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Notes and References Notes and References A Comparative Introduction 1. Max Lowenthal, The Federal Bureau of Investigation (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1950), 3-4. 2. Maurice La Porte, Histoire de VOkhrana la police secrete de tsars, 1880-1917 (Paris: Payot, 1935). 3. Richard J. Johnson, 'Zagranichnaia Agentura: the Tsarist Political Police in Europe', JCH 1 (January-April 1972); D.C.B. Lieven, 'The Security Police, Civil Rights, and the Fate of the Russian Empire, 1855-1917', in Civil Rights in Imperial Russia, ed. Olga Crisp and Linda Edmondson (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 235-262; Nurit Schleifman, 'The Internal Agency: Linchpin of the Political Police in Russia', Cahiers du monde Russe et Sovietique 24 (1983): 151-77: Nurit Schleifman, Undercover Agents in the Russian Revolutionary Movement: The SR Party, 1902-1914 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1988); Fredric S. Zuckerman, 'Vladimir Burtsev and the Tsarist Politial Police in Conflict, 1907-1914', JCH 12 (January 1977), 193-219: F.S. Zuckerman, 'Self-Imagery and the Art of Propaganda: V.K. von Plehve as Propagandist', The Australian Journal of Politics and History 28 (1982): 68-82: Fredric S. Zuckerman, 'Political Police and Revolution: The Impact of the 1905 Revolution on the Tsarist Secret Police', JCH 27 (1992): 279-300. 4. A. Fryar Calhoun, 'The Politics of Internal Order: French Government and Revolutionary Labor, 1898-1914' (PhD diss., Princeton University, 1973), 4. 5. Barton L. Ingraham, Political Crime in Europe: A Comparative Study of France, Germany and England (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1979), 26. 6. Ingraham, Political Crime in Europe, 115-16, 218-19, 318. 7. Calhoun, 'The Politics of Internal Order', vii, 25, 114-15, 603; Brian Chapman, Police State (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1970), 45. 8. Ingraham, Political Crime in Europe, 120, 199. 9. Calhoun, 'The Politics of Internal Order', 69; Chapman, Police State , 87-8. 10. Calhoun, 'The Politics of Internal Order', 70; Bernard Porter, The Origins of the Vigilant State: The London Metropolitan Police Special Branch Before the First World War (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1987), 125-6. 11. Ingraham, Political Crime in Europe, 169. 12. Ibid., 26. 13. Calhoun, 'The Politics of Internal Order', 63-4; Alf Liidtke, Police and State in Prussia, 1815-1850, trans. Pete Burgess (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), xvii. 14. Calhoun, 'The Politics of Internal Order', 17, 119-20, 122-3; Raymond Fosdick, European Police Systems (New York: Century Co., 1915), 142-3; Porter, The Origins of the Vigilant State, xiii, 176-7; Bernard Porter, Plots and Paranoia: A History of Political Espionage in Britain 1790-1988 (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989), 232. 15. Fredric Scott Zuckerman, 'The Russian Political Police at Home and Abroad (1880-1917): Its Structure, Functions, and Method, and Its Struggle with the 253 254 Notes and References Organized Opposition', (PhD diss., New York University, 1973), especially chapters 10-11. 16. Ingraham, Political Crime in Europe, 319; Calhoun, 'The Politics of Internal Order', 6, 19, 606; Porter, Origins of the Vigilant State, 116. 17. Calhoun, 'The Politics of Internal Order', 601. 18. Discussions on the nature of that culture are readily available. For example, Edward L. Keenan, 'Muscovite Political Folkways', RR 45 (April 1986): 115-81; Richard Pipes, Russia Under the Old Regime (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1974; Penguin Books, 1977). 19. Pipes, Russia Under the Old Regime, 22. 20. Keenan, 'Muscovite Political Folkways', 143, 147, 159; Arno Mayer, The Persistence of the Old Regime: Europe to the Great War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981), 120; Pipes, Russia Under the Old Regime, 24, 68, 71, 94; Hans Rogger, Russia in the Age of Modernization and Revolution 1881-1917 (London and New York: Longman, 1983), 7, 15, 29. The complexity of these rituals and the difficulty present-day scholars have had in understanding their roles is exemplified by the following studies: Hilju Bennet, 'The Chin System and the Raznochintsy in the Government of Alexander III, 1881-1894' (PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1971); Hilju A. Bennet, 'Evolution of the Meanings of Chin: An Introduction to the Russian Institution of Rank Ordering and Niche Assignment from the Time of Peter the Great's Table of Ranks to the Bolshevik Revolution', California Slavic Studies 10 (1977): 1-43; L.E. Shepelev, Otmenennye istoriei chiny, zvaniia i tituly v Rossiiskoi lmperii (Leningrad: 1977). 21. W. Bruce Lincoln, The Great Reforms (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1990). 22. Keenan, 'Muscovite Political Folkways', 126, 162; Robert F. Byrnes, 'Pobedonostsev on the Instruments of Russian Government', in Continuity and Change in Russian and Soviet Thought, ed. Ernest J. Simmons (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1955), 115. 23. Ingraham, Political Crime in Europe, 19-22. 24. Pipes, Russia Under the Old Regime, 315. 25. Ibid., 302; Mayer, The Persistence of the Old Regime, 304-5. 26. Rogger, Russia in the Age of Modernization, 11-12. Chapter 1 1. The phrases 'state crime' and 'state criminal' appear repeatedly throughout this work in their Russian context. In that context these phrases refer to so-called politi­ cal crimes described most thoroughly in Articles 1030 and 1031 of the Code of Criminal Procedure (Ustav Ugolovnogo Sudoproizvodstva) covering the following important political offences: (a) acts directed against the life, personal welfare, liberty and general inviolability of the persons of the tsar, tsaritsa and heir and attempts to dethrone the reigning tsar and to limit the content of his supreme author­ ity; (b) forceful attempts to alter the succession to the throne, change the form of government, or alienate Russian territory; (c) insulting or threatening the persons, or violating the images of the tsar, tsaritsa and heir; (d) state treason including such acts as serving in hostile armies, espionage, unauthorised revelations of vital secrets, sabotage of defence installations or supplies, incitement of desertion to the enemy; (e) sedition including participation in a public gathering deliberately organised to Notes and References 255 express disrespect for the reigning monarch or to censure the form of government or to demonstrate sympathy with mutiny and treason. Article 1031 lists the following acts construed as state crimes: (a) the failure of officials to prevent or suppress political crimes; (b) the failure to report such crimes; (c) the suppression or tampering with evidence; (d) harbouring state criminals; (e) counterfeiting the state or other Imperial seals. Compare these criteria for identifying political criminal acts with those listed by Ingraham for western Europe and repeated in the preceding Introduction. The com­ parison is noteworthy, particularly for the different emphases. 2. Richard Pipes, Russia Under the Old Regime (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1974: Penguin Books, 1977), 293-5. 3. Heidi Whelan, Alexander HI & the State Council: Bureaucracy & Counter-Reform in Late Imperial Russia (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1981), 47-8. 4. I.V. Orzhekhovskii, Samoderzhavie protiv Revoliutsionnoi Rossii (Moscow: 1982), 61,66,78,81. 5. Ibid., 123-4; Pipes, Russia Under the Old Regime 290, 296-7. 6. Orzhekhovskii, Samoderzhavie protiv Revoliutsionnoi Rossii, 172-3; Pipes, Russia Under the Old Regime, 304. 7. N.I. Falaev, 'Rossiia pod okhranoi', Byloe, no. 10 (22): 9. 8. The Ministry of Internal Affairs provided a Special Commission under the chair­ manship of the assistant minister managing the Department of Police to adjudicate cases of administrative exile. The composition of the Commission changed regu­ larly, but it always included four civil servants, two from the Ministry of Internal Affairs and two from the Ministry of Justice. The minister of internal affairs confirmed the decisions made by the Special Commission. 9. A.S. Suvorin, DnevnikA.S. Suvorina (Moscow: 1923), 232. 10. Astrid von Borcke, 'Violence and Terror in Revolutionary Populism: The Narodnaya Volya 1879-1883', in Social Protest, Violence and Terror in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Europe, ed. Wolfgang Mommsen and Gerhard Hershfeld (New York: St Martin's Press, 1982), 48. 11. Jacob Walkin, The Rise of Democracy in Pre-Revolutionary Russia: Political and Social Institutions Under the Last Three Tsars (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1962), 55-7. 12. Ernest V. Hollis Jr, 'Police Systems of Imperial and Soviet Russia'. MS Bakhmeteff Archive, Columbia University, 207. For a thorough analysis of the Emergency Statute see V.M. Gessen, lskliuchiteVnoe polozhenie (St Petersburg: 1908). For the legislative background leading up to the promulgation of the Statute see Falaev, 'Rossiia pod okhranoi', 1-43. P.A. Zaionchkovskii offers a masterful discussion of the Emergency Statute within the context of Alexander Ill's reign in P.A. Zaionchkovskii, Rossiiskoe samoderzhavie v kontse XIX stoletiia, (politicheskiaia reaktsiia 80 -X - nachala 90 -X godov (Moscow: 1970). 13. Falaev, 'Rossiia pod okhranoi', 24. 14. A.I. Spiridovich, 'Pri tsarskom rezhime', ARR 15 (1924): 137-8. While the gen­ darmes may have equated some of the more humane prosecutors with defence attornies, defence attornies themselves were frustrated by their lack of access to the evidence unearthed during the gendarmes' preliminary investigations. The tsarist government established several successive commissions (in 1894, 1901 and 1908) to tackle this problem, but nothing came of their efforts. N.A. Troitskii, Tsarizm pod sudom progressivnoi
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