Europe and the World in the Face of the Holocaust
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
EUROPE AND THE subject WORLD IN THE FACE OF THE HOLOCAUST: individual, collective and institutional aid Context5. The German policy toward Jews resid- aiding Jews applied not only in the ing in the occupied countries of Europe General Government, but also in the Polish led to their Gentile neighbours unwillingly parts of the Reichskommisariat Ukraine and becoming witnesses to its implementation. Reichskommisariat Ost (present-day Ukraine, This particularly affected the population of Belarus and Lithuania). Moreover, a similar Eastern Europe, mainly in occupied Poland, punishment was also introduced in occupied where the Germans built death camps. Confron- Serbia. In turn, in the Protectorate of Bohemia tation with escapees from ghettos and camps or and Moravia assistance to the Jewish population transports to them required a certain response. was treated as sabotage for which the death Some people, regardless of consequences, decided penalty also applied. However, there were no such to help. Others, for various reasons, took no action. harsh repressions in Western European countries. Still others turned in escapees and persons aiding Helping Jews was punishable with loss of work, them. There were even those, who, in certain cir- imprisonment or dispatch to a concentration camp. cumstances, took part in the murder of Jews. For this reason, the territorially differentiated policy of the occupier and the nature of the occupation Such varying behaviour towards Jews on the part regime largely influenced people’s attitudes of people in countries occupied by Germany and towards Jews in occupied countries. its satellites was influenced by various factors, primarily attitudes towards Jews, stereotypes and Despite the risk, there were individuals and en- prejudices, political views, religious convictions, tire groups in many countries of occupied Europe material and family circumstances and, obviously, who decided to aid Jewish people. Some of them fear of repression. In this context, anti-Jewish paid for this with their own lives or those of their legislation imposed by occupation authorities family members. Current studies show that in the or collaborating governments was of particular General Government alone the Germans murdered significance. It consisted mainly of regulations at least around 500 people for aiding Jews. Other limiting Jews’ freedom of movement in occupied such deaths have yet to be confirmed. Hundreds of territories. The most important directive was that people were beaten, deprived of property, arrested of Hans Frank dated 15 October 1941 limiting their or sent to concentration camps. Harsh penalties for stay in the General Government. It not only upheld aiding Jews failed as a deterrent. Not only individ- the order to isolate Jews but also introduced the uals, church institutions and underground Jewish death penalty for those of them who left their and non-Jewish organisations extended such help, assigned neighbourhoods without authorisation. but also entire communities. A particular example The same penalty also applied to people giving is the Protestant village of Le Chambon-sur-Lignon shelter to them. Notably, the death penalty for in France, which provided shelter for many Jews. 1 Members of the Danish resistance movement as In Hungary, despite various legal regulations, many well as some ordinary Danes assisted in dispatching people protected the local Jewish community Jews in boats to a safe haven in Sweden. The cost from deportation or mass crimes until early was mainly borne by the refugees themselves 1944. Just like Italy, this country was perceived as or covered with resources mustered by the relatively safe for a certain time. It even became a underground. Members of the Danish resistance type of an intermediate station for Jewish refugees movement recognised aid to Jews as a collective from many countries occupied by the Nazis. The act and called on the Yad Vashem Institute not situation changed after the fascist Arrow Cross to distinguish them individually. This indeed was movement took power in the country. Diplomats, the case. To date, only several Danes individually ordinary people – some even affiliated with the received the title of Righteous Among the Nations. ruling regime – and members of church institutions came to the aid of Jews facing danger and Repression of Jews met public resistance in the deportation. International Jewish organisations Netherlands. A general strike broke out in the also offered help. It is estimated that up to around country when the Germans deported several 20,000 Jews benefited from immunity provided hundred Dutch Jews to concentration camps in by embassies of neutral countries and lived in February 1941. Although quelled by the Germans selected buildings outside of a ghetto (in what on its second day, repressions against the civilian was called the ’international ghetto‘). In Slovakia population intensified. The Germans began to too, some attempted to rescue persecuted Jews by isolate Jews from the rest of society and 15,000 providing them with shelter or aid despite harsh were placed in labour camps. A roundup of Jews penalties. Apart from examples of aid provided in Amsterdam was then ordered, whereby those by individuals, the Protestant church as well as without Dutch citizenship were transferred to Catholic bishops and Greek Catholics officially a temporary camp in Westerbork. Jews living in issued pastoral letters condemning the racist the provinces were confined to a camp in Vught. policy applied against Jews. On the basis of subsequent regulations, the Jews’ identity documents were then marked with the Jews could also count on the support of various letter J (from the Dutch word Jood for ‘Jew’) and international assistance organisations active from May 1942 onwards all Jews had to wear a during the Second World War. They included the Star of David badge. In protest against the new International Red Cross, the American Jewish Joint regulations, many Dutch people pinned yellow Distribution Committee (JOINT) and the Relief flowers to their clothes and posters appeared on Committee for the War Stricken Jewish Population walls in Rotterdam calling for a public expression (RELICO). Support was also provided by diplomats, of solidarity with the Jews. The first transports to for example those stationed in occupied countries. death camps left the Netherlands in mid-June Some of them worked in neutral countries such 1942, which led to a protest of Dutch bishops. as Portugal, Spain, Turkey, Sweden or Switzerland. Dutch underground organisations, members of However, aid was also provided to the extent the clergy as well as ordinary citizens sought to possible by diplomats accredited in the Third help the Jews. Occupation authorities countered Reich and other Axis countries such as Hungary, such activity with repression in the form of arrest, Italy, Romania and Japan. Help from diplomats imprisonment and deportation to concentration to escaping Jews focused mainly on the issuance camps. As a result of individual and collective of passports or visas. They also offered shelter to efforts, approximately 35,000 Dutch Jews survived persecuted Jews in their buildings covered by the war. However, the number of victims was very diplomatic immunity. Thanks to such documents, high in comparison to the neighbouring countries. Jews in peril could try to get to such places as This was due to several reasons: the country’s Palestine, countries of the Far East or South America. geographical location hindered escape, the A document confirming a different citizenship Germans were exceptionally effective in finding already sufficed for many individuals. Diplomats their hideouts, and some people – as well as certain also acted in an organised manner, in accordance state officials and policemen – collaborated with with instructions from their governments and with the Nazis. In neighbouring Belgium, reluctance of their financial support. However, many did so in officials to cooperate with the German occupiers breach of their countries’ official policy. The success allowed the rescue of some Jews present there. of such actions depended on the ingenuity and Subject 5. 2 CONTEXT courage of diplomats and other people supporting would ensure their survival so the study of prayers, them. It cannot be specified how many people Christian values and baptism, together with new survived thanks to the support of diplomats. It is birth certificates certainly helped. At the time of estimated that approximately 100,000 benefited mass killing of Jews in death camps, the clergy, and were thereby able to survive through support in cooperation with underground organisations, from various diplomatic missions, papal nuncios e.g. the Council to Aid Jews codenamed Żegota and the Red Cross. Yet, not all Jews who received or individuals, provided birth certificates to issue visas or support in different forms from diplomatic ’Aryan’ documents and new identities for Jews in missions survived the occupation. hiding. Such actions nevertheless depended on decisions of individual priests. Foreign diplomats involved in helping the Jewish population included: Raul Wallenberg, Secretary Monasteries also provided refuge after the Holo- at the Swedish Embassy in Hungary; Archbishop caust developed a mass scale. One frequent form Angelo Rottę, the Papal Nuncio in Hungary; Carl of helping Jews was their concealment in parish Lutz, Deputy Swiss Consul in Budapest; Ángelo institutions: in shelters, schools, boarding schools,