THE APPLICATION OF THE PARK & RIDE AND TOD CONCEPTS TO DEVELOP A NEW FRAMEWORK THAT CAN MAXIMISE PUBLIC TRANSPORT PATRONAGE By Simon Ginn BSc (Hons); Dip Mkt Man; Dip Town Planning; MEng Sc(Civil) School of Civil Engineering Queensland University of Technology Australia A thesis submitted for the degree of Masters of Applied Science (Research) in the Faculty of Built Environment, Queensland University of Technology NOVEMBER 2009 ABSTRACT With growing concern over the use of the car in our urbanized society, there have emerged a number of lobby groups and professional bodies promoting a return to public transport, walking and cycling, with the urban village as the key driving land use, as a means of making our cities’ transportation systems more sustainable. This research has aimed at developing a framework applicable to the Australian setting that can facilitate increased passenger patronage of rail based urban transport systems from adjacent or associated land uses. The framework specifically tested the application of the Park & Ride and Transit Oriented Development (TOD) concepts and their applicability within the cultural, institutional, political and transit operational characteristics of Australian society. The researcher found that, although the application of the TOD concept had been limited to small pockets of town houses and mixed use developments around stations, the development industry and emerging groups within the community are posed to embrace the concept and bring with it increased rail patronage. The lack of a clear commitment to infrastructure and supporting land uses is a major barrier to the implementation of TODs. The research findings demonstrated significant scope for the size of a TOD to expand to a much greater radius of activity from the public transport interchange, than the commonly quoted 400 to 600 meters, thus incorporating many more residents and potential patrons. The provision of Park & Rides, and associated support facilities like Kiss & Rides, have followed worldwide trends of high patronage demands from the middle and outer car dependent suburbs of our cities. The data collection and analysis gathered by the researcher demonstrated that in many cases Park & Rides should form part of a TOD to ensure ease of access to rail stations by all modes and patron types. The question, however, remains how best to plan the incorporation of a Park & Ride within a TOD and still maintain those features that attract and promote TODs as a living entity. II TABLE OF CONTENTS PART A INTRODUCTION & LITERATURE REVIEW Chapter 1 – Introduction 1.0 Background 3 1.1 Hypothesis 5 1.2 Aim of Research 5 1.3 Influencing Factors 6 1.4 Specific Objectives of the Research 6 1.5 What does this Research Add as New Knowledge? 7 1.6 Background on the Research Subject 8 1.7 Structure of Thesis 9 Chapter 2 – Methodology 2.0 Introduction 10 2.1 Research Methodologies to Gather New Knowledge 10 LITERATURE REVIEW Chapter 3 – Land Use & Transport Interactions 3.0 Introduction 18 3.1 Changing Travel Patterns and Impacts 18 3.2 Travel Demand Management Tools 27 3.3 Land Use and Transport Integration 37 3.4 Urban Consolidation and Density 43 Chapter 4 – Transit Oriented Developments 4.0 Definitions of TODs 48 4.1 The Emergence of Transit Oriented Developments (TOD) as a Concept 50 III 4.2 Images of Transit Villages 55 4.3 Contrasting Views on TODs 55 4.4 TOD Examples 56 4.5 General Opportunities & Barriers for Transit Oriented Developments 75 4.6 Experiences and Opportunities with TODs emerging out of North America 76 4.7 Barriers to Implementing TODs in North America 79 4.8 Summary of Barriers and Opportunities for TODs 82 4.9 The Impact on Transit Systems Patronage from Traditional and Neotraditional Neighbourhood Designs 83 4.10 Joint Ventures around Public Transport Interchanges 84 4.11 Conclusion to Literature Review of TODs 85 Chapter 5 – Park & Rides and Interchange Support Infrastructure 5.0 Supporting Public Transport with Good Interchange Facilities 86 5.1 Definitions of a Park & Ride 86 5.2 The Kiss & Ride Component associated with Park & Rides 87 5.3 Park & Ride Concept, Objectives and Realities 88 5.4 Successes and Failures with Park & Rides 96 5.5 Types of Park & Rides 96 5.6 Literature Review of park & Ride Case Studies 97 5.7 Conclusions to Literature Review on Park & Rides 101 5.8 Station Design 102 5.9 Conclusion to Park & Rides and Interchange Support Infrastructure 103 IV Chapter 6 – Transit Patronage 6.0 Introduction 104 6.1 Capacity of Transit Systems and Patronage Levels 104 6.2 Accessibility and Patronage 106 6.3 Access to Stations and Patronage Levels by Distance 107 6.4 Future Patronage Forecasts on Public Transport Systems 111 6.5 Demand Forecasting Patronage 112 6.6 Conclusions on Transit Patronage Demands 114 Chapter 7 – The Influence of Property Values and Growth near Transit Stations as a Derivative of Patronage Demands 7.0 Introduction 115 7.1 The Influence of Property Values near Transit Stations and the Derived Patronage Demands 115 7.2 Conclusions 118 Chapter 8 – Summary of Literature Review and Implications for Hypothesis & Framework Development 8.0 Summary of Literature Review 119 8.1 Hypothesis against Literature Review 121 8.2 Key Gaps in Literature Review for Examination and Incorporation into an Integrated Framework 121 8.3 The Influence of Emerging Technologies on the Hypothesis and Research 122 V PART B FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT Chapter 9 – Establishing a Conceptualized Setting for a New Integrated Planning Framework to Promote Patronage Levels 9.0 Introduction 127 9.1 Evidence derived from Decisions with Key Experts and Opinion Leaders 128 9.2 Conclusions 134 9.3 Implications of Results for Hypothesis, Specific Research Objectives and the Framework Development 135 Chapter 10 – Institutional, Planning and Attitudinal Issues Affecting TODs Patronage Levels 10.0 Introduction 137 10.1 Ability to Commit to a TOD style of Development and Living as a Prerequisite to Promoting Patronage 137 10.2 Australian TOD Case Studies 144 10.3 World Wide TOD Case Studies 152 10.4 Conclusions 155 10.5 Implications of Results for Hypothesis, Specific Research Objectives and Model Development 156 Chapter 11 – Institutional, Planning and Attitudinal Issues Affecting Park & Rides Patronage Levels 11.0 Introduction 158 11.1 Commitment to Park & Rides 158 11.2 Demand for Access to Park & Rides 159 11.3 World Wide Park & Ride Case Studies 167 11.4 Mixing Park & Rides and TODs to Promote Patronage 170 11.5 Combining TODs and Park & Rides and Associated Infrastructure to Increase Patronage Demands 171 11.6 Conclusion 172 11.7 Implications of Results for Hypothesis, Specific Research Objectives and VI the Framework Development 173 Chapter 12 – How Distance Impacts on Access to Transit – Affecting Patronage Levels from TODs and Park & Rides 12.0 Introduction 174 12.1 Empirical Data on the Inter-Relationships between Distance, Mode and Land Use on Arrival Numbers of patrons at Fixed Guideway Stations 175 12.2 Should TODs and Park & Rides be Mixed Around the same Station /Public Transport Interchange Site? 192 12.3 Conclusions 193 12.4 Implications of Results for Hypothesis, Specific Research Objectives and the Framework Development 193 Chapter 13 – Transit Operational and Station Design Factors Affecting Patronage Levels from TODs and Park & Rides 13.0 Introduction 195 13.1 How Transit and Station Design Factors Affect Patronage Levels 196 13.2 Conclusions 202 13.3 Implications of Results for Hypothesis, Specific Research Objectives and the Framework Development 203 Chapter 14 – The Framework 14.0 Introduction 204 14.1 The Key Guiding Principles for TODs to Promote Patronage in Australia 205 14.2 The Key Principles for Park & Rides to Promote Patronage 209 Part C THE MODEL APPLICATIONS & CONCLUSIONS Chapter 15 – Testing the Framework in a Real Application and the Framework’s Limitations 15.0 Introduction 213 VII 15.1 Potential Application of the Framework to a Test Case Situation within the Australian Setting 213 15.2 Limitations of the Framework 219 15.3 Conclusions 220 Chapter 16 – Transferability & Future Framework Applications 16.0 Introduction 221 16.1 Transferability 221 16.2 Demonstration of the Framework within a 3D Virtual Reality Environment over a Hypothetical Location in Australia and its Application to China 221 16.3 The model as a Research and Teaching Tool 223 16.4 Conclusions 223 Chapter 17 – Conclusions 17.0 Introduction 224 17.1 The Hypothesis under Examination 224 17.2 Summation 230 REFERENCES 234 VIII APPENDICES Appendix 1 Practioners Interviewed on Land Use and Transport Integration around Rail Stations 252 Appendix 2 World Opinion Leaders (Experts) Surveyed by Email 254 Appendix 3 Questions for World Opinion Leaders by Email 257 Appendix 4 Questions for Meetings with Councils, Developers and Operators 259 Appendix 5 Initial Telephone Survey of Households to Engage in Main Household Survey 260 Appendix 6 Demographic Questions of Households in Main Household Survey 261 Appendix 7 Survey of Scale of Life Style Preferences in Main Household Survey 263 Appendix 8 Main Household Survey Using Questions and Images 264 Appendix 9 Perth Station’s Patronage by Origin, Data Collection Form 281 Appendix 10 Surveyor’s by Perth Station, Date and Start Time 282 Appendix 11 Photo of Test Site for Application of Model to Fitzgibbon 284 IX LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Travel Demand Management Classifications 31 Figure 2: Suggested Mix of Housing Types in a Development to Promote Public Transport Usage 44 Figure 3: Population