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Blood, Lymph, and Immunity Joann Colville

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Blood, Lymph, and Immunity Joann Colville Blood, Lymph, and Immunity Joann Colville CHAPTER OUTLINE .»: BLOOD Function Introduction Lymphatic Structures Plasma THE IMMUNE SYSTEM Cellular Components of Blood Function Red Blood Cells Immune Reactions Platelets Immunization: Protection Against Disease White Blood Cells THE LYMPHATICSYSTEM Lymph Formation Characteristics LEARNING OBJECTIVES • List and describe the functions of blood • List the functions of the lymphatic system • Describe the composition of blood plasma • Describe the structure and functions of the lymph nodes, • Describe the characteristics of mature erythrocytes spleen, thymus, tonsils, and GALT Describe the structure of the hemoglobin molecule and • List the functions of the immune system explain the fate of hemoglobin following intravascular and • Differentiate between specific and nonspecific immune extravascular hemolysis reactions • Give the origin of thrombocytes and describe their • Differentiate between cell-mediated and humoral immunity characteristics and functions • List the components involved in cell-mediated immunity • Listthe types of leukocytes and describe the functions of each and explain the role of each • Describe the formation of lymph fluid and its circulation List and describe the classes of immunoglobulins through the lymphatic system • Differentiate between active and passive immunity BLOOD vessels of the cardiovascular system. It has three main func- tions: transportation, regulation, and defense. INTRODUCTION Blood. Say the word, and some people cringe, others faint, Function and if you believe authors Bram Stoker, Stephen King, and 1. Blood is a transport system. Christopher Moore (all authors of vampire books), others • It carries oxygen, nutrients, and other essential com- drool. But no matter what you think about blood, animals pounds to every living cell in the body. Oxygen is need it. In this section of the chapter, we'll explore the red, carried by hemoglobin in the red blood cells (RECs). sticky, salty fluid that is blood and find out how it keeps Nutrients and other essential compounds are dissolved animals alive and healthy. in the blood plasma. Blood is actually classified as a connective tissue. It is the • It carries the waste products of cellular metabolism, fluid connective tissue that flows all over the body in the primarily carbon dioxide, away from the cells to the 220 CHAPTER 9 Blood, Lymph, and Immunity 221 WASTE DISPOSAL ORGANS THAT EXCRETE THEM FROM THE BODy, MOST OFTEN THE LUNGS AND THE KIDneys. TABLE 9-1 Clotting Factors • It TRANSPORTS HORMONES FROM ENDOCRINE GLANDS TO TARGET Factor Number Common Name ORGANS. • It TRANSPORTS WHITE BLOOD CELLS (WBCs) FROM THE BONE I FibrINOGEN Marrow, WHERE THEY ARE PRODUCED, TO THE TISSUES WHERE II ProtHROMBIN THEY WILL DO THEIR WORK. III TiSSUE FACTOR • It TRANSPORTS PLATELETS TO THE SITE OF DAMAGE TO A BLOOD IV CaLCIUM VESSEL WAlL OnCE THERe, THE PLATELETS WILL FORM A CLUMP V PROACCELERIN TO TRY TO PREVENT BLOOD FROM ESCAPING OUT OF THE VI (Va) AcceLERIN vesseL VII Proconvertin 2. BLOOD IS A REGULATORY SYSTEm. VIII AnTIHEMOPHILIC FACTOR A • It AIDS IN REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE. BODY TEm- IX CHRISTMAS FACTor, ANTIHEMOPHILIC FACTOR B PERATURE REGULATORS ARE LOCATED IN THE BRAIN AND ARE X STUARt-PrOWER FACTOR PARTIALLY INFLUENCED BY THE TEMPERATURE OF THE BLOOD XI Plasma THROMBOPLASTIN ANTECEDENT THAT PASSES THROUGH OR OVER THEm. XII HAGEMAN FACTOR It AIDS IN TISSUE FLUID CONTENt. ThE NORMAL STATE OF THE XIII FibriN STABILIZING FACTOR BODY (homeostaSIS) IS A STATE IN WHICH, WITHIN VERY NARROW limits, THE COMPOSITION OF BODY TISSUE FLUID IS .•~£. MAINTAINED AS CONSTANT AS POSSIBLe. IF AN ANIMAL IS LOW IN TISSUE FLUID (DEHYDRATION) BECAUSE OF VOMITING, DIAr- RHea, PROFUSE SWEATINg, OR SOME PATHOLOGICAL CONDITION HORMONes, NUTRIENTs, AND DRUGS ARE EITHER DISSOLVED OR SUs- THAT CAUSES IT TO LOSE FLUID, SOME OF THE PLASMA (NOT THE PENDED. THE LIQUID PORTION OF BLOOD IS CALLED plasma. THE CELLS AND LARGER PROTEIN MOLECULES) WILL LEAVE THE BLood- CELLULAR PORTION OF BLOOD IS MADE UP OF RED BLOOD CELLS STREAM AND ENTER THE BODY TISSUES IN AN EFFORT TO Com- (erYthrocytes), WHITE BLOOD CELLS (leukocYtes), AND PLATELETS PENSATE FOR THE FLUID Loss. THIS LEAVES LESS PLASMA IN THE (thrombocYtes) (FiGURE 9-1). BLOODSTream, AND THE CELLS BECOME MORE CONCENTRATED (The TERM WHOLE BLOOD IS USED TO DENOTE BLOOD COn- (HEMOCONCENTRATION). If AN ANIMAL HAS TOO MUCH BODY TAINED IN THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM OR A SAMPLE THAT CON- FLUID, LIKE AFTER SUBCUTANEOUS FLUIDS ARE ADMINISTERED, TAINS PLASMA AND ALL ITS CELLULAR COMPONENTS. Peripheral THE EXCESS FLUID WILL ENTER THE BLOODSTREAm. This EXTRA BLOOD IS WHOLE BLOOD THAT FLOWS THROUGH THE BLOOD VESSELS FLUID IN THE PLASMA DILUTES THE CELLS (hemodilution). THAT CARRY BLOOD TO AND FROM THE HEART AND LUngs. PERIPHERAL It AIDS IN REGULATION OF BLOOD PH (ACid-bASE BALANCE). BLOOD CAN BE DRAWN INTO A SYRINGE OR TUBE FOR LABORATORY NormaL BLOOD PH FALLS IN A RANGE OF 7.35 TO 7.45, WITH ANALYSIS. THE IDEAL BEING 7.4 (SLIGHTLY ALKALINe). SeE CHAPTER 10 FOR A MORE DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF BLOOD pH. BlOOD MUST PLASMA BE MAINTAINED WITHIN THIS NARROW RANGE FOR THE ANIMAL PlASMA IS THE FLUID PORTION OF A BLOOD SAMPLE. It MAKES UP TO REMAIN IN A STATE OF HOMEOSTASIS. ThEREFORe, THE pH FROM 45% TO 78% OF BLOOD VOLUME DEPENDING ON THE SPECIES MUST REMAIN SLIGHTLY ALKALINE IN AN EFFORT TO BUFFER THE OF THE ANIMAL AND THE SIZE OF ITS RED BLOOD CELLs. In SPECIES ACIDIC WASTE PRODUCTS OF CELLULAR METABOLISM THAT IT WITH SMALL RED BLOOD CELls, SUCH AS GOATS AND CATs, PLASMA CARRIes. The PH OF ARTERIAL BLOOD IS SLIGHTLY MORE ALKa- MAKES UP A LARGER PERCENTAGE OF THE BLOOD SAMPLE. In SPECIES LINE THAN THAT OF VENOUS BLOOD (BLOOD THAT HAS PICKED WITH LARGER RED BLOOD CELLs, LIKE DOGS, PLASMA MAKES UP A UP THE WASTE PRODUCTs). SMALLER PORTION OF THE BLOOD SAMple. To SHOW HOW THIS 3. BLOOD IS A DEFENSE SYSTem. works, LET'S SAY YOU HAD TWO IDENTICAL GLASSES AND YOU PUT • White BLOOD CELLS PROVIDE DEFENSE FROM FOREIGN invad- 100 BBs (TO REPRESENT SMALL RED BLOOD CELLS) IN ONE AND 100 ERS INTO THE BODY THROUGH PHAGOCYTOSIS (INGESTING THE MARBLES (LARGE RED BLOOD CELLs) IN THE OTHER. ThEN IF YOU FILLED INVADERS) OR THROUGH THEIR INVOLVEMENT IN IMMUNITY. THE GLASSES THE REST OF THE WAY WITH WATer, YOU'D BE ABLE TO • In ADDITION TO THE PLATELETS THAT ARE FOUND IN BLOOD, PUT MORE WATER IN THE GLASS WITH THE BBs. ThiS GLASS WOULD THERE ARE 13 CLOTTING FACTORS FOUND IN BLOOD THAT ARE BE LIKE AN ANIMAL WITH SMALL RED BLOOD CELLs. Red BLOOD CELLS NECESSARY FOR BLOOD TO CLOt. ThESE FACTORS ARE ACTIVATED MAKE UP THE NEXT LARGEST COMPONENT OF BLOOD AFTER PLASMa. WHEN A BLOOD VESSEL WALL IS DAMAged. ThE CLOTTING The WHITE BLOOD CELLS AND PLATELETS MAKE UP A SMALL PORTION PROCESS IS VERY COMPLex, AND IF ONE CLOTTING FACTOR IS OF THE TOTAL VOLUME OF THE BLOOD SAMPLE. MISSINg, BLOOD WILL NOT CLOT. ThE CLOTTING FACTORS ARE PLASMA IS ABOUT 93% WATER. It CONTAINS MANY SUBSTANCES LISTED IN TaBLE 9-1. DISSOLVED OR SUSPENDED IN it. PLASMA PROTEINS SUCH AS Albumin, Globulins, AND FIBRINOGEN MAKE UP THE MAJORITY OF Composition THESE SUBSTANCes. THE GASES MOST ABUNDANT IN PLASMA ARE BlOOD IS A FLUID IN WHICH CELLS AND CELL FRAGMENTS ARE OXYGEN, CARBON DIOXIDe, AND NITROGEN. LIPIDs, AMINO ACIDs, SUSPENded; AND COMPOUNDS SUCH AS oxygen, ELECTROLYTES, METABOLIC WASTes, AND ELECTROLYTES SUCH AS SODIUM, POTAS- 222 Chapter 9 Blood, Lymph, and Immunity Plasma (percentage by weight) Proteins ~ ~ 7% ~ Percentage ~ Percentage by by volume body weight ~ Water ~ ~ 91% ~ C-Ions =:> 0utrients=:> Plasma Other solutes 2% ¢ 55% C§"ste Prod~ Gases Formed elements C -=::> (number per cubic mm) ~ ----- ~ Platelets ~ 200-500 thous. ¢ Figure 9-1 Composition of blood. Values are approximate for blood components in normal adult dogs. sium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, and bicarbonate ions The hydration of the patient can also be a factor in plasma are also found in plasma. When systemic drugs are admin- color. In a dehydrated patient all the constituents of plasma, istered to an animal, they are carried to their site of action including bilirubin, are more concentrated. This could result by plasma. Frequently, these drugs have to attach themselves in deeper yellow-colored plasma. to a transport plasma protein such as albumin to make themselves soluble in the plasma. A whole blood sample appears red because of the many red blood cells suspended in the plasma. The blood cells make it impossible to see through the sample. If the blood cells are removed from the sample, the remaining plasma will appear transparent and varying degrees of yellow. The f an animal has eaten just prior to a blood sample being intensity of the yellow color of plasma is determined by the Idrawn, the plasma may appear cloudy due to fat from the concentration of hemoglobin breakdown products in digested food suspended in the plasma. This condition is the plasma. Hemoglobin is the protein in red blood cells referred to as postprandial lipemia (postprandial means that gives them their red color and enables them to carry after eating, and lipemia means fat in the blood), and it large amounts of oxygen. When worn out, red blood cells can make the plasma or serum unsuitable for laboratory analysis, depending on the analytical method used. For this are removed from circulation and the hemoglobin is broken reason, blood samples for laboratory analysis should be down and released. The breakdown products of hemoglobin drawn before an animal is fed or a couple of hours after include bilirubin, which is yellow (more on this when we feeding. discuss hemoglobin later). Chapter 9 Blood, Lymph, and Immunity 223 • CLINICAL APPLICATION !fi.~Anti~~~g~l~nt~, Pi-~sma,~nd Serum emember the blood clotting factors that were mentioned Rearlier? These factors need to be present in sufficient quantities for blood to clot.
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