Improvement Measure of Integrated Disaster Management System Considering Disaster Damage Characteristics: Focusing on the Republic of Korea

sustainability

Article Improvement Measure of Integrated Disaster Management System Considering Disaster Damage Characteristics: Focusing on the Republic of Korea

Young Seok Song 1 , Moo Jong Park 2 , Jung Ho Lee 3, Byung Sik Kim 4 and Yang Ho Song 3,* 1 Department of Civil Engineering and Landscape Architectural, Daegu Technical University, Daegu 42734, Korea; [email protected] 2 Department of Aeronautics and Civil Engineering, Hanseo University, Seosan 31962, Korea; [email protected] 3 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hanbat National University, Daejeon 34158, Korea; [email protected] 4 Department of Urban Environment & Disaster Management, School of Disaster Prevention, Kangwon National University, Kangwon 25913, Korea; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +82-070-8238-5646

Received: 25 October 2019; Accepted: 30 December 2019; Published: 1 January 2020

Abstract: Recently, the Republic of Korea has experienced natural disasters, such as typhoons and heavy rainfall, as well as social accidents, such as large-scale accidents and infectious diseases, which are continuously occurring. Despite repeated disasters, problems such as ineﬃcient early response and overlapping command systems occur continuously. In this study, we analyzed the characteristics of disaster management systems by foreign countries, and the status of the damages by disasters for the past 10 years in the Republic of Korea, to suggest possible measures to improve the Republic of Korea’s integrated disaster management system. When a disaster occurs in the Republic of Korea, the Si/Gun/Gu Disaster Safety Measure Headquarters, under the command of the local governments, become the responsible agencies for disaster response while the central government supervises and controls the overall disaster support and disaster management. To improve the current disaster management system, we propose to incorporate all disaster types rather than dividing them by type into natural disasters and social disasters. To improve the disaster response and disaster management system, we propose to restructure the current administrative organization, revise the disaster-related laws, and overcome problems, such as inter-ministerial interconnectivity and overlapping regulation.

Keywords: disaster management system; natural disaster; social disaster; improvement measure; the Republic of Korea

1. Introduction Recently, because of an increase in local typhoons and heavy rainfall resulting from climate change and rapid economic growth driven by urban and industrial development of the Republic of Korea, disaster aspects are becoming more complicated, diversified, and large-scale. Since these changing aspects of disaster require a rapid disaster response, an effective government disaster management system is emphasized. According to foreign studies on disaster management, it has been often reported that abnormal weather phenomena occur frequently due to the influence of climate change and national development plans, and that the possible occurrence of a disaster that incurs colossal damage is on the rise [1–4]. Hundreds of natural disasters occur globally yearly, and since 1980, such disasters have claimed approximately two million people’s lives and caused $300 billion in damages [5,6]. It requires the

Sustainability 2020, 12, 340; doi:10.3390/su12010340 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2020, 12, 340 2 of 18 collection, confirmation, and management of disaster-related data to establish a policy or system for disaster control [7]. Data mining and analysis technology must be integrated for an effective management of disaster-related data to collect and update data about various kinds of disasters from news and the scale of damages on a real-time basis. The subsequently accumulated data serve as the framework of a database for disaster management depending on the disaster type [8,9]. In the Republic of Korea, various disasters, including Typhoon Rusa, Typhoon Maemi, the Daegu subway fire accident, the Taean oil spill accident, the Mt. Umyeon landslide, the sunken Sewol ferry accident, and the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) epidemic outbreak, have caused the loss of many people as well as severe property damage. The occurrence of these large-scale disasters fueled an opportunity to build and complement governmental agencies. The principal responsible agency has changed from being the National Emergency Management Agency to the Ministry of Public Safety and Security and was again reorganized into the Ministry of the Interior and Safety. Disaster management is a term used in different countries and in different languages, but is generally divided into step-by-step activities: prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery [10–14]. As disasters are beyond the capacity of individuals to manage, they require the government’s intervention to establish and manage a disaster management system [14,15]. Many theories, including the disaster incubation theory, normal accidents theory, and high reliability theory, have been proposed, and many studies have been established to facilitate understanding of the characteristics of disasters. Many studies have been conducted to define the socially vulnerable people at disaster sites by economic, physical, and environmental conditions [14,16,17]. The occurrence of large-scale disasters has fueled an opportunity to recognize the importance of national-specific disaster management systems and has provided an important turning point for organizational restructuring and law revision to ensure effective disaster management. In the United States, disaster management began in the 1960s because of the occurrence of large-scale natural disasters such as hurricanes, the 9/11 terrorist attacks in 2001, and Hurricane Katrina in 2005, which served as momentum to establish the current disaster management system [18,19]. In Japan, the Disaster Relief Act was enacted after the Nankai earthquake in 1946. After the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake in 1995, the role of the Cabinet Office was expanded to integrate disaster management. When the Great East Japan Earthquake occurred in 2011, a combined disaster of earthquakes, tsunamis, and a nuclear plant accident provided an opportunity to enact the ’Basic Law on Great Earthquake Reconstruction’ and establish the current disaster management system [20,21]. The Republic of Korea enacted its disaster management law after the collapse of the Sampung Department Store in 1995, launched the National Emergency Management Agency in the wake of Typhoon Maemi and the Daegu subway fires in 2003, and enacted the ‘Basic Act on Disaster and Safety Management’. After the sunken Sewol ferry accident in 2014, the Ministry of Public Safety and Security was launched to respond to natural and social disasters in an integrated manner and was again reorganized into the Ministry of the Interior and Safety in 2017 to establish the current disaster management system. While the Republic of Korea experienced the sunken Sewol ferry accident in 2014 and the MERS epidemic outbreak in 2015, many problems were revealed, including a lack of an effective early response to cope with a large-scale disaster, the absence of a clear definition on the responsible agency for disaster management, and an ineffective disaster response system with too much focus on administrative organizations [22,23]. For disaster management, a quick collection and distribution of disaster-related information also play a critical role in minimizing damages and alleviating risks [24]. In the Republic of Korea, a disaster evacuation guide app that taps into smartphone GPSs for the collection of disaster information has been applied in recent years to ensure a prompt disaster response and a quick distribution of disaster information [25–28]. However, despite such advanced disaster management technology, legal and institutional entanglements actually cause confusion in disaster responses [29–32]. In this study, we propose measures to improve the Republic of Korea’s integrated disaster management system by considering disaster management and the status of damages by disasters. Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18

As study methods, we examined the respective characteristics of disaster management systems ofSustainability Japan, Germany,2020, 12, 340 the U.S., and the U.K. and conducted a survey on damage levels and problems3 of 18 caused by disasters occurring for the past 10 years in the Republic of Korea to identify measures to improve the disaster management system. As study methods, we examined the respective characteristics of disaster management systems This study was conducted to identify the problems of the current disaster management system of Japan, Germany, the U.S., and the U.K. and conducted a survey on damage levels and problems in the Republic of Korea and propose measures to improve the integrated disaster management caused by disasters occurring for the past 10 years in the Republic of Korea to identify measures to system by considering the status of damages from past disasters. improve the disaster management system. This study was conducted to identify the problems of the current disaster management system in 2. Domestic and Overseas Disaster Management Systems the Republic of Korea and propose measures to improve the integrated disaster management system 2.1.by consideringThe United States the status of damages from past disasters. 2. DomesticIn the case and of Overseas disaster Disastermanagement Management in the Un Systemsited States, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), established in 1979, plays a pivotal role in operating an integrated management of 2.1. The United States natural disasters and man-made disasters. The FEMA was incorporated into the Department of HomelandIn the Security case of disaster (DHS) in management 2003 under inthe the ‘Stanf Unitedord States,Act’ but the performs Federal the Emergency same main Management functions. TheAgency FEMA (FEMA), operates established the National in 1979, Response plays aFram pivotalework role and in operating the National an integrated Incident Management management Systemof natural and disasters is responsible and man-made for the prevention, disasters. The preparedness, FEMA was incorporatedresponse, and into recovery the Department of disasters of [33,34].Homeland The Securityorganizational (DHS) chart in 2003 of underthe disaster the ‘Stanford management Act’ butsystem performs of the the U.S. same FEMA main is shown functions. in FigureThe FEMA 1. operates the National Response Framework and the National Incident Management System and is responsible for the prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery of disasters [33,34]. The organizational chart of the disaster management system of the U.S. FEMA is shown in Figure1.

Figure 1. Organizational chart of the U.S. the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA; Figurehttps:// www.fema.gov1. Organizational/). chart of the U.S. the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA; https://www.fema.gov/). The U.S. disaster management system incorporates vertical relationships between federal, state, and localThe U.S. governments disaster management and the FEMA system responds incorporates to disasters vertical eﬀectively relationships by integrating between all responsibilities federal, state, andand obligationslocal governments for all disasters and [the19, 35FEMA–37]. Ifresponds we look at to early disasters response effectively to disasters, by local integrating governments all responsibilitiesrespond with nearby and obligations local autonomous for all disasters communities, [19,35 state–37]. governments,If we look at early and volunteer response agencies,to disasters, but localif the governments scale of a disaster respond is beyond with anearby local government’s local autonomous capacity, communities, the state and state federal governments, government and will volunteerintervene agencies, in disaster but relief. if the At scale the of request a disaster of state is beyond governments, a local government’s various types capacity, of support the includingstate and federalsearch, rescue,government electric will power, intervene food, in water, disaster shelter, reli etc.,ef. At can the be request mobilized of bystate the governments, federal government. various types of support including search, rescue, electric power, food, water, shelter, etc., can be mobilized by the federal government. Sustainability 2020,, 12,, 340x FOR PEER REVIEW 44 of of 18

2.2. Japan 2.2. Japan In the case of disaster management in Japan, the Central Disaster Management Council (CDMC) was establishedIn the case ofin disaster1962 to managementformulate the in basic Japan, me theasures Central for disaster Disaster management. Management CouncilSince enactment (CDMC) wasof the established ‘Basic Law in on 1962 Disaster to formulate Preparedness’, the basic measuresthe CDMC for has disaster been chaired management. by the SincePrime enactment Minister of the ‘BasicCabinet Law Office, on Disaster a central Preparedness’, agency responsibl the CDMCe for has disaster been chaired management, by the Prime to implement Minister of the proceduresCabinet Oﬃ ce,of adisaster central agencyprevention, responsible preparedness, for disaster response, management, and recovery to implement [38]. theThe procedures heads of municipalitiesof disaster prevention, or prefectures preparedness, serve as the response, heads andof their recovery respective [38]. disaster The heads response of municipalities headquarters; or prefecturesthe central servegovernment as the heads establishes of their respectivethe emergency disaster response response headquarters headquarters; headed the central by the government minister responsibleestablishes thefor disaster emergency prevention; response the headquarters Prime Minist headeder serves by as the the minister head of responsiblethe Emergency for Disaster disaster prevention;Response Headquarters the Prime Minister to prepare serves for as disaster. the head The of theorganizational Emergency Disasterchart of Responsethe CDMC Headquarters is shown in Figureto prepare 2 [39]. for disaster. The organizational chart of the CDMC is shown in Figure2[39].

Figure 2. 2.Organizational Organizational chart ofchart Japan’s of Central Japan’s Disaster Cent Managementral Disaster Council Management (http://www.cao.go.jp Council). (http://www.cao.go.jp). In the event of a disaster, municipality governments are responsible for the initial response, while prefectureIn the governmentsevent of a disaster, will provide municipality assistance govern for thements smooth are implementationresponsible for the of disaster initial response, response. Thewhile central prefecture government governments will play will the roleprovide of providing assistance overall for the assistance smooth as implementation well as supervising of disaster response. ForThe thecentral prevention government and recovery will play of disasters,the role of municipalities, providing overall prefectures, assistance and theas well central as supervisinggovernment willdisaster jointly response. perform theirFor responsibilities.the prevention Additionally,and recovery local of governmentsdisasters, municipalities, revised their prefectures,local disaster and prevention the central plans government to strengthen will jointl the linkagey perform between their responsibilities. municipalities and Additionally, prefectures local and governmentsidentify human revised and material their local resources disaster in their preven areas,tion including plans to public strengthen and private the linkage organizations between as wellmunicipalities as residents, and which prefectures will be and applied identify by the human early responseand material system resources in the eventin their of aareas, disaster including [40]. public and private organizations as well as residents, which will be applied by the early response 2.3. Germany system in the event of a disaster [40]. For disaster management, Germany established the Federal Oﬃce of Civil Protection and Disaster Assistance (BBK) in 2004 and is operating an integrated crisis prevention system for an eﬀective Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 18

2.3. Germany Sustainability 2020, 12, 340 5 of 18 For disaster management, Germany established the Federal Office of Civil Protection and Disaster Assistance (BBK) in 2004 and is operating an integrated crisis prevention system for an managementeffective management of disaster of control disaster by control federal by and feder stateal governments. and state governments. The BBK abides The BBK by the abides regulations by the ofregulations a state government’s of a state government’s disaster protection disaster law protec enactedtion inlaw accordance enacted in with accordance the federal with government’s the federal “Civilgovernment’s Protection “Civil Act”, andProtection the German Act”, Federal and Agencythe German for Technical Federal Relief Agency (Bundesanstalt for Technical Technisches Relief Hilfswerk:(Bundesanstalt THW) Technisches assigns and Hilfswerk: supervises THW) relief assigns work. and An supervises integrated relief crisis work. prevention An integrated system crisis to respondprevention to asystem comprehensive to respond crisis to a situationcomprehensive is operated crisis bysituation the German is operated disaster bymanagement the German disaster system consistingmanagement of the system Federal consisting Office of of Civil the Protection Federal Office and Disaster of Civil Assistance Protection (in and the Disaster second administrationAssistance (in vicethe second minister’s administration office under vice the minister’s under the office Federal under Interior the under Ministry), the Federal the German Interior Federal Ministry), Agency the forGerman Technical Federal Relief Agency (THW), for the Technical Federal O Reliefffice of (THW), Civil Protection the Federal and Office Disaster of AssistanceCivil Protection (BBK), etc.,and (FigureDisaster3). Assistance (BBK), etc., (Figure 3).

Figure 3.3. Organization chart of Germany’s disaster management organization under the FederalFederal InteriorInterior Ministry.Ministry.

Germany’s disasterdisaster response response system system comprises comprise fours directoratesfour directorates under theunder Second the StateSecond Secretary State underSecretary the under Federal the Interior Federal Ministry. Interior Ministry. Among them, Among the them, Federal the O Federalﬃce of CivilOffice Protection of Civil Protection and Disaster and AssistanceDisaster Assistance plays the plays most criticalthe most role critical and consistsrole and of consists a total of sixa total divisions: of six divisions: Division KMDivision 1 serves KM as 1 theserves coordination as the coordination center and center addresses and nationaladdresses crisis nati managementonal crisis management works, Division works, KM Division 2 is responsible KM 2 is forresponsible NATO and for EU-relatedNATO and works, EU-related Division works, KM Divi 3 ission the FederalKM 3 is Agency the Federal for Technical Agency for Relief Technical and is alsoRelief responsible and is also for responsible international for international support, Division support, KM Division 4 (responsible KM 4 (responsible for reporting for on reporting the critical on infrastructure),the critical infrastructure), Division KM 5Division (responsible KM for5 (res weaponsponsible and for explosives weapons legislation and explosives (National legislation Weapons Register)(Nationaland Weapons for safety Register) legislation), and andfor Divisionsafety legi KMslation), 6 (responsible and Division for communications, KM 6 (responsible command, for andcommunications, control). command, and control).

2.4. The United Kingdom In the case of the UK’s crisis management system, the Civil Contingencies Secretariat (CCS), which was created under the Cabinet Oﬃce in 2001, establishes and operates an integrated crisis management system that includes disaster response systems and civil defense in one unit. The CCS, which uses a result-oriented integrated disaster concept in accordance with the Civil Contingencies Act Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18

2.4. The United Kingdom In the case of the UK’s crisis management system, the Civil Contingencies Secretariat (CCS), Sustainabilitywhich was2020 created, 12, 340 under the Cabinet Office in 2001, establishes and operates an integrated 6crisis of 18 management system that includes disaster response systems and civil defense in one unit. The CCS, which uses a result-oriented integrated disaster concept in accordance with the Civil Contingencies (2004),Act (2004), is responsible is responsible for military for milit securityary security based onbased civil on defense civil defense and also and responds also responds to various to kindsvarious of threatskinds of regardless threats regardless of causes and of causes types. Theand integratedtypes. The disaster integrated management disaster management system of the system CCS consists of the mainlyCCS consists of preparation, mainly of response, preparation, and recoveryresponse, systems, and recovery geographically systems, divided geographically into local divided and central into governmentlocal and central units. government The organizational units. The chart organization of the integratedal chart disaster of the integrated management disaster system management of the CCS ofsystem the UK of Cabinetthe CCS Oofﬃ thece isUK shown Cabine int Figure Office4 is. shown in Figure 4.

FigureFigure 4.4. Organizational chartchart ofof thethe CivilCivil ContingenciesContingencies SecretariatSecretariat (CCS)(CCS) ofof thethe UnitedUnited Kingdom.Kingdom.

InIn thethe casecase ofof thethe UKUK disasterdisaster managementmanagement system,system, preparation,preparation, response,response, andand recoveryrecovery areare performedperformed byby local governments, and and all all disaster disaster si situationstuations are are managed managed without without the the intervention intervention of ofthe the central central government. government. As As the the central central governme governmentnt unit, unit, the the CCS CCS under under the the Cabinet OOfficeffice isis responsibleresponsible forfor coordinatingcoordinating emergencyemergency responseresponse eeffoffortsrts ofof centralcentral governmentgovernment agenciesagencies toto maintainmaintain thethe uniformityuniformity andand consistencyconsistency ofof disasterdisaster managementmanagement policiespolicies ofof thethe centralcentral government.government. TheThe UKUK governmentgovernment alsoalso classifiesclassifies disastersdisasters byby typestypes andand designatesdesignates aa governmentalgovernmental departmentdepartment consideredconsidered thethe mostmost appropriateappropriate toto aa particularparticular disasterdisaster typetype asas thethe respectiverespective responsibleresponsible agencyagency toto addressaddress preparation,preparation, responseresponse to,to, andand recovery.recovery.

2.5.2.5. TheThe RepublicRepublic ofof KoreaKorea ForFor disasterdisaster management,management, thethe RepublicRepublic ofof KoreaKorea launchedlaunched thethe National Emergency ManagementManagement AgencyAgency inin 20042004 inin thethe wakewake ofof thethe DaeguDaegu subwaysubway accidentaccident inin 2003,2003, whichwhich waswas incorporatedincorporated intointo thethe MinistryMinistry ofof PublicPublic Safety Safety and and Security Security in in 2014 2014 and and again again into into the the Ministry Ministry of of the the Interior Interior and and Safety Safety in Julyin July 2017. 2017. Since Since the the enactment enactment of theof the ‘Basic ‘Basic Law Law on on Disaster Disaster and and Safety Safety Management’, Management’, the the Ministry Ministry of theof the Interior Interior and and Safety Safety has establishedhas established an integrated an integrated disaster disaster response response system bysystem incorporating by incorporating disaster managementdisaster management institutions institutions under the under wing the of thewing National of the National Disaster Disaster and Safety and Status Safety Control Status Control Center. TheCenter. organizational The organizational chart of thechart National of the National Disaster andDisaster Safety and Status Safety Control Status Center Control under Center the under Ministry the ofMinistry the Interior of the and Interior Safety and is shown Safety inis shown Figure5 in. Figure 5. In the Republic of Korea, the head of the National Disaster and Safety Status Control Center (the Minister of the Interior and Safety) is at the core of the disaster management system and has the general command to control all disaster responses and operate the Si/Gun/Gu Disaster Safety Measure Headquarters to respond to disasters. In the case of early response to a disaster, the City/Gun/Gu Disaster Safety Measure Headquarters will conduct an emergency response and the central government, after being reported on the occurrence of disasters, will embark on a systematic disaster response Sustainability 2020, 12, 340 7 of 18

in accordance with the ‘National Crisis Management Guidelines’. Additionally, all decisions on prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery in the wake of disaster occurrence will be made Sustainabilitythrough the2020, Si 12/,Gun x FOR/Gu PEER Disaster REVIEW Safety Measure Headquarters under the command of the7central of 18 government [41].

Figure 5. Organizational chart of Central Disaster Safety Relief Headquarters under the Ministry of the FigureInterior 5. Organizational and Safety in the chart Republic of Central of Korea Disaster (http: Safety//www.mois.go.kr Relief Headquarters). under the Ministry of the Interior and Safety in the Republic of Korea (http://www.mois.go.kr). If we look at the domestic and overseas national disaster management systems investigated by thisIn study, the Republic it is identical of Korea, for localthe head governments of the National to initiate Disaster the responseand Safety to Status a disaster Control at an Center early (the stage. MinisterHowever, of localthe Interior governments and Safety) of Japan, is at Germany, the core theof U.S.,the disaster and the management U.K. are responsible system forand continuous has the generaldisaster command management, to control while all their disaster central respon governmentsses and supportoperate themthe Si/Gun/Gu by providing Disaster materials Safety and Measurepersonnel Headquarters required to curb to respond disasters. to In disasters. contrast, localIn the governments case of early in the response Republic to of aKorea disaster, intervene the City/Gun/Guin the central Disaster government Safety toMeasure report theHeadquarters overall progress will conduct of disaster an emergency management response and to and respond the centralto disasters. government, after being reported on the occurrence of disasters, will embark on a systematic disasterThe response overseas in casesaccordance in this studywith the do not‘National represent Crisis the Management disaster management Guidelines’. system Additionally, of every country all decisionsor cannot on be prevention, used as guidelines. preparedness, However, response, the above-mentioned and recovery countriesin the wake were of selecteddisaster as occurrence the subjects willof abe comparative made through analysis the Si/Gun/Gu due to limited Disaster availability Safety Measure of data Headquarters about overseas under disaster the command management of thesystems central and government also because [41]. these countries have established their current disaster management systems afterIf undergoingwe look at the various domestic disasters and overseas over a lengthy national period. disaster management systems investigated by this study, it is identical for local governments to initiate the response to a disaster at an early stage. However,3. Disaster local Management governments System of Japan, and theGermany, Status ofthe Damages U.S., and by the Disaster U.K. are Type responsible in the Republic for continuous of Korea disaster management, while their central governments support them by providing materials and 3.1. Disaster Management System by Disaster Type personnel required to curb disasters. In contrast, local governments in the Republic of Korea interveneIn the in Republicthe central of Korea,government disaster to is report deﬁned the as anoverall event progress that can causeof disaster damage management to people’s life,and body, to respondand property to disasters. and to the nation in accordance with the ‘Basic Act on Disaster and Safety Management’. In theThe event overseas of a disaster,cases in the this Ministry study ofdo thenot Interior represent and the Safety, disaster centering management on the National system Disaster of every and countrySafety or Status cannot Control be used Center, as guidelines. will establish However, the Central the above-mentioned Accident Practice countries Headquarters, were selected depending as theon subjects the type of of a disasters,comparative and analysis operate due the Sito/Gun limi/tedGu availability Safety Measure of data Headquarters, about overseas constituting disaster a managementvertical administrative systems and organization also because that managesthese coun situationtries have control, established administrative their current assistance, disaster rescue managementemergency, emergencysystems after assistance, undergoing volunteer various works, disasters etc., over for disastera lengthy relief period. (Figure 6).

Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18

3. Disaster Management System and the Status of Damages by Disaster Type in the Republic of Korea

3.1. Disaster Management System by Disaster Type In the Republic of Korea, disaster is defined as an event that can cause damage to people’s life, body, and property and to the nation in accordance with the ‘Basic Act on Disaster and Safety Management’. In the event of a disaster, the Ministry of the Interior and Safety, centering on the National Disaster and Safety Status Control Center, will establish the Central Accident Practice Headquarters, depending on the type of disasters, and operate the Si/Gun/Gu Safety Measure Headquarters, constituting a vertical administrative organization that manages situation control, administrative assistance, rescue emergency, emergency assistance, volunteer works, etc., for disaster reliefSustainability (Figure2020 6)., 12 , 340 8 of 18

Figure 6. Organizational chart of the National Disaster and Safety Status Control Center under the FigureMinistry 6. ofOrganizational the Interior and chart Safety of inthe the National Republic Disaster of Korea and (National Safety DisasterStatus Control and Safety Center Status under Control the MinistryCenter (2011) of the Safety Interior Management and Safety Plan in the in the Repub Republiclic of ofKorea Korea (National (2015–2019)). Disaster and Safety Status Control Center (2011) Safety Management Plan in the Republic of Korea (2015–2019)). The Republic of Korea has established an integrated disaster management system centering on the NationalThe Republic Disaster of Korea and Safetyhas established Status Control an integr Centerated disaster in the event management of disasters system but centering will manage on thethem National by classifying Disaster and disasters Safety into Status natural Control disasters Center andin the social event disasters. of disasters In but accordance will manage with them the by‘Basic classifying Act on Disasterdisasters and into Safety natural Management’, disasters and natural social disasters. disasters areIn accordance caused by naturalwith the phenomena ‘Basic Act onincluding Disaster typhoons, and Safety floods, Management’, heavy rain, natural strong disa winds,sters windare caused wave, by tsunamis, natural heavyphenomena snow, including lightning, typhoons,drought,earthquakes, floods, heavy yellow rain, strong dust,tidal winds, currents, wind wave, tides, volcanictsunamis, activities, heavy snow, collision lightning, and collision drought, of earthquakes,natural space yellow objects dust, such tidal as asteroids currents, and tides, meteoroids, volcanic oractivities, comparable collision incidents. and collision In contrast, of natural social spacedisasters objects are such defined as asteroids as damages and beyond meteoroids, the magnitude or comparable designated incidents. by PresidentialIn contrast, social Decree disasters that are arecaused defined by fire,as damages collapse, beyond explosion, the magnitude traffic accidents designated (including by Presidential air and marine Decree accidents); that are caused chemical, by fire,biological, collapse, and explosion, radiological traffic accidents; accidents environmental (including air pollution and marine accidents, accident etc.;s); the chemical, paralysis biological, of national andinfrastructure, radiological including accidents; energy, environmental telecommunications, pollution transportation, accidents, etc.; finance, the medicalparalysis care, of andnational water infrastructure,supply; as the damagesincluding caused energy, by infectioustelecommunication diseases ins, accordance transportation, with the finance, ‘Act on medical the Prevention care, and and waterManagement supply; ofas Infectious the damages Diseases’, caused and by as infectious the spread diseases of livestock in accordance infectious diseaseswith the in ‘Act accordance on the Preventionwith the ‘Act and on Management the Prevention of Infectious of Livestock Diseases’, Infectious and Diseases’. as the spread of livestock infectious diseases in accordanceThe Republic with ofthe Korea ‘Act on classifies the Preven naturaltion andof Livestock social disasters Infectious into Diseases’. six and 26 types, respectively, according to the disaster classification system and disaster types, and implements the disaster management system of prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery to develop response and management strategies appropriate to each type of disaster (Table1). The Ministry of the Interior and Safety also publishes an annual report on disasters that occur in the Republic of Korea. The status of damages caused by natural disasters in terms of human losses, damage cost, and recovery cost can be found in the ‘Statistical Yearbook of Natural Disaster’, while those caused by social disasters can be found in the ‘Statistical Yearbook of Social Disaster’. Sustainability 2020, 12, 340 9 of 18

Table 1. Types of Natural Disasters and Social Disasters in the Republic Korea.

Class. Count Disaster Types Natural Disaster 6 typhoon, heavy rainfall, heavy snowfall, extreme wind, wind wave, heat wave forest fires, toxic chemical spills, large-scale water pollution, large-scale marine pollution, utility tunnel disaster, dam collapse, subway large-scale accident, large-scale high-speed train accident, large-scale fire at multi-use buildings, radioactive spills from adjacent countries, marine vessel accident, large scale Social Disaster 26 human accident at workplace, large-scale collapse of multi-use buildings, correctional facilities’ disasters and accidents, livestock diseases, infectious diseases, telecommunications, financial computing, nuclear safety, power, crude oil supply, health care, drinking water, land cargo transportation, GPS signal disturbance, space radio disaster

3.2. Human Losses by Disaster Types The Republic of Korea implements disaster management by classifying disasters into natural and social disasters and publishes the reports on the status of damages by disasters. In this study, we analyzed the human losses of each year caused by natural and social disasters 2006–2015 by using the data of the ‘2015 Yearbook of Natural Disaster’ and ‘2015 Yearbook of Social Disaster’ (Table2)[ 42,43]. The ‘Yearbook of Natural Disaster’ and the ‘Yearbook of Social Disaster’, which are statistical data used as national policy data, are released by a central government agency after collecting data about disaster damages reported by local governments.

Table 2. Yearly human losses by disaster type in the Republic of Korea (2006–2015).

(Unit: People) Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Sum Class Natural Disaster 63 17 11 13 14 84 31 18 3 11 265 Social Disaster 5 6 54 224 85 3 5 12 411 67 872

The total human losses by disasters during the period was estimated at 1137 people, and among them, natural disasters accounted for 23% or 265 people, while social disasters accounted for 77% or 872 people, which was almost three times higher than natural disasters. In the case of the yearly proportion of human losses during the period, 2006 and 2011 accounted for 24% and 32%, respectively, both of which accounted for approximately 50%. In the case of social disasters, 2009 and 2014 accounted for 26% and 27%, respectively, both of which accounted for approximately 50%. If we classify the total human losses of 265 people caused by natural disasters into types, heavy rainfall accounted for 68%, followed by heat waves (18%) and typhoons (14%). Among the total human losses of 872 people caused by social disasters, the marine vessel accident accounted for 47%, followed by infectious diseases (35%) and large-scale fires at multi-use buildings (15%; Figure7). If we look at the yearly average of the statistical years, typhoons claimed the lives of four people yearly; heavy rainfall incurred a death toll of 18 people; heat waves incurred a death toll of nine people. It was confirmed that typhoons and heavy rainfall as well as heat waves caused severe human losses. In the case of social disasters, human losses continued to occur yearly, including the H1N1 outbreak in 2009, the sunken Sewol ferry accident in 2014, and the infection disease (MERS) outbreak in 2015, in addition to large-scale forest fires and large-scale fires at multi-use buildings. Even if we excluded large-scale disasters, we could deduce that more human losses were caused by social disasters than by natural disasters. Until recently, it was perceived that natural disasters were the main causes of human losses, but the statistical results of this study showed that human losses caused by social disasters are more severe than by natural disasters. Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18 heavySustainability rainfall2020 incurred, 12, 340 a death toll of 18 people; heat waves incurred a death toll of nine people.10 of It 18 was confirmed that typhoons and heavy rainfall as well as heat waves caused severe human losses.

FigureFigure 7. HumanHuman losses byby disasterdisaster type type in in the the Republic Republic of of Korea Korea (2006–2015): (2006–2015): (a) ( naturala) natural disasters disasters and and(b) social(b) social disasters. disasters.

3.3. DamageIn the case Costs of and social Recovery disasters, Costs byhuman Disaster losses Type continued to occur yearly, including the H1N1 outbreakIn case in 2009, of damages the sunken caused Sewol by disasters,ferry accident the damages in 2014, and caused the byinfection natural disease disasters (MERS) are assessed outbreak by inestimating 2015, in addition damage coststo large-scale and recovery forest costs, fires while and large-scale the damages fires by at social multi-use disasters buildings. are evaluated Even usingif we excludeddamage costs.large-scale Considering disasters, that we damages could deduce from natural that more disasters human are causedlosses were by natural caused phenomena, by social disastersthe estimation than by of damagenatural costsdisasters. combines Until the recently damages, it was inﬂicted perceived on buildings that natural with the disasters costs required were the to mainrestore causes the damaged of human buildingslosses, but to the the statistical original resu condition.lts of this In study contrast, showed the estimationthat human of losses damages caused by bysocial social disaster disasters includes are more only severe damage than costs. by natural We analyzed disasters. the amount of damage costs and recovery costs caused by natural and social disasters, respectively, 2006–2015 (Table3). 3.3. Damage Costs and Recovery Costs by Disaster Type InTable case 3. ofDamage damages and caused recovery by costs disasters, by year the in thedama Republicges caused of Korea by dependingnatural disasters on the disasterare assessed year by estimating(2006–2015). damage costs and recovery costs, while the damages by social disasters are evaluated using damage costs. Considering(Unit: that Thousand damages Dollars from (1$ =natural1200 won) disasters are caused by natural Year phenomena, the estimation2006 of 2007 damage 2008 costs 2009 combin 2010es the 2011 damages 2012 inflicted 2013 2014on buildings 2015 Sumwith the costs Classrequired to restore the damaged buildings to the original condition. In contrast, the estimation Natural of damages byDamage social disaster 161,917 20,983 includes5308 only24,900 damage 35,567 costs. 66,183 We analyzed 90,767 14,333 the amount 15,000 of2650 damage437,608 costs Disaster and recovery Recovercosts caused 304,250 by 40,808 natural 12,308 and social 64,458 disasters, 59,608 137,833 respectively, 171,100 32,217 2006–2015 42,258 (Table3175 3).868,017 Social Disaster 100 17 556,458 183 163,000 100 25,117 10,617 4425 7875 767,892 Table 3. Damage and recovery costs by year in the Republic of Korea depending on the disaster year (2006–2015).The total damage and recovery costs resulting from natural and social disasters amounted to 2,173,517 thousand dollars in total; the(Unit: damage Thousand costs Dollars caused (1$ = 1200 by won) natural disasters accounted for 437,608 Year thousand dollars or2006 21% of the2007 total;2008 the recovery2009 costs2010 were2011 estimated 2012 at 868,0172013 2014 thousand 2015 dollars Sum or 42%; andClass the damage costs caused by social disasters were estimated at 767,892 thousand dollars or Natural Damage 161,917 20,983 5308 24,900 35,567 66,183 90,767 14,333 15,000 2650 437,608 37%.Disaster If we looked at the damage costs from natural disasters by year, 2006 accounted for 37%, followed by2012 (21%) Recover and 2011304,250 (15%). 40,808 In the12,308 case of64,458 recovery 59,608 costs, 137,833 2006 accounted171,100 32,217 for 35%,42,258 followed 3175 by 868,017 2012 (20%)Social and 2011 (16%), three of which accounted for more than 50% of the total damage and recovery 100 17 556,458 183 163,000 100 25,117 10,617 4425 7875 767,892 costsDisaster during the period. In the case of damages from social disasters, 2008 and 2010 accounted for 72% and 21%, respectively, both of which accounted for approximately 90% of the total for the period. TheThe total damage costsand recovery caused by costs natural resulting disasters from were natural estimated and social at 437,608 disasters thousand amounted dollars, to 2,173,517and if we thousand classiﬁed dollars them intoin total; type, the typhoons damage and costs heavy caused rain by accounted natural fordisasters 30% andaccounted 63% of for the 437,608total, respectively; thousand dollars the total or 21% amount of the of total; recovery the recovery costs was costs estimated were estima at 868,017ted at 868,017 thousand thousand dollars, dollarsand typhoons or 42%; and the heavy damage rain accountedcosts caused for by 29% soci andal disasters 69% of were the total,estimated respectively. at 767,892 Given thousand this, dollarsan overwhelming or 37%. If we majority looked ofat thethe damagedamage andcosts recovery from natural costs resultdisasters from by typhoonsyear, 2006 and accounted heavy rain. for 37%,The totalfollowed amount by of2012 damage (21%) costs and caused2011 (15%). by social In the disasters case of was recovery estimated costs, at 2006 767,892 accounted thousand for dollars, 35%, Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18

followed by 2012 (20%) and 2011 (16%), three of which accounted for more than 50% of the total damage and recovery costs during the period. In the case of damages from social disasters, 2008 and 2010 accounted for 72% and 21%, respectively, both of which accounted for approximately 90% of the total for the period. The total damage costs caused by natural disasters were estimated at 437,608 thousand dollars, and if we classified them into type, typhoons and heavy rain accounted for 30% and 63% of the total, respectively; the total amount of recovery costs was estimated at 868,017 thousand dollars, and

Sustainabilitytyphoons and2020, 12heavy, 340 rain accounted for 29% and 69% of the total, respectively. Given this,11 of an 18 overwhelming majority of the damage and recovery costs result from typhoons and heavy rain. The total amount of damage costs caused by social disasters was estimated at 767,892 thousand dollars, and if we classiﬁedclassified themthem intointo types,types, landland transportationtransportation andand animalanimal diseases accounted for 74%74% andand 22%, respectively, bothboth ofof whichwhich exceededexceeded 90%90% (Figure(Figure8 8).). IfIf wewe comparedcompared thethe damagedamage costscosts causedcaused by natural disasters with recovery costs, the recoveryrecovery costs by typhoons and heavy rainfall required more than twice as much as the damage costs; thethe recovery costs by heavy snowfall, extreme winds, and wind waveswaves werewere approximatelyapproximately two timestimes asas muchmuch asas thethe damagedamage costs.costs. If we looked at thethe damage costscosts byby social social disasters, disasters, the the unionized unionized truck truc drivers’k drivers’ strikes strikes in 2008,in 2008, the the outbreaks outbreaks of foot of foot and mouthand mouth diseases, diseases, and AI and virus AI invirus 2010 in accounted 2010 accounted for most for of most the total. of the The total. large-scale The large-scale ﬁres at multi-use fires at buildingsmulti-use accountedbuildings accounted for only 3% for of only the total3% of but the continuously total but continuously occurred over occurred many over years. many years.

Figure 8.8. Damage and recovery costs by disasterdisaster type inin thethe RepublicRepublic ofof Korea:Korea: (a)) naturalnatural disastersdisasters and (b)) socialsocial disastersdisasters (1$(1$ == 1200 won).

4. Improvement Measures for the Integrated Disaster System Considering DisasterDisaster TypesTypes 4.1. Challenges of the Current Disaster Management System 4.1. Challenges of the Current Disaster Management System This study investigated and analyzed the disaster management systems of the United States, This study investigated and analyzed the disaster management systems of the United States, Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Korea, and the status of damages caused by Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Korea, and the status of damages caused different disaster types 2006–2015 in the Republic of Korea. The most significant differences between by different disaster types 2006–2015 in the Republic of Korea. The most significant differences the Republic of Korea and the advanced countries in terms of disaster systems were the principal between the Republic of Korea and the advanced countries in terms of disaster systems were the agency of early response in the event of disasters and the disaster management types. In the case of the principal agency of early response in the event of disasters and the disaster management types. In United States, Japan, Germany, and the United Kingdom, initial response to a disaster is implemented the case of the United States, Japan, Germany, and the United Kingdom, initial response to a disaster by local governments to ensure a prompt response in the event of a disaster, which may later be is implemented by local governments to ensure a prompt response in the event of a disaster, which followed by the central government’s support activities for response and recovery. may later be followed by the central government’s support activities for response and recovery. In the Republic of Korea, the Si/Gun/Gu Disaster Safety Measure Headquarters conduct an In the Republic of Korea, the Si/Gun/Gu Disaster Safety Measure Headquarters conduct an emergency response as part of an early response, and the central government, after being informed emergency response as part of an early response, and the central government, after being informed of the occurrence of a disaster, will assume the role of the principal agency of disaster response of the occurrence of a disaster, will assume the role of the principal agency of disaster response management through an integrated disaster management system ranging from early response to management through an integrated disaster management system ranging from early response to recovery (Table4). However, the vertical disaster management system of the central government often recovery (Table 4.) However, the vertical disaster management system of the central government requires a lengthy time to collect reports on disaster situations and assess the scale of damages in the often requires a lengthy time to collect reports on disaster situations and assess the scale of damages early stages of a disaster, and the change in the principal agency from local governments to the central government will make a prompt response to disaster more difficult. Sustainability 2020, 12, 340 12 of 18

Table 4. Comparison of disaster management systems by country.

Disaster Management Disaster Response for Executive Country Natural Disaster Law Organization Institution Federal Emergency Local Government after Central United States of America Stanford Law Management Agency Government (support) Disaster Control Local Government after Central Japan Cabinet Oﬃce Measures Basic Law Government (support) Local Government after Central Germany Civil Protection Act Federal Interior Ministry Government (support) Civil Contingencies Local Government after Central United Kingdom Civil Contingencies Act Secretariat Government (support) Disaster and Safety Ministry of the Interior Local Government and Central Korea Management Basic Law and Safety Government

As the national disaster management system revealed the problem of overlapping roles of the central and local governments, we proposed that the roles of the central and local governments must be improved in legal, organizational, and financial aspects [44,45]. Given that future disasters are much more likely to have a complex nature and cause damages beyond the control of a local government and threaten the security of the nation, we proposed that the concept of a national disaster management policy must be re-established [46]. As fundamental problems of the past disaster damages, a lax safety management at a prevention level, a failed early response at the field site, and an operational defect of the disaster response system. To solve such problems, we proposed the clear establishment of roles between the central government and the related departments and the establishment of an integrated disaster response support system [47,48]. According to “Framework Act on the Management of Disasters and Safety”, a disaster is defined as a natural disaster or a social accident that actually causes or is likely to cause any harm to the lives, bodies, and property of citizens and the state [49]. However, the law does not provide clear criteria for the level scales or damages to define it as a disaster. Additionally, there are no clear definitions on the scale and severity of damages that may require the shifting of the authorities to be reported on from the Si/Gun/Gu Disaster Safety Measure Headquarters to the central government. If we look at the disaster management types by country, the Republic of Korea classifies disasters into six natural disaster types and 26 social disaster types, while the United States, Japan, Germany, and the United Kingdom have integrated disaster management systems that do not classify disasters into different types. In the Republic of Korea, the human losses caused by natural disasters 2006–2015 were estimated at 244 people, while the total human losses caused by social disasters were estimated at 872 people, totaling 1116 people. The damage costs caused by natural disasters were estimated at 437,608 thousand dollars, while the damage costs by social disasters amounted to 767,892 thousand dollars, totaling 1,205,500 thousand dollars, and the recovery costs were estimated at 868,017 thousand dollars (Figure9). In the event of disasters, human losses, damage costs, and recovery costs arise with natural and social disasters. Although the Republic of Korea’s disaster management has the division of disaster types, the same procedures of prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery are applied regardless of disaster types. If we look at the status of major disasters in the past, they were classified into natural and social disasters based on the classification system, but they distinguished only the causes of damages (Table5). Recent disasters have been caused by typhoons, heavy rainfall, accidents, etc., and the subsequent damages have resulted from multiple causes. Thus, it is judged that the Republic of Korea needs an integrated disaster management system that incorporates different types of disaster management, rather than classifying disasters into type, to reduce the occurrence of disasters and respond more effectively. Sustainability 2020, 12, 340 13 of 18 Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18

FigureFigure 9. 9.Damages Damages by by natural natural and and social social disasters disaster ins in the the Republic Republic of of Korea Korea (2006–2015): (2006–2015): (a ()a human) human losseslosses and and (b ()b damage) damage and and recovery recovery costs costs (1$ (1$= =1200 1200 won). won).

Table 5. Status of major disasters 2006–2015. In the event of disasters, human losses, damage costs, and recovery costs arise with natural and socialDate disasters. DisasterAlthough Classiﬁcation the Republic of Korea’s disaster management Details has the division of disaster types,2006.07. the same procedures Natural Disaster of prevention, preparedness, Typhoon response, Ewiniar and recovery are applied regardless2006.10. of disaster Social types. Disaster If we look at the status of 29-Car major Crash disasters on Seohae in Grandthe past, Bridge they were classified into2007.12. natural and social Social disasters Disaster based on the clas Oilsification Spill from system, Crashed but Oil they Tanker, distinguished Taean only the 2008.01. Social Disaster Fire at Cold Storage Warehouse, Incheon City causes2008.02. of damages Social (Table Disaster 5). Recent disasters have been Arson caused at Sungnyemun by typhoons, heavy rainfall, accidents,2009.03. etc., and Socialthe subsequent Disaster damages have resulted from H1N1 multiple Virus causes. Thus, it is judged that2009.03. the Republic Socialof Korea Disaster needs an integrated Water Dischargedisaster frommanagementHwangang Dam, system North that Korea incorporates different2010.09. types of Naturaldisaster Disaster management, rather than classifying Typhoon disasters Kompasu into type, to reduce the 2010.09. Natural Disaster Flood in Gwanghwamun Square, Seoul City occurrence2010.09. of disasters Social and Disaster respond more effectively. Distributed Denial of Service Attack (DDOS) 2010.12. Social Disaster Foot and Mouth Disease 2011.07. Natural DisasterTable 5. Status of major disasters Landslide 2006–2015. in Chuncheon City 2011.08. Natural Disaster Typhoon Muifa 2011.08.Date NaturalDisaster Disaster Classification Landslide on Mt. Details Umyeon 2011.09. Social Disaster Massive Power Outage 2006.07. Natural Disaster Typhoon Ewiniar 2012.08. Natural Disaster Typhoons Bolaven and Tembin 2012.09.2006.10. Social SocialDisaster Disaster 29-Car Gas Leakage Crash inon Gumi Seohae City Grand Bridge 2013.03.2007.12. SocialSocial Disaster Disaster Oil Urban Spill from Wild FireCrashed in Pohang Oil Tanker, Taean 2014.02. Social Disaster Collapse of Mauna Ocean Resort Gymnasium Roof, Gyeongju City 2014.04.2008.01. Social SocialDisaster Disaster Fire Sunken at Cold Sewol Storage Ferry Warehouse, Accident Incheon City 2015.02.2008.02. Social SocialDisaster Disaster 106-Car Crash on Arson Yeongjong at Sungnyemun Grand Bridge 2015.05. Social Disaster Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Outbreak (MERS) 2009.03. Social Disaster H1N1 Virus 2009.03. Social Disaster Water Discharge from Hwangang Dam, North Korea 4.2. Improvement Measures for the Integrated Disaster Management System in the Republic of Korea 2010.09. Natural Disaster Typhoon Kompasu The2010.09. Republic of Korea Natural has learned Disaster lessons from past Flood disasters in Gwanghwamun and has continued Square, Seoul to improve City and complement2010.09. its disaster management Social Disaster system to establish Distributed the current Denial integrated of Service disaster Attack (DDOS) management system. However, recent disasters, including the ﬂood at the Gwanghwamun Square, the Mt. Umyeon 2010.12. Social Disaster Foot and Mouth Disease landslide, the sunken Sewol ferry accident, and the MERS outbreak, have raised several problems 2011.07. Natural Disaster Landslide in Chuncheon City in terms of early response and the formulation of countermeasures [22,30,50–52]. Thus, this study 2011.08. Natural Disaster Typhoon Muifa proposes improvement measures for the current integrated disaster management system of the Republic of Korea2011.08. in consideration ofNatural the disaster Disaster management systems of La developedndslide on Mt. countries Umyeon and the status of damages2011.09. from past disasters Social in theDisaster Republic of Korea (2016–2015). Massive Power Outage First,2012.08. we proposed toNatural change Disaster the principal agency of disaster Typhoons response Bolaven from and the Tembin central government to local2012.09. governments in theSocial event Disaster of a disaster. If a disaster Ga occurs,s Leakage the in Si /GumiGun/ GuCity Disaster Safety Measure2013.03. Headquarters centeringSocial Disaster on local governments will implement Urban Wild aFire primary in Pohang disaster response, but if the scale of the disaster exceeds the authoritiesCollapse of local of governments, Mauna Ocean theResort central Gymnasium government Roof, will 2014.02. Social Disaster intervene to conduct a general disaster assistance and disaster response.Gyeongju The localCity governments in the 2014.04. Social Disaster Sunken Sewol Ferry Accident Sustainability 2020, 12, 340 14 of 18

Republic of Korea consist of 17 local governments with two special cities, one special autonomous island, six metropolitan cities and eight provinces to respond to disasters occurring in each region (Figure 10a). To ensure a disaster management system led by local governments, we proposed to provide continuous disaster response exercises, to establish a disaster management systems, and to expand the related capacities, for example, by expanding the number of people responsible for disaster management. Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 18

FigureFigure 10. 10. ImprovementImprovement measures measures for for the the Republic Republic of of Korea’s Korea’s Integrated Integrated Disaster Disaster Management Management System.System. (a (a) )Restructuring Restructuring of of disaster disaster management management or organizationsganizations in in 17 17 local local governments governments and and ( (bb)) the the organizationalorganizational chart ofof disasterdisaster management management organization organization under under the Ministrythe Ministry of the of Interior the Interior and Safety. and Safety. Second, we proposed establishing an integrated disaster management system by incorporating 5.all Conclusions disaster types rather than classifying disaster management into natural disasters and social disasters. Currently, the disaster management procedures in the Republic of Korea consist of four steps: prevention,To propose preparedness, measures response,to improve and the recovery. Republic These of Korea’s procedures disaster can management be applied to system, natural andwe investigatedsocial disasters. and If analyzed we had appropriately advanced countries’ responded disaster to and management prepared for recentsystems, disasters, as well such as damages as urban causedflooding, by landslides, disasters occurring foot-and-mouth 2006–2015. disease, The and domestic the MERS and outbreak, overseas we disaster could havemanagement reduced damagessystems haveand minimizedcontinued theto restructure risk of disaster their occurrence. organizations Thus, responsible we proposed for establishingprevention of, an integratedpreparedness disaster for, responsemanagement to, and system recovery that incorporatesfrom a disaster. all disaster types instead of classifying disasters by types. InThird, the Republic to improve of theKorea’s integrated disaster disaster management management system, system when of the a disaster Republic occurs, of Korea, early we response proposed isto performed resolve some by local problems, governments including before the restructuringit reports to the of central the administrative government. organization After the report, currently the centralfocused government on the central will government, be responsiblethe revision for an overall of disaster-related response to laws, and recovery a lack of inter-departmentalfrom the disaster. However,interconnectivity, the recent and disasters overlapping that wreaked regulations. serious Organizational havoc on the restructuring Republic of Korea, should such be implemented as the flood into Gwanghwamun ensure early response Square, to disastersFoot and byMouth local disease governments outbreak, and controlthe sunken by the Sewol central ferry government accident, and and MERSto resolve outbreak some problemsraised the of issues the currently of a lax dispersed safety management, organization a system failed inearly terms response, of data sharing,and an overlappingoverlapping role reporting, of departments and omissions. responsible We also for di proposedsaster response. to provide These clear problems definitions of the of theexisting scale disasterand damages management that can system be classified played asthe disasters. role of compounding These problems damages, have beenand if consistently safety management raised in andpast early disasters response in the had Republic been conducted of Korea, including successfully, large-scale it could power have outages,curbed the the disaster sunken earlier Sewol ferryand reducedaccident, damages. and the MERS outbreak. Thus,Thus, we this proposed study analyzed to make thea clear disaster definition management of agencies systems responsible of developed for disaster countries management and the tostatus ensure of damagesa rapid and by pasteffective disasters early in response the Republic and al ofso Korea to designate to propose those improvement agencies that measures will continue for the with response and recovery. integrated disaster management system. Figure 10b shows improvement measures for the Republic of In the Republic of Korea, disasters are classified mainly into natural disasters such as typhoon, Korea’s integrated disaster management system in consideration of the above research results. heavy rain and strong wind, and social disasters such as fires, infectious diseases, and major accidents. In the case of damages by disaster type, natural disasters are showing a decreasing tendency in the amount of damages. In contrast, social disasters cause colossal damage once every four to five years. Despite these differences in their trends, the same disaster management system is applied regardless of disaster type, and the recent disaster-related damages involve complex (multiple) aspects. Thus, we proposed that the Republic of Korea government establish an integrated disaster management system to ensure the safety of the people by protecting them from natural and social disasters.

Sustainability 2020, 12, 340 15 of 18

5. Conclusions To propose measures to improve the Republic of Korea’s disaster management system, we investigated and analyzed advanced countries’ disaster management systems, as well as damages caused by disasters occurring 2006–2015. The domestic and overseas disaster management systems have continued to restructure their organizations responsible for prevention of, preparedness for, response to, and recovery from a disaster. In the Republic of Korea’s disaster management system, when a disaster occurs, early response is performed by local governments before it reports to the central government. After the report, the central government will be responsible for an overall response to and recovery from the disaster. However, the recent disasters that wreaked serious havoc on the Republic of Korea, such as the flood in Gwanghwamun Square, Foot and Mouth disease outbreak, the sunken Sewol ferry accident, and MERS outbreak raised the issues of a lax safety management, a failed early response, and an overlapping role of departments responsible for disaster response. These problems of the existing disaster management system played the role of compounding damages, and if safety management and early response had been conducted successfully, it could have curbed the disaster earlier and reduced damages. Thus, we proposed to make a clear definition of agencies responsible for disaster management to ensure a rapid and effective early response and also to designate those agencies that will continue with response and recovery. In the Republic of Korea, disasters are classified mainly into natural disasters such as typhoon, heavy rain and strong wind, and social disasters such as fires, infectious diseases, and major accidents. In the case of damages by disaster type, natural disasters are showing a decreasing tendency in the amount of damages. In contrast, social disasters cause colossal damage once every four to five years. Despite these differences in their trends, the same disaster management system is applied regardless of disaster type, and the recent disaster-related damages involve complex (multiple) aspects. Thus, we proposed that the Republic of Korea government establish an integrated disaster management system to ensure the safety of the people by protecting them from natural and social disasters. The integrated disaster management system makes it possible to encourage all related departments to cooperate based on a central or local government and to develop a clear definition of the roles of each department. Additionally, the time to establish the National Disaster and Safety Status Control Center and to operate each department can be clearly defined, which allows for a quick early response, and an effective communication channel can be secured. The improvement of such disaster management system can solve problems such as overlapping roles of the related departments and ambiguous time to operate the related departments and for early responses. To revise the responsible agency for disaster management in the Republic of Korea as local governments and establish a disaster management system that integrates all disaster types, we proposed to resolve some problems, such as restructuring of the existing administrative organization, the revision of disaster-related laws, interdepartmental interconnectivity, and overlapping regulations, in an organic manner. Additionally, we proposed to establish clear definitions on the scale and damages that can be classified as a disaster. Thus, this study conducted an analysis to identify improvement measures for the integrated disaster management system of the Republic of Korea, and the study results are seen below.

1. The responsible agencies for disaster management in the event of a disaster must be changed from the central government to local governments so that the Si/Gun/Gu Disaster Safety Measure Headquarters can conduct a primary response to a disaster, while the central government performs general disaster assistance and disaster response only in the case of a large-scale accident beyond the authorities of local governments. 2. We proposed establishing an integrated disaster management system instead of classifying disaster management into types of natural and social disasters. Additionally, quantitative deﬁnitions of scales or damage levels must be presented. Sustainability 2020, 12, 340 16 of 18

3. To improve the Republic of Korea’s integrated disaster management system, we proposed to resolve some problems, including the restructuring of administrative organizations currently based on the central government, the revision of disaster-related laws, inter-departmental interconnectivity, and overlapping regulations.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.S.S. and Y.H.S.; methodology, M.J.P.; validation, Y.S.S., Y.H.S. and M.J.P.; formal analysis: B.S.K.; resources, Y.S.S.; data curation, B.S.K.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.S.S.; writing—review and editing, J.H.L.; visualization, Y.H.S.; supervision, J.H.L.; project administration, M.J.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research was funded by Korean Ministry of Interior and Safety grant number (2019-MOIS31-010) and The APC was funded by Korean Ministry of Interior and Safety. Acknowledgments: This research was supported by a grant (2019-MOIS31-010) from Fundamental Technology Development Program for Extreme Disaster Response funded by Korean Ministry of Interior and Safety (MOIS). Conﬂicts of Interest: The authors declare no conﬂict of interest.

References

1. Alexander, L.V.; Zhang, X.; Peterson, T.C.; Caesar, J.; Gleason, B.; Klein Tank, A.M.G.; Haylock, M.; Collins, D.; Trewin, B.; Rahimzadeh, F.; et al. Global observed changes in daily climate extremes of temperature and precipitation. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 2006, 111.[CrossRef] 2. Easterling, D.R.; Meehl, G.A.; Parmesan, C.; Changnon, S.A.; Karl, T.R.; Mearns, L.O. Climate extremes: Observations, modeling, and impacts. Science 2000, 289, 2068–2074. [CrossRef][PubMed] 3. Kunkel, K.E.; Andsager, K.; Easterling, D.R. Long-term trends in extreme precipitation events over the conterminous United States and Canada. J. Clim. 1999, 12, 2515–2527. [CrossRef] 4. Moberg, A.; Jones, P.D.; Lister, D.; Walther, A.; Brunet, M.; Jacobeit, J.; Alexander, L.V.; Della-Marta, P.M.; Luterbacher, J.; Yiou, P.; et al. Indices for daily temperature and precipitation extremes in europe analyzed for the period 1901–2000. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 2006, 111.[CrossRef] 5. Wirtz, A.; Kron, W.; Löw, P.; Steuer, M. The need for data: Natural disasters and the challenges of database management. Nat. Hazards 2014, 70, 135–157. [CrossRef] 6. Song, S.Y.; Park, M.J. Development of Damage Prediction Formula for Natural Disasters Considering Economic Indicators. Sustainability 2019, 11, 868. [CrossRef] 7. Petley, D. Global patterns of loss of life from landslides. Geology 2012, 40, 927–930. [CrossRef] 8. Chakraborty, S.; Goswami, S.; Ghosh, S.; Chakrabarti, A.; Chakraborty, B. A review on application of data mining techniques to combat natural disasters. Ain Shams Eng. J. 2018, 9, 365–378. [CrossRef] 9. Battistini, A.; Segoni, S.; Manzo, G.; Catani, F.; Casagli, N. Web data mining for automatic inventory of geohazards at national scale. Appl. Geogr. 2013, 43, 147–158. [CrossRef] 10. Drennan, L.T.; McConnell, A. Risk and Crisis Management in the Public Sector; Routledge: London, UK, 2007. 11. Petak, W.J. Emergency management: A challenge for public administration. Public Adm. Rev. 1985, 45, 3–7. [CrossRef] 12. Clary, B.B. The evolution and structure of natural hazard policies. Public Adm. Rev 1985, 45, 20–28. [CrossRef] 13. Drabek, T.E. Managing the emergency response. Public Adm. Rev. 1985, 45, 85–92. [CrossRef] 14. Burkle, F.M. Disaster management, disaster medicine and emergency medicine. Emerg. Med. 2001, 13, 143–144. [CrossRef][PubMed] 15. Van den Bergh, J.C.M.J. Ecological Economics and Sustainable Development: Theory, Methods, and Applications; Edward Elgar Pub: Cheltenham, UK, 1996. 16. Comfort, L.K. Designing policy for action: The emergency management system. In Managing Disaster: Strategies and Policy Perspectives; Comfort, L.K., Ed.; Duke University Press: Durham, NC, USA, 1988; pp. 3–21. 17. Shim, K.O.; Pak, S.H.; Jeong, S.H. Research and Analysis of Disaster Prevention Measures for Vulnerable Populations in Disasters; National Disaster Management Institute: Seoul, Korea, 2010. 18. Loucks, D.P.; Stedinger, J.R.; Stakhiv, E.Z. Individual and societal responses to natural hazards. J. Water Res. Plan. Manag. 2006, 132, 315–319. [CrossRef] 19. Comfort, L.K.; Waugh, L.W.; Cigler, B.A. Emergency management research and practice in public administration: Emergence, evolution, expansion, and future directions. Public Adm. Rev. 2012, 72, 539–547. [CrossRef] Sustainability 2020, 12, 340 17 of 18

20. Lee, J.H.; Bae, J.H. An exploratory study on the disaster reconstruction policy after great east Japan earthquake. Crisisonomy 2013, 9, 85–100. 21. Nakabayashi, I. Disaster management system for wide-area support and collaboration in Japan: Focused on Megadisaster in Tokyo Metropolitan Region. Urban Sci. Res. 2010, 3, 73–81. 22. Yoon, S.H.; Shin, J.D.; Pak, S.Y.; Won, J.Y.; Im, D.H. A study for improvement direction and reality of disaster management system in Korea-a review focused on basic safety management plan. Crisisonomy 2016, 12, 97–106. 23. Kang, S.K.; Hong, M.Y.; Kim, H.B. The development of integrated emergency management system for local government. Korean Assoc. Local Gov. Stud. 2003, 7, 271–296. 24. Lindsay, B.R. Social Media and Disasters: Current Uses, Future Options, and Policy Considerations, Library of Congress; Congressional Research Service: Washington, DC, USA, 2011. 25. Nakajima, Y.; Shiina, H.; Yamane, S.; Ishida, T.; Yamaki, H. Disaster evacuation guide: Using a massively multiagent server and gps mobile phones. In Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Applications and the Internet, Hiroshima, Japan, 15–19 January 2007. 26. Fajardo, J.T.; Oppus, C. A mobile disaster management system using the android technology. WSEAS Trans. Commun. 2010, 9, 343–353. 27. Kwak, B.S.; Jeon, I.C.; Choi, S.J. Analysis of push technology in smartphone platform for emergency alert. In Proceedings of the Korean Society of Broadcast Engineers Conference, The Korean Institute of Broadcasting and Media Engineers, Jeju, Korea, 11 November 2011; pp. 164–166. 28. Lee, J.K.; Kim, C.S. An implementation of application for collecting disaster information using smartphone. Korea Multimed. Soc. 2012, 15, 108–114. [CrossRef] 29. Ministry of Public Safety and Security. A Study on the Central Disaster Safety Measures Operation and Establish a Role System; Ministry of Public Safety and Security: Sejong, Korea, 2011. 30. Kang, U.; Park, J.S.; Jo, J.T. Innovation and improvement of national emergency management system in Korea-focused on all-hazard approach. Korean Secur. Sci. Rev. 2015, 43, 7–36. 31. Park, C.H. The Relief action and the Flood countermeasure in Seoul in 1925. J. Seoul Stud. 1999, 13, 153–190. 32. Lee, J.W. Local government aid victims of the delivery system improvements: Focusing on the flood sufferers. In Proceedings of the Annual Conference of The Korean Journal of Local Government Studies, Seoul, Korea, 14 May 2000. 33. Derthick, M. The Transformation that Fell Short: Bush, Federalism, and Emergency Management. Rockefeller Institute of Government. 2009, pp. 1–27. Available online: https://rockinst.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/ 2009-08-Transformation_That_Fell-min.pdf (accessed on 18 April 2019). 34. Department of Homeland Security Washington. Civil Defense and Homeland Security: A Short History of Preparedness Efforts. Homeland Security National Preparedness Task Force, Ed.; 2006; pp. 1–36. Available online: https://training.fema.gov/hiedu/docs/dhs%20civil%20defense-hs%20-%20short%20history. pdf (accessed on 18 April 2019). 35. Gall, M.; Borden, K.A.; Emrich, C.; Cutter, S.L. The unsustainable trend of natural hazard losses in the United States. Sustainability 2011, 3, 2157–2181. [CrossRef] 36. Blanchard, W.B.; Canton, L.G.; Cwiak, C.L.; Goss, K.C.; Mcentire, D.A.; Newsome, L.; Selves, M.D.; Sorchik, E.A.; Stenson, K.; Turner, J.E., III; et al. Principles of emergency management supplement. Tech. Rep. 2007.[CrossRef] 37. Department of Homeland Security. Threat and Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment Guide: Comprehensive Preparedness Guide 201, 1st ed.; Homeland Security: Washington, DC, USA, 2012. Available online: https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=705408 (accessed on 18 April 2019). 38. Bae, J.H.; Park, Y.W. An exploration study on redesign of national disaster management system. GRI Rev. 2014, 16, 319–341. 39. Lee, D.H.; Kim, J.Y.; Kang, H.S.; Lee, H.R. The current status and implications of disaster management system and psychological support system in disaster response in japan. J. Korea. Contents Assoc. 2016, 16, 73–90. [CrossRef] 40. Cabinet Office. Disaster Management in Japan; Cabinet Office: Tokyo, Japan, 2011. 41. Ministry of the Interior and Safety; Ministry of Public Safety and Security. Safety Management Plan in Korea (2015–2019); Ministry of Public Safety and Security: Sejong, Korea, 2017. 42. Ministry of Public Safety and Security. 2015th Statistical Yearbook of Natural Disaster; Ministry of Public Safety and Security: Sejong, Korea, 2015. Sustainability 2020, 12, 340 18 of 18

43. Ministry of Public Safety and Security. 2015th Yearbook of Disaster; Ministry of Public Safety and Security: Sejong, Korea, 2015. 44. Moon, H.C. A Legal Study on the Role of the Central Government and the Local Government in a Disaster Management System. Crisisonomy 2008, 4, 84–104. 45. Kwon, G.J. Analysis on the Disaster Management System Status of Local Governments and Improvement: Approach Focusing on Cities, Provinces and Boroughs. Crisisonomy 2012, 8, 15–32. 46. Hur, J.Y.; Lee, J.H. Study on Building a Disaster Management System Responding to Future Disaster–Using Expert Survey Method. Crisisonomy 2014, 10, 173–195. 47. Shin, Y.S. A Study on Reform of the Disaster Management System after Sewol Ferry Disaster. Crisisonomy 2014, 10, 29–50. 48. Yang, G.G. The Role Restructuring of Central Disaster and Safety Countermeasures Headquarters for Integrated Disaster Countermeasures—Focusing on the Foot and Mouth Disease. Crisisonomy 2012, 8, 72–89. 49. Ministry of the Interior and Safety. Basic Law on Disaster and Safety Management; Ministry of the Interior and Safety: Sejong, Korea, 2019. 50. Yoo, I.S. Disaster planning in Korea. Hanyang Med. Rev. 2015, 35, 157–173. [CrossRef] 51. Rheem, S.K.; Seo, B.R.; Choi, W.J. An exploratory research on the national emergency management capability. Crisisonomy 2017, 13, 115–126. 52. Kim, M.H.; Seo, S.W. A study on improved disaster management system in defense ﬁeld. J. Korean Soc. Saf. 2017, 32, 105–111.

© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).