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ALEXANDER THE GREAT FAILURE This page intentionally left blank Alexander the Great Failure The Collapse of the Macedonian Empire John D. Grainger Hambledon Continuum is an imprint of Continuum Books Continuum UK, The Tower Building, 11 York Road, London SE1 7NX Continuum US, 80 Maiden Lane, Suite 704, New York, NY 10038 www.continuumbooks.com Copyright © John D. Grainger 2007 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission from the publishers. First published 2007 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 978 1 84725 188 6 Typeset by Pindar New Zealand (Egan Reid), Auckland, New Zealand Contents List of maps vii List of genealogies vii List of abbreviations viii Introduction xvii 1 Macedon 370–359 bc: a failing state 1 World view I: 360 bc 17 2 The security of Macedon, 359–354 bc 23 3 The defence of the kingdom, 354–346 bc 33 4 Cold war, 346–340 bc 47 5 The conquest of Greece, 340–334 bc 59 6 The great campaign, 334–325 bc 75 7 The united empire, 325–319 bc 87 World view II: 319 bc 99 8 Antigonos the One-Eyed, 319–311 bc 103 9 The new king, 311–306 bc 115 10 Antigonos’ failure, 306–298 bc 127 11 New kings for Macedon, 298–291 bc 137 12 King Demetrios and his enemies, 291–285 bc 147 13 The last chance for the empire, 285–281 bc 157 14 New kings, and disaster, 281–277 bc 165 15 The new world, 277–272 bc 175 World view III: 272 bc 185 Conclusion 189 Notes 195 Bibliography 217 Index 227 Maps The growth of Macedon, 359–334 bc ix The strategic crisis, 331 bc x Alexander’s empire xi The campaign against Antigonos, 302–301 bc xii Successor kingdoms of Alexander’s empire, 272 bc xiii Genealogies The Argead kings of Macedon xiv The family of Antipater xv The house of Antigonos xvi Abbreviations Austin M.M. Austin, The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest, Cambridge 1981 BCH Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique CAH Cambridge Ancient History CQ Classical Quarterly FGrH P. Ja coby, Die Fragmente der Griechischen Historiker, Berlin, from 1923 IG Inscriptiones Graecae JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies Macedonia N. G. L. Hammond et al., A History of Macedonia, Oxford 1972–1978 OGIS W. Dittenberger, (ed.) Orientis Graeci Inscriptones Selectae, Leipzig, 1903–1905 REA Revue des Etudes Anciennes SVA Die Staatsvertage des Altertums, vol. 2 ed. H. Bengtson, vol. 3 by H. H. Schmitt, Munich 1962 and 1969 Tod, GHI M. N. Tod, A Selection of Greek Historical Inscriptions, Oxford 1948 The growth of Macedon, 359–334 bc Pelagonia Thrace Byzantion Perinthos Lynkos Philippi Pella Amphipolis Orestis Chalkidike MAPS Epiros Elimaia Thessaly Pherai Lesbos Pergamon Ambrakia Sardis Macedon in 359 BC Aitolia Thebes Chios Conquests of Philip II Ephesos Corinth Athens Samos In process of conquest in 336 BC Miletos League of Corinth Sparta Greek cities conquered by Alexander, 334 BC Rhodes ix The strategic crisis, 331 bc x Thrace Paphagonia Bithynia Pontos X Granikos Halys River Halys River Euphrates River Phrygia Lydia Persians Kappadokia Sardis from Issos Caria Halikarnassos MAPS X Issos Dareios Kilikia to Issos Persian Fleet Euphrates River Syria Persian Fleet Cyprus Alexander’s route to Tyre, 333–331 X Battles and sieges Local attacks Persian armies after Issos X Tyre Antiochos (Siege) Halys River Suggested new western from Issos Euphrates River } boundaries of Persian Empire Samaria (Governor assassinated) X Gaza (Siege) Egypt Alexander’s empire Black Sea Pella Caspian Sea Macedon Alexandria- Eschate X Granikos Lydia S Issos Baktra X Syria Baktria XGaugamela Media Mediterranean Sea Ekratana Hyphasis Tyre S MAPS Alexandria Arachosia Babylon S Gaza Alexandria- Kandahar Egypt Persepolis Persian Gulf Red Sea Arabian Sea Alexander’s route Alexander’s new cities X Battles Outer boundary xi S Sieges Greek autonomous states The campaign against Antigonos, 302–301 bc xii Prepelaos Lysimachos Herakleia Halys River LysimachosX X Desmetrios Halys River Euphrates River Pergamon X Antigonos Sardis Ipsos Seleukos Koroupedion Ephesos Antigonos Demetrios MAPS Raid to Rhodes Antigoneia Babylon Invasions Cyprus Antigonos’ moves X Fortified camps Antigonos’ boundary Tyre Ptolemy Egypt Successor kingdoms of Alexander’s empire, 272 bc Thrace Black Sea Herakleia Macedon Bithynia Caspian Sea Galatia Kappadokia Armenia Baktria Atropatene MAPS Mediterranean Sea SELEUKID KINGDOM MAURYAN PTOLEMAL EMPIRE KINGDOM Persian Gulf Red Sea Arabian Sea Northern boundary of Akhaimenid Empire xiii xiv GENEALOGIES THE ARGEAD KINGS OF MACEDON ALEXANDER I c.497/6–c.454 Philip Alketas PERDIKKAS II Menelaos Amyntas c.454–413 AEROPOS ARCHELAOS AMYNTAS II Arrhidaios 394 413–399 393 PAUSANIAS III ORESTES ARGAIOS Pausanias PTOLEMY AMYNTAS 393 399–396 393–391 of Aloros 393 (Claimants 359) 368–365 391–370 ALEXANDER II PERDIKKAS III PHILIP II 370–368 365–359 359–336 ALEXANDER III PHILIP III 336–323 323–317 ALEXANDER IV 323–c.310 GENEALOGIES xv THE FAMILY OF ANTIPATER Antipater Macedonian regent 334–319 Kassander Antigone Phila Nikaia Eurydike 316–297 = = = = King 306 ? (1) Krateros (1) Perdikkas Ptolemy I = Thessalonike (2) Demetrios (2) Lysimachos Philip IV Antipater Alexander V Berenike = (1) Philip (2) Ptolemy I Ptolemy 297 297–294 297–294 Keraunos Magas Ptolemy II 281–279 Dates are those of kings of Macedon. Note that Antipater the regent had many other children. xvi GENEALOGIES THE HOUSE OF ANTIGONOS Philip Antigonos ? 319–301 King 306 Demetrios Philip Polemaios Telesphoros 306–285 Antigonos II Stratonike Gonatas = 285–239 (1) Seleukos I = Phila (2) Antiochos I Kings of Macedon Seleukid kings Introduction For almost 100 years, between 360 and 270 bc, Macedon was one of the world’s most dynamic states. Under the leadership of King Philip II its strength was exerted so as to dominate its Balkan and Greek neighbours. Under his son Alexander III that strength was projected eastwards as far as India. This is a fairly familiar story, especially that of Alexander, whose achievements are still astonishing over 2,000 years later. Though not intentionally so, the work of Philip was fundamental to that of Alexander; the two have to be considered together. The number of biographies of Alexander is by now enormous, and new versions appear regularly.1 This is due to the fascination the man’s life evokes; it is also the result of the search for a new angle, a new apparent explanation for his life, or for his death; the search has extended itself at times into areas of nonsense. Alexander’s early death is all too often the point at which the story ends, by way of a variety of themes of conquering, drunkenness, disease, assassination and conspiracy. By virtue of the fact that fi ve continuous accounts of his reign have survived, he is one of the few people of the ancient world for whom a biography can be written;2 but it has always seemed to me that, while biographies of Alexander are invariably interesting and entertaining – the conquest of the world could hardly be otherwise – it is only part of the story. Rather as the Iliad, one of Alexander’s standard references for behaviour, begins in medias res with regard to the Trojan War as a whole, and never reveals the result of that war, so a life of Alexander which skips over his father’s work and pays no attention to the events which followed his own death neither accounts for his success in a proper way nor shows what he actually accomplished. The fundamental facts of his life are that he was the son of Philip and was a Macedonian. It follows that these two elements need to be considered in some detail. The work of Philip in extending and developing the kingdom of the Macedonians was the foundation for Alexander’s career of conquest, but Philip’s work had its limitations, and Alexander was faced with similar limitations in the last year of his life. Alexander died in the midst of two projects: fi rst, to establish a government for his empire, for which Philip’s system of rule proved to be inadequate; and secondly, to go on conquering other places, for which Philip’s army had proved to be more than suffi cient. The effects of Alexander’s early death xviii ALEXANDER THE GREAT FAILURE therefore need to be considered in those contexts. A mere biography can never do that: it is necessary to look at where he came from, and what happened as a result of his extraordinary life. So this book aims to discuss how Alexander’s empire originated. This requires a consideration of the kingdom of Macedon, and Philip’s work there. Then I aim to examine how it was that his empire failed. For it is this which is the most notable result of Alexander’s life and work: for all his military prowess, he was one of the world’s great failures – and that failure spelt misery and death for countless thousands of people. Not only that, but he brought that failure on himself. His arrogance was largely responsible for his own early death; and he was also responsible for the ultimate failure of his imperial enterprise; for he was king of a society where the king was absolutely central to the well-being of the society as a whole. When the king failed, the Macedonian kingdom imploded, something which had happened more or less every generation for two centuries before him, and happened when he died, and again afterwards.