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A Study of the Levantine Agricultural Economy (1St-8Th C. AD)

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A Study of the Levantine Agricultural Economy (1St-8Th C. AD) Society and economy in marginal zones: a study of the Levantine agricultural economy (1st-8th c. AD) Andrea Zerbini Department of Classics and Philosophy Royal Holloway University of London PhD in Classics 1 2 Abstract This thesis analyses the social and economic structures that characterised settlement in ecologically marginal regions in the Roman to early-Arab Levant (1st-8th c. AD). Findings show that, far from being self-sufficient, the economy of marginal zones relied heavily on surplus production aimed at marketing. The connection of these regions to large-scale commercial networks is also confirmed by ceramic findings. The thesis is structured in four main parts. The first outlines the main debates and research trends in the study of ancient agrarian society and economy. Part II comprises a survey of the available evidence for settlement patterns in two marginal regions of the Roman Near East: the Golan Heights, the jebel al-cArab. It also includes a small- scale test study that concentrates on the long-term development of the hinterland of Sic, a hilltop village in the jebel al-cArab, which housed one of the most important regional sanctuaries in the pre-Roman and Roman period. Parts III and IV contain the core the thesis and concentrate on the Limestone Massif of northern Syria, a region located between the cities of Antioch, Aleppo (Beroia) and Apamea. Following settlement development from the 2nd c. BC to the 12 c. AD, these sections provide a comprehensive assessment of how a village society developed out of semi-nomadic groups (largely through endogenous transformations) and was able to attain great prosperity in Late Antiquity. Epigraphic, archaeological and literary sources attest to a vibrant milieu of small-holders who were capable of climbing the social ladder. This was made possible by the economic capabilities of the region, and especially its capacity for surplus production of wine and oil, of which the thesis offers small-scale quantitative assessments (Dehes, Sergilla). Finally, continuity of settlement after the Arab takeover of the region is explored through the archaeological evidence. Continuity, it is argued, rested on the survival of an institutional framework that could maintain security (the Umayyad and early-Abbasid caliphate) and on the availability of a regional demand for local goods. 3 Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... 3 Table of contents .......................................................................................................................... 4 Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................... 7 Preface ......................................................................................................................................... 13 Part I. Settling marginal zones. Historiography and methodology Section 1.1. The historiography of the countryside from Niebuhr to The Corrupting Sea: two centuries of debate .................................................................................................................. 19 Section 1.1.1. The ancient countryside and the “battle of the ancient economy” from the German political economists to the post-Finley debate .................................................. 20 Section 1.1.2. Annales school from Febvre to The Corrupting Sea and beyond ............ 32 Section 1.1.3. Position of this study ................................................................................ 41 Section 1.2. Structuring the argument: relevant questions and approaches to the study of settlement of marginal zones .................................................................................................. 43 Part II. Marginal zones in Antiquity. The basalt lands of southern Levant ......................... 48 Section 2.1. The Golan Heights ............................................................................................... 48 Section 2.2.1. The jebel al-cArab .............................................................................................. 56 Section 2.2.2. The valley of Sic: a micro-regional case study of settlement development ...... 65 Part III. The Limestone Massif from the Hellenistic period to the third century AD ......... 83 Section 3.1. A fractured ecology .............................................................................................. 83 Section 3.2. A brief historiographical sketch ........................................................................... 89 From the XVII century to Georges Tate ......................................................................... 89 Tate’s Campagnes and the last twenty years of research in the massif .......................... 95 Section 3.3. Settlement patterns and the gestation of a village society: the Limestone Massif in the early Roman period (1st-3rd c. AD) ............................................................................ 102 Part IV. The Limestone Massif in Late Antiquity ................................................................ 136 Section 4.1. Outside forces in the Limestone Massif. Emperor, imperial officials and urbanite landlords from Diocletian to Heraclius .................................................................................. 137 Section 4.2. Late antique society ............................................................................................ 152 Section 4.3. Late antique economy ........................................................................................ 170 Section 4.4. Epilogue. After Byzantium ................................................................................. 210 General conclusions ................................................................................................................. 223 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 229 4 Maps ......................................................................................................................................... 258 Appendix 1. The Syrian diaspora (IV-VI c.) ......................................................................... 266 Appendix 2. A database of dated inscriptions from the Limestone Massif ....................... 273 List of Figures Fig. 2.1. The plan of the sanctuary of Baalshamin at Sic ............................................................. 68 Fig. 2.2. The cadastre of Kanatha ................................................................................................ 71 Fig. 2.3. The escarpment of Sic ................................................................................................... 72 Fig. 2.4. The dwelling complex known as Sia 101 ...................................................................... 73 Fig. 2.5. Plan of Sia 101 ............................................................................................................... 74 Fig. 2.6. The wineries of Sic ..................................................................................................... 76 Fig. 2.7. Winery Sia 21 ................................................................................................................ 76 Fig. 2.8. Catchment zones of wineries of Sic ............................................................................... 81 Fig. 3.1. Demographic growth based on chronology of building phases .................................... 99 Fig. 3.2. Distribution of personal names by origin of names in dated inscriptions (1st-2nd c. AD) ................................................................................................................................................... 105 Fig. 3.3. Tendencies in the onomastic pool over two generations (1st-2nd c. AD) ..................... 106 Fig. 3.4. Viewshed analysis of hilltop sanctuaries in the northern chains ................................ 108 Fig. 3.5. The village of Mecez with traces of regular street layouts and field patterns ............. 119 Fig. 3.6. The distyle monument of Sitt al-Rum ......................................................................... 124 Fig. 3.7. Field patterns between Sughaneh and Ibbin, north-eastern j.Semcan ......................... 131 Fig. 3.8. Field patterns between Ruweiha and Geradeh, north-eastern j.Zawiyé ...................... 131 Fig. 3.9. A mushac village (Saglaya) .......................................................................................... 133 Fig. 3.10. Evolution of mushac landholdings in the village of Tell Arrane (Aleppo) ................ 133 Fig. 4.1. A banquet scene carved in the N wall of the dromos of the tomb of Abedrapsas (Frikya, j.Zawiyé) .................................................................................................................................... 161 Fig. 4.2. Repartition of dated inscriptions (AD 0-499) ............................................................. 166 Fig. 4.3. Distribution of funerary inscriptions of Syrians from the massif (4th-6th c. AD) ...... 168 Fig. 4.4. Dehes, complex 101-9 ................................................................................................ 173 Fig. 4.5. Suggested reconstruction of Dehes 101-8.................................................................... 174 Fig. 4.6. Repartition of funerary and building inscriptions
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