The Hindu, the Muslim, and the Border In

Home , Abrar Alvi, Deewaar, Firaaq, Nasir Hussain, Parzania, Ram Aur Shyam

Palabras clave ysubvertirla. mantenerla de opciones las en cluir acon lo que me lleva imaginar, lo de que cabe porosa más es ehindúes musulmanes entre Yo entre decir, es Otro, y Paquistán, y el Pero India entre frontera la caricatura. si no una arquetipo, un como simplificarlo de pecan “Bollywood” en musulmán sobre el estudios los que que señalo vez ala hindostánico, legado su de deshacerse intenta reciente Paquistán de que historia la Estimo impronta wahabí. indudable una con sociedad, la de islamización de proceso un manifestado ha se Setenta años los donde desde Paquistán, en ocurridos acontecimientos de eco hacerse puede también indio cine el embargo Sin país. del política esfera la en iniciativa la tomando está hindú nacionalismo el Bollywood, de muchos filmes en presente está opaquistaní) musulmán (generalmente ‘terrorista’ del personaje el como Así Resumen Veer-Zaara Veer-Zaara. Keywords border. the subvert and retain to both it means atwhat hints with Iclose and imagined, we have more than porous rather is Muslim the and Hindu the and other, the and self the between India, and Pakistan border between But the stereotyping. and caricature the of product always is afigure such that assume easily too rather lywood” “Bol in ‘representation’ of the Muslim of the studies popular and scholarly that I suggest similarly and self, Indic country’s of the by a disavowal instigated as seen be must kistan of Pa history recent the that Iargue unmistakable. is version of Islam Wahhabi-inspired to a 1970s late turn the the where and to least dated be can of project Islamicization the where Pakistan, in developments of political backdrop the in viewed be however, also may cinema, public sphere. Indian and political the in nationalism of Hindu rise of the fact indisputable the is there likewise and films, Bollywood many in figure ‘terrorist’ Muslim) or Pakistani the of theemergence about(usually speak can we that is but There no question Abstract Revista Canaria de Estudios Ingleses Estudios de Canaria Revista THE HINDU, THE MUSLIM,AND THE BORDER : Border IN NATIONALIST SOUTH ASIAN CINEMA ASIAN SOUTH NATIONALIST IN : Border , Communalism, Indian cinema, Nationalism, Pakistan, Partition, Partition, Pakistan, Nationalism, cinema, Indian , Communalism, DOI: https://doi.org/10.25145/j.recaesin.2018.76.08 DOI: , Comunalismo, Cine indio, Nacionalismo, Paquistán, Partición, Partición, Paquistán, Nacionalismo, indio, Cine , Comunalismo, University of California, Los Angeles Los of California, University Vinay Lal Vinay , 76; April 2018, pp. 103-119;, 76; April e-2530-8335 ISSN: - - -

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 103-119 103 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 103-119 104 other places, like Kashmir.” like places, other and Sudan, southern Somalia, Iraq, in Palestine, sons our upon inflicted injustice continuous the to 21 October gave on he that interview wide-ranging in a infidel the from liberation required that place a as Laden bybin again mentioned was Kashmir massacred. been have Muslims where places those shaken America to the core, bin Laden described the events of September 11 of September events the described Laden bin core, the to America shaken had who “students” nineteen of the celebration lengthiest his become would 2001, what in December Islam and the social mores of two societies that in the aftermath of Partition and of and Partition aftermath the in that societies mores of two social the and Islam over interpretation ways, the of unstated often various in but also, over Kashmir largely and India Pakistan, between of idea the conflict with for engaging capacity propensity and agrowing displayed has decades three like forcinema something of oppression. shackles from the to freed be needs sitesthe where Islam one as of Afghanistan and Chechnya, Arabia, Saudi Palestine, alongside Kashmir enumerate infidels for aworldwide against jihad calling Laden’s manifestoes various bin Osama that of amillennium, over course the Asia South in taken has Islam contours that different vastly from the world to at be aconsiderable seem distance Arab the in societies Muslim many in presently improbable,raging battles or the if seems scenario last the if recall, We orbitthe Islam. should of certainly geopolitical huntthe for bomb; within anuclear have others yet attempted India to and place in terrorists of Islamic design to the held being hostage of India jured up scenarios have others con society; Indian within of subject terrorist presence the the their as taken also has developments.some films political Aspate of of recent these popular reflecting as viewed be may cinema Hindi-language Consequently,ism. mainstream terror advent the compounded have been of with Islamic problemsthe Kashmir in independence, that one’s whatever for Kashmiri about aspirations agrees, the views cross-border everyone terrorism, nearly and sponsor a principal be called of is what held is to (more by by India its acronym,ligence known ISI). popularly Pakistan Intel Inter-Services the organization, country’s gathering premierthe intelligence and military the particular in agencies, its various and of Pakistan activities ous autonomous for aspiration by an the much homeland and more nefari by so the less driven is Kashmir over struggle the that has been long view Indian The official from resolved. being far seem of conflict roots but the underlying the phases, and iterations several gone through has movement Kashmir resistance in the Intifada, Palestinian the Much state. like Indian the movement resistance against sustained tendencies site but a the been and of it secessionist claim, has lays also Pakistan territory, disputed not this only is to which of state Kashmir: Indian north the in turmoil thetheir subject as take which to aproliferation have been of films appears certainly There jingoistic. even and become nationalistic politics, Indian force in considerable exercising late 1980s 1990s, was early and when Hindu nationalism the around since has cinema Indian mainstream that axiomatic nearly it as take th , 2001, to the al-Jazeera reporter, Taysir Alluni, at an undisclosed location near Kabul. On 26 26 On Kabul. near location undisclosed an at Taysir reporter, Alluni, , 2001, al-Jazeera the to 1 Indian doubted be popular that scarcely then, it can respects, these all In viewers, film sophisticated urban, as as well India, in scholars Most film

Kashmir is listed in Osama bin Laden’s “Declaration of Jihad,” 23 August 1996, among 1996, among of August Jihad,” 23 Laden’s bin “Declaration Osama in listed is Kashmir th as “merely a response “merely aresponse as 1 - - - - were ripe for the confluence of Hindi, Hindu, andHindustan. were Hindu, ripe for confluence Hindi, of the Thecircumstances India. of north of culture the aspect an characteristic so been had that synthesis theIndo-Islamic as such of had no awareness industry film the of prominent aspects 1990 by around and various in became generation the that well, as diminished element greatly the had of Urdu Hindustani conversational in away; passed or retired had industry film the in personalities Muslim veteran the By mid-1970s space. the same the inhabited Islam and where Hinduism of many milieu prospered asocial who and in were up, those noteven grown matured, had and were Muslims, to mention Naushad, musicthe names— director just a few Akhtar, and Jan Nisar Azmi, Majrooh Kaifi Sultanpuri, Ludhianvi, Sahir poets and lyricists Alvi, Abrar and Mehboob Khan, Sarhadi, Zia Abbas, K.A. writers screen and of independence —directors aftermath the in cinema Hindi-language of popular entire role story. expansion the who in of played those acritical Many the not does furnish register political atransparently in Hindu nationalism ing But burgeon even decades. three last the in traveled has Hindu nationalism far election of 1984. general indication the of in how is unambiguous, one, rather That (the545-seat Sabha, Parliament), Lok lower house of Indian seats the won only two BJP, the remember that absolute an majority of 282 the now in which commands 1980; founded in people was few will and Sangh, Jana party Hindu nationalist the mid-1970s. of the thefrom remnants part in Party, built Janata The Bharatiya were around shut until out politics of organizations formal and Hindu parties that 1964, in Nehru it unquestionably and true is of Jawaharlal death the after decade a around until politics and society Indian in regnant as planning, state socialized Republic and of asecular values the around built consensus, of Nehruvian the people to violence.exhorted (Guha 110-111). conventional The speaks account and violent in activities it engaged had member, as banned was a card-carrying India’s of which is organization present same Prime Minister (RSS), the Sangh Swayamsevak murder, Gandhi’s Rashtriya the after Just days into wilderness. the wake of the assassination of Mohandas Gandhi on 30 Gandhi of Mohandas of assassination the wake the in Hindu nationalists, that of fact the view in more the striking emergence all the in an Hinduthenationalism rise of 1980s, to already I haveadverted briefly of shadows suspicion. ever-deepening the over hangs which ofsentatives afaith repre as society apluralistic in have found themselves Muslims Indian which in contours or difficulties the of Islam, political the question of the Kashmir, with relatively new-found engagement filmmakers’ Indian have facilitated that tions world the seen been over. other considera pointhas to several One easily could terrorism that over Islamic on, it anxiety were, as the onlyhave capitalizing been they that state,that or in conflict the simmering to sensitized became filmmakers 1989, in of election disputed Kashmir 1987, the in following gency Indian that Itways. not must supposed, however, be it only on of insur is that the account significant in apart to drift began nation-state creation of of new the the Pakistan th January 1948, were cast 1948, cast were January - - - -

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 103-119 105 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 103-119 106 allegories of national integration as commentaries on the trauma of Partition. trauma on the commentaries as integration of national allegories these read to possible also it why is suggests children, as unison in sung often they byasong gether to brought eventually and childhood in of circumstances bydint separated brothers three around revolves also and years four by film Desai’s preceded which Hussain), byNasir directed Memories, of (Procession Baarat ki But Yaadon priest. by a Catholic third the and tailor, by a Muslim another household, a Hindu in raised one is and childhood, in separated are brothers three tolerance: religious Amar Akbar Anthony(1990). Desai’s Manmohan clude in ‘genre’ this in films Hindi-language popular Other untouched. India north in families few left which of India, partition of the experience of the gravity and immediacy the and literature Puranic world of rich marvelously the from both as does it arising standing, it adifferent gives culture Indian popular in motif of this ubiquitousness sheer but the cultures; across found be to are story of this variants or that universal, is story Cain and Abel the that argue 2010). well might Lal see Askeptic film the is affection, love her for and vie else anything more than and mother’s bosom, their to attached catastrophe that strikes the rich merchant in the film film the in merchant rich the strikes that catastrophe the end of the film cannot satisfactorily be understood on anyunderstoodgrounds. be on other satisfactorily cannot endthe of film the other, of presence the each towards unite unaware thus and adolescence or early onlyreconcile toinfancy directions, in different in off were separated or, they where who veer brothers— or sisters three two brothers, sometimes two —often of siblings frequentlythe or encountered plot films, popular in motif found’ and ‘lost the called 2010:of (Lal displacement 10-11; 2013: Lal be might passim). what of The prevalence act an through effected always 1950s the throughout was 1960s, this and that except the with Partition andinsistent engagement film’s on Hindi the fundamental insists however, view, one suggested, that acontrary Ihave elsewhere Hindu dispensation? a within siblings younger the as place their to accept of Muslims willingness the or of past of Indian the nature about uniquely syncretic the assumptions cherished to prevent interrogation as of deep so an many trauma of psychic wounds the the thePartition? of finality Werethe to recognize Indians of theinability signified this or that never recognized, thus was tioned, existence should one its very suppose that never men was of country. adivision the Pakistan be there If that faith, younger the of of adherents Islam, the demand the and ofproperty, India story the echoed of family the older share home brother’s his to demand returns then and expense at his education overseas an of brothers, younger whom the of acquires Its two story without mentioning to much so patriotism Pakistan. as able to become apaean was Upkar film the that striking and is it mentionthe their very avoidance of in of werescrupulous Pakistan, films of azaadi attainment the called is Pakistan or in what India of vivisection the after twenty-five years subject until ofno this treatments cinematic why were there to ask importance to doubt it aquestion of becomes paramount that, Deewaar Ram aur Shyam Ram If Partition was an immensely traumatic moment, and there is little reason moment, reason little is there traumatic and immensely an was Partition If 2

The most iconic representation of the two brothers whose paths diverge, but who are are who but diverge, paths whose two brothers the of representation iconic most The (The Wall, 1975), directed by Yash Chopra (for an interpretation of this pivotal film, film, pivotal this of interpretation an Chopra (for by (The Yash Wall, 1975),directed Kishen Kanhaiya and twins), female (1972, Geeta featuring aur Seeta (1967), (1967), 1965 the war, against set India-Pakistan is which (1977) has most often been understood as a plea for for aplea as understood been often (1977) most has I Waqt (freedom). Popular Hindi Hindi Popular (freedom). (Time, 1965), (Time, directed 2 The The - - -

distinct socio-cultural and religious practices. from slowly their been have weaned over decades Muslims the Asian South that fact however to oblivious are the matches, cricket India-Pakistan of as such events course not just at war-time but the aggravated in greatly of is course which motherland, the Muslim’s deplored to doubt India have tendency rightly in Indian to the the loyalty who activists and homeland. Scholars feebler of version Muhammad’s of Islam the inauthentic and an notion to it the was that hostage to fall beginning was Islam Asian South that thefact to more and specifically to developments Pakistan, in thing was determined predominantly and sometimes exclusively by religious affiliation. exclusively by religious sometimes and predominantly determined was India identity in ideathat to the and most decisive blow theory two-nation to the the dealt of Bangladesh, birth the and West and Pakistan Pakistan of East separation it to the did as leading that, India and 1971 the Pakistan after between shortly war Sathyu’s motif, Partition the M.S. Hawawith (Hot Garam Winds), 1973, in came engagement full-length the day most cinema’s moving Hindi this andthe to first It Partition. that not the perhaps is accidental became that of tragedy the signs the all unmistakably brothers bears three the separates family, and his scatters ablaze, town home, the his sets shatters that by hubris: consumed earthquake who the are by the Lahore-born Yash Chopra, Yash Lahore-born the by Muslim. See Lal 2016. Lal See Muslim. pirs in faith the saints, of Sufi mausoleums at —worship of Islam contamination the to led purportedly which Hindus of the idolatry the that watchful ever be one must that and Arabia, Saudi is home of Islam ‘authentic’ only the that believe to encouraged been have especially, Pakistan, in Muslims centuries. several over forged synthesis cultural Indo-Islamic adistinct called be may what was there Asia South in that fact of the appreciation little is terrorism’, there ‘Islamic about din ever-increasing the from themselves a bid distance to in of Islam’, partly ‘varieties of the West speak to the in academics liberal for fashionable somewhat become has it Though of Islam. version Wahhabi but the thing any for Pakistan in intolerance growing of the portents ominous many one of the is ago years two oeuvre. his shaped plane crash in 1988. The establishment of Sharia benches in Pakistan’s High Courts, Courts, 1988. in in High benches Pakistan’s crash plane of establishment Sharia The a in death a“soldier his as until of Islam,” ruled himself and described unabashedly Zia-ul-Haq, who took power 1977, in Muhammad of General regime military the with commenced that ofa considerable Pakistan of body work on Islamization the is there times, contemporary of comparatively Speaking into Islam. inroads made had Hinduism which in of manner the illustration an pilloried as was Krishna, played role the of god the himself and court at his on Hindu myths based dramas of Awadh, Wajid ruler Shia who staged Shah, last the and culpable, Ali especially be were held orthodox toby Shias the the respect, or this in Hindus: purely Muslims as themselves to identify refusing Hinduism, and Islam to both allegiance claimed which of of presence communities documented the hundreds had ethnographers Colonial orthodox. to the discomforting always sub-continent was Indian the in lims The Hindu nationalist turn in popular cinema may also have also some owed may cinema popular in turn HinduThenationalist 4 3

(teachers), the presence of Sufi music— does not creep back into the life of the devout devout the of life the into back creep not does music— of Sufi presence (teachers), the The murder in broad daylight of the Sufi singer, Amjad Sabri, on the streets of Karachi Karachi of streets the on Sabri, Amjad singer, the Sufi of daylight in broad The murder decisively if not significantly Lahore, in up grew who Chopra, of Yash origins émigré The 3 is not only what the Gods have in store have in for not Gods is those the only what 4 The proximity of Hinduism to Hinduism of Mus The proximity - - -

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 103-119 107 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 103-119 108 cinemas were completely shuttered in Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan (Altaf 2013). (Altaf of Pakistan capital the were completelycinemas shuttered Islamabad, in that any from source, other claim his Ihaveof not confirmation foundthough any have common people embrace an allegedly more authentic versionhave one common allegedly people of Islam, an embrace to elites attempt by Pakistani an as understood best perhaps is to ‘Islamization’ turn the as just It that be even may of civilization. Indic substratum cultural dense attempt the the to in repudiate Pakistan’s with moorings self, Indic and disowned much termed ‘the game’; Pakistan’s to do great with has poignantly itKipling also invasion ofSoviet 1979, of Taliban, the or rise advent the what the jihad, of global the since Afghanistan neighboring in only on of turmoil the account scarcely is by violence, this convulsed increasingly been 25 over years last the has Pakistan If Sikhs. even and Muslims, Hindus, offorged interaction over amongst centuries was that synthesis Indo-Islamic the disdain with who of view those hands ened the more heterogeneous, mobile, and vernacular conception of the cinema hall itself. conception hall ofmore cinema the heterogeneous, mobile, vernacular and havemay we to work a with venues films: much developed for screening clandestine much that is is more likely What halls. without cinema any city of acapital Riyadh with dubious that distinction would have shared Islamabad case, the was that If country” prerequisite for the essential an consider introduction as the of [an] system Islamic whyis I That to Islam. it only if sticks continue to survive will of Islam name the in created was which that “Pakistan, argument the with Zia-ul-Haqby justified was for fornication, by offences, adultery, stoning death amputation and other like as and such punishments mandated which imposition the and of Hudoodthe Ordinances, In 1979, nearly 100 feature films were produced in Pakistan; by 2001, the number had fallen to two. to fallen had 2001, by the number in Pakistan; produced were films 1979,In 100 feature nearly more even precipitous. anything, if was, production film in fall However, the screens. cinema 300 just had country entire the Rizwan, to according by2005, Pakistan; in halls cinema 2000 over well Pakistan. of modern history work on the every is said to have been deeply affected (Rizwan 2005). (Rizwan to deeply have been affected said is center of Pakistan, cultural the of Lahore, amovie of cost ticket. the at afraction of films pirated viewing easy CDrevolution, the video the facilitated of which both followed by was boom which cassette video preeminently well, the considerations as precipitated was other by many of halls cinema destruction the that One argue may way for shopping to make plazas. were torn Pakistan in down halls cinema many Zia-ul-Haq’s to and if Bombay even were cinema, addicted un-Islamic, family own as stigmatized became Movies anddecimated. to flounderfind soon would itself of thewar after 1965,rigorously be to enforced came that began films on Indian ban the of power, assumption with aboost his received even had and preceding two decades the in flourished had which cinema, Zia-ul-Haq’s Pakistani that time society. It in is of role shaping Pakistani the continues today to in playand acritical exponentially grew support relationship, for Saudi Pakistan and to have aspecial were deemed countries under Zia-ul-Haq, two good; the been always had Pakistan Among India’s Muslims, similarly, the infusion of Saudi money has strength money of India’s Saudi has Among similarly, infusion the Muslims, 6 5

5 (see Ispahani ch 5; Haqqani 127). Relations between Saudi Arabia and and Arabia Saudi 5; between ch Haqqani 127). Relations (see Ispahani In the heyday of Pakistani cinema, from the mid-1960s mid-1970s, the the were to from there cinema, of Pakistani heyday the In nearly in appears and Administrator Law Martial as address Zia’sfrom is first The quote 6 One writer has even alleged, alleged, even One writer has -

shows how far Indian cinema has gone towards embracing the continuum of the Hindi, embracing gone towards has cinema Indian shows how far actors, in particular, now rules the roost, the now rules particular, in actors, crop a though new of Muslim the Their by presence diminished; greatly 1970shad cinema. outlook the of shaped Indian worldview had the of Enlightenment the from than rather faith derived from their was that asecularism conviction in own whose actors, music and screenwriters, composers, lyricists, directors, of Muslim group stellar a with associated had been long 1970s.industry the Indian film The by seams at the to crack begun of Republic, acore had value the as of secularism consensus,’ upheld which idea the ‘Nehruvian the called is credence.What rative to 1980s have converged the anumber in appear of factors nar that to lend this lure Indian Muslims into den of the activity. terrorist Muslims lure Indian to ability cunning extraordinarily an and forideologies, India, hatred apalpable who were by radical driven of of state Pakistan the butactors from functionaries not from non-state emanating as were to viewed India threats these Often India. from informants Muslim with collaboration in working often Muslims Pakistani envisioned as always almost from terrorists, threat to the vulnerable increasingly becoming was country the its open in expression of idea that and the Pakistan wards thelate around to in turn open its 1980s hostility alarming and adifferent take to began cinema Indian popular on, that disposition insist namely left and liberal, also shaped by the attempt to Sanskritize Hindu traditions. attempt by the to Sanskritize shaped also is Hindu to so nationalism Hinduism, proximity close by the contaminated less a conflict between India and Pakistan broke out in Kargil. in out broke and Pakistan India between a conflict later months three just that and countries, two the between tensions heightened of greatly atime at April in 1999, released was film the that accident not It an is excitement. passionate ‘fervor’, means word sarfarosh The services. intelligence Pakistani for informant an becomes and Muslims fellow his of fate the laments of India, partition bythe embittered greatly who, singer aghazal Hassan, Gulfam rolethe of plays Shah, actor, Naseeruddin famous The trends. of these of many illustrative derfully is won terrorism, cross-border and trafficking arms prevent to determined is who policeman Indian brothers in childhood. in brothers three one of the he played Baarat ki Yaadon film whose in Hussain, Nasir director of the nephew the is Rukh Shah bachelors.” one of India’s “eligible gossip, most middle-class and parlance society film in remains, and women Hindu several dated has Salman women; Hindu to married are Khan Aamir and Khan Rukh Shah both that noteworthy It is individuals. religiously-marked as public the to appear do not they religion; their flaunting as described be can actors none of these that is more germane is What well-educated. relatively the and class middle upper the from of drawing also characteristic the has be, it may widespread however constituency, Khan’s Aamir while class, middle the to mainly speak films Khan’s Rukh Shah proletariat; urban the to and class working the to largely appeals Khan Salman themselves. among cinema commercial Hindi for space of the Let us allow, then, the argument that scholars and commentators and of secular, scholars that allow, us argument then, the Let 8 7

I refer, of course, to the three Khans, not related to each other, who have carved up much up much carved other, have who each to not related Khans, three the to I refer, of course, Sarfaroshfilm, feature Hindi The (1999), which features Aamir Khan in the role of an role of an the in Khan Aamir (1999), features which II 8 the changing language of popular films films of popular language changing the 7 I have thus far suggested suggested far Ihave thus - - -

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 103-119 109 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 103-119 110 gernaut” (2003). India’s Supposing censorship it that Board were Film true strict jug you-have-to-hate-Pakistan-if-you-love-India the stopping no is “there now that means restriction of this of enemy’s the 1990s, the lifting until the but name that forbid mention codes the censorship contends of that masses.” Chatterjee the hearts the in fire patriotism of the sustaining and —kindling of rightwing the might of the perpetuation to the central is that cause the onus the cepted of furthering ac willingly has industry film the section of “an influential deplored that fact the commitment of and India’s courage to the brave soldiers.” young paeans Chatterjee singing while Pakistan “in ofanother,oneway the or perfidies with dealt, that films churned outthat several since had but it films, war four produced no more than had cinema Hindi 2000, before around of its existence decades several the in that noted Chatterjee Saibal analyst mar 458). Writing earlier, political the adecade movement” Hindutva (Ku engenderedism right-wing by the neo-fundamentalist of politics national the in engaged actively has cinema “Bollywood background, its as setting” “Hindu the majoritarian conclusion with to his that expeditiously before moving characters, around Muslim plots revolving the of anumber of films briefly summarizes he effectively analysis,” “discourse in to engage author claims ideologues.” Hindutva the by professed the Though discourse nationalist radical this capitulate to that producing films towards overt bias an exhibited has cinema “Bollywood cinema.” that ‘other’ Muslim Its author the Bollywood and argues in Nation’s the culture “Constructing popular Enemy: of Hindutva, article, title the very evident from be must the form, as its most transparent in view this embodies (literally, of Hindutva ‘the Hinduism’). essence Onecalled recent writing scholarly is India or in what to Hindu nationalism ahandmaiden as works tacitly cinema much of that this even and compromised now overt nationalism byare heavily their cinema Indian of commercial strands that public among and commentators alike 1990. around ascendant became which policies neo-liberalization most from the the gained have also that classes middle It these is classes. middle Indian the among especially Pakistan, and Islam contours of opinion towards shifting the to attempts our understand ignored in be cannot Pakistan in of forms Islam accommodating less and puritanical, rigid, more towards turn gravitational the that and Pakistan, and India both in assault under ways, various in was, synthesis socio-cultural however, Indo-Islamic the that club into 1998. nuclear in the suggested, later of Ihave also Pakistan weeks and India of the ofdevelopments such entry as think might one into terrains, new film Hindi have moved might what popular the form: to understand skeletal in narrative a is prominence. But this even gained had state, to the resistance armed vocating 185); groups, some anumber of ad of them secessionist meanwhile, Kashmir, in (Lal 141- 1992 construction December under state placed it been had though even in by Hindu nationalists destroyed was Rama, Lord king and of Hindu deity the onbuilt site once to the honor aHindu temple of was what birth constructed the mosque allegedly Masjid, Babri a sixteenth-century the that fact by the gauged be on India’s may to have its strength representation and Parliament, came streets in (Trivedi 51-86). Hindustan Hindu, and Hindu right-wing the scene, political On the It is safe to aver that a consensus has emerged in the scholarly community community scholarly the in emerged has aconsensus to averIt that safe is - - - - - at the subedar’s face and blind him. blind and face subedar’s the at powder chilli throw factory of the women the dead, shot eventually he is though others; emboldens eventually of Sonbai defense his and speak, to so fort, the He holds henchmen. subedar’s of the face the in doors its shuts Mian Abu factory. chilli the in refuge seeks and him her, at spurns she a grab makes and lust his to succumbs he finally on one occasion when beauty; of stunning woman village red chilies are ground into powder. The local tax collector ( collector tax powder.local The into ground are chilies red masala karkhana the at watchman the is who old man awizened Mian, of Abu form Mehta’s Mirch Masala son’s Ketan In his life. take criminals the retaliation, in injustice; fight to necessity the them upon impresses and villagers the to counsel Sholay film of the action of the most where Ramgarh village of the —in a few words, as T.S. Eliot said of the English romantic poet John Keats, much John romantic poet Keats, T.S. words, as afew of English the —in said Eliot circumstances theof best powerlessin influence, without material frail, generally are film theHindi of Thegood Muslims Muslims. towards its attitudes in catholic codes prevented mentioncodes the of Pakistan, its aggressive militaristic self? militaristic aggressive its with only identified be to henceforth was that of acountry space the occupying move towards and of India half splintered the become to cease cinema, mainstream in Pakistan, did when and enemy unequivocal the as Pakistan name to possible it become did all, at if When, not. could Pakistan as enemy the as unambiguously named be could China brutal. and villainous as shown unabashedly are Chinese the where War the on 1962 Sino-Indian afilm made Anand, Chetan director, same the tellingly, as Just of Bangladesh. nation-state new of the creation the and Pakistan of East dependence in the to led which a war fought had countries two the interim, the In not named. is Pakistan here Kasam ki Upkar film the in implicit were Pakistan to References argument. own of his implications of the cognizant not fully he is if even merit, not without is terjee’s point Chat Nevertheless, films. Indian commercial in of Pakistan mention explicit the forbids that such on principle rather than from self-intereston principle than rather of honor the of daughter, women, mindful his is acts and as woman younger every of aredemptive whoold-world is older figure male Muslim treats who humanity, of ‘good trope by the the an Muslim’ often —most to distracted be himself allow not are monolithic,representations of but, Muslims quite reasonably, not he does that tolerant supposedly the Hindu.” and obviously recognizes Muslim Kumar aboutthe cliché arrogant inherently “the rehearse films the that argues Kumar majoritarianism,” Hindutva embedded in hegemonic the designs to validate mainly pejoratively, Muslims minority 1990s pictured the since how cinema “Hindi has ask to seeking In differentregisters. in films nationalist to overtly be appear what reading of about possibility the set toa turn questions ofbefore critical more we suffice will examples Afew othered? is Muslim the which in modes various the are what and ask, they upon representation.largely films, depicted Just these how in Muslim the is worldview, Hindutva to the question turn the have made its attraction scholars and nations. two the between relations facilitating in play a can productivepart censorship that assumption unreflective endorsement Chatterjee’s is to the generate and some of easy censorship unease, , directed by Chetan Anand, was unambiguous in its reference to Pakistan, though even even though Pakistan, to reference its in unambiguous was Anand, byChetan , directed In marshalling evidence of the jingoistic turn in commercial Indian cinema cinema Indian commercial in turn of jingoistic the evidence marshalling In 10 9

I have found nothing in the manuals or guides of the Central Board of Film Censors as as Censors of Film Board Central of the or guides manuals the in nothing found I have One of the most endearing examples of ‘the good Muslim’ is Rahim Chacha, the imam imam the Chacha, Rahim is Muslim’ good of ‘the examples endearing most One of the 9 10 what is equally striking, and calculated calculated and striking, equally is what — into thinking that the Hindi film is film Hindi the that — into thinking (1987) the good Muslim appears in the the in appears (1987) Muslim good the subedar (1967), 1973 Hindustan the and film (1975) is set. He provides good (1975) good He provides set. is ) has set his eyes on Sonbai, a on Sonbai, eyes his set ) has , a factory where where , afactory - -

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 103-119 111 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 103-119 112 nationalism, and whether popular cinema may not be one of the more arresting ways not may ways cinema one be popular whether of more and the arresting nationalism, to full-blown be appears what with at cross-purposes fact, in are, of which many multiple in of registers, Asia South masses unlettered supposedly by the read is India and Pakistan both in cinema anationalist apparently is what whether question is problematic paper. attempt to probe an The of central in this the to these now turn ‘other’ possible, be yet I may shall and Pakistani the representation and of Muslims Hindus.” but493). only (Thobani to extremist communities to “intrinsic Muslim is for hatred” inspired a difference, “religiously thethere forbut is Muslim; animosity irrational with hate-mongers, filled as cast often are Hindus even that admits life. Thobani of lease new a finds of infidel, the extirpation the and of community the defense to avigorous brethren his who spurs figure, this films 2005); these in and (Pasamsee led astray anger, easily to and wild excitable, prone Muslim’ always who is inventedwriters of ‘fanatical trope the the Colonial violent force firing. apolice thus turn and peaceful, be will protests their that leaders promise by the their who,demonstration notwithstanding by Muslims a permitting himself asenior officer, eponymous police hero,the as finds who acts violence; theHindus to in Dev thenationinstigates of betrayal of perfidious act Pinjar film offensive. is The anti-modern and values repository of the feudal as Muslim of the portrayal the India, secular of aliberal, values to the deeplybe committed to themselves angels.” who believe as for many others For Kumar, “ineffectual like Pakistan as they listen to the commentary of a cricket match in in match of a cricket commentary to the listen they as Pakistan for shown cheering are Muslims themselves.” by Muslims Indian instigated tually by, either behavior, by sparked Muslim as when to, not response in or ac escalated films four the in portrayed “collective violence overwhelmingly that is She argues greater offers nuance. her Muslims,” analysis depiction that except of “intransigent the regarding conclusionsKumar munity. as comesthe same to much Thobani members of one com religious against largely perpetrated of crimes convicted the been anyone has homeless, scarcely 200,000 and dead Muslims 2000 left which killings the after years sixteen Prime Minister; as capacity his in of India destiny Gujarat’s then who was presides Modi, over today Minister, Narendra Chief the man The 2002. Gujarat in in Muslims pogrom reference against the that Rai)— Parzania Das’s Nandita Nihalani); by Govind Firaaq directed 464-465). Muslim.” as of terrorist the (Kumar image Muslims’. are terrorists by “the but vitiated Popularis recurring cinema terrorists all not may be Muslims ‘all that idea to the captive is cinema Hindi popular the that he whether doesn’t it asked be must accept too readily heoutlook disdains, that question ofthe Kumar’s whether interpretation doesn’t communal very the reinforce aside Hindus.” innocent Leaving harmless and Muslims barbaric between discourse “the adialogical in audience engaging as by Kumar characterized her is back, to take willingness his expresses betrothed to first whom Hindu shePartition, man was the of of turmoil the when, midst even the in him but to accepts ried aMuslim then (Cage 2003), (Cage forcibly who a Hinduis woman around whose plot mar turns Other, perhaps more sophisticated or nuanced, readings of the politics of of politics the Other, readings or more perhaps nuanced, sophisticated Sunera Thobani turns her attention to several popular films — films popular her attentionturns several to Thobani Sunera (2009, directed by Amit by (2009, Amit Sangam to Road directed little-known the and (2007); (2008); Rahul Dholakia’s Dholakia’s Rahul (2008); Parzania Dev , and this this , and (2004, (2004, - - - , face. There can be no transgression without pos is border, a only transgression ambiguity be no and can There face. their overall written are andinsincerity perfidy countenance; acrafty and looks leery with are one-dimensional, Muslims, Pakistani villains, The supreme sacrifice. of capable the and manly top, but not aggressively dedicated, only and patriotic conventions. such with are the over dispensed heroes entirely Its buttions, film the apposite for representa such to extraordinarily be appears elsewhere, have written Border name. abad religion who have given their terrorists Muslim those and Islam between to distinguish struggles of United the painfully States, world, supposed of leader free President the the the with West, the in beginning liberal every which in manner to the akin from Muslims, Pakistan to distinguish one able be might that heroes so the among one loveable characters or two Muslim to have it important is carnival— to all-purpose some is an extent drama, a social comedy, whether thriller, is a romantic it a film, film, or war every a a horrorfilm, nearly since cinema, Indian to popular at all if much appliedbe reserve only with In such so-called war films —“so-called” because the notiondistinct of because —“so-called” films war so-called such In soldiers. 600 regiment with tank a Pakistani overpost against a long of battle night defended aborder successfully infantrymen aregiment of which 120 in Indian war the during battle 1971 of aspecific India-Pakistan on ‘history’ the to based be posed sanctum sanctorum. sanctum the becomes into screen atemple, very the transformed and and sacralized was hall before theirshoes Hindu entering a the offtemple: cinema of space the herevery know, worshippers practices of take Hindu of religious knowledge asprinkling even with those As hall. thebefore theircinema shoes entering off would take viewers many that whohave reported reliably film-goers, by many furnished evidence the is butargument, what much to is morethe notmy point germane to is of film the contentment. material equipoise and The ofplot spiritual to lead alife might that cycle life of female enactment the an women among story the who in saw especially however,thegoddess, generatedcult of a India; north film in the following small a low-brow, of film, the a with release the goddess until little-known was, Maa and Sholay (The Deewaar Wall) cinema, ofworks mainstream of most iconic competition the when it from two faced ayear in successful wildly 1975 the and cinema, Hindi to low-budget Maa popular Jai Santoshi film, issui film form generis Indian an as The “mythological” amode such ofin analysis. inherent of possibilities the examples two summon Ishall and unimportant, being from or protocols aconsideration such far of is only spectatorship, to though rituals be lore? reduced cannot The or question mythic Puranic as elites of urban values to the not who are assimilated by Indians viewed critic is or spectator a reasonable jingoism secular to the as sides of border?both the it Is appears what possible that side of border. the do we know, What of on of for modes spectatorship example, on other for cinema the the advanced be can arguments much same then the true, holds not entirely obliterated worldview been Indic yet has the from Pakistan that the suppositionif though cinema, Indian popular to my remarks confine cessible, ac little generally is cinema Pakistani popular that fact the of being not them least reasons, for various I shall, Pakistan. and India ‘border’ between the of bridging The “war film” Border The “war (1997) Border my second example. furnishes (Embers). Santoshi ’s I as storyline, genres , became , became is sup is can can - - - -

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 103-119 113 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 103-119 114 was was film, of title the the notwithstanding drawn: clearly are sible whenlines desirable the and Hindu Dharma Hindu replies: is ‘Hindu: what is Singh ToBhairon this others, serve and forget oneself Captain Quran, his rescue to go officer to such aHinduwould lengths army that astonishment expresses villager the When dialogue. of didactic accompaniment the to accomplished book handover is of sacred the the which in setting melodramatic men. Thescene’s uniformed authenticity, moreover,compromised thebe to seems by andstate ofits the Indian of credentials J.P.director secular the to affirm Dutta of afeeble it attempt as on part the viewing scene, by visibly this impressed than hain kahe kaafir tanne “ villager, from awondrous the elicits look remark and of magnanimity act This copy of Holy villager’s the the Quran. retrieve him, around all house fall the of beams the as life to his peril at great and, army Pakistani by shelled the been has the which border astride Muslim an dive Indian home burning theinto officer of army Indian an or her has his of hopes. Perhaps scenes such most famous the to lift Border in person would have doubtless found scenes of every humanity fundamental to Pakistan. humiliating painfully was film the that grounds the on in Britain of copies distribution of film video to the the a halt without Britishers sought, success, Pakistani country, it that should no be surprise for profession the more their are in ebullient of zeal communities diasporic argued, often is as If, critics. furthermore, of by its learned many imagined is spirit than Border that one assume must for insults, tolerating appetite unusual an have they notunless on are keen or self-flagellation, Pakistanis the as ‘Other.’ of thePakistan stereotyping Itaudiences? reflects conveyed Pakistani to the being is However,ences. message what it asked, be may audi Indian to the impress melodrama nationalist with punctuated its hallmark, are film the in dialogues “the anti-Pakistan that to interrogation when he asserts be put similarly Shoaib must Pervez scholar Muhammad border.the The Pakistani across popular immensely why were its songs and well, also as but Pakistan India in notin hit with audiences a only was for film why no the explanation had critics films (Ayaz 2017). wavean entire generated war that of film However, the Pakistan the way” (Kazmi 1997). (Kazmi way” the “Itcelebrationis no all patriotism, of but language: jingoism unambiguous in film the for Times reviewer of film the India then Kazmi, Nikhat witty otherwise the and film, the andcritic panned reviewer film every Nearly Pakistanis. and to succor aid give to exists India within column afifth point the that makes of conflict resolution and shared cultural assumptions across borders. across assumptions Significantly, cultural resolutionandshared of conflict as such notion film ajingoistic accepted widely that the one belies which ent reading, to adiffer would alert have been Pakistan and India both in audiences to suggest, expression of ideaof the Hindu Yet, tolerance. arrogant Iwould like an as Hindus, Border Border Border The viewer who has been assimilated to liberal values and believes in the in andbelieves values liberal to assimilated been whohas viewer The To the secular critic in India, this is yet another instantiation of the vanity of of vanity the instantiation another yet is this To India, critic in secular the cannot possibly be interpreted in registers which allow one to think both both one to allow think which possibly interpreted registers be in cannot sensitive to Muslims within India: as is quite common in such films, it quite is films, common such in as India: within sensitive to Muslims does not appear on a casual reading to hint at in-between spaces. Nor spaces. to at hint in-between reading on not acasual does appear [religion]. doing.” been aHindu has what is this For centuries, ” (‘And they call you anon-believer’).” (‘And call were The critics they less Border is still understood in journalistic circles as the anti- the as circles journalistic in understood still is was viewed in a very different different avery in viewed was ” (Pervez 132).” (Pervez If , condemned the the condemned , Aur woh woh Aur - - furnish Islam with a human face, and suggest that the border is an artifact of history. artifact border the an is that suggest and face, ahuman with Islam furnish Pakistanis, tohumanize as it appeared film the embraced in Pakistan reviewers film copies of Veer Zaara bootlegged movies, Indian all nearly with however, case the 2008; was until as lifted the of and would notin be aftermath place the1965 in still Indo-Pak war, effect was which went movies into of Indian screening on official the Pakistan in ban the ture, junc at this unraveled be subject cannot this enough, though Oddly them. between relations to heal potential the had thus and common countries to both are that values cultural norms and social the highlights awork as that Pakistan and India in both restored be must to freedom him. his that and woman, honorsave the of a Pakistani only to confession he consented a false to that sign Veer framed, was Singh Pratap that court’s finding of by dint a Pakistani united are Veer to him. Zaara and country identity, his to Veer’s name, to apledge his restoredrawn his and takes and cause, Mukerji), Siddiqui is (Rani lawyer, Saamiya a road accident. Pakistani in Ayoung word the killed put been is though he out has that years, of twenty for upwards jail a Pakistani in Wing), languishes Analysis and of India’s RAW (Research spy agency employee an Rathore, he Rajesh is that stating a confession to compelled sign been of encouragement Zaara’s the aspy Veer with father. as Veer,has framed who has interloper have now put been by this from India, at risk reputation, manliness and whose honor, Zaara’s fiancé, at Zaara’s marriage. for in doorstep her to ask hand Force officer, arrives Air Indian to Veer, an as resignation call his in who, turning pines for and her lover. a agonizes, companion places Herto do so, female frets, women young her wont in as situation are and to Pakistan, she returns her family; by man to another committed been Veer, and already has Zaara butbetween Zaara develops romance unstated to members of family. deeply An the attached becomes over decades and the by Zaara’s in family Partition, taken foundfrom the herself arising who, woman site by of dint circumstances of aSikh pilgrimage river at aSikh Sutlej the in ashes the on ashort visit to India immerse in is Zaara Lahore. in living politician Pakistani Zinta), (Preity of awell-established daughter the Hayat Khan Zaara Airand Force, the Indian in officer an Khan) Veer Rukh (Shah Singh Pratap together brings woman. Fate Pakistani and force air officer a Indian an of love affair buster,” buster,” of religion has, at least in South Asia, no ethical standing. no ethical Asia, South in at least of has, religion not is practice derived from the that asecularism that transparently, view adopts the it, more complementary; worldview are secular the and sensibility religious the Border cultures. religious across word shared is not ‘people are even Hindus too: though of book’, the reverence for sacred the the semiology, critical a provides The HolyQuran Pakistan. in and Muslims Indian among both understood would a Hindu, well apoint have been that as faith his from secularism his derives thus Singh Bhairon Captain religions. for all respect India, in case the evidently is as mean, we also worldview, by secularism if secular the of affirmation at an questiona number is of in scene Hindu points, beliefs the Singh’s predispositionBhairon towards Captain establish to seeks film the though Veer-Zaara Veer Zaara Let me, in closing, direct my attention very briefly to the my briefly attentionto very direct “romantic block closing, me, in Let became a landmark film that was generally held in high regard regard high in held generally was that film alandmark became (2004), the plot of which revolves around the apparently ill-fated (2004), plot ill-fated apparently the the revolves around of which were widely available and were screened openly. often and were available widely Many does not does only point ideathat to the - -

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 103-119 115 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 103-119 116 remains to be asked how exactly how exactly to asked be remains borders, it all Moreover, love that transcends cliché tiresome the past once we are border. every marks contingency that fact the obscures of course, Such areading, through the tiniest crack, and tiny rivulets diverge from the main body and chart chart and body main from the diverge rivulets tiny and crack, tiniest the through seep it of water to will free; be nature It inescapable the is analogy: imperfect and odd an Let me propose thoughts. concluding me permit to offer a few nevertheless Pakistan problematic and and India of border the between ment analytic the with of nations-state. the without of avoice, those upon autonomy the advantage to the often intrude, today protocols of justice universal conventions, international allegedly and organizations, transnational that suggestion the herein lies —and of Pakistan Commission Rights represents Veer of Human the Saamiya on behalf lawyer the point the that makes resolution.film for quest subtly the conflict in The enabling be nation-state can of modern the framework on question legal of the the whether without ambiguity of one’snot privacy the only in home but public. in However, Veer Zaara practice, inhibit religious than rather permit always must secularism idea that the countenance we can notion again —if resolutely was secular to wedded the himself would shelter sub-continent’s that the astate as explicitly Jinnah created Muslims, was not judge is merely ofsitting Pakistan protocol. amatter that Despite fact the the behind hangs founder the of Pakistan, Jinnah, Ali of Mohammed portrait large Zaara’s testimony, and own of evidence the a That assessment to order release. his Veer’s Siddiqui the to secure moved, is after Saamia court the lawyer by the release, film’s at the would surprised have been denouement: brought case over a presiding viewers Indian Partition. since course its own taken of how has law awareness the either In country, emulated. little is there rightly be might amodel which as viewed be reasonably society,in can to one’s indifference andstanding gender, race, class, absolute equality, with with to treated be are brought before defendants acourt all of modern West, the on principle the system based that legal the that assumption tenablethe course, is, of only on reading on. so and This apostates, as Ahmadiyyas the as such groups of Muslims of designation certain the Hudood ordinances, the seriously compromised adoption by the courts, became ofto Sharia India, comparison in certainly system, British, by Pakistan’s the legal bequeathed system inherited thelegal both and India Pakistan Though opening. further offers one countries? two the between of bridges building the facilitate than rather hinder of state more the institutions profound, that namely much something signify gesture sartorial that Or does over militarism? patriotic of love triumphing instance an as Force, should this we only read Air of Indian the officer of an Veer uniform the abandons When and process. resignation submits his peace the in invested is that state the than rather society other words,in it civil is other; each towards goodwill only harbor India and people the of Pakistan states, two the between animosity the on sides whatever of border both the scholars that and artists, rather activists, by vociferously resolution?argued conflict long been has It help might in culture political that assumption tacit its more in and than Pakistan The few instances that I have summoned of popular Hindi cinema’s Hindi have I summoned that popular of engage instances The few film’sThe deployment the consequentand motif, denouement, thelegal of Veer Zaara effects a departure in its treatmentin of its a departure effects is not is - recognition allows us to both retain and subvert the border subvert the and at once. retain to both us allows recognition Hindu. That every in of Muslim the something also is there Muslim; Asian South every theHinduin other. the of and Theresomething is self the Muslim, the and theHindu and India Pakistan, as ponder we theupontoborder reflect between at amore hints cinema profoundHindi have to notion, continue we one shall that popular in probe Something implications. muchtacitly their more are in far-reaching they questions central the yet from Pakistan, India of divides Line Controlthe that mentioned border the called here more or around is riveted what seem menacingly have I thosewhich besides of problems. the other films least Many the is Pakistan and of India states the between passport— the as of modernity contrivances such on presence either side, armed and an rituals, through border —enforced physical quo. However, its status in the maintained and patrolled, monitored,be regulated, must that aproblem, border the as something only construe as imagination our who havedominated realists The beings. render ofhuman it efficientservice the in to ways find it, it, or contain otherwise to dam desire the namely by one instinct, journey. own their body confronted a with wateris of moved The engineer only Revised paper accepted for publication: 24 March 2018 March 24 publication: for accepted paper Revised Reviews sent to author: 1 December 2017 1December author: to sent Reviews

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 103-119 117 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 103-119 118 Paracha Padamsee Lal Kumar Lawrence —— —— Deewaar —— “The Defiance of Defiance and Liberation for the Victims of History: Ashis Nandy in Con in Nandy Ashis History: of Victims the for Liberation and Defiance of Defiance —— “The and India, Pre-modern in Violence Tolerance’: Religious ‘Hindu for Hinduism, —— “Intolerance Lal Kazmi Ispahani Haqqani Guha Chatterjee Ayaz Altaf , Vinay and Ashis Ashis and , Vinay , Vinay. “The Murder of a Sufi Qawaal and a Nation-State in Its Death-Throes,” JuneIts 25 in 2016. and aNation-State Qawaal of a Sufi , Vinay. Murder “The , Shaikh. “Border at 20: The JP Dutta war epic and how it launched a wave of war films,” films,” war wave of a and launched how it epic war Dutta JP The 20: at “Border , Shaikh. The History of History: Politics and Scholarship in Modern India in Modern Scholarship and Politics of History: History The , Waseem. “Filmistan: Here and There,” and Here “Filmistan: , Waseem. India after Gandhi: The History of the World’s Largest Democracy Largest the of World’s History The Gandhi: after India , Ramachandra. , Nikhat. “It’s not a Celebration of Patriotism, but Jingoism all the Way,” the all but Jingoism “It’s of Patriotism, not a Celebration , Nikhat. , Sanjeev. “Constructing the Nation’s Enemy: Hindutva, popular culture and the Muslim Muslim the and culture popular Nation’s Hindutva, the Enemy: “Constructing , Sanjeev. Oxford Oxford Minorities. Religious Pakistan’s of AHistory Pure: the of Land the Purifying , Farahnaz. , Nadeem F. “Whatever happened to Pakistan’s film industry?” Deutsche Welle industry?” film Pakistan’s to happened F., Nadeem “Whatever Accessed 29 January 2018. 29 January Accessed 2015. 2015. 2005. lan, ‘other’ in Bollywood cinema,” Third cinema,” WorldQuarterly Bollywood in ‘other’ June 1997. sate-in-its-death-throes/ https://vinaylal.wordpress.com/2016/06/25/the-murder-of-a-sufi-qawwal-and-a-nation- pp. xvi-xviii 2006, Press, University Oxford eds. Cinema in Indian Iconic the and Mythic The Culture: Popular Strange Destinations of Ashis Nandy Ashis of Destinations Strange and Selves Multiple The Futures: Open Knowledges, Dissenting in Lal,” Vinay with versation precht, 2006, pp.51-84. (1500-1800 Religion und in Gewalt of Fate a‘Modern’ Discourse,” the University Press, 2017. 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