowakowski Marek, Journalist and writer - Creative Writing of Journalistic Genres

Olszewski Olaf, Director, 2nd channel of Polish TV - Journalistic Technology

Plisiecki Janusz, Professor, University of Maria Sklodowska- Curie - History and Analysis of Film

Tkaczuk Waclaw, Journalist, 2nd channel of the Polish Radio - Essay, Reportage

Viatteau-Kwiatowski Michal, Director of the Program in Polish Radio - Journalistic Information

Wierzbicki Alfred, Doctor - Ethical Problem in Mass Media

Wilkanowicz Stefan, Editor-in-Chief of Znak - Ethical Problems in Mass Media

4. CURRICULUM The Global Network / Le reseau global 166

SUBJECT SEMESTERS I II III IV Facultative subject (Political Science, Law, Social Science, Health Education, Civilization Questions) 2 2 2 2 Philosophical Anthropology and Human Rights 2 2 - - Theological Courses (the Bible Interpretation, Dogmatics, Philosophy of Religion, Philosophy of Life, Comparative Studies of Religion) 2 2 - - Contemporary Political, Cultural, Social and Ecological Questions in Poland and in World - - 2 2 History of Communication and Journalism (Press, Radio, TV, Film) 2 2 - - Theories and Principles of Social Communication 2 2 - - Social and Mass Communication Law - - 2 2 The Church and Mass Media 2 - - - Public Relations Management (relation and cooperation between mass media and local community) - - 2 - Local Communication: Its Forms and Roles - 2 - - Management of Mass Media- - 2 2 Advertisement, Public Relations - - 2 2 News Editing 4 4 4 4 Creative Writing of Journalistic Genres (information, news, report, reportage, interview, essay, review, photography, music presentation) 6 6 6 6 Journalistic Information 2 2 - - Journalistic Style 2 2 - - Journalistic Technology (electronic reporting, editorial and critical writing, multi-media The Global Network / Le reseau global 167

production) 6 6 6 6 Euristics 1 - - - Logopedies - 1 - - Editing, Lay-out, Publishing - 4 4 4 Tabling the Contents of Magazine, Radio Broadcasting, Film - - 2 2 Computer Training 4 4 - - Ethical Problems in Social Communication and Mass Media - - 2 2

5. FACILITIES

Currently our school consists of following places:

- Lecture hall (for circa 35 persons) - Editorial Laboratory with 18 computers - Studio of training students in radio manner (incomplete) - Reading hall - Secretariat - We are planning to put in motion a TV studio

6. DIPLOMA AND STATUS

Post-graduate diploma The Global Network / Le reseau global 57 Lithuanian Mass Media and Its Legal Regulation Between 1991-1995

BY MARIUS LUKOSIUNAS SKIRMANTAS VALIULIS *

R E E D O M o f the national RTV compa- the media in ny, as well as some arti- Lithuania is cles on a civic and penal g u a r a n t e e d code dealing with ques- by the coun- tions of libel, defamation, Ftry’s Constitution. For privacy and the Law on the moment, conditions State Secrets. for the legal existence of Marius Lukosiunas is Lithuania’s media are Constitutional professor at the University of Vilnius, specified by the 1991 Provisions Law on the Press and Li t h u a n i a . Other Mass Media, Both Lukosiunas and which covers both print H E L i t h u a- Skirmantas Valiulis and electronic media. It nian Consti- are members in the T editorial board of includes provisions on tution, adopted in Mass Media Law and communications law, 1992, provides Practice Bulletin, which deals with the the essential published in Moscow, technical side of the busi- guarantees for Ru s s i a ness, such as allocating mass media free- * This article frequencies etc. It also dom. Article 25 appeared at the includes the Statute of says: “Individuals beginning of this year Lithuanian Radio and shall have the in the Baltic TV, which applies only to right to have edition of the bulletin. The Global Network / Le reseau global 58 their own convictions and porarily restrict the rights and freely express them. freedoms of the media. Individuals must not be hin- dered from seeking, obtaining Broadcasting: Supervision, and disseminating information Frequencies, Licensing or ideas. Freedom to express convictions as well as to obtain and disseminate information L L of Lithuania’s media may not be restricted in any A have to be registered by way other than established by the Department of Press law, when it is necessary for Control under the Ministry of safeguard of the health, honour Justice. The department super- or dignity, private life or vises private broadcasters. morals of a person or of the protection of constitutional Frequencies are allocated by order. Freedom to express con- the Commission of Telecom- victions or impart information munications operating under shall be incompatible with the Ministry of Commu- criminal actions - the instiga- nications and Informatics for a tions of national, racial, reli- period of five years. Until last gious or social hatred, violence year, private companies had to or discrimination, dissemina- apply to the Board of Radio and tion of slander or misinforma- Television for licenses to use a tion. Citizens shall have the frequency. In 1995, the Board right to obtain any available lost its power to license private information which concerns broadcasters after a Consti- them from the State agencies tutional Court ruling. The new in the manner established by broadcasting law is expected to la w . ” be passed in the Parliament, which will define the body with Article 44 prohibits censorship: the authority to issue licenses. “Censorship of mass media shall be prohibited by law”. It also The Board of Radio and defends against monopolisation Television was created in 1990 of media: “The state, political - when there were no private parties and public organisations broadcasters - to regulate pub- and other institutions or per- lic TV: Lithuanian TV and sons may not monopolise means Radio company. As the only of mass media”. institution to regulate TV and radio it gradually took over the Article 145 gives the authori- process of regulating private ties power “during martial law br o a d c a s t e r s . or state of emergency” to tem- The Global Network / Le reseau global 59

In 1995, the board entered into the budget) broadcaster LRTV conflict with Baltijos TV. is carried out on two levels. The According to the license issued final control is exercised by the it a couple of years earlier, Parliament. However, the Baltijos TV was forced to Parliament appoints a 16 mem- retransmit the Polish program ber Radio and Television Board TV Polonia in the Vilnius that supervises the national region for a certain amount of channel. Ten board seats are hours. Baltijos TV rejected the given to appointees of the rul- agreement under the new cir- ing party, while six are allotted cumstances, but the board to the opposition. forced them to return to the agreement. Lawyers for The Board nominates the Baltijos TV then took the case LRTV director-general for to the Constitutional Court, Parliament appointments. It which ruled that the Board of also has the right to interfere Radio and TV was created to in the company’s internal supervise public, not private affairs in cases of mismanage- te l e v i s i o n . ment or low-quality program- mi n g . So, for the moment, the supervision of private broadcasting Discussion about the future of companies is carried out by the LRTV started just after Department of Press Control Lithuania regained its indepen- under the Ministry of Justice. dence. After numerous confer- ences and meetings, the LRTV Public Broadcasting leadership in 1993 decided that the only path was to seek the H E Lithuanian Radio and status of public TV. The only T Television Company problems to be solved are find- (LRTV) is a national broadcasting the right legal status and er financed by both the state method of financing LRTV. budget and advertising and accountable to the Parliament. The main arguments supporting the status of public broad- LRTV air one TV and three casting were: public benefit, sit- radio programs. uation in neighbouring countries (they all introduced the The supervision of the “public” model) and the European (some experts tend to use the Broadcasting Union’s (EBU) term “state”, indicating LRTV support of the idea. dependence upon state authorities who allocate money from At the same time, numerous The Global Network / Le reseau global 60 proposals on how to deal with ing bill which is discussed in the problem of finances were the Parliament foresees two submitted. It was obvious from separate boards, one to super- the beginning that the license vise the public sector and fee model was not going to another to supervise the pri- work in Lithuania. On the vate sector. The director-gener- other hand, there was a clear al of a private broadcasting understanding of the urgent company will be accountable to need to break free from state the board, but not to the financing, which provided Pa r l i a m e n t . financial security, but couldn’t guarantee freedom from the The separation of public and authorities. In 1993, the idea of private-sector boards will help following the examples of to maintain a balance of inter- Turkey and Israel - to finance ests between the sectors. public broadcasting by giving 2-3 per cent of the income The future of LRTV depends obtained from the country’s greatly on the Broadcasting energy consumption - emerged. Law expected to be passed in It later was abandoned. the Parliament in the near fu t u r e . Today, all players more or less agree to have financing of pub- Private Broadcasting lic TVR coming from different sources. public TVR will contin- H R E E of four national TV ue to receive financing from the T networks are operated by state budget, but only for a cer- the private commercial TV sta- tain period of time while a tions TELE 3, Baltijos TV and licensing fee is gradually intro- LN K . duced. The latter gradually will have to replace state budget TELE 3 was the first indepen- financing. Public TVR will con- dent TV station to begin tinue to broadcast advertise- nationwide broadcasting back ments and sponsorship an- in 1991. It took over the TV nouncements, but these activi- channel used by the Russian ties will be much more regulat- TV in Soviet times. Its founder ed and restricted. and director-general is Professor Liucija Baskauskaite, Another question in the transi- an American citizen of tion from the state-controlled Lithuanian descent. The sta- TVR model to sound public tion’s programming started as broadcasting is management educational, but now gives the accountability. The broadcast- full spectrum of services: news, The Global Network / Le reseau global 61 sports, documentaries, movies, LNK is the newest private com- children’s programs etc. TELE pany, which operates on the 3’s main source of income is former Ostankino channel. advertising. In the beginning it According to terms under was modestly supported by which the license was issued, Western pro-democracy foun- LNK is forced to rebroadcast da t i o n s . Moscow’s “Vremia” news program. LNK tries to support Facing economic problems, the itself from advertisement, but station sold in 1994 from 30 to also gets financial assistance 60 per cent of its shares to from its owners: a local con- local real estate firm Status glomeration of companies and some US investors. The called EBSW and the State station’s major shareholders Commercial Bank, which is in are now arguing over the fact owned by the Lithuanian future of the station and the go v e r n m e n t . press has reported that the management is now looking for LNK offers its viewers a morn- a company eager to purchase ing newscast and an assort- TELE 3. ment of locally produced entertainment programs, talk shows Baltijos TV is owned by et c . American Lithuanian. It started as a state company with pro- All three channels broadcast grams for national minorities, seven days per week, about 16 but was taken over by its cur- hours per day and rely heavily rent owner. Baltijos TV offers a on Western movies and TV variety of programming such as series for their programming. news, locally produced TV series, children programs and Commercial radio stations sp o r t s . broadcasting nationwide are privately owned, profit-driven Baltijos TV gets its income ventures. Their programming from advertising and the consists of music, talk shows, investments of its owners. It is call-in shows and brief news the only national TV station clips. The biggest nationwide which is close to having a net- broadcasters are M-1, work of its own transmitters. It Radiocentras, Laisvoji Banga should be capable to broadcast and Znad Willii. The last one in more than 60 percent of the broadcasts mostly in Polish and country’s territory, including Ru s s i a n . the major cities, by the next ye a r . There are many local privately The Global Network / Le reseau global 62 owned TV and radio stations. and some specialised culture Two local TV stations, Vilniaus and education periodicals are TV and Kaunas+ are worth the only ones receiving State mentioning. Vilniaus TV broad- su p p o r t . casts in the capital city Vilnius and the surrounding area. it The biggest daily, Lietuvos mostly rebroadcasts TV 6 pro- Rytas, has a circulation of grams from Moscow. Kaunas+ about 80,000 on weekdays to broadcasts in Vilnius, Kaunas 100,000 on weekends. Its daily and the surrounding area and circulation has decreased by hopes to become a nationwide five times since 1990, but the broadcaster. Close to 50 per- amount of pages has increased cent of Kaunas+ shares are from four to 64 and even more owned by Scandinavian compa- on Saturdays. About two-thirds ny Kinnevik. of the pages are covered with ad s . All private TV and radio stations are in fierce competition In addition to its main section, with each other. Experts esti- Lietuvos Rytas has added mate that the country’s adver- numerous local supplements, tising market (about 20 million which differ from city to city. litas or 5 million USD) cannot Each day the newspaper has support the present number of supplements on different top- TV and radio stations. Of the ics: business, automobiles, TV nationwide broadcasters, M-1 and cinema, culture, gardening radio station is the only one etc. This strategy has enabled cutting a profit. The others are the newspaper to more effec- either poised to cross the profit- tively fight for audience share margin threshold or are and has brought the company preparing to go out of business. more advertising litas. More than half of its income is gener- Printed Press ated through advertising.

L L four of Lithuania’s As a profitable enterprise, A major national dailies - Lietuvos Rytas was able to Lietuvos Rytas, Respublika, build its own printing house Lietuvos Aidas and Diena - are and is no longer dependent on private. The state doesn’t own government printing facilities. or control any national daily or Moreover, some other newspa- weekly paper and there is no pers left government-owned system of state subsidies for printing houses and became the general interest press. clients of Lietuvos Rytas. National minority publications Recently, the newspaper’s The Global Network / Le reseau global 63 printing house welcomed three Parliament’s right-wing opposi- new clients - independent tion. Its circulation is declining, newspapers from Minsk, the but currently hovers at about capital city of Belarussia. 30 , 0 0 0 . These independents retreated from Minsk to Vilnius because The fourth-biggest national of the pressures independent daily is Diena, formerly known media face in Belarussia. as Tiesa, the equivalent of Russia’s Pravda. Its circulation Because of the Lithuanian Post is between 10,000 and 20,000, Service’s policy to increase its but is in continuing and dra- newspaper delivery price, matic decline, so the manage- Lietuvos Rytas also had to cre- ment doesn’t disclose accurate ate its own distribution system, figures. The newspaper is which covers major cities and owned by a share holding com- regional centres. pany and, according to some reports, Lithuania’s ruling Lietuvos Rytas is owned by a Labour Democratic Party owns group of shareholders com- close to 30 per cent. posed mostly of the newspaper’s employees. According to The local press boasts a variety unofficial data, the four top of ownership forms, ranging managers own more than 50 from local governments to pri- per cent of shares. vate. Survey results indicate that local press is the most pop- The second-biggest newspaper ular in Lithuania. The local is Respublika, which has a cir- Kaunas newspaper is the sec- culation of about 60,000. Sixty ond-biggest in the country, per cent of its shares are owned with a circulation of about by two private individuals, one 70,000, nearing that of of whom serves as the paper’s Lietuvos Rytas. ed i t o r - i n - c h i e f . Verslo Zinios is a full-colour Both Respublika and Lietuvos business weekly and consti- Rytas are published six times a tutes the first major foreign week. Both have weekly digests investment into Lithuania’s in Russian. newspaper industry. Its circulation is nearly 15,000. The The third-biggest newspaper is investment was made by a Lietuvos Aidas, also owned by Scandinavian company which a group of shareholders. The founded similar business week- newspaper’s editor-in-chief is a lies in St. Petersburg (Russia), member of Lithuanian Estonia and Latvia. The Global Network / Le reseau global 64

General-interest magazines are ed by journalists not satisfied gradually going out of business, with the Union’s policy toward while specialised ones are gain- Soviet era journalism. ing popularity. The new ones usually have a single owner, Other organisations are the while the old ones are generally Association of Independent owned by the journalists work- Broadcasters, the Association ing for the magazine. of Editors and Publishers, the Free Speech Centre and Media and Journalists Lithuania’s Journalism Centre, Organisations which functions as the country’s mid-career institution.

HE majority of Lithuanian o T journalists are members of the Lithuanian Journalist Union. Its counterpart, the Lithuanian Journalists Society, is much smaller. It was found- The Global Network / Le reseau global 97

Transformation of the Polish Media System*

BY TERESA SASINSKA -KLAS

H E m a s s changes in East-Central media is not Eu r o p e . only playing an impor- The Freedom and tant role in Independence of the Tthe reconstruction of Polish society towards Media in Poland democracy and a free market economy, the U N D A M E N T A L media is the catalyst of F changes have Teresa Sasinska-Klas these changes, even taken place in the is visiting professor though it is undergoing a mass media in Po- at the University of fundamental transforma- land since 1989. Maryland at College Park, US. tion itself. (1) An obser- These changes vation of these changes have concerned *Paper presented at constitutes a fascinating virtually every as- The Sixth Annual field for research and - as pect of the press, Conference organised could be expected - has radio and televi- by the Alliance of attracted the attention of sion. The most Universities for numerous academic significant of Democracy, research centres and these changes is November 5-7, other observers of the that the media is 1995, process of systematic now free and Budapest, Hungary The Global Network / Le reseau global 98 independent. The media in whereas previously existing Poland between 1945-89 was publications were subject to under political control, there organisational transformation was censorship. The event of and to a change of ownership. 1989 shattered the former sys- The RSW “Prasa-Ksiazka- tem and brought a new free- Ruch” company, which monop- dom to the media. It soon olised the press was dissolved. became apparent however, that The first period could be freedom is a double edged termed as an “assault” since at sword. The media was liberat- this time hundreds of new pub- ed from communist party con- lications appeared on the mar- trol, but the resulting vacuum ket. Old papers were subject to was soon filled by financial a painful “cleaning out” as they dependence on the money of were relics of the “old system” the new owners and new politi- and had to adapt to the recent- cal constellations. ly installed rules of the free ma r k e t . We can divide the five-year period of transformation of the “Gazeta Wyborcza” appeared at media in Poland into three this time, and until today is the characteristic periods: daily with the largest circulation in Poland. It is very influ- 1) the phase of “lively enthusi- ential in shaping public opinion asm and obligatory transforma- on a national level, and has tion” (from May 1989 to mid attracted readers due to a new 19 9 1 ) , formula, which includes local supplements, which have 2) the phase of “apparent sta- become a significant challenge bilisation and fundamental to local dailies. During this transformation” (from mid period some 1500 sub-local 1991 to the end of 1992), publications appeared, but only a small part has survived on 3) the phase of “fight for the the market until today. In 1990 market” (from the beginning of three local privately owned 1993 till the present). (2) commercial radio stations appeared on the market: Radio The first phase of media trans- Malopolska FUN - which later formation in Poland was domi- changed its name to the cur- nated by a revolution in the rently used Radio RMF FM - in political system. There was a Krakow, and Radio Zet as well lively development of numer- as Radio Solidarnosc - which ous independent publications later operated under its current (principally local magazines), name radio ESKA in Warsaw. The Global Network / Le reseau global 99

In addition, several micro- Gradually, more and more local regional “pirates” sprung as “pirate” (operating without a well. Attempts were made to broadcast license) radio and start private local television television stations appeared, stations (in Wroclaw and and already existing stations Gdansk). Throughout this peri- expanded (Radio RMF FM cre- od, a sharp increase in the pur- ated a local network and start- chase and installation of satel- ed satellite transmission). lite antennas and video equipment was noted as well. The third phase of media transformation was initiated with During the second phase of the Parliament’s passing a new “apparent stabilisation and radio and television law, there- fundamental change”, Polish by creating the legal basis for a political life was quite stormy new order in broadcasting. The (three governments fell, a cen- emphasis of these changes was ter-right government returned, placed on the electronic media there was an “inspection” and (the struggle for local and “decommunisation”), neverthe- national broadcast licenses). less political events had little The decisions handed down by tangible influence on the mass the National Council for Radio media. Certain elements of the and Television regarding radio new regime started to crys- and TV broadcast licenses soon tallise on the media market, took on a political significance, and the electronic media had a and became a point of conflict lot more to offer. Some of the on a national level. old publications were auctioned off and thus privatised. Old The decision to award broad- periodicals, generally those cast licenses to the newly creat- which were geared to women ed radio and television sta- and youth, changed their old tions, changed their former black and white layout for a “pirate” status (at this time new full colour one, and at the there were 50 pirate radio sta- same time started to print on tions, and around twenty tele- new, better quality, often for- visions stations, as well as eign, paper. New national pub- around another twenty lications started to appear Catholic pirate radio stations), “Glob, Nowy Swiat, Obserwator to one that was legal. Codzienny), which didn’t sur- vive on the market. The elec- The current, ever more univer- tronic media had continually sal audio-visual model of cul- more to offer, including satel- ture is expelling the culture of lite and cable television. the printed word. An increase The Global Network / Le reseau global 100 in the presence of foreign capi- During the second phase of the tal can be noticed on the press transformation, the readership market, as well as the concen- became more animated as a tration of ownership of periodi- result of the constantly increas- cals in the hands of a constant- ing number of publications, ly decreasing number of power- nevertheless, there was not an ful publishers. The number of increase in the indicators of the magazines is increasing - full regularity of the reception of colour, generally geared new newspapers, as well as of towards women and radio or TV, which would attest teenagers/young adults. These to a loosening of contacts and magazines are usually carbon “reception” of the public of an copies of their Western coun- ever wider assortment offered terparts. New titles however, by the media. are not appearing in the local pr e s s . In the third phase, which has lasted until today - we can Changes in the Way the notice a breakdown in any Media is Received After growth trends. The number of those who don’t read the press 1989 at all is growing, the number of publications which the average H E first phase of media reader reads is falling, and the T transformation in Poland popularity of local dailies is was accompanied by the elimi- falling as well. In short, a nation of old publications reductionist tendency may be which were maintained by the noticed, even in the press bad habits instilled in the pub- which is considered to be sen- lic by the former regime (a sationalist or of lower category. decline in the circulation of old However, there is a crystallisa- titles on the one hand, and on tion and stabilisation regarding the other - a rationalisation on the reception of new commer- the part of the readership cial TV and radio, as well as of linked with suspicion to the cable and satellite TV. new publications which appeared on the market). Be The Transformation of the that as it may, the way the Catholic Media in Poland press was read maintained one traditional attribute: it was I R T U A L L Y at the start of still based on the reading of V the process of transforma- dailies, which to a great extent tion of the system in Poland, re g i o n a l . negotiations were held between the Secretariat of the The Global Network / Le reseau global 101

Episcopate of Poland and the immediate efforts were made to Ministry of Communications train the necessary cadre concerning the possibility of the which would be able to under- Catholic Church’s organising take religious journalism. A its own local radio stations in two year course in religious Po l a n d . journalism studies was organised at the Catholic University This possibility appeared as a of Lublin, and starting in result of the efforts to create a October 1995 - a section of reli- new order on the airwaves via gious journalism studies was the change to higher frequen- established at the Papal cies. An agreement was signed Academy of Theology in in 1991, which guaranteed Kr a k o w . each diocese in Poland a local share of radio frequencies. As far as the formula for reli- Representatives of the Catholic gious radio stations is con- Church prepared an initial cerned, three types of Catholic map of their needs the broad- radio may be distinguished: cast power and range of these st a t i o n s . a) the formula realised by “Radio Maryja” - which fulfills By 1994, Catholic dioceses a typically religious role, with a organised 46 radio stations on large amount of prayer pro- 56 frequencies. Radio “Maryja”, grams. There are no commer- the largest Catholic radio sta- cials on “Radio Maryja”. The tion in Poland, possesses 60 station is financed by donations frequencies and is attempting from its listeners and the faith- to get fifty more frequencies. ful. The radio programs them- Two different religious orders selves are prepared by the vol- have their own stations, and unteers. Heavy emphasis is approval has been given for one placed on direct contact with local TV station in the listeners. Niepokolanow (near Warsaw). b) another attempt to create a Nevertheless, already at the Catholic radio is based on a very moment when it attained social-cultural concept (75- access to radio, it became 89%). The rest of the air time is apparent that the Catholic taken by typically religious Church was not sufficiently problems. In principal, these prepared to operate in this area radio stations are maintained of the media. It lacked the nec- by the diocese. Their target essary organisational experi- audience is composed of mid- ence. For this very reason, dle-aged listeners. The Global Network / Le reseau global 102 c) Radio “Mariackie” in degree of growth. However, Krakow, “Plus” in Gdansk and there is noticeable growth “AS” in Szczecin represent a among the Catholic sub-local third current in Catholic radio. press, which currently consists Cultural programs with a local of about 500 parishes, sub- bent tend to dominate in these diocesan and newspapers pub- stations. Religious programs lished by religious orders. The occupy 10-15% of the air time. concept of a Catholic press This type of radio is oriented apostolate is developing in towards young listeners, and Poland based on the slogan plays music which young peo- coined by the Catholic bishops ple listen to. In addition, these in Poland in 1992 in “Slowo stations have commercials, Pasterskim” - “a Catholic peri- which represents an additional odical in every family”. source of income. The majority of operating costs of these sta- The Catholic press, as well as tions is covered by their respec- the radio, heavily stresses ped- tive Catholic dioceses. agogical and evangelical declarations. Nevertheless, in the In the opinion of the opinion of Catholic experts, Secretariat of the Polish “the language used in the Episcopate and as well as of Catholic press is unintelligible other Catholic experts, the for the average reader”. (5) newly formed Catholic radio stations are an example of plu- To sum up, it should be pointed ralism in the media and fulfill out that the Catholic Church in an “important role in the Poland obtained a greater process of transformation, access to the public media in which has taken place during the 90’s, as well as the ability the last few years in Poland”. to organise its own media (6). (3 ) The Catholic media which func- tioned after 1989 has to com- Nevertheless, the Catholic pete with other media for the press in Poland - severely dis- Catholic public. Theoretically criminated against in the time the situation would appear to of the former political system - be very promising, since 94% of has problems adapting to the the Polish citizens, when asked new free market system which to declare their religious affilia- of course has a profound influ- tion say they are Catholics. ence on the media. Perhaps one Nevertheless in confrontation can perceive new titles in the with today’s reality, the popu- Catholic press, but this does larity of Catholic media has a not represent a significant limited dimension; the Catholic The Global Network / Le reseau global 103 media doesn’t always come up and that battle is being carried victorious when competing at the expense of informing the with the other media. public. Journalists who are taking part in this battle are for- Nevertheless, the changes getting their obligation to be which have taken place in the unbiased and objective. They Catholic media over the last often fulfill their political oblig- years in Poland - as opposed to ations - via the media - towards changes in other post-commu- their political bosses. nist countries - compose a Journalists still give vent to specifically unique situation their political emotions, and at and merit a keen sociological times change their political ob s e r v a t i o n . alliances, opinions and view- points 180 degrees. Opportunities and Threats for the Media in Poland Another threat is posed by the fact that they don’t perceive the HE main question today for “information trap” when T the media not only in informing. A lot of journalists Poland, but also in other post- still don’t ascertain the differ- communist countries is the fol- ence between the facts and an lowing: what does indepen- interpretation of the facts, dence and freedom mean, and between information and opin- what and whom should it io n . serve? What form should it take so that the changes which Yet another threat is linked are under way would lead with the increasing commer- towards a responsible freedom? cialisation of the media. Wherever the media is ruled by Enormous opportunities are the laws of the free market, appearing regarding the there arises a conflict between reforms and changes which the role of the media as an touch every facet of the media. informer, a creator of cultural (7) Virtually from at the very values and its role as business start of the process of transfor- enterprise out to make a profit. mation of the system, concur- This process is becoming more rent threats to the liberty and and more obvious on the media independence of the media market in East-Central appeared. How are these Eu r o p e . threats expressed? An additional threat, which The media has become the has a specifically Polish dimen- arena of a new political battle, sion, is the journalists’ com- The Global Network / Le reseau global 104 plete defencelessness faced ing successes, but is also weak- with their employers. The jour- ened during this period of nalists’ lack social and legal transformation, which one day guarantees to practice their - as may be expected, would job, has produced a new type of lead to a new information order dependence for journalists (pre- in East-Central Europe. viously they were politically dependent, today - they have o an undefined professional dependence). (8) Nobody therefore is able to effectively defend the journalists professional in t e r e s t s .

At the end of 1995 we can notice an increasing preponder- ance of the audio-visual media and television has a market supremacy. Specific consequences are linked with this. One of these consequences is a fall in the readership of the pr e s s .

The press is free. But is it independent? An article of the bill concerning freedom of the media puts no limits on publishing, if the publisher has necessary means to do so. But the question of material means is not so simple as that of free- do m .

The media in Poland is on the road to define itself. On the one hand it is manifesting a fear of defining itself, on the other hand it perceives this self- defining as an opportunity. The process of transformation of the Polish media is still going on. The media is achiev- The Global Network / Le reseau global 105

END NOTES

1. KEA N E , J., “Media a demokracja” (The Media and Democracy). London: ANEKS 1992

2. FIL A S , R., “Zmiany w czytelnictwie prasy polskiej w Polsce 1989-1992 na tle przemian oferty pra - so w e j ” (“Changes in the Reading of the Polish Press in Poland 1989-1992 on the Background of the Transformation of Changes in What the Press Had to Offer”) in; Transformacja prasy polskiej 1989- 1992 (Ed.) A. Slomkowska. Warszawa 1992.

3. CHR A P E K , J., “Pieciolecie transformacji radia katolickiego w Polsce” (1989-1994) (“The Five Year Transformation of Catholic Radio in Poland 1989-1994”). In: Pieciolecie transformacji mediow (1989- 1994) - The Five Year Transformation of the Media (1989-1994). Warszawa: Dom Wydawniczy ELIPSA, 1995, pg. 62.

4. LEP A , A., “Prasa katolicka troska Kosciola” (“The Catholic Press is Under the Care of the Church”). In “Slowo”, no. 12, May 1993.

5. OP. CI T . Ks. prof. Leona Dyczewskiego: “Gizella Al. L. Uwagi o jezyku prasy polskiej” (“ C o m m e n t s About the Language of the Polish Press”). In: Pieciolecie transformacji…, pg. 177.

6. LEP A , A., “Prasa katolicka w Polsce” (“The Catholic Press in Poland”). In: Wiadomosci Diecezjalne Lodzkie (“News From the Lodz Diocese”). No. 12, December 1993, pg. 400.

7. KUD L A S Z Y K , A., MAL K I E W I C Z , A., KAR P I N S K I , R., “Mass media w systemie komunikacji spolecznej w Polsce” (“The Mass Media in Poland’s Social Communication System”). Wroclaw: Oficyna Wydawnictwa Politechniki Wroclawskiej, 1995.

8. ** * “Dylemati transformacji prasy polskiej (1989-1993)”, (“The Dilemmas of the Transformation of the Polish Press - 1989-1993”), Warszawa: Uniwersytet Warszawski, 1994, pg. 27-28.