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The Role of Palmyrene Temples in Long- Distance Trade in the Roman Near East by John Berkeley Grout

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The Role of Palmyrene Temples in Long- Distance Trade in the Roman Near East by John Berkeley Grout The Role of Palmyrene Temples in Long- Distance Trade in the Roman Near East by John Berkeley Grout A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Classics Royal Holloway and Bedford New College, University of London Summer, 2016 Supervisor: Prof. Richard Alston, Department of Classics D M PAUL R. A. D’ALBRET BERKELEY AVUS CARISSIMUS DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP I, John Berkeley Grout, hereby affirm that this thesis and the work presented herein is entirely my own. Where I have consulted the work of others, this is always clearly indicated. Signed, John Berkeley Grout ABSTRACT This thesis is a study of the archaeology, epigraphy and historiography of Palmyrene temples and long- distance trade in early Roman Syria, Jordan, Lebanon and western Iraq. Forty-two temples are examined, both Palmyrene and comparanda, in both urban and rural settings. New models are proposed which characterise the roles which these temples are shown to have played in long-distance trade. These models include: ‘networking’ temples acting as foci for the network of trust upon which long-distance trade relied; ‘hosting’ temples acting as foci of trade itself, hosting fairs and exhibiting wealth from long-distance trade; and ‘supporting’ temples directly supporting trade via infrastructure such as waystations or caravanserais. New insight is thus provided into the role of temple institutions in the broader economy, in urban and rural life, and in the fabric of society as a whole. In the first part, fundamentals are established, terms defined and academic and historical background set, including the historiographical context of the thesis. The new models for the role of temples in long- distance trade are proposed in light of the evidence examined. A case study is made of Hatra as a comparandum to Palmyra, particularly with regard to the dominance of its temples. In the second part, the nature of long-distance trade in the Roman Near East is explored. The archaeology, epigraphy, literature and practicalities of ancient long-distance trade are examined, and a case study is made of Petra as a comparandum to Palmyra, particularly with regard to the incense trade which was crucial for ancient religion. In the third part, the temples of Palmyra and of Palmyrenes elsewhere, are examined, including in Dura-Europos and the Red Sea littoral. The evidence is interrogated in detail and in the context of previous research, and candidates for temples involved in or related to long-distance trade are identified. In the conclusion, the thesis is considered in the round, the consequences of the proposed models are explored, and areas for further research are identified. 1 CONTENTS Declaration of Authorship and Abstract 1 Contents 2 List of Images 4 Foreword 5 Part I: Temple Trade and Caravan Cities 9 Introduction and historiography I.1. ‘Temple Trade’ – A New Approach? 9 1.1 Space and time 9 1.2 Terminology 13 1.3 Methodology 16 1.4 New models for temples and trade 19 1.5 Ancient Sources 29 I.2 The Way Forward 34 2.1 Thesis outline 34 I.3 The State of Play 35 3.1 The ancient economy 35 3.2 Institutions and networks of trust 47 3.3 The Roman Near East: compendia and comparanda 50 3.4 Near-Eastern temples and long-distance trade 57 3.5 Categories of temple 67 3.6 Hatra: a case study 68 3.7 Further comparanda 96 I.4 Concluding Remarks 106 Part II: The Mechanics of Trade 108 The logistics of overland trade in the Roman Near East II.1 Introduction 108 II.2 Terms of the Modern Debate 110 2.1 Networks in the Roman Near East: trade, trust and religion 111 2.2 Granularity 114 2.3 Further remarks 115 II.3 Goods 116 3.1 Incense 119 3.2 Petra: a case study 122 II.4 Trajectories 150 4.1 The routes upriver from the Persian Gulf 151 4.2 The routes overland from the Persian Gulf 152 4.3 The Red Sea routes – the “Spice Route” 153 4.4 The routes along the spine of Arabia – the “Incense Road” 155 4.5 The Asian overland route – the “Silk Road” 157 2 II.5 Logistics of Overland Trade 158 5.1 The camel as a beast of burden 159 5.2 Infrastructure 167 5.3 Actors in trade 176 II.6 Fairs and markets 179 6.1 Baetocaece: a case study 182 II.7 From Mechanics to Models 186 Part III: Palmyra and Palmyrenes Abroad 188 Temples in the Palmyrene long-distance trade network III.1 Introduction 188 III.2 Historiography 190 III.3 Region and Routes 196 III.4 Site and Hinterland 199 4.1 The Tribes 204 4.2 The Temples 206 4.3 The Hinterland 213 III.5 Material 214 5.1 Epigraphy 215 5.2 Dura-Europos 232 5.3 Other Cities in the Roman Near East 250 5.4 The tetarte at Palmyra 254 5.5 The Red Sea and Beyond 259 III.6 Conclusion 264 Conclusion 267 Temples and religion in economy and society 1. Retrospective 267 1.1 The three roles of temples in trade 268 2. The Network of Trust 268 3. Hosting and Supporting Trade 270 4. Provision of Facilities 271 5. Placing Temples in the Palmyrene Trading Network 273 6. Final Remarks 273 Gazetteer of Temples 276 Acknowledgements 278 Bibliography 279 I: Abbreviations 279 II: Ancient Sources 280 III: Secondary Sources 282 3 LIST OF MAPS AND IMAGES Map 1 – Page 12 – Sites of Interest in the Roman Near East, 50 BC to 273 AD. Map 2 – Page 151 – The Routes Upriver from the Persian Gulf via Spasinou Charax. Map 3 – Page 153 – The Routes Overland from the Persian Gulf via Gerrha and Dumat. Map 4 – Page 154 – The Red Sea Routes via Myos Hormos, ‘Aila, and Leuke Kome. Map 5 – Page 156 – The Routes Along the Spine of Arabia via Petra, from Sheba. Map 6 – Page 157 – The Routes Overland from Asia – the so-called “Silk Road”. All maps are the creation of the author, using Antiquity À-la-Carte, Ancient World Mapping Centre, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Online: http://awmc.unc.edu Fig. 1 – Page 62 – A plan of the Sanctuary of Bel at Palmyra (Gazetteer, 1). Credit: Seyrig, H., Amy, R. and Will, E. (1975), Le Temple de Bel à Palmyre, Geuthner, Paris, Vol. 2, pl. 1 Fig. 2 – Page 80 – [left] An aerial photograph of Hatra’s ruins. Credit: Stierlin, H. (1987), Cités du desert: Pétra, Palmyre, Hatra; Éditions du Seuil, Paris – [right] A schematic plan of Hatra. Credit: Dirven, L. (ed.) (2013), Hatra, Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart, fig. 8 Fig. 3 – Page 83 – A plan of the Sanctuary of Shamash at Hatra (Gazetteer, 19). Credit: Dirven (ed.), Hatra, fig. 11 Fig. 4 – Page 87 – A plan of the small temples at Hatra. Credit: Dirven (ed.), Hatra, Stuttgart, fig. 2 Fig. 5 – Page 88 – A plan of Temple V at Hatra (Gazetteer, 20) Credit: Downey, S. B. (1988), Mesopotamian Religious Architecture, PUP, Princeton, fig. 80 Fig. 6 – Page 91 – A plan of Temple IX at Hatra (Gazetteer, 21) Credit: Downey (1988), fig. 85 Fig. 7 – Page 92 – A plan of Temple XI at Hatra (Gazetteer, 22) Credit: Downey (1988), fig. 87 Fig. 8 – Page 98 – A plan of the Sanctuary of Zeus Damascenus at Damascus (Gazetteer, 13). Credit: Burns, R. (2005), Damascus, a History, Routledge, Abingdon, fig. 6.1 Fig. 9 – Page 99 – A plan of the Great Temple at Philadelphia (Gazetteer, 34). Credit: Kanellopoulos, C. (1994), The Great Temple of Amman: the Architecture, American Centre of Oriental Research, Amman, Plan XII 4 Fig. 10 – Page 128 – An Indian elephant-head column capital from the Great Temple at Petra. Credit: Joukowsky, M. S. and Hogan, J. P. (2007) “Petra Great Temple Excavations: 2002.Fig78.elephant headed capital (image)” (Released 2007-11-12). Joukowsky, M. S. (Ed.) Open Context, Online. http://opencontext.org/media/E88997D8-3B21-4A6E-3E56-1A0C4238BB48 Fig. 11 – Page 135 – A plan of Petra. Credit: Talal Akasheh, Chrysanthos Kanellopoulos, American Center of Oriental Research – ACOR Fig. 12 – Page 136 – A plan of the Great Temple at Petra (Gazetteer, 33). Credit: Segal, A. (2013), Temples and Sanctuaries in the Roman East, Oxbow, Oxford, fig. 379 Fig. 13 – Page 138 – A new plan of the Temple of the Winged Lions at Petra (Gazetteer, 31) (close-up of Fig. 11). Credit: Talal Akasheh, Chrysanthos Kanellopoulos, American Center of Oriental Research – ACOR Fig. 14 – Page 139 – A plan of the Qasr al-Bint at Petra (Gazetteer, 30). Credit: Segal (2013), fig. 368 Fig. 15 – Page 143 – A plan of the Small Temple at Petra (Gazetteer, 32). Credit: Reid, S. K. (2005), The Small Temple: A Roman Imperial Cult Building in Petra, Jordan, Gorgias Press, New Jersey, fig. 49 Fig. 16 – Page 159 – A funerary bust of an unknown man, Palmyra, c. 150-160 AD. Credit: Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen Fig. 17 – Page 171 – A plan of the Temple of Zeus at Gerasa (Gazetteer, 18). Credit: Segal (2013), fig. 287 Fig. 18 – Page 182 – A plan of the Temple of Zeus at Baetocaece (Gazetteer, 11). Credit: Segal (2013), fig. 20 Fig. 19 – Page 199 – A plan of Palmyra. Credit: Ball, W. (2000), Rome in the East: the Transformation of an Empire, Routledge, London, fig 15 181 Fig. 20 – Page 207 – An eastward view of Palmyra from the Fakhr-al-Din al-Maani Castle. Taken by JBG, 22/10/2004 Fig. 21 – Page 208 – A plan of the Sanctuary of Allat (Gazetteer, 2) within the later ‘Camp of Diocletian’ at Palmyra.
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