Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110913
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
Electric vehicles and charging infrastructure in Turkey: An overview
¨ a,b a,b ¨ a,* Omer Gonül¨ , A. Can Duman , Onder Güler a Istanbul Technical University, Energy Institute, Ayazaga Campus, 34469, Maslak, Istanbul,˙ Turkey b Turkish-German University, Department of Energy Science and Technology, 34820, Beykoz-Istanbul, Turkey
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Keywords: The depletion of fossil resources, energy dependency, increase in fuel costs and environmental concerns caused Electric vehicle (EV) by fossil fuel vehicles, along with the advances in battery technology and their manufacturing processes have Charging station promoted a transition towards electric vehicles (EV). Depending on inner and external factors, some countries Renewable integration fastly adopted the new technology, whereas others act more slowly. In this study, an overview of Turkey’s Energy policy position in EV technology is presented. The current EV, charging infrastructure, and battery market, as well as Vehicle to grid (V2G) & Turkey EV-related regulations, research and development (R D) activities, and industry in the country are evaluated. An EV charging station (EVCS) density map of Turkey is formed to illustrate the deficienciesin the existing charging infrastructure. The challenges and opportunities in the country are discussed and presented in the form of a Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis and the study is concluded with a list of recommendations. Currently, the public in Turkey is focused on the state-supported “local brand EV” project. However, the acceptance of EVs is still low in the country. To that end, social awareness-raising activities, especially electric public transportation and electric public fleets, should be promoted for EVs to achieve their higher visibility. The EVCS infrastructure should be further expanded in the eastern part of Turkey and further steps should be taken regarding EV/EVCS-related incentives.
1. Introduction with no gasoline engine. The battery power is used to drive an electric motor and onboard electronics. A PHEV consists of an electric motor Today, whether passenger or commercial, the vast majority of ve with a battery and a gasoline engine. The battery energy is both supplied hicles are fossil-fueled. The total number of vehicles worldwide was by grid power and regenerative brakes. An HEV contains an electric 1.282 billion in 2015 (947 million passengers, 335 million commercial) motor and a gasoline engine. Unlike a PHEV, HEV battery connected to and this figureis expected to reach 2 billion by 2030 [1,2]. An average of the electric motor is only charged by regenerative braking [8]. 93.8 million vehicles was produced annually between 2014 and 2018 Despite their high costs today, BEVs are reported to become worldwide [3,4]. The bulk of the production belongs to internal com competitive to ICEVs on a life cycle basis by 2030 [2]. Although larger bustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), which are a large source of CO2 emis sales shares of PHEVs than BEVs are expected in the short-term pro sions. Today, approximately 20% of the total CO2 emissions in the world jections (until 2030), the picture is not clear for the medium-to long- arise from the transportation sector and 71% of the transportation sector term [9]. Yet, current literature reviews suggest that BEVs and PHEVs is due to road transportation [5,6]. In this regard, many manufacturers have higher potential than HEVs to constitute our next generation of continue to work on integrating energy recovery and carbon emission transportation [10]. reduction technologies into ICEVs. Many countries aim to achieve their greenhouse gas (GHG) mitiga Taking into account environmental concerns and depletion of fossil tion targets by promoting EVs. In the European Union (EU) in 2013, fuel reserves, “transportation electrification” has become one of the BEVs allowed potential GHG savings compared to ICEVs between 50 and strongest technological alternatives to gasoline vehicles. In this regard, 60% [11]. In the USA, if all light-duty vehicles were replaced by EVs, electric vehicles (EVs) have started to become widespread in recent then GHGs could be reduced by 25% and oil consumption by less than years. There are mainly three types of EVs, namely, battery EV (BEV), 67% [12]. Yet, EVs are not carbon neutral. EV and battery plug-in hybrid EV (PHEV), and hybrid EV (HEV) [7]. BEV is a fully EV manufacturing [13,14] and battery recycling processes increase the
* Corresponding author. ¨ E-mail address: [email protected] (O. Güler). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.110913 Received 5 August 2020; Received in revised form 22 January 2021; Accepted 28 February 2021 Available online 8 March 2021 1364-0321/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. ¨ O. Gonül¨ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110913 carbon and material footprint of EVs. The material footprint of EVs is reported to be not lower than ICEVs [15]. EVs do not only help to mitigate CO2 emissions but also are capable to integrate with renewable energy systems (RES), especially with PVs in urban areas [16–18]. The efficiencyof EV-RES integration can be further increased by performing smart charging [19,20] and demand-side management (DSM) methods [21,22]. EVs have great potential to help to minimize the “Duck Curve” phenomenon caused by high PV pene tration during midday [23], and with the implementation of smart charging strategies, they can even reduce grid operating costs by smoothing the demand profile [24]. EVs are expected to become a crucial part of future grid network under the concept of smart grids [18]. An EV battery is capable of realizing technologies such as vehicle-to-grid (V2G) [25,26], vehicle-to-home (V2H) [27,28] and vehicle-to-building (V2B) [29,30], as well as, home-to-vehicle (H2V) and building-to-vehicle (B2V) in a bi-directional energy transfer manner [31]. Any purpose of EV battery outside of the vehicle, in short called vehicle-to-everything (V2X), can balance out electricity demand and avoid any unnecessary costs for infrastructure expanding [32]. Today, the main challenges of the EVs are twofold: their impact on Fig. 1. Global EV sales. the grid network [33,34] and their social acceptance [35]. High pur chase prices of EVs, long duration of fueling, lack of enough charging infrastructure in some countries, and battery replacement [36] are the most critical from the consumers’ point of view. The trends, infrastructure studies, potential technologies in the field of electro-mobility have been handled and discussed in detail in the literature for the United States [37], China [38,39], Japan [40], Australia [41], Spain [42], Germany [43], Poland [44], Lithuania [45], Portugal [46] and Austria [47,48]. The EV market in Turkey is still in its infancy stage. Although some developments and initiatives have emerged in recent years, the number of registered EVs is still low and there is a lack of legislative and political support for the improvement and stimulation of the EV market. There fore, a comprehensive assessment of EVs and EV-related sub-sectors (electric vehicle charging stations (EVCS), battery technologies, research and development (R&D) studies, and industry) in Turkey is provided in this study. The local challenges and opportunities are dis cussed and within the context of Turkey; 1) The competitive position of Turkey in the global EV market is discussed in terms of fueling costs since Turkey has low electricity prices and high gasoline prices, 2) Since Turkey has revealed an ambitious target of unveiling a “local brand vehicle” and it has become a state policy, this exceptional state- supported venture is analyzed, 3) An EVCS density map of Turkey is Fig. 2. Future trend of EV sales (adopted from Ref. [52]). formed to discuss the non-homogeneous distribution of EVCSs in the country and to give a direction to future EVCS installations. The dis 2. A brief review of EV, charging infrastructure and battery cussion part is summarized with a SWOT analysis of EVs in Turkey, and market lastly, a list of policy recommendations with a roadmap towards EV transition in the country is presented. It is expected that the outcomes of 2.1. EV market this study will attract attention in the relevant circles by providing recommendations for individuals, businesses, and decision-makers. The firstEVs appeared in the late 1800s [49]. The lack of advanced This paper is organized as follows; Section 2 and Section 3 present an battery technologies, weakness of electrical networks, and the rise of the overview of EV, EVCS, and battery markets in the world and Turkey, cheap oil era resulted in the rapid development of ICEVs. Today, with respectively. Section 4 introduces EV-related regulations in the country. the depletion of fossil resources, energy dependency, and arising envi Section 5, summarizes R&D activities of the public and private sectors in ronmental concerns, EVs have started to gain popularity again. Espe Turkey. Section 6 carries out a cost comparison analysis of EV battery cially in the last decade, the global EV market had an explosive growth charging and ICEV refueling among G20 countries. Section 7 discusses rate (Fig. 1). Global EV sales of 2000 in 2010 reached 765,000 in the first the factors influencing the development of the EV market in Turkey, half of 2019 [50]. evaluates the EVCS infrastructure in the country taking into account Among the top EV sales, China has the highest numbers in line with renewable energy integration, and provides a SWOT analysis to present its population, resources, supportive policies, and aggressive production a general view of all positive and negative determinants. Finally, Section strategy [51]. In the firsthalf of 2019, 430.7 thousand EV sales, which is 8 presents the conclusion. more than half of the global sales, were made in China [50]. China is followed by the USA, Norway, Germany, and France, respectively. Global EV sales were roughly 0.8 million in the firsthalf of 2019 and constituted a small portion of the total vehicle sales. Yet, EV sales are
2 ¨ O. Gonül¨ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110913
Table 1 The EV-related announcements of the manufacturers (adopted from Refs. [59, 61]). Manufacturers Announcement
BMW 25 new EV models and 15–25% of total sales in 2025. BJEV-BAIC 0.5 million EV sales in 2020 and 1.3 million in 2025. Chongqing 21 new BEV and 12 new PHEV models and 1.7 million sales by Changan 2025 (100% of total sales). Dongfeng Motor 6 new EV models and 30% EV sales share in 2022. Geely 1 million EV sales in 2020. GM 20 new EV models by 2023. Nio 0.15 million EV sales in 2021 and enter the European market after the H2 of 2021. Maruti Suzuki 35 thousand sales in 2021 and 1.5 million in 2030. Mercedes Benz 100 thousand sales in 2020, 10 new EV models by 2022. PSA Group 0.9 million sales in 2022. SAIC Motor 0.2 million by 2020 and 1 million sales by 2025. Tesla Around 0.5 million sales in 2019, 0.5 million annual production capacity for Model 3, and a new model in 2030. Toyota 1 million BEV and FCEV sales around 2030. Volkswagen 0.4 million EV sales in 2020, up to 3 million EV sales in 2025, 80 new EV models by 2025, and 22 million cumulative sales by 2030. Fig. 3. The top countries in the market share of EVs in 2019. Volvo 50% of the group’s sales to be BEV by 2025.
vehicle market (Fig. 3) Norway is the leading country in this respect with an EV share of 49.1% in 2019 [53–56]. By 2025, the country aims to ban the sale of all fossil fuel cars and apply high taxes to high-emission cars and low taxes to low emission cars [57]. The other EU countries provide various tax reductions and incentives as well, as detailed in the next section. Although these measures positively affect EV sales in some countries, in others, the desired level has not been reached yet [58]. Norway’s success is not only due to the country’s effective policies but also the high purchasing power of the country. EV sales are generally higher in economically more developed countries where they are more affordable. Fig. 4 shows the correlation between GDP per capita and EV market share in EU countries [53]. The countries with GDP per capita below € 29,000 have EV market share of less than 1%, whereas, the countries with GDP per capita above € 42,000 have a market share of more than 3.5%. Norway has the largest EV market share (49.1%) among the EU countries with its GDP per capita of € 73,200. Portugal serves as a good example as to how state policies and policy design can impact EV sales. Despite its lower GDP per capita in Europe, Portugal has a relatively high EV share of 3.4%.
2.2. EV targets
With the increasing trend of EVs, existing ICEV manufacturers have started to introduce new EV models in recent years. Most of the major manufacturers announced their targets in the industry over the next 5–10 years [59]. As presented in Table 1, besides well-known automo tive giants, many new manufacturers have recently emerged in the global market, looking to take a share. Especially Chinese original equipment manufacturing (OEM) companies Chongqing Changan, Fig. 4. Correlation between GDP per capita and EV market share in Dongfeng Motor, and Geely have announced ambitious targets. The EU countries. emergence of new manufacturers is due to the fact that EVs have less moving parts compared to ICEVs, their components are relatively easier expected to catch up with ICEV sales in the coming 20 years. Fig. 2 to manufacture and repair, and the EV market is a new market waiting to shows the future trend of EV sales and their proportion in global sales. be exploited [60]. According to Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF) EV Outlook 2020 report, the EV sales will reach approximately 26 million in 2030 and 55 2.3. Charging technology and infrastructure million in 2040, which account for 30% and 58% of the global sales respectively [52]. Also, BNEF estimates that EV sales will increase Battery charging technologies can be categorized as conductive significantly in China, the USA, and Europe until 2035, and after that, charging, wireless (inductive) charging, battery swapping, and mobile the number of sales will start to increase in the rest of the world. For charging, in terms of energy transfer modes (Fig. 5). In conductive instance, China’s 40% share in global sales in 2035 is expected to fall to charging, power is transferred through a conductor. This technology can 35% in 2040 [52]. be realized with on-board and off-board chargers. On-board chargers are Today, European states come to the fore among the EV sales in the located inside EVs and this type of charging is utilized for slow charging
3 ¨ O. Gonül¨ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110913
Fig. 5. EV charging technologies.
Table 2 EV charging modes.
Mode Charging Voltage Max Connection Specifications type (V) current (A)
#1 AC (slow) 120 16 Standard No communication socket between EV and charging points. It might be unsafe. #2 AC (slow) 240 32 Via special The cable equipped cable with In-cable Control and Protection Device (IC-CPD) #3 AC (semi- 250 32–250 Special Commonly used for fast) cable public EVCSs which through the also supply control, EVCS communication, and protection processes #4 DC (fast) 600 400 Dedicated For DC charging socket AC/DC converter through located in the EVCS. EVCS All control, communication, Fig. 6. The total number of charging stations in EU countries. and protection operations actualize within EVCS drivers instantly exchange their depleted batteries with full ones without waiting for long charging times. In battery swapping, drivers do not worry about battery life or maintenance since all processes are per [62]. On the other hand, off-board chargers are located outside EVs at formed by service suppliers [66]. However, the main drawback is that stationary points and provide fast charging. Today, the most used there is no standardization of battery types. Since each EV model or charging type is conductive charging and it consists of different modes. brand have different battery size and design, this type of service is The widely accepted IEC 62196 standard (Plugs, socket-outlets, mainly model- or brand-specific [67]. On the other hand, swappable vehicle couplers, and vehicle inlets – Conductive charging of EVs) cat batteries most of the time belong to energy companies, and therefore, egorizes four charging modes for EVs in terms of charging types, voltage battery swapping has a reducing effect on the high sticker prices of EVs. and current levels (Table 2) [34]. The mode 1 charging type, in which Mobile charging has recently emerged as an alternative to fixed EV is directly connected with a wall plug, is not valid in some countries stations. Mobile charging stations are on the go and do not require due to safety problems [63]. Other types of charging gain importance infrastructure investments. In this charging scheme, a driver requests a according to the place of use. Mode 2 is generally used in private homes mobile charging unit via a mobile application and through a data center, or office buildings and provides slow charging [42]. Mode 3 is a and a system operator immediately fulfills the request [68]. A mobile semi-fast version of AC charging used in EVCSs to supply the demand charging unit constitutes of a charger on a minivan. This scheme is not fast. Mode 4 which is DC fast charging type used commercially which widely used and prices may be higher than other options due to the offers significant gains in terms of battery charging duration. Yet, it service tailored to a driver’s request. requires special design and infrastructure facilities. The number of EVCSs is on the rise as well, along with the number of Inductive or commonly known as wireless charging utilizes an EVs. In Europe, the total number of EVCSs which were 2379 in 2011, electromagnetic field to transfer power to EV battery. Whereas this increased dramatically in 2015 and reached the limit of 50,000. After technique does not require plugging and unplugging, the major disad 2015, the number increased by more than 3 times and reached 165,000 vantages are high power loss, low efficiency, and low energy transfer as of 2019 (Fig. 6). Besides, the number of fast-charging stations have ability [64,65]. started to increase in recent years. While there was no fast charging unit Battery swapping or exchanging is another concept in which the in the EU countries in 2011, their number reached 3396 in 2015 and
4 ¨ O. Gonül¨ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110913
2.4. Battery technology and market
The energy required to drive electric motors in EVs is supplied by batteries, and the development of high specificenergy batteries and the gradual decrease in prices can undoubtedly be considered as the most critical stages in the development and widespread use of EV technology. The energy density or specificenergy of the battery pack should be at a reasonable level, and technology that offers high specificenergy should also be at acceptable prices. The change in average lithium-ion battery pack prices in the last decade is given in Fig. 7 [73]. While the average battery pack price was 1182.9 USD/kWh in 2010, it decreased to 156 USD/kWh in 2019. In the EV market, the average specificenergy of EV battery cells is 240–300 Wh kg 1 [74]. Lithium ferro phosphate (LFP), lithium cobalt oxide (LCO), lithium manganese oxide (LMO), nickel cobalt aluminum (NCA), and nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) are the most common cathodes used in EV batteries. In Table 3, the EV battery technologies are compared according to different criteria [75]. In recent years, nickel-based technology has been preferred for price-performance because the nickel content offers high energy density and low price. 16% of EVs used NMC cathodes (NMC 622 and above) in 2019 compared to 7% in 2018. Besides, the use of LFP cathode technology declined from Fig. 7. Li-ion battery pack price trend [73]. 9.1% in 2018 to 4.6% in 2019 [74]. On the other hand, there are some new researches on battery technologies such as metal-air battery [42], became 17,056 in 2019 [69]. graphene battery [76], solid-state battery [77], aluminum battery [78], The number of EVCSs in the United States (24,943) is lower than in and lithium-sulfur battery to reduce charging time, to improve life span Europe [70], whereas, in China, the number is twice of Europe according and to provide higher energy density [79]. to the Chinese Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Agency (EVCIPA). As of January 2019, there exist 330,000 public EVCSs in China [71]. 2.5. Incentives The reason for the increase in the number of fast-charging units is that the drivers want to adapt to new technology without losing their EV incentives applied in selected countries are presented in Table 4 ongoing habits and the current refueling comfort they have with ICEVs. [71,80–83]. Purchase subsidies and tax benefits are the main two in Fast charging shortens the fueling duration and especially becomes a centives today for EVs. All countries except China, Norway, and Turkey necessity during long trips. Yet, compared to a few minutes of fueling provide purchase subsidies, and all countries except Canada apply tax duration of ICEVs, the duration of fast charging is still longer, and EVCSs benefits. Almost half of the countries provide incentives for EV pro should further be developed in this regard [72]. duction and charging infrastructure. Spain and the United Kingdom apply all the above-mentioned incentives. In addition to incentives, a set of emission reduction targets have
Table 3 Comparison of different EV battery technologies (adopted from Ref. [75]).
Technology Safety Life span Performance Cost Specific energy Specific power
LFP High High Medium Medium Low High LCO Low Low Medium Medium High Low LMO Medium Low Low Medium Medium Medium NCA Low Medium Medium Low High Medium NMC Medium Medium Medium Medium High Medium
Table 4 The EV incentives in selected countries.
Country Purchase subsidies Tax benefits Production Infrastructure Planned ICEV sales ban after:
Austria + + + – 2020 Canada + – – + 2030 (Vancouver)a, 2040 (British Columbia) China – + + + – Finland + + – – – France + + + – 2040, 2030 (Paris)a Germany + + + – 2030 Italy + + – + 2030 (Milan)a Japan + + – + – Norway – + – – 2025 Portugal + + + – – Slovenia + + – – 2030 Spain + + + + 2040, 2030 (Madrid, Barcelona)a United Kingdom + + + + 2035, 2030 (Liverpool, London, Birmingham, Greater Manchester)a Turkey – + – – – USA + + – + 2030 (Seattle, Los Angeles, West Hollywood)a
a In these cities, electric buses by 2025 and ICEVs by 2030 are planned to be banned according to the C40 Fossil-Fuel-Free Streets Declaration.
5 ¨ O. Gonül¨ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110913
Table 5 been assigned by the EU for passenger cars. Between 2015 and 2019, a The total vehicle retail sales in Turkey in 2019 [87]. target of 130 g CO2/km was determined in the EU fleet-wide.This target Automobile Light commercial vehicles was reached earlier in 2018 with 120 g CO2/km [84]. For 2021 and onwards, the EU assigned a new target. Beginning in 2021, the average Domestic 157,178 48,891 Imported 230,078 42,913 emissions of all newly registered cars of a manufacturer will be below Total sales 387,256 91,804 95 g CO2/km and the manufacturers that do not comply with the defined limits will pay € 95 for each g/km of target exceedance. These goals are also the basis of the transition process to EVs and facilitate the transition Table 6 to new technology. EV sales between 2016 and 2020 in Turkey (not included Tesla sales) [88]. 3. Current status of EV and EVCS market in Turkey Type 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020a
BEV 44 77 155 222 82 Turkey is at the crossroads between Europe and Asia and connects PHEV 83 27 39 39 17 the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. Its geographical location along HEV 867 4424 3837 10976 3218 Total 994 4528 4031 11237 3317 with its competitive, skilled, and cheap workforce are among the factors that have made Turkey one of the leading automotive production bases a Sales in the first quarter of 2020. in Europe. In 2019, approximately 1.5 million vehicles were manufac tured in Turkey [85], which ranked the country 4th in Europe after Germany, Spain, and France [86]. Furthermore, Turkey is one of the countries with a dynamic vehicle
Table 7 BEV models sold in Turkey and their specifications.
Model Top speed (km/h) Nominal range (km) Battery Capacity (kWh) Electric motor power (kW) Motor torque (Nm) Charging time
Tesla Model X Performance (SR) 250 437.7 100 375 (rear) 660 (rear) 13.5 h (7.4 kW) 193 (front) 330 (front) 4.5 h (22 kW) 1 h (100 kW) Tesla Model S Performance (SR) 250 524.6 100 375 (rear) 650 (rear) 13.5 h (7.4 kW) 193 (front) 330 (front) 4.5 h (22 kW) 1 h (100 kW) Tesla Model 3 Performance AWD 261 481.2 79.5 211 (rear) – 10.7 h (7.4 kW) 147 (front) 3,6 h (22 kW) 0.8 h (100 kW) BMW i3s Roadstyle 160 246 42.2 135 270 5.7 h (7.4 kW) 1.9 h (22 kW) 0.4 h (100 kW) Jaguar i-Pace 200 376.6 90 147 (rear and front) 348 (rear and front) 12.2 h (7.4 kW) 4.1 h (22 kW) 0.9 h (100 kW) Renault ZOE R110 135 395 52 80 225 7 h (7.4 kW) 2.4 h (22 kW) 0.5 h (100 kW) Smart EQ 130 150 17.2 60 160 2.3 h (7.4 kW) 0.8 h (22 kW) a (100 kW)
a DC charging not supported.
Fig. 8. EVCS density map of Turkey.
6 ¨ O. Gonül¨ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110913
Table 8 Table 9 SCT rates applied in Turkey in terms of vehicle types. The companies operating in EV-related sub-sectors in Turkey.
Type Motor power or engine volume Tax-free price SCT rate EV related Participants Company activities (%) technologies
ICEV Below 1600 cm3 Below 70000 TLa 45 Electric drive DMA [97] - Conversion of Toyota Corolla to Between 70000 TL 50 systems electric drive and 120000 TL Hexagon Studio - Electric and electronic system analysis Above 120000 TL 60 [98] and hardware design Between 1600 cm3 and 2000 cm3 Below 170000 TL 100 - Vehicle modeling and simulation, Above 170000 TL 110 Hardware-in Loop (HIL) validation Above 2000 cm3 160 Mekatro [99] - Electric motor design for EVs and e- HEV Electric motor above 50 kW and Below 85000 TL 45 bikes motor cylinder below 1800 cm3 Between 85000 TL 50 - Design of power drive systems for EVs and 135000 TL and e-bikes Above 135000 TL 60 Battery and Togitek [100] - Custom lithium battery pack design Electric motor above 100 kW and Below 170000 TL 100 management - Embedded system design for EVs motor cylinder below 2500 cm3 Above 170000 TL 110 systems - Battery management system design Motor cylinder above 2500 cm3 160 Batron energy - Battery production for motorcycles, e- BEV Below 85 kW 3 [101] bikes, and scooters Between 85 kW and 120 kW 7 DMA [102] - Developing battery management Above 120 kW 15 algorithms for EVs
a - Strategic agreement with CALB TL: Turkish lira. Altınay e- - Battery system design for land, sea, mobitech [103] and air vehicle for civil and military market. The total vehicle retail sales in 2019 are given in Table 5 [87]. use EVCSs Sharz [104] - By agreeing with the company As seen, more than 40% of the retail sales consist of domestic vehicles. Voltrun, they opened EVCSs to the Despite its strong automotive industry and the fact that domestic vehicle common use of their customers production has an important place in the country’s market, Turkey has - Design and production of AC, DC, failed to create a domestic car brand for its domestic market or global residential and mobile EVCS market until now. e-s¸arj [105] - The company makes EVCS installations at certain points by Today, almost all vehicle sales in the Turkish domestic market belong agreeing with Aytemiz petrol station to ICEVs. In this regard, Turkey falls behind the global EV trend. The EV company sales in Turkey, released by the Turkey Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Voltrun [106] - Design and production of personal and Association (TEHAD) are given in Table 6 [88] and the EV models sold in commercial EVCS g-charge [107] - Design and production of EVCS Turkey are presented in Table 7 [89]. Among all EVs, HEV sales are - An agreement with Tesla to establish higher in Turkey due to lower cost, long past in the market, their do Supercharger charging station in mestic production in Turkey, and compatibility with usage habits in Turkey terms of long driving range and fueling style. Besides, sufficient EV in Zes [108] - Provides personal and public EVCS centives have not been introduced yet, and also EVCSs have not become - The company made an agreement with Turkish Petroleum Petroleum widespread. As it is not possible to change user habits at once, HEVs are Distribution Corporation (TPPD) for more acceptable in social psychology [90]. However, BEV sales are in an EVCS installations in petrol stations upward trend, albeit slowly and they are likely to reach higher sales in the market in the future [91]. One of the reasons why the use of EVs has not become widespread in Beginning from 2011, several legal arrangements have been intro Turkey is the non-homogeneous spread of EVCS infrastructure in the duced in Turkey for EVs and their charging infrastructure. Among these, country. Fig. 8 shows the density of EVCSs across Turkey (based on the some tax reductions have been provided as mentioned above. Yet, EVs data of the top 5 EVCS companies). Currently, the EVCS network is have not received enough attention until so far, due to insufficient mainly located in the most populated cities of the country, such as charging infrastructure, high prices, and unfamiliarity of the technology Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir. The GDP per capita is higher in the western to the customers. provinces (so is the affordability of EVs), where the bulk of the industrial The chronological arrangements can be sorted as follows; facilities and large conglomerates are located. Accordingly, the majority of EVCSs are concentrated in the same part. - In 2011, Turkey has put in the place the firstEV incentive. With this The correlation between GDP per capita and EV ownership in EU arrangement, the SCT rate (which varies between 45 and 160% for countries is also applicable to Turkey [53]. 25 of 81 provinces in Turkey ICEVs) has been determined between 3 and 15% for EVs depending (which have low GDP per capita) do not have a single EVCS. Most of on motor capacity and all BEVs have been exempted from MVT. The these provinces without any EVCS are located in the eastern provinces. SCT discount has included only BEVs, and HEVs were not able to Therefore, an EV user is likely to have trouble with EV charging during benefit from this discount [92]. travel from the western part to the eastern part of the country. - In 2013, it was made possible to establish EVCSs in areas and gas stations that were technically approved by electricity distribution companies [93]. 4. EV-related regulations in Turkey - In 2018, the MVT rate, which was fixed to 0% previously, was determined as 25% of MVT given by ICEVs of equivalent power [94]. In Turkey, the general classificationof taxes paid for motor vehicles - In 2018, it was made compulsory to deploy EVCSs in private car is divided into three types: value-added tax (VAT), special consumption parks and shopping mall car parks in proportion to 1/50 of the tax (SCT), and motor vehicle tax (MVT). SCT rate is determined ac maximum vehicle capacity [95]. cording to the engine volume, vehicle type, and tax-free sales price of a vehicle (Table 8). While ICEV and HEV users pay SCT between 45 and 160%, this rate is between 3 and 15% for BEV users. Although lower taxes provide a serious advantage for BEVs, the high prices of BEVs do not reflect positively on the user side.
7 ¨ O. Gonül¨ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110913
Table 10 Electric car and bus models in Turkey.
Vehicle Company Model Top speed (km/ Nominal range Electric motor power Max. motor torque Battery capacity type h) (km) (kW) (Nm) (kWh)
Electric car DMA [97] DMA Basic 160 280 62 330 36 DMA Plus 160 400 62 330 53 DMA Sport 200 400 84 350 53 Electric bus Karsan [109,110] Jest 70 105 125 290 44 Atak – 300 230 2400 220 Temsa [111] MD9 – 230 250 2600 200 Electricity Bozankaya [112, Trambus 18 – – 240 – 33 113] SILEO S10 75 280 240 – 230 Otokar [114] Doruk Electra 90 280 103 475 170
5. EV research and developments in Turkey Table 11 Announced features of EV prototype. 5.1. Private sector participants C-SUV 200 hp C-SUV 400 hp
As stated in Section 3, Turkey has qualified facilities in the auto Top speed 180 km/h 180 km/h motive industry. Automotive production, as well as spare parts supply, 0–100 km/h acceleration 7.6 s 4.8 s are the leading export items of the country [96]. In addition, the Nominal range 300 km 500 km Charging time %80 charge (30 min) %80 charge (30 min) country’s qualified and cheap workforce can be considered among the factors that keep the country dynamic in this sector. Ford, Honda, Fiat, Toyota, Renault, and Hyundai have production facilities and also R&D due to its qualified labor force and developed automotive industry. departments in Turkey. All of these companies work on ICEVs, except Moreover, EV-related research activities are conducted in universities Toyota which manufactures an HEV model. and public facilities. Yet, due to reasons such as lack of private sector Besides, many companies, whether in ICEV or EV sectors, work in encouragement or difficult and laborious bureaucratic processes, some partnership with domestic or foreign companies. In EV-related sectors, products cannot start mass production and cause the idea or prototype to the companies operate in subjects such as motor driving systems, battery disappear in the mid or short term. management systems (BMSs), and EVCSs. In Table 9, some of the com EVT Motor was founded by academics in 2012 within Hacettepe panies operating in EV-related sub-sectors and their services are University Technopark as an R&D and manufacturing company of summarized. automobile technologies. The company managed to produce an electric Among the electric drive system and BMS companies, DMA and sports car prototype (EVT S1) powered by Lithium Iron Phosphate bat Hexagon Studio have conducted several innovative studies. DMA’s tery and with a range of 300 km and a maximum speed of 180 km/h works are concentrated on battery management, claiming BMSs as the within 3.5 years [115]. Considering the year of the study, it can be seen most important part of EVs. The company signed a strategic agreement as a very important and innovative initiative. However, due to the lack with CALB (China Aviation Lithium Battery) in 2015, and a company of support for mass production, EVT Motor ended its activities. named CADMA was established in China and its knowledge in BMS was Besides the negativities, some innovative activities are carried out. exported abroad. Hexagon Studio is one of the leading companies in the One of these is a competition called “Efficiency Challenge Electric automotive sector in Turkey and conducts R&D studies on EVs, espe Vehicle” which is organized annually by The Scientific and Technolog cially on hardware design and battery management. Furthermore, the ical Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK), where the main theme is the other companies continue their activities as partners of many EV-related vehicle efficiency and performance [97]. An average of 30 universities projects both for civil and military use. annually attend this competition, providing important know-how to Besides the EV-based sub-component companies, many companies students with workshops and seminars. work on charging infrastructure in Turkey (Table 9). According to the data of the five largest domestic EVCS companies, there are 627 EVCSs 5.3. Domestic EV prototype located in Turkey that belong to them. Moreover, EVCS companies continue their operations to improve charging infrastructure, and Despite the country’s developed automotive industry, the lack of a among them, e-s¸arj and Zes make cooperation agreements with petrol domestic car brand has been a point of criticism to the governments in station companies. Turkey for years. With EVs, a different dimension is formed in vehicle Moreover, there are various initiatives on EVs in Turkey (Table 10). technology and Turkey aims to get a share of this market. Hereby, a For example, DMA has developed three EV models by modifying Toyota consortium was established in 2017 under the proposal of the Presi Corolla, installing electric motors on these cars, and applying their own dency with 4 companies (BMC, Anadolu Group, Kok¨ Group, and Zorlu) battery management systems. They have reached a range of 400 km in and TOBB (the Union of Chambers and Commodity Exchanges of their latest version. Besides, there are many companies engaged in the Turkey) as a coordinator. As a result of the subsequent studies, a com production of electric buses in Turkey. Some of them are in the testing pany named TOGG (Turkey’s Automobile Joint Venture Group) was phase and some are actively used. The electric buses, whose usage is founded in 2018 and actions have started for the domestic EV prototype relatively less in Turkey, are mostly exported to Europe. Bozankaya’s [116]. At the end of 2019, two different prototypes developed by TOGG “SILEO” is in active use in Germany and Luxembourg. If the use of are introduced as C-SUV and C-Sedan models. However, it was electric buses in public transportation increases in Turkey, it can be announced that the C-SUV model will be produced firstlydue to market ensured that the public awareness and interest is increased. preferences [117]. The factory location for production has been deter mined as Bursa-Gemlik [118] and it is planned to launch the firstvehicle by 2022. The described features of the vehicle are given in Table 11. 5.2. Universities & public facilities
Turkey has the potential to produce and export various EV products
8 ¨ O. Gonül¨ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110913
gasoline costs belong to the EU countries (Italy, France, Germany, United Kingdom) and South Korea which imports oil and generally re flectshigh taxes on gasoline. While in oil-poor countries ICEV fueling for 100 km driving costs above $ 12, it costs less than $ 5 in oil-rich countries. The highest and lowest ICEV fueling costs belong to Italy ($ 14.81) and Indonesia ($ 3.53), respectively. The EU countries take the lead in electricity prices as well, which leads to higher EV charging costs in these countries. EV charging for 100 km driving costs between $ 6.51 (Germany) and $ 0.93 (Saudi Arabia) among G20 countries. It should be noted that the calculation is made over flat rates of the countries, and with the use of time-based pricing, the charging costs can further be reduced. To understand the EV charging benefit, the cost of ICEV fueling is compared to the cost of EV charging in all G20 countries as presented in Fig. 10. The countries with high gasoline prices and low electricity prices are ranked the highest in this comparison (red bars). South Korea has the highest fueling/charging cost ratio among all G20 countries making the country the most suitable for EV transition in terms of fueling cost, whereas Turkey is ranked 3rd. ICEV fueling costs more than six times of EV fueling in Turkey. In this respect, high gasoline prices along with low Fig. 9. Cost comparison of EV home charging and ICEV fueling for 100 km electricity prices become a reason for Turkey to facilitate its EV driving in G20 countries. transition.
7. Discussions
The discussion part is examined in four sub-sections for better un derstandability of the shortcomings of EV and EVCS sectors. Firstly, a set of recommendations are presented for EVs in Turkey. Then, the prob lems and potential solutions to the EVCS infrastructure are discussed. After that, an assessment of renewable energy integration of EVs and related fieldsis made. Lastly, the discussion is summed up with a SWOT analysis and priority roadmap for EVs and subsectors in Turkey.
7.1. EVs in Turkey
EVs will be a part of our daily lives in the near future. Yet, the speed of their penetration into the vehicle market will not be the same in every country. The main determining criteria here are the incentives and sanctions, as well as the purchasing power in a country. The main incentives applied worldwide for EVs are purchase sub sidies, tax discounts, manufacturing incentives, and charging infrastructure-related incentives. Besides, many countries announce their ICEV sell ban dates. As of today, Turkey only applies tax discounts (VAT, SCT, MVT). Although tax reduction can be considered as a strong incentive, the low purchasing power in Turkey requires additional measures to stimulate the EV market. From the point of view of the “free market”, it can be said that EV transition is not necessarily required to be fast in a country. However, along with global factors, such as the threat of CO2 emissions, there are local factors in Turkey that demand a fast transition to EVs, which are: Fig. 10. The ratio of cost of ICEV fueling to cost of EV charging for equal ’ driving range in G20 countries. (1) The country s energy dependency on imported fossil resources and high gasoline prices in the country (i.e. ranked 2nd highest in the world in 2012). 6. The cost comparison EV charging and ICEV fueling (2) The fact that Turkey aims to unveil a local car brand and take a share in the new and expanding EV market, which requires to rely The price difference between charging and fueling varies depending on a domestic market on a large scale. on the electricity and gasoline prices of a country. In Fig. 9, the fuel cost (3) The fact that Turkey is already an automative manufacturing base graph for EV home charging (Nissan Leaf) and ICEV gasoline fueling of many global firms.A strong domestic demand for EVs will be a (Nissan Versa) in G20 countries is compared for 100 km driving. The factor for these firms to shift their EV facilities to Turkey. household electricity prices and gasoline prices of 2019 are taken from Refs. [119,120]. Nissan Leaf and Nissan Versa consume 18.6 kWh/100 To that end: km and 7.8 L/100 km, respectively [121,122]. As seen in Fig. 9, EV charging costs less than ICEV fueling in all G20 • In addition to tax reduction, Turkey can apply the other above- countries. The lowest gasoline prices belong to oil-rich countries mentioned incentive mechanisms, as well as can set targets and (Indonesia, Saudi Arabia, Russia, the United States). The highest timelines for phase-outs of ICEVs (Table 4).
9 ¨ O. Gonül¨ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110913
Fig. 11. The distribution of EVCSs along the highways.
• Moreover, apart from the major incentives that mainly functions to in France [127]. Although this rate seems positive compared to reduce the purchase price of EVs, minor incentives such as free on- other countries, it should be noted that EVCSs are not distributed street parking or free or reduced bridge tolls for EVs can attract homogeneously in Turkey. Almost 20% of EVCSs are located in drivers, which are applied in other countries [123,124]. Istanbul. 25 of 81 provinces in Turkey do not have any EVCS, and • The high cost of ownership is one of the major barriers in Turkey. EV the majority of them are concentrated in the eastern provinces. costs can be further decreased by purchase subsidies, at least at the Lack of an adequate charging infrastructure prevents uninter current infancy stage. By doing so, the higher purchase rate of EVs rupted transportation and makes drivers suffer from “range can lead to their higher visibility which also helps to exponentially anxiety” [128]. overcome another main problem: the lack of information and unfa • Infrastructure studies should be carried out in provinces miliarity about EVs in Turkey. without EVCS, primarily with the support of local government • The latter can also be dealt with by information campaigns and ac and with incentives and directions to be developed by the tivity studies, especially in the fieldsof driving range, charging, and relevant ministry for the private sector. pricing. Besides, EV fleets in public transportation and public ser • There is a regulation that allows EVCSs to be installed at petrol vices can strongly promote EVs and increase their visibility. More stations [93]. Companies can use this as an advantage to ensure over, unlike drivers, passengers are not reluctant to use EVs in public faster distribution and shorten the selection of the site to be transportation. On the contrary, they highly support e-transportation installed. even if they need to pay for more [125]. Here, another advantage of (5) The distance between the eastern and western ends of Turkey is Turkey is the presence of several domestic electric bus manufacturers approximately 1660 km and it is known that EVs and ICEVs have in the country which can lead to achieving the transition to serious differences in range and charging/refueling times. As a e-transportation at lower costs. comparative example, on a long journey of 1500 km, an ICEV • Furthermore, tax deductions or incentives per vehicle can be applied driver needs to visit a petrol station once, while an EV driver to the companies, operating in Turkey (Ford, Fiat, Honda, Hyundai, needs to visit an EVCS a minimum of three times under existing Renault, and Toyota) in case they produce EVs in Turkey. This may battery technologies. Especially, if the EVCSs do not support fast also be beneficial to increase the know-how in the country. Alter charging, the driver needs to wait for longer each time during the natively, the government may provide facilities such as free factory charging process. area allocation or tax relief to attract foreign investors producing EVs • To eliminate the disadvantaged position of EV drivers in Turkey. regarding the refueling time and number of stops, the fast • In Turkey, there are more than 23 million vehicles and the share of charging station network should be expanded as much as EVs accounts for only 0.1% of the total market. The transportation possible. For instance, fast public charging points per 100 km sector is highly responsible for CO2 emissions and environmental tax highway is less than 1 station (0.76) in Turkey (Fig. 11), may be imposed due to the use of ICEVs to encourage the use of EVs. whereas it is 20 stations in EU-countries [129]. • In addition to fast-charging stations, another recommended way to shorten the charging time is “battery swapping sta 7.2. EVCSs in Turkey tions”. In this concept, passengers exchange their depleted batteries with full ones and continue their journeys without As EVs become a part of our lives, not only our type of mobility but waiting for charging. Here, drivers do not own batteries of their also our way of fueling is changing with EVCSs. Yet, the drivers are EVs and rent the service from companies. This causes a concerned about the availability of an easily accessible charging infra reduction in EV prices as well, due to the high cost of batteries structure. They want to access an EVCS just as they can easily access a [130]. However, different battery sizes and designs of manu petrol station and refuel their ICEVs. facturers limit the applicability of battery swapping. Although this method seems like a distant solution in Turkey in the (4) Today, the number of petrol stations in Turkey is more than short-term due to the underdeveloped market, it can offer a 13,000 [126], whereas the number of EVCSs is much less than quick battery replacement process to e-taxi and public fleets this. The distribution of EVCSs is not homogeneous across the that use the same EV models in the medium-term [131]. Also, country. As shown in Fig. 11, the majority of the EVCSs exist in in Turkey, both state institutions and the “Chamber of Cab highly populated regions or cities. While EVCS density per 100 Drivers” declared their willingness to support TOGG. km of paved road is around 3 stations in Turkey, it is 19.3 in the Netherlands, 3.5 in China, 2.8 in Germany, 2.3 in Japan, and 1.5
10 ¨ O. Gonül¨ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110913
Therefore, in the case of high customer demand for TOGG EVs, Table 12 battery swapping stations can become attractive in Turkey. SWOT analysis of EVs in Turkey. (6) In Turkey, EVCS companies offer their services, such as EVCS (S)trengths (W)eaknesses maps, through mobile applications. This process requires regis - Highly developed automotive industry - The low purchasing power in the tration and becoming a member. The companies also charge non- in Turkey (ranked 4th in sales in country to afford the high cost of EVs. member drivers for additional fees for EVCS usage. All of these Europe) along with its qualified and - Although the country is an automotive compels EV users to become members of a number of EVCS cheap labor force. production base, most of the raw companies. - Governmental and public willingness materials are imported. to have a “Local Brand Vehicle”. - The lack of regulatory authority. • The establishment of a common mobile platform for EVCSs that - Turkey’s dynamic domestic - The lack of sufficient charging all EV users can access, see the station occupancy levels, get automotive market. infrastructure. directions to alternative stations, and even pay online can help - Higher potential for EV-RES integra - The non-homogeneous distribution of to overcome this problem. tion (high solar and wind potential in EVCSs across the country (EVCSs are (7) Another problem with EVCSs in Turkey is the differences in the Turkey). concentrated in the western part). - The limited availability of home payments (pricing of charging) and the absence of a regulatory charging due to very low number of agency. Currently, each company sets a separate charging tariff. detached houses in urban areas in • Regarding the arrangement of the tariffs, Energy Market Reg Turkey. ulatory Authority (EMRA) can be provided as a regulator for - The lack of different types of incentives other than tax reduction. EVCSs as it regulates the oil prices. - The limited tariff rates (only flat rate • Besides, lack of regulatory authority in other EVCS-related is and TOU). sues (grid, standards, system management) should also be (O)pportunities (T)hreats eliminated. (8) EV batteries have quite large capacities, and charging EVs can - High gasoline prices in Turkey. - High competition in the global market - Cheap electricity prices in Turkey. due to the easier manufacturing of EVs. draw high power from the grid. Taking into account the large - The fact that the EV market is a new - Conservative ICEV users. penetration of EVs, their adverse effects on the grid network market ready to be exploited and - A state-funded EV brand project can should also be carefully evaluated. Charging EVs from houses or Turkey can unveil a local car brand. harm the competition in the domestic EVCSs can cause different effects. Problems such as overloading, - New job opportunities. market. overheating, increased losses, voltage drop, frequency regulation, - The presence of electric bus - The lack of public awareness and manufacturers in Turkey. information about EVs (i.e. pricing, shutdown, and harmonics may occur in the connected substation - The aıutomative firmswhich operate driving range, refueling, etc.). [132–135]. These effects cause damage to the infrastructure and in Turkey can shift their EV facilities to - Unexpected load on the grid due to can impede new investments and bring extra costs. Turkey (as Toyota did for HEVs) variable and uncertain consumer • SHURA Energy Transition Center released a report in 2019 to - Open and flexible to new business behavior. models. - The rise in electricity demand. evaluate the impact of EVs on the distribution network in - Chance to control GHG emissions. - Investment cost of EVCSs and needs for Turkey. The report expects the number of registered EVs in an extra infrastructure. Turkey to reach between 1 and 2.5 million by 2030. In the case of 2.5 million vehicles in pilot areas with a 10% prevalence, it is evaluated that uncontrolled charging can increase the peak (10) As discussed in (8), EV batteries can affect the power grid load by 12.5%, but if smart charging methods were applied, the adversely due to huge capacities, or referring to (9), they can be ’ increase can be 3.5% [136]. used to shave peak demand and stabilize renewables intermit • The relevant ministries and organizations should make pro tency [137]. At this point, the importance of intelligent energy jection studies on EV penetration and the grid infrastructure management systems emerges. • should be strengthened according to the projections, and in An accurate SOC estimation constitutes the base of a battery vestment should be made in areas that are considered to be energy management system. An aging battery begins to lose its weak. EV integration with renewables can be incentivized as cyclable lithium and other materials in time. Besides, its in detailed in the next section. ternal resistance increases with a capacity loss. The term, state of health (SOH) is used to compare an aged battery’s storage 7.3. EV integration with renewables, EV charging tariffs, and V2G in and electrical energy delivery abilities with a new one. Turkey Therefore monitoring of SOH of batteries is crucial to prevent failure and accidents as well as extend the useable lifetime – The high solar and wind energy potential might be another advan [138 140]. • tage of Turkey regarding EVs. By the implementation of smart charging Undoubtedly, the new battery-related subsectors or applica infrastructure and EV-RES integration, the cost of EV charging from tions (refurbishing and second-life, recycling etc.) will come renewables can become lower in Turkey than the other countries. out with increased EV penetration [141]. Increasing on-site renewable consumption as a stationary system [142], grid (9) The excess solar generation during midday hours can be used for frequency regulation [143], back-up storage system [144], and EV charging, and the storage capability of the EVs can be a so enabling demand-side effectiveness can be exemplary appli lution to overcome the “duck curve” problem, as well as an EV cations [74]. • ’ battery can stabilize the intermittent nature of RESs in Turkey. Taking into account Turkey s current renewable energy struc • To effectively utilize the integration with RESs, Turkey should ture and grid conditions, a detailed analysis can be performed introduce other price-based tariffs than the currently available by the researchers. In addition, considering the potential of the time-of-use (TOU) rate, such as real-time pricing (RTP) in the country, exemplary business models and applications can be medium-term. Or, price-based rates exclusively for EVs should made by entrepreneurs for the second-life market. be provided as started to be applied in different countries with reduced rates during the off-peak period. Although the off-peak In a coordinated system, the negativities caused by EV charging can period is usually the night time, in locations such as California be reduced as much as possible. In this way, investments and resources or Australia, the new off-peak has started to become midday can be managed better. due to high PV generation.
11 ¨ O. Gonül¨ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110913
Table 13 The proposed priority roadmap for EVs and subsectors in Turkey.
Short term (1–3 years) Medium term (4–10 years) Long term (10+ years)
EV • Comprehensive regulation covering EV and all sub-sectors • Increasing the public e-transportation (e- • Bringing the local EV brand to the • Increasing public awareness of e-mobility buses, e-taxis etc.) global • Purchase subsidy and tax reductions • Being an EV production center as in ICEV EVCS • Common mobile platform • Improving fast charging facilities • Investment planning with detailed • Country-wide distribution to eliminate range anxiety analysis of grid effects Battery • Developing intelligent battery management system and • Production of domestic battery cell and • Improving the second-life battery inte technologies encouraging researchers on the subject incentives for new technologies gration with renewables
(11) PV car parks are a good solution for reducing the adverse effects especially with the use of EVs in public fleetsand public transportation. of EV charging on the grid. Yet, the current car parks equipped In addition, taking into account the global car manufacturing companies with PVs in Turkey are mostly without EVCSs and only serve to that operate in Turkey, various opportunities such as tax reduction or sell electricity to the grid. incentives can be provided, in case they shift their EV facilities to • Additional feed-in tariff incentives [145] or grants [146] can be Turkey. provided for PV car parks in Turkey, as applied in other Moreover, various steps should be taken on the development of the countries (especially in northern Turkey which is densely EVCS infrastructure before 2022, taking into account that the absence of populated, needs more infrastructure investments, and has a sufficient number of EVCSs is one of the serious barriers to EV adop lower solar radiation). This can also provide lower grid infra tion. Also, determining a regulatory authority related to EVCSs, estab structure investments with lower capacity increase. lishing a common mobile platform that unites and provides access to all (12) In the short-term, V2G seems like a less effective solution in EVCSs, improvement of the grid infrastructure, and integration of RESs Turkey due to the low electricity prices in the country (i.e. 5th with EVCSs are other issues that should be further improved. Lastly, and cheapest household electricity prices among 37 countries in perhaps the most important of all, Turkey needs a clear roadmap for EVs Europe in 2019) [147], and the current high cost of EV battery to resolve the uncertainty for investors and consumers in the sector. replacement [148]. Therefore, relevant ministries and non-governmental organizations should work together to establish targets and take steps accordingly. 7.4. SWOT analysis and EV roadmap of Turkey To sum up, an overall assessment of the EV and EVCS market in Turkey’s context is presented in this study, and its findingsare expected Lastly, a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) to help decision/policy-makers, industry stakeholders, and researchers analysis is made to summarize the discussion part and evaluate Turkey’s regarding the challenges and opportunities for EVs in Turkey. competitive position considering internal and external factors in EV transition and future EV industry (Table 12). CRediT author statement After evaluating Sections 7.1-7.3 and considering Turkey’s current ¨ ¨ conditions, a roadmap for EV and EV-related sub-sectors in Turkey can Omer Gonül: Conceptualization, Resources, Visualization, Writing - & be determined in the short-, medium- and long-term as shown in review editing. A. Can Duman: Conceptualization, Resources, Visu & ¨ Table 13. The matters included in Table 13 have been identified as a alization, Writing - review editing. Onder Güler: Conceptualization, & priority to adapt the global EV technology trends and improve the Supervision, Review editing. infrastructure. These implications also coincide with the results of the workshop held with the experts of the EV sector in cooperation with Declaration of competing interest TEHAD and EY (Ernst & Young) [149]. As remarkable outputs of this workshop, “lack of authority to determine the control rules and standard The authors declare that they have no known competing financial of EVCS” and “high EVCS investment costs” were seen as the major interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence barriers in particular. Besides, “range anxiety” and “poor public the work reported in this paper. awareness” are also identified as other obstacles. References 8. Conclusion [1] Number of passenger cars and commercial vehicles in use worldwide from 2006 to 2015. Statista; 2017. https://www.statista.com/statistics/281134/number-of- EVs, which are expected to be the vehicle technology of the future, vehicles-in-use-worldwide/. [Accessed 21 February 2020]. have increased their share in the vehicle market in recent years. [2] Mahmoudzadeh Andwari A, Pesiridis A, Rajoo S, Martinez-Botas R, Esfahanian V. A review of Battery Electric Vehicle technology and readiness levels. Renew Currently, their adoption in countries highly depends on the policies and Sustain Energy Rev 2017;78:414–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. incentives provided by the governments. Turkey has not fully adopted rser.2017.03.138. the EV technology yet, and there are still deficiencies in incentives, [3] Production statistics-overview. Int Organ Mot Veh Manuf 2019. http://www.oi ca.net/production-statistics/. [Accessed 21 February 2020]. regulations, and policies. [4] Estimated worldwide automobile production from 2000 to 2018. Statista; 2019. In this review, the state of the EV and EVCS market in Turkey, as well https://www.statista.com/statistics/262747/worldwide-automobile-productio as EV-related sub-sector activities and existing legislative regulations n-since-2000/. [Accessed 21 February 2020]. were examined considering the current status of EVs in the world and [5] CO2 emissions from transport (% of total fuel combustion). World Bank; 2019. htt ps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.CO2.TRAN.ZS. [Accessed 25 January the EU. Although Turkey has provided various tax discounts and made 2020]. several regulatory changes, there is no roadmap relating to the EV and [6] Sims R, Schaeffer R. Climate change 2014: mitigation of climate change. Intergov EVCS goals. Panel Clim Chang; 2014. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ip cc_wg3_ar5_chapter8.pdf. [Accessed 11 January 2020]. Currently, the public in Turkey is focused on the “local brand EV”. [7] Poullikkas A. Sustainable options for electric vehicle technologies. Renew Sustain The prototype is introduced at the end of 2019 and the car is planned to Energy Rev 2015;41:1277–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2014.09.016. be released by 2022. However, the acceptance of EVs is still low in the [8] Huang Y, Wang H, Khajepour A, Li B, Ji J, Zhao K, et al. A review of power management strategies and component sizing methods for hybrid vehicles. country. Until the release, the consumer awareness of EVs and their Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2018;96:132–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. visibility should further be increased with information campaigns, and RSER.2018.07.020.
12 ¨ O. Gonül¨ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110913
[9] Gnann T, Stephens TS, Lin Z, Plotz¨ P, Liu C, Brokate J. What drives the market for [35] Kumar RR, Alok K. Adoption of electric vehicle: a literature review and prospects plug-in electric vehicles? - a review of international PEV market diffusion models. for sustainability. J Clean Prod 2020;253:119911. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2018;93:158–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jclepro.2019.119911. rser.2018.03.055. [36] Sovacool BK, Noel L, Axsen J, Kempton W. The neglected social dimensions to a [10] Hannan MA, Azidin FA, Mohamed A. Hybrid electric vehicles and their vehicle-to-grid (V2G) transition: a critical and systematic review. Environ Res Lett challenges: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;29:135–50. https://doi. 2018;13. org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.097. [37] Knez M, Zevnik GK, Obrecht M. A review of available chargers for electric [11] Moro A, Lonza L. Electricity carbon intensity in European Member States: impacts vehicles: United States of America, European Union, and Asia. Renew Sustain on GHG emissions of electric vehicles. Transport Res Transport Environ 2018;64: Energy Rev 2019;109:284–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.04.013. 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2017.07.012. [38] Zhang X, Liang Y, Yu E, Rao R, Xie J. Review of electric vehicle policies in China: [12] Sandy Thomas CE. How green are electric vehicles? Int J Hydrogen Energy 2012; content summary and effect analysis. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2017;70: 37:6053–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.12.118. 698–714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.250. [13] Onat NC, Kucukvar M, Tatari O. Conventional, hybrid, plug-in hybrid or electric [39] Ji Z, Huang X. Plug-in electric vehicle charging infrastructure deployment of vehicles? State-based comparative carbon and energy footprint analysis in the China towards 2020: policies, methodologies, and challenges. Renew Sustain United States. Appl Energy 2015;150:36–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Energy Rev 2018;90:710–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.04.011. apenergy.2015.04.001. [40] Zhang H, Song X, Xia T, Yuan M, Fan Z, Shibasaki R, et al. Battery electric vehicles [14] Peters JF, Baumann M, Zimmermann B, Braun J, Weil M. The environmental in Japan: human mobile behavior based adoption potential analysis and policy impact of Li-Ion batteries and the role of key parameters – a review. Renew target response. Appl Energy 2018;220:527–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Sustain Energy Rev 2017;67:491–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. apenergy.2018.03.105. rser.2016.08.039. [41] Wager G, Whale J, Braunl T. Driving electric vehicles at highway speeds: the [15] Sen B, Onat NC, Kucukvar M, Tatari O. Material footprint of electric vehicles: a effect of higher driving speeds on energy consumption and driving range for multiregional life cycle assessment. J Clean Prod 2019;209:1033–43. https://doi. electric vehicles in Australia. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;63:158–65. org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.05.060. [16] Sujitha N, Krithiga S. RES based EV battery charging system: a review. Renew [42] Martínez-Lao J, Montoya FG, Montoya MG, Manzano-Agugliaro F. Electric Sustain Energy Rev 2017;75:978–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. vehicles in Spain: an overview of charging systems. Renew Sustain Energy Rev rser.2016.11.078. 2017;77:970–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.239. [17] Nunes P, Figueiredo R, Brito MC. The use of parking lots to solar-charge electric [43] Ehrler VC, Schoder¨ D, Seidel S. Challenges and perspectives for the use of electric vehicles. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;66:679–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. vehicles for last mile logistics of grocery e-commerce – findingsfrom case studies rser.2016.08.015. in Germany. Res Transport Econ 2019:100757. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [18] Mwasilu F, Justo JJ, Kim E-K, Do TD, Jung J-W. Electric vehicles and smart grid retrec.2019.100757. interaction: a review on vehicle to grid and renewable energy sources integration. [44] Benysek G, Jarnut M. Electric vehicle charging infrastructure in Poland. Renew Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;34:501–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16:320–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.158. rser.2014.03.031. [45] Raslaviˇcius L, Azzopardi B, Kerˇsys A, Stareviˇcius M, Zˇ Bazaras, Makaras R. [19] Shi R, Li S, Zhang P, Lee KY. Integration of renewable energy sources and electric Electric vehicles challenges and opportunities: Lithuanian review. Renew Sustain vehicles in V2G network with adjustable robust optimization. Renew Energy Energy Rev 2015;42:786–800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.076. 2020;153:1067–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.02.027. [46] Camus C, Farias T, Esteves J. Potential impacts assessment of plug-in electric ´ [20] Colmenar-Santos A, Munoz-G˜ omez´ A-M, Rosales-Asensio E, Lopez-Rey´ A. Electric vehicles on the Portuguese energy market. Energy Pol 2011;39:5883–97. https:// vehicle charging strategy to support renewable energy sources in Europe 2050 doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.06.042. low-carbon scenario. Energy 2019;183:61–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [47] Gass V, Schmidt J, Schmid E. Analysis of alternative policy instruments to energy.2019.06.118. promote electric vehicles in Austria. Renew Energy 2014;61:96–101. https://doi. [21] Mahmud K, Town GE, Morsalin S, Hossain MJ. Integration of electric vehicles and org/10.1016/j.renene.2012.08.012. management in the internet of energy. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2018;82: [48] Priessner A, Sposato R, Hampl N. Predictors of electric vehicle adoption: an 4179–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.11.004. analysis of potential electric vehicle drivers in Austria. Energy Pol 2018;122: [22] Lopez KL, Gagne C, Gardner MA. Demand-side management using deep learning 701–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2018.07.058. for smart charging of electric vehicles. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2019;10:2683–91. [49] Niestadt M, Bjørnåvold A. Electric road vehicles in the European Union: trends, https://doi.org/10.1109/TSG.2018.2808247. impacts and policies. Eur Parliam Res Serv; 2019. https://www.europarl.europa. [23] Salisbury M, Toor W. How and why leading utilities are embracing electric eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2019/637895/EPRS_BRI(2019)637895_EN.pdf. vehicles. Electr J 2016;29:22–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tej.2016.07.004. [Accessed 25 January 2020]. [24] Paterakis NG, Erdinc O, Bakirtzis AG, Catalao˜ JPS. Optimal household appliances [50] Global sales of pure electric vehicles soar by 92% in H1 2019. JATO; 2019. https scheduling under day-ahead pricing and load-shaping demand response ://www.jato.com/global-sales-of-pure-electric-vehicles-soar-by-92-in-h1-2019/. strategies. IEEE Trans Ind Informatics 2015;11:1509–19. https://doi.org/ [Accessed 5 January 2020]. 10.1109/TII.2015.2438534. [51] Kong D, Xia Q, Xue Y, Zhao X. Effects of multi policies on electric vehicle [25] Tan KM, Ramachandaramurthy VK, Yong JY. Integration of electric vehicles in diffusion under subsidy policy abolishment in China: a multi-actor perspective. smart grid: a review on vehicle to grid technologies and optimization techniques. Appl Energy 2020;266:114887. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;53:720–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. apenergy.2020.114887. rser.2015.09.012. [52] Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF). Electric vehicle Outlook 2020. 2020. [26] Hota AR, Juvvanapudi M, Bajpai P. Issues and solution approaches in PHEV [53] Interactive map: correlation between uptake of electric cars and GDP in the EU. integration to smart grid. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;30:217–29. https:// Eur Automob Manuf Assoc 2019. https://www.acea.be/statistics/article/interact doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.10.008. ive-map-correlation-between-uptake-of-electric-cars-and-gdp-in-EU. [Accessed 5 [27] Alirezaei M, Noori M, Tatari O. Getting to net zero energy building: investigating February 2020]. the role of vehicle to home technology. Energy Build 2016;130:465–76. https:// [54] Wong S. Market share of BEV and PHEV in China from 2012 to 2018. Statista; doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.08.044. 2019. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1050111/china-electric-car-market-sh [28] Zhou Y, Cao S, Hensen JLM, Lund PD. Energy integration and interaction between are/. [Accessed 4 May 2020]. buildings and vehicles: a state-of-the-art review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2019; [55] Edison Electric Institute. Electric vehicle sales: facts & figures.2019. Washington 114:109337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109337. DC. [29] Barone G, Buonomano A, Calise F, Forzano C, Palombo A. Building to vehicle to [56] Won S. Market share of electric vehicles in South Korea 2013-2018. Statista; building concept toward a novel zero energy paradigm: modelling and case 2020. here consisting of,Korean automobile market in 2018, https://www. studies. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2019;101:625–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. statista.com/statistics/1099571/south-korea-electric-vehicles-market-share/#: rser.2018.11.003. ~:text=Electric cars%2C. [Accessed 15 May 2020]. [30] Nguyen HK, Song J Bin. Optimal charging and discharging for multiple PHEVs [57] Norwegian EV policy. Nor Elbilforening. 2019. https://elbil.no/english/norwe with demand side management in vehicle-to-building. J Commun Netw 2012;14: gian-ev-policy/. [Accessed 3 March 2020]. 662–71. https://doi.org/10.1109/JCN.2012.00032. [58] Overview – electric vehicles: tax benefits and incentives in the EU. Eur Automob [31] Monteiro V, Pinto JG, Afonso JL. Operation modes for the electric vehicle in Manuf Assoc 2019. https://www.acea.be/publications/article/overview-of-inc smart grids and smart homes: present and proposed modes. IEEE Trans Veh entives-for-buying-electric-vehicles. [Accessed 25 December 2019]. Technol 2016;65:1007–20. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2015.2481005. [59] Global EV Outlook 2019. 2019. [32] Pearre NS, Ribberink H. Review of research on V2X technologies, strategies, and [60] Farfan-Cabrera LI. Tribology of electric vehicles: a review of critical components, operations. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2019;105:61–70. https://doi.org/ current state and future improvement trends. Tribol Int 2019;138:473–86. 10.1016/j.rser.2019.01.047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2019.06.029. [33] Hu J, Morais H, Sousa T, Lind M. Electric vehicle fleet management in smart [61] Narayanan A. Is nio stock A buy as China EV leader surges after unveiling luxury grids: a review of services, optimization and control aspects. Renew Sustain sedan? InvestorCom 2021. https://www.investors.com/news/nio-stock-buy-now Energy Rev 2016;56:1207–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.014. /. [Accessed 18 January 2021]. [34] Das HS, Rahman MM, Li S, Tan CW. Electric vehicles standards, charging [62] Shareef H, Islam MM, Mohamed A. A review of the stage-of-the-art charging infrastructure, and impact on grid integration: a technological review. Renew technologies, placement methodologies, and impacts of electric vehicles. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2020;120:109618. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. Sustain Energy Rev 2016;64:403–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. RSER.2019.109618. rser.2016.06.033.
13 ¨ O. Gonül¨ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110913
[63] Braunl¨ T. EV charging standards. Renew Energy Veh Proj 2012. http://therevpr [94] Motor vehicle tax law, OfficialGazette of Republic of Turkey, Law No: 197. 2018. oject.com/doc/2012-EVcharging-s.pdf. [Accessed 4 February 2020]. Turkey. [64] Niu S, Xu H, Sun Z, Shao ZY, Jian L. The state-of-the-arts of wireless electric [95] Parking regulations, Official Gazette of Republic of Turkey. 2018. Number: vehicle charging via magnetic resonance: principles, standards and core 30340. technologies. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2019;114:109302. https://doi.org/ [96] Yılmaz S, Ustaoglu˘ M. Electric vehicles production in Turkish automotive 10.1016/j.rser.2019.109302. industry and sectoral PEST analisys. Procedia - Soc Behav Sci 2013;75:10–7. [65] Machura P, Li Q. A critical review on wireless charging for electric vehicles. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.04.002. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2019;104:209–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [97] Models. Derindere Mot Araçlar. 2020. http://www.dmaoto.com/en/models. rser.2019.01.027. [Accessed 6 February 2020]. [66] Ji Z, Huang X. Plug-in electric vehicle charging infrastructure deployment of [98] Vehicle modelling and simulation. Hexag Stud 2019. https://www.hexagonstudi China towards 2020: policies, methodologies, and challenges. Renew Sustain o.com.tr/en/electric-vehicles/software/vehicle-modelling-and-simulation/. Energy Rev 2018;90:710–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.04.011. [Accessed 7 February 2020]. [67] Mahmoudzadeh Andwari A, Pesiridis A, Rajoo S, Martinez-Botas R, Esfahanian V. [99] Electric Motors. Mekatro. 2019. http://mekatro.com/projeler/elektrik-motorlari/ A review of Battery Electric Vehicle technology and readiness levels. Renew . [Accessed 6 February 2020]. Sustain Energy Rev 2017;78:414–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [100] Battery management system. Togi Teknol. 2020. https://togitek.com/batar rser.2017.03.138. ya-yonetim-sistemi/. [Accessed 8 February 2020]. [68] Zhang Y, Liu X, Wei W, Peng T, Hong G, Meng C. Mobile charging: a novel [101] Electric vehicle batteries. Batron energy. 2020. https://www.batronenerji.com/ charging system for electric vehicles in urban areas. Appl Energy 2020;278: en/product-category/electric-vehicle-batteries/. [Accessed 7 February 2020]. 115648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115648. [102] Turkey exports technology to China. Derindere Mot Araçlar. 2016. http://www. [69] Normal and fast public charging points. Eur Altern Fuels Obs 2019. https://www. dmaoto.com/en/dma-world/press. [Accessed 6 February 2020]. eafo.eu/electric-vehicle-charging-infrastructure. [Accessed 21 January 2020]. [103] Advanced battery technology. Altınay electromobility. 2020. https://e-mobitech. [70] Electric Vehicle Charging Station Locations. US dep energy. 2020. https://afdc. com/en/. [Accessed 9 February 2020]. energy.gov/fuels/electricity_locations.html#/find/nearest?fuel=ELEC&count [104] Sharz-about us. Sharz; 2020. https://www.sharz.net/en/about-us/. [Accessed 7 ry=US. [Accessed 8 April 2020]. February 2020]. [71] Hove A, Sandalow D. Electric vehicle charging in China and the United States. [105] Fast charging unit to Aytemiz stations. E-S¸ arj; 2017. https://esarj.com/basin/ha 2019. ber/hurriyet/aytemiz-istasyonlarinda-hizli-sarj-unitesi. [Accessed 8 February [72] Motoaki Y, Shirk MG. Consumer behavioral adaption in EV fast charging through 2020]. pricing. Energy Pol 2017;108:178–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [106] Charging stations. Voltrun; 2017. https://www.voltrun.com/urun-ve-hizmetler enpol.2017.05.051. /sarj-istasyonlari/. [Accessed 8 February 2020]. [73] International Energy Agency (IEA). Evolution of Li-ion battery price, 1995-2019. [107] New Business Relationship Between Tesla-Gersan. Gersan. 2017. http://www.ge 2020. https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/evolution-of-li-ion-batt rsan.com.tr/statics/news/tesla_gersan_arasi_yeni_is_iliskisi/. [Accessed 8 ery-price-1995-2019. [Accessed 11 January 2021]. February 2020]. [74] International Energy Agency (IEA). Global EV Outlook 2020. 2020. [108] Charging points. Zorlu Energy Solut; 2020. https://zes.net/en/charging-points. [75] Miao Y, Hynan P, von Jouanne A, Yokochi A. Current Li-ion battery technologies html. [Accessed 8 February 2020]. in electric vehicles and opportunities for advancements. Energies 2019;12. [109] Jest Electric. Karsan. 2017. https://www.karsan.com/en/jest-electric-highlights. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12061074. [Accessed 8 January 2020]. [76] Zhang Y, Gao Z, Song N, He J, Li X. Graphene and its derivatives in lithium–sulfur [110] Atak Electric. Karsan. 2018. https://www.karsan.com/en/atak-electric-highligh batteries. Mater Today Energy 2018;9:319–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ts. [Accessed 8 January 2020]. mtener.2018.06.001. [111] Temsa MD9 Electricity. Temsa. 2016. https://www.temsa.com/tr/tr/sehir- [77] Ding B, Wang J, Fan Z, Chen S, Lin Q, Lu X, et al. Solid-state lithium–sulfur ici/md9-electricity. [Accessed 8 January 2020]. batteries: advances, challenges and perspectives. Mater Today 2020;40:114–31. [112] Trambus. Bozankaya. 2015. http://www.bozankaya.com.tr/en/trambus/. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2020.05.020. [Accessed 8 January 2020]. [78] Zubi G, Dufo-Lopez´ R, Carvalho M, Pasaoglu G. The lithium-ion battery: state of [113] Sileo e-bus. Bozankaya. 2018. http://www.bozankaya.com.tr/en/sileo-e-bus/. the art and future perspectives. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2018;89:292–308. [Accessed 8 January 2020]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.002. [114] Doruk Electra. Otokar. 2014. https://commercial.otokar.com.tr/otobus/sehir-ic [79] Fotouhi A, Auger DJ, Propp K, Longo S, Wild M. A review on electric vehicle i-otobus/doruk-electra-otobus. [Accessed 8 January 2020]. battery modelling: from Lithium-ion toward Lithium-Sulphur. Renew Sustain [115] EVT S1. EVT Mot. 2012. http://www.evtmotor.com.tr/. [Accessed 19 December Energy Rev 2016;56:1008–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.009. 2019]. [80] Electric vehicle purchase incentives per country in Europe. Eur Automob Manuf [116] TOGG. We are the mobility platform of future. 2020. https://www.togg.com. Assoc 2019. https://www.acea.be/statistics/article/interactive-map-electric-vehi tr/content/discover. [Accessed 1 February 2020]. cle-incentives-per-country-in-europe-2018. [Accessed 25 January 2020]. [117] Global car market remains stable during 2018, as continuous demand for SUVs [81] Incentives and legislation. Eur altern fuels Obs. 2019. https://www.eafo.eu/count offsets decline in sales of Compact cars and MPVs. JATO; 2019. https://www.jato. ries/european-union/23640/incentives. [Accessed 26 January 2020]. com/global-car-market-remains-stable-during-2018-as-continuous-demand-for- [82] Government Incentives. Can Automob Assoc. 2020. https://www.caa.ca/ele suvs-offsets-decline-in-sales-of-compact-cars-and-mpvs/. [Accessed 28 December ctric-vehicles/government-incentives/. [Accessed 11 February 2020]. 2019]. [83] What can we learn from Japan about EV adoption?. 2018. https://www.fleetcarm [118] Presidency of the Republic of Turkey. Presidential Decree No; 1945. 2019. a.com/can-learn-japan-ev-adoption/. [Accessed 11 February 2020]. [119] Electricity prices. Glob Pet Prices; 2019. https://www.globalpetrolprices.com/ [84] Reducing CO2 emissions from passenger cars - before 2020. Eur Union; 2019. htt electricity_prices/. [Accessed 4 May 2020]. ps://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/transport/vehicles/cars_en. [Accessed 12 [120] IEA. World energy prices 2019. 2019. January 2020]. [121] Doyle A, Muneer T. Traction energy and battery performance modelling. In: [85] General and statistical information bulletin of automotive manufacturers. 2019. Muneer T, Kolhe ML, editors. Doyle ABT-EVP and C. Elsevier; 2017. p. 93–124. [86] Production statistics. OICA (International Organ Mot Veh Manuf; 2019. htt https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803021-9.00002-1. p://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/2019-statistics/. [Accessed 21 [122] Khan M, Kockelman KM. Predicting the market potential of plug-in electric April 2020]. vehicles using multiday GPS data. Energy Pol 2012;46:225–33. https://doi.org/ [87] 2019 retail sales (domestic & imported). Automot Distrib Assoc; 2020. http:// 10.1016/j.enpol.2012.03.055. www.odd.org.tr/web_2837_1/neuralnetwork.aspx?type=36. [Accessed 11 [123] Electric vehicles. City Westminster; 2020. https://www.westminster.gov.uk/elec January 2020]. tric-vehicles. [Accessed 30 June 2020]. [88] Electric and hybrid cars sales increased by 79%. TEHAD. 2020. http://tehad. [124] eToll. What is the low emissions vehicle toll incentive (LEVTI)?. 2020. https org/2020/04/12/elektrikli-ve-hibrid-otomobil-satislari-y-artti/. [Accessed 20 ://www.etoll.ie/low-emissions-vehicle-toll-incentive/. [Accessed 1 July 2020]. April 2020]. [125] The World Bank. Electric mobility & development. 2018. [89] EV specifications. 2020. https://www.evspecifications.com/. [Accessed 4 April [126] PWC. The importance of the fuel distribution industry in Turkey’s economy. 2020]. 2017. [90] Tchetchik A, Zvi LI, Kaplan S, Blass V. The joint effects of driving hedonism and [127] McCarthy N. Netherlands top for electric vehicle charger density. Statista; 2018. trialability on the choice between internal combustion engine, hybrid, and https://www.statista.com/chart/15702/the-number-of-electric-vehicle-char electric vehicles. Technol Forecast Soc Change 2020;151:119815. https://doi. ging-points-per-100km-of-paved-road/. [Accessed 1 February 2020]. org/10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119815. [128] Ashkrof P, Homem de Almeida Correia G, van Arem B. Analysis of the effect of [91] Rietmann N, Hügler B, Lieven T. Forecasting the trajectory of electric vehicle charging needs on battery electric vehicle drivers’ route choice behaviour: a case sales and the consequences for worldwide CO2 emissions. J Clean Prod 2020;261: study in The Netherlands. Transport Res Transport Environ 2020;78:102206. 121038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2019.102206. [92] Decision regarding the determination of the Amount of special consumption tax [129] Fast public charging points per 100 km highway. Eur Altern Fuels Obs; 2019. applied to the goods included in Listings (I), (II) and (III) Attached to the private https://www.eafo.eu/electric-vehicle-charging-infrastructure. [Accessed 24 consumption tax law No: 4760 and Amendments in certain decrees. 2011. January 2020]. Turkey. [130] Feng J, Hou S, Yu L, Dimov N, Zheng P, Wang C. Optimization of photovoltaic [93] Planned areas type zoning regulation. Official Gazette of Republic of Turkey; battery swapping station based on weather/traffic forecasts and speed variable 2013. Number: 28759. charging. Appl Energy 2020;264:114708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. apenergy.2020.114708.
14 ¨ O. Gonül¨ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110913
[131] Zhang X, Peng L, Cao Y, Liu S, Zhou H, Huang K. Towards holistic charging [140] Deng Z, Hu X, Lin X, Che Y, Xu L, Guo W. Data-driven state of charge estimation management for urban electric taxi via a hybrid deployment of battery charging for lithium-ion battery packs based on Gaussian process regression. Energy 2020; and swap stations. Renew Energy 2020;155:703–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 205:118000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.118000. renene.2020.03.093. [141] Hua Y, Zhou S, Huang Y, Liu X, Ling H, Zhou X, et al. Sustainable value chain of [132] Khalid MR, Alam MS, Sarwar A, Jamil Asghar MS. A Comprehensive review on retired lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles. J Power Sources 2020;478: electric vehicles charging infrastructures and their impacts on power-quality of 228753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228753. the utility grid. ETransportation 2019;1:100006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [142] Reinhardt R, Christodoulou I, Gasso-Domingo´ S, Amante García B. Towards etran.2019.100006. sustainable business models for electric vehicle battery second use: a critical [133] Romo R, Micheloud O. Power quality of actual grids with plug-in electric vehicles review. J Environ Manag 2019;245:432–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. in presence of renewables and micro-grids. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;46: jenvman.2019.05.095. 189–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.02.014. [143] Martinez-Laserna E, Gandiaga I, Sarasketa-Zabala E, Badeda J, Stroe DI, [134] Capuder T, Miloˇs Sprˇci´c D, Zoriˇci´c D, Pandˇzi´c H. Review of challenges and Swierczynski M, et al. Battery second life: hype, hope or reality? A critical review assessment of electric vehicles integration policy goals: integrated risk analysis of the state of the art. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2018;93:701–18. https://doi. approach. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 2020;119:105894. https://doi.org/ org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.04.035. 10.1016/j.ijepes.2020.105894. [144] Hua Y, Zhou S, Huang Y, Liu X, Ling H, Zhou X, et al. Sustainable value chain of [135] Basta B, Morsi WG. Low and high order harmonic distortion in the presence of fast retired lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles. J Power Sources 2020;478: charging stations. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 2021;126:106557. https://doi. 228753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228753. org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2020.106557. [145] Sustainable Energy Advantage LLC. Rhode Island renewable energy growth [136] Saygin D, Tor¨ OB, Teimourzadeh S, Koç M, Hildermeier J, Kolokathis C. Transport program: 2020 ceiling price recommendations to DG board. 2019. sector transformation:Integrating electric vehicles into Turkey’s distribution [146] Comis D. Parking Lot solar PV canopy with EV charger grant program. Maryl grids. 2019. Energy Adm; 2019. https://energy.maryland.gov/business/Pages/incentives [137] Hua Y, Liu X, Zhou S, Huang Y, Ling H, Yang S. Toward sustainable reuse of /PVEVprogram.aspx. [Accessed 29 June 2020]. retired lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles. Resour Conserv Recycl 2020: [147] eurostat. Electricity price statistics; 2020. 105249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105249. [148] Uddin K, Dubarry M, Glick MB. The viability of vehicle-to-grid operations from a [138] Murnane M, Ghazel A. A closer Look at state of charge (SOC) and state of health battery technology and policy perspective. Energy Pol 2018;113:342–7. https:// (SOH) estimation techniques for batteries. 2017. doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2017.11.015. [139] Deng Z, Hu X, Lin X, Xu L, Che Y, Hu L. General discharge voltage information [149] TEHAD. Young E&. 2030 Turkey electrical transportation roadmap workshop. enabled health evaluation for lithium-ion batteries. IEEE/ASME Trans 2020. http://tehad.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/EY-TEHAD-EV-Çalıs¸tayı- Mechatronics 2020. https://doi.org/10.1109/TMECH.2020.3040010. Raporu_vFINAL-1.pdf. [Accessed 20 December 2020].
15