INIS-mf—1 5509

University of J09600040 Faculty of Graduate Studies f’'r*dit.i(c Department of Engineering

Mnthrm.'Ucs nncl Physical Science: COMBUSTION

13 Y MOHAMMED AW WAD ALI AL-DABJJAS

SUPERVISOR Dr. MOHAMMED II AMD AN AND

Dr. V. II. KHRA1SIIA

Submitted in partial fulfillment of Hie requirements for the degree

of master of science in mechanical engineering.

Faculty of Graduate Studies,

University of Jordan.

Amman , Jordan

May , 1002 tr** POUR QUALITY I ORIGINAL 8 Ns OS u We regret that some of the pages in this report may not be up to the proper legibility standards, even though the best possible copy was used for scanning The Examining CommiU.ee considers this thesis satisfactory and acceptable for Ui award of the Degree of Master of Science in Mechanical Engineering in MAY, 1992.

Dr. Mohammed Hamdan Chairman of Conrfhittee

Mechanical Engineering Department

University of Jordan

Dr. Y. II. Khraisha

Chemical Engineering Department

University of Jordan

Dr. S. A. Saved Member of Committee

Chemical Engineering Department

University of Jordan

Dr. M. Ham mad Member of Committee

Mechanical Engineering Department

University of Jordan

Dr. Ali Badran Member of Committee

Mechanical Engineering Department

University of Jordan To my mother and father I

Acknowledgements

H. is of my pleasure to express my gratitude to all people who helped me in completing the present work. Special thanks are indebted to my supervisors Dr. M. Hamdan and

Dr. Y. Khraisha, whom without their support, encouragement and advice, my work could have been infinitely more difficult . Also special thanks are indebted to my family, especially my father and my mother for their advice and encouragement . Also I highly appreciate the great assistance conducted through the mechanical engineering lab staff, computer center staff, industrial engineering department workship staff at the faculty of engineering and Technology.

Also I highly appreciate the support ami great help given to me by Dr. M. Ilammad and AL-ICayyali Company for their help in providing live burner. The. Royal Scientific

Society, especially Dr. Najclv Akeel for their help in carrying out the volumetric prod ­ uct concentration analysis, and Jordan Electricity Authority for their help in providing information about .

Finally, not to forget, the support and great help to me by ell my friends throughout my research. JLJL

Abstract

A ’coutant ’ steel combustion chamber cooled by water jacket was constructed to burn tliescl fuel and mixture of shale oil & diesel fuels. During experimental work air fuel ratio was determined , temperatures were measured using Chrornel/ Alumel thermocouple, finally the gasous combustion product analysis was carried out using gas chromatograph technique. The constructed combustion chamber was operating satisfac­ tory for several hours of conliuous work. According to the measurements it was found that: the flame temperature of a mixture of diesel imd shale oil fuels was greater Ilian the flame temperature of diesel fuel, and the suiter emissions of a mixture of tliescl and shale oil fuels was liighcr than that of diesel fuel.

Calculation indicated that the dry gas energy loss was very high and the incomplete combustion energy loss was very small. Ill

Contents Acknowledgements...... i

Abstract ...... ii

List vf Figures viii

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 The Objectives of the Present Work ...... 2

1.2 layout of the thesis...... 3

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Review of Efforts in Exploitation and Development of Oil Shale in Jordan 10

2.3 PRINCIPLE OIL SIIALE DEPOSITS ...... 13

2.3.1 EL LAJJUN...... J4

2.3.2 SULTANI...... 15

2.3.3 Jurf ed Darawish...... 16

2.3.4 Altarat bin Ghudrnn ...... 17

2.3.5 Wadi Maghar...... 18

2.3.6 Nabi Musa...... 19

3 THEORY OF COMBUSTION 21

2.1. Intoduclion ...... 21

3.2 Combustion of liquid fuels 22 3.3 Combustion of solid fuels 23

3.4 Combustion of gas fuels ...... 24

3.5 Type of flames ...... 24

4 EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS, CONDITIONS AND TECHNIQUES 27

4.1 Introduction ...... 27

4.2 Combustor component ...... 28

4.2.1 Combustor wall...... 28

4.2.2 Combustor Flame Tube ...... 29

4.2.3 Exhaust pipe...... "...... 29

4.3 Existing facilities...... 30

4.3.1 Oil burner nozzles ...... 30

4.3.2 Inlet nozzle ...... 31

4.3.3 Temperature measurement ...... 31

4.3.4 Air supply system...... 32

4.3.5 Riel supply systems...... 33

4.4 Instrument measurement ...... 33

4.4.1 Velocity measurement ...... 33

4.4.2 Fuel consumption . '...... 34

4.4.3 Gas analysis ...... 34

4.4.4 Heating value and energy losses ...... 35

4.5 Type of liquid fuel used in experiment ...... 36

4.0 Experimental observation ...... 38

4.7 Experimental procedure ...... 39 V

5 RESULTS 41

5.1 Introduction ...... 41

5.2 Flame Temperature Measurement ...... 41

5.2.1 Temperature of diesel & mixture of shale oil and diesel ...... 41

5.2.2 Effect of air consumption on flame temperature...... 41

5.2.3 Effect of fuel consumption on the flame temperature ...... 41

5.2.4 Effect of air fuel ratio on the flame temperature...... 42

5.3 Stack temperature ...... 42

5.3.1 Effect of air consumption on stack temperature ...... 42

5.3.2 Effect of fuel consumption on stack temperature...... 42

5.3.3 Effect of air fuel ratio on stack temperature ...... 42

5.3.4 Effect of shale oil percentage on stack temperature ...... 42

5.4 Volumetric concentration of the mean gaseous product ...... 43

5.4.1 Effect of air consumption on volumetric concentration of the mean

gaseous product ...... 43

5.4.2 Effect of fuel consumption on volumetric concentration of the mean

gaseous product ...... 43

5.4.3 Effect of air fuel on volumetric concentration of the mean gaseous

product ...... 43

5.4.4 Effect of shale oil percentage on volumetric concentration of the

mean gaseous product ...... 43

5.5 Dry gas combustion loss...... 44

5.5.1 Effect of air consumption on dry gas combustion loss ...... 44 \

5.5.2 Effect of fuel consumption on dry gas combustion loss ...... 44

5.5.3 Effect of air fuel ratio on dry gas combustion loss ...... 44

5.5.4 Effect of shale oil percentage in the mixture on dry gas combustion

loss ...... 44

5.5.5 Effect of stack stack temperature on dry gas combustion loss ... 44

5.6 Incomplete combustion loss ...... 45

5.6.1 Effect of air consumption on incomplete combustion loss ...... 45

5.6.2 Effect of fuel consumption on incomplete combustion loss ...... 45

5.6.3 Effect of air fuel ratio on incomplete combustion loss ...... 45

5.6.4 Effect of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide on incomplete com ­

bustion loss ...... 45

0 DISCUSSION 47

6.1 Flame Temperature...... 47

6.1.1 Flame temperature within diesel flame & mixture of shale oil and

diesel flames...... 47

6.1.2 Effect of air consumption on the flame temperature...... 48

6.1.3 Effect of fuel consumption on the flame temperature ...... 48

6.1.4 Effect of air fuel ratio on the flame temperature...... 48

6.2 Stack temperature ...... 49

6.2.1 Effect of air consumption on stack temperature ...... 49

6.2.2 Effect of fuel consumption on stack temperature...... 49

6.2.3 Effect of air fuel ratio on stack temperature ...... 49

6.2.4 Effect of shale oil percent in the mixture on stack temperature . . 50 VfT

C.3 volumetric product concentration of the main gaseous product ...... 50

0.3.1 Effect of air consumption on volumetric concentration of the main

gaseous product at constant diesel fuel consumption ...... 50

0.3.2 Effect of fuel consumption on volumetric product concentration at

constant mass of air consumption ...... 51

0.3.3 Effect of air fuel ratio on volumetric concentration of the mean

product ...... 51

0.3.4 Effect of shale oil percentage on volumetric product concentration 51

0.4 Dry gas combustion loss ...... 52

0.4.1 Effect of air consumption on dry gas combustion loss ...... 52

0.4.2 Effect of fuel consumption on dry gas combustion loss ...... 52

0.4.3 Effect of air fuel ratio on dry gas combustion loss ...... 52

0.4.4 Effect of shale oil percentage in the mixture on dry gas combustion

loss ...... 53

0.4.5 Effect of slack slack temperature on dry gas combustion loss ... 53

0.5 Incomplete combustion loss ...... 54

0.5.1 Effect of air consumption on incomplete combustion loss ...... 54

0.5.2 Effect of fuel consumption on incomplete combustion loss ...... 54

0.5.3 Effect of air fuel ratio on incomplete combustion loss ...... 54

7 Conclusion and Recommendation 55

7.1 Conclusions ...... 55

7.2 Recommendation ...... 55

Appendix ...... 02 - VIII List of Figures

Figure 3.1 Bunsen burner with premixed imd diffusion flames [211...... 63

Figure 3.2 Comparison between laminar and turbulent fronts for premised com­

bustion [21] 64

Figure 3.3 Comparison between laminar flame front in stagnant air wil.li turbu­

lent flame front and ordered air motion for diffusion controlled combustion

[21]...... or.

Figure 4.1 The combustor rig component ...... GO

Figure 4.2 Combustor section showing coutant bottom [22] ...... 07

Figure 4.3 Sectional view of burner wall showing combustor shape [22| .... 08

Figure 4.4 Sectional view of the vertical tube convection section [22]...... 69

Figure 4.5 Sectional plan showing fire box and convection section [22]...... 70

Figure 4.6 The photograph of the combustor rig ...... 71

Figure 4.7 The component of the nozzle [23]...... 72

Figure 4.8 Hollow spray cone pattern [23]...... 73

Figure 4.9 Solid spray cone pattern [23] ...... 74

Figure 4.10 Variation of spray angle [23] ...... 75

Figure 4.11 Gas sampling arrangement ...... 76 L<

Figure 5.1 Isothermal contours temperature lines inside the combustion chamber

for diesel fuel at air fuel ratio equal 56.40 ...... 77

Figure 5.2 Isothermal contours temperature lines inside the combustion chamber

for a mixture of 10 % slmlc oil and 90 % diesel at air fuel ratio equal 57.43 78

Figure 5.3 Horizontal axes temperature distribution for two different quantity

of air flow for diesel fuel ...... 79

Figure 5.4 Vertical axes temperature distribution for two different quantity of

air flow for diesel fuel...... 80

Figure 5.5 Horizontal axes temperature distribution for two different quantity

of fuel for diesel fuel ...... 81

Figure 5.6 Vertical axes temperature distribution for two different quantity of

fuel for diesel fuel...... '. 82

Figure 5.7 Effect of air fuel ratio on the variation of the flame temperature along

the horizontal axes for diesel fuel at two different x positions ...... 83

Figure 5.8 Effect of air fuel ratio on the variation of flame temperature along

the vertical axes for diesel fuel at two different y positions ...... 84

Figure 5.9 Effect of air fuel ratio on the variation of the flame temperature along

the horizontal axes for a mixture of shale oil & diesel at two different x

positions ...... 85

Figure 5.10 Effect of air fuel ratio on the variation of the flame temperature along

the vertical axes f--r mixture <-f shale oil & diesel fuels at two different y

positions ...... 86 Figure 5.11 Effect of air consumption on stack temperature at constant fuel

consumption for diesel fuel...... 87

Figure 5.12 Effect of fuel consumption on stack temperature under constant air

consumption for diesel fuel...... 88

Figure 5.13 variation of air fuel ratio with stack temperature for diesel fuel . . 89

Figure 5.14 variation of air fuel ratio with stack temperature for mixture of

shale oil & diesel fuels ...... 90

Figure 5.15 Effect of shale oil percent in the mixture on the stack temperature 91

Figure 5.16 Effect of air consumption on volumetric concentration of carbon

monoxide and carbon dioxide at constant fuel consumption for diesel fuel 92

Figure 5.17 Effect of air consumption on volumetric concentration of oxygen

and nitrogen at constant fuel consumption for diesel fuel...... 93

Figure 5.18 Effect of fuel consumption on volumetric concentration of carbon

monoxide and carbon dioxide at constant air consumption for diesel fuel 94

Figure 5.19 Effect of fuel consumption on volumetric concentration of oxygen

and nitrogen at constant air consumption for diesel fuel...... 95

Figure 5.20 Variation of volumetric concentration of carbon monoxide and car­

bon dioxide with air fuel ratio for diesel fuel...... 96

Figure 5.21 Variation of volumetric concentration of oxygen and nitrogen with

air fuel ratio for diesel fuel...... 97

I'igure 5.22 Variation «if volumetric concentration of carbon monoxide and car­

bon dioxide with percent of shale oil ...... 98 Figure 5.23 Variation of volumetric concentration of nitrogen ami oxygen willi

percent of shale oil ...... f)fl

Figure 5.24 Effect of nit consumption on dry gas Ions percentage at mnntrml

fuel consumption for diesel fuel ......

Figure 5.25 Effect of fuel consumption on dry gas loss percentage n.l constant

air consumption for diesel fuel...... |(J0

Figure 5.20 Variation of dry gas Ions percentage null, nir fuel ratio for diesel fuel 101

Figure 5.27 Variation of dry gas loss percentage wil.li nir fuel ratio for shale oil 11)2

Figure 5.28 Variation of dry gas loss percentage will, percentage of shale oil for

diesel fuel...... 103

Figure 5.2!) Variation of dry combustion loss percentage will, slack tempera lure

nl constant air consumption for diesel fuel...... 1(1-1

Figure 5.30 Variation of dry combustion loss percentage with stack temperature

at constant fuel consumption for diesel fuel...... 105

Figure 5.31 Variation of dry combustion loss percentage with stack temperature

for diesel fuel...... JOG

Figure 5.32 Variation of dry combustion loss percentage with slack temperature

for mixture of shale oil & diesel fuels...... 107

Figure 5.33 Effect of nir consumption on incomplete loss for diesel fuel .... JOB

Figure 5.34 Effect of fuel consumption on incomplete loss at constant fuel con ­

sumption for diesel fuel...... 109

Figure 5.35 Variation of incomplete combustion loss with air fuel ratio f»»r diesel

fuel...... HO 1

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

The energy utilization in the world is increasing at a high rate. Considering the present

rale of energy consumption and the steady increase in population, very large demand

for energy will undoubtedly occur by the turn of this century. This calls for technical

innovations to reduce energy use or more effective use of energy. This is accomplished

through further development and widespread use of renewable energy sonrces(solar, wind,

geothermal, nuclear etc.), and development of energy conservation and management tech­

nology.

The accelerated research and development for alternative energy resources to augment

the dwindling supply of and natural gas is currently under way throughout

the world.

^ Solid fuels have, in past, been the most common energy sources for large central

generating station. These solid fuel have recently shared the market with gas and oil as / the supplies of these alternative fuels decrease. It is likely that coal will return to a more

dominant role in the combustion of solid fuels.

^.Jordan is a non-producing nil country with a limited source of energy. As a result

the country has to allocate a significant portion of the national income to cover the 2 cost of the imported oil.However the country has substantial reserves of oil shale which represent an untapped source of indigenous fossil fuel for the country. The Kingdom has been investigating methods of economically utilizing this fuel resource for over n decn.dc.

Lhrftt~rcGOTTtffc. rrtost of this effort has been directed towards retorting processes to extract oil from the oil shale, and direct combustion of oil shale to generate electric power.

The Jordanian oil shale is considered to have too low a fuel quality to be effec­ tively used in conventional combustion process. However, in recent years, the circulating fluidized bed combustion process lias demonstrated at commercial scale the ability to effectively utilize low grade fuels [!.].

It is well known that the large quantities of oil shale exist in Jordan which are not widely used due to the following problems:

• The high cost of the distillation oil shale compared with the world cost of the crude

oil.

• The technology that facilitates the conversion of existing power plants from con ­

ventional fuel to oil shale is not yet available.

Most accelerated research on oil shale in the world is in two directions

• Retorting process at which oil is extracted from oil shale.

• Direct combustion in circulating fluidized bed for electric power generation.

1.1 The Objectives of the Present Work

The objectives of this work me:- 1. The development of a furnace that can burn liquid fuel, especially shale oil, and

diesel.

2. The development of an experimental set up for testing two types of fuel (diesel,

mixture of shale oil and diesel) to analyse relevant data such as :

• Fuel consumption

• energy losses from the stack

• air fuel ratio

• Volumetric product concentration

Exhaust gas analysis will be carried out to investigate the concentration of the

main pollutants emitted during combustion.

3. Data collection on the temperature distribution throughout the combustion cham­

ber. This data may provide useful information in future analysis of combustion

chamber design.

1.2 layout of the thesis

The thesis is divided into six chapters, of which this introduction is the first.

Chapter 2 is a literature review of the previous related literature to help in under ­ standing the problem.

Theory of combustion is discussed in chapter 3.

Chapter 4 is a full description of the experimental combustor rig and measuring tech­ niques, as well as, the experiment procedure and observation. The result of measurements are presented graphically in chapter 5 and discussed in chapter 6. The concluding remarks axe discussed in chapter 7 which also include the recommen dation for future work.

Figures that describe the experimental work and figures that describe the result obtained in the present work are shown in the appendix. Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The word ’’oil shale” is not the scientific equivalent of kcrogen-rich limestone and marls,

such os the residual hydrocarbon bearing deposits that ore found in Jordan and a few

other countries. The term oil shale is used worldwide as indicative of sedimentary rocks

that contain organic matter, mainly kerogen when healed to about 500nC this rock yields

oil, gas, and carbon residues [2],

Jordanian oil shales ore kerogen rich bituminous limestones that were deposited in

a shallow marine cuxinic environment, mostly during the macslriclilian and paleoccnc

stages of geologic lime. The origin of kerogen ill these limestones is the fossil remain of

plants and animals that accumulated in prehistoric seas and lakes that covered most of

Jordan some 80 million years ago during the upper cretaceous period [2],

Oil shales are abundant and wide spread in Jordan. Major deposits are divided into

two groups according to depth of burial:

1. Near-surface deposits (about 30m below the surface) that are exploitable by open

pit mining.

2. Deep subsurface deposits (present a maximum depth of 78-lm)Uiat arc exploitable 6'

by under ground mining or in-situ retorting techniques.

Both [2] near surface and deep subsurface deposits are characterized by the following properties:

1. High carbonate content of bituminous limestones and marls, generally greater than

25%by weight.

2. High sulfur content of the shale which, when retorted, yields about 10% sulfur.

3. Organic matter containing 8.95% hydrogen and 0.73% nitrogen by weight

4. Raw shale contains phosphorous, vanadium, and variable amount of valuable trace

metals and rare earth elements.

However, by international standards, Jordanian oil shales are of high grade and are capable of yielding as much as 10% oil.

The world reserves of oil shale are different from source to another, until this time, the reserves of all countries in world are not known, on the other hand, the U.N reported that the assurance reserves of oil shale in the world equal 69 billion ton, and the large amount of these reserves are found in USA , USSR, China, Morocco, and Jordan [3]

In this chapter, some of the investigation that have been reported were summarized to show comprehensive account of recent contribution to the literature and oil shale on oil shale combustion.

Fox et al. [4] described the collection, preparation, stabilization, and chemical analysis

-

high or very low levels of many constituents. The sample was taken from the Laramie

Energy Technology Center in 1976 . The sample was analyzed by 13 separate laboratories using six instrumental techniques and a wide range of wet chemical methods. The results of this survey were presented and discussed, including the analytical problem of specific process waters.

Hepler et al. [5] presented the result of exposure, acutetoxicity, and reproduction- developmental studies undertaken to define health risks sample which produced in the

Laramie Energy Technology Center ’s in 1976. This investigation represents the first animal toxicity evaluation of a retort oil shale water and therefore incorporated a broad

base of various tests selected to determine toxicity as a function of exposure route and

species exposed.

Sterka et al. [6] reported the experiment which was conducted at the Laramie Energy

Technology, in this experiment the "Omega 9" process water was produced in an in

situ oil shale combustion. They reported the characterization of the retort water from

the process. They evaluated the effectiveness of air ambient temperature and elevated

dissolved organic.

Chen et al. [7] presented the result of study of fluidized bed oil shale combustion,

particularly from an environmental standpoint, they reported oil shale classification and

characterization. Also, they focussed on mineralogical composition, porosity, specific

gravity ,...... , etc. They discussed the mechanisms and kinetics of oil shale retorting

and combustion, they examined the cleaning of CO and they explored fluidized bed

oil shale combustion. Also they described the simulation of oil shale combustion in a

fluidized bed, 6 inch in diameter and they presented the advantages and disadvantages of combustion in a fluidized bed

Kuehl and Steller [8] studied the possibibties of the use of oil shale combustion in

a fluidized bed furnace and estimated the cost of power plant. They drafted an overall

concept of oil shale combustion in a fluidized bed furnace, and established pilot plant

of 200 ton/hour steam scale. The concept was technically revised, resulting in a cost

estimate of about 15% accuracy.

Macauley et al. [9] presented the geological investigation in various of completion

for five Canadian deposits of which Mississippian Albert Formation oil shale in New

Brunswick is the most significant. Organic geochemistry concerned with both quantity

and type of kerogen present as well as with bitumen content to define oil yields. They

studied the mineralogy to determine the possibility of using it in related secondary in­

dustries ( fertilizer, cement, wallboard, brick etc.). At the New Brunswick Research and

productivity Council, combined retorting and fluidized coal-oil shale combustion research

is attempting of oil and electrical power generation and controlling emissions from high

sulfur coal.

The Research was conducted in the Morgantown Energy Technology Center (METC)[10]

on the feasibility studies of combustion and retorting of five types of oil shales: These

studies generated technical data about

• the effect of retorting conditions

** the combustion characteristics applicable to developing an optimum process design

technology

* establishing a data base application to oil shales worldwide The METC research program showed that shale-oil yields were a fleeted by the process parameters of retorting temperature, residence time, shale particle size, fluidization gas velocity, and gas composition.

Inguva R [11] presented a model (mathematical modeling of modified in-situ and

aboveground oil shale retorting), This model is valid for electro magnatic beating process,

in which some of oil evolved during pyrolysis of ICerogen is lost to coking, cracking and

combustion , and this model is used in numerical calculation of heating value.

Levy, Y. [12] studied oil shale combustion in pressurized fluidized beds (PFBCs) for

use in Brayton or in combined thermodynamic cycles, power plant incorporating coal-

fired PFBCs, which are developed mainly in the USA, UK, West Germany and Sweden,

have estimated thermal efficiencies higher than existing power plants. Such plants are

usually designed to include a combined cycle of steam and gas turbines which are coupled

to the air compressor and electric generator. Several fluidized bed combustion operate

successfully on low grade fuels including oil shale but none of them operates yet at

high pressure with oil shale at elevated pressure should not present additional significant

difficulties and technology similar to the coal-fired PFBC could be used.

Vassal os et al. [13] studied the use of a fluidized bed combustor to burn the coke

residue (the coke residue is part of the organic material remain in the inorganic matrix

during the pyrolysis process). They used the basis of the two-phase theory of fluidization

for predicting the performance of the fluidized bed combustor. They calculated the carbon

burning efficiency as function of temperature, pressure, and bubble size for the same

conditions. They established the carbonate decomposition and the associated energy

loss, and they found the conditions which make feasible complete carbon combustion .10 with minimum carbon decomposition.

Shirav et al. [14] suggested a model for the pathway of some trace element during

fluidized bed combustion of Israeli oil shale based on pilot plant mid laboratory tests.

Tliis model demonstrate the role of carbonate matrix in suppressing the volatilization of

trace element due to fixation of most elements in new-formed silicates. They predicted

the quality of leachates derived from oil shale combustion wastes on the basis of the proposed model.

Krypina et al. [15] considered the transformation of structure of the organic matter of the combustion shales on their heating in the air and in an inert atmosphere. It was

shown that the thermal decomposition of the organic matter of combustible shale depends

substantially on the type of its structure.

Dung et al.[16j presented an integrated process model for the retorting block of an oil

shale conversion process. The model integrated only the key process operations such as

drying/preheating, combustion of spent of shale and pyrolysis of raw oil shale and sensible

heal, recovery from combusted shale. The flowsheeting package ASPEN has been used

to achieve mass and energy balance around the process, performance data for individual

process units were generated using detailed reactor models developed previously.

2.2 Review of Efforts in Exploitation and Develop­ ment of Oil Shale in Jordan

So far, only the deposit of El Lajjun and Sultani have been geologically investigated in

detail at the Jordanian Natural Resources. During the last decade, geological technoe-

ouiuinic and prefeasibility studies for the exploitation of El Lajjun deposits for oil shale

retorting and power generation, and for Sultani deposits for direct combustion in Circu­ 11

lating Fluidized Bed (CFB) thermal power plant have been undertaken by Ministry of

Energy and Mineral Resources (MEMR) in collaboration with American, Canadian, and

German consultants.

In 1979, NR A [17] commissioned a study by BGR(German) for the evaluation of El­ ba jjun deposit and the technoeconomic prefeasibility of an oil shale retorting complex

using Lurgi-Ruhrgas process. The results of this study indicated that El-Lajjun oil shale

deposit shows continuous hydrocarbon impregnation over an area of 18. Ami2,with about

1 billion tons of containing some 100 million tons of shale oil. It [17] is

suitable for open cast mining, and could support a 50,000 barrels/day shale oil retorting

complex for 30 years

NRA [17] commissioned phase I of the two, prefeasibility studies for:

• Installing an oil shale retorting complex using Lurgi Ruhrgas(LR) process for ex­

tracting 50,000 barrels/day shale oil.

• Installing a power plant of a 300 MW capacity utilizing El Lajjun oil shale but

using Lurgi circulation fluidized bed combusting process.

This study was completed in 1982, and concluded that both options were technically

viable.

In March 1986, NRA contacted with the west Germany Consortium klockner -Lurgi

for updating the previous feasibility with a view of assessing technical and economic

feasibility of a large scale oil retorting complex. This study consisted of revised, geo ­

logical study updated prefeasibility study performance of retorting pilot test and CFB

o'ltibuslion test on 201) Ions of El Lajjun oil shale sample in Germany and hydrogeo­

logical studies for water resources, hi 1980 NRA commissioned a prefeasibility study by Technopromexport to asses the potential for directly burning oil shale in a 300 MW power plnnt( conventional combustion). In 1981 the study was completed which concluded that

.Jordanian oil shale is suitable as a fuel for direct burning combustion and recommended the construction of experiment demonstration plant of 200 MW which is similar to a plant in the USSR using Estonian shales as fuel. The study was terminated at this point because the Soviet disagreed with the Jordanian proposal of providing the technology in a 20/30A/W pilot plant.

In December 1985, NRA [17] contracted China petrochemical International Company(

SINOPEC INTL) to perform tests on El Lajjun oil shale using the existing Chinese pro­ cess. Initially the company completed the chemical analysis and the evaluation of about half ton of oil shale sample provided by NRA, later, NRA supplied about 1,200 tons oil shale sample to China in order to determine whether Fushun- type retorting is technically suitable to process El-Lajjun shale. These test proves the technical viability of extraction shale oil from El-Lajjun oil shales. The Chinese submitted the technical and financial out ­

lines on the fushun retort with a capacity of 100 tons/day oil shale. The

cooperation between NRA and stopped at this point due to high investment and

the technical uncertainties of the Chinese process.

In 1986, Jordan Electricity Authority (JEA) asked Brown, Bovary Company (BBC)

for building small station for generating electricity based on CFB. On this basis the

company should build the station and operate it, and, at the same time, JEA should

buy the electric energy produced in a price that both parties agree on. Further, after ten

years of operation, the company should give the station to JEA, However, and due to

the high cost , the project was terminated. I

During November 1987 and July 1989, the JEA asked Lummus Canada. Combustion

Engineering to build commercial energy station of capacity 100MW , and experiment energy station of capacity 25 , 50 Mw, for direct burning combustion of oil shale and recommended to construct a power station similar to Chattham power station which operate on the basis of CFB technology.

In December 1985, [18] the Pyropower company(USA) with cooperation of

company carried out some experiment on oil shale by direct combustion in CFB. The

result of the study showed that Jordanian oil shale can be burnt in CFB very efficiently

and with high stability.

In 1989, some feasibility studies related to the oil shale utilization for electricity

production have been completed, and pilot plant test burns have been conducted on

Jordan oil shale to determine its suitability as fuel for direct burning, The test results

have shown that Jordanain oil shale can be burnt in a very stable manner to generate

steam for power production, however, its commercial utilization will not be considered

economical unless the price of oil increase significantly. The studies showed that the oil

shale can be burnt in CFB with continuous combustion without any help of secondary

fuel. Also the results showed that the gaseous product resulting from burning oil shale

does not have a negative effect on environment within the international standards).

2.3 PRINCIPLE OIL SHALE DEPOSITS

There are seventeen [2] location of oil shale deposits in Jordan namely:- 14 2.3.1 EL LAJJUN

Tills deposits is situated in a north south trending graben located approximately mid ­ way along the highway between Kerak and Qatrana, south of has the following information:

• surface area=20.4A:m2

• oil content=5 to 18%by weight. The average is 10.4%

• reserves: 1.1968 billion metric tons

• oil held in place(O.H.I.P): 115.5 million metric tons

• exploitable reserves(oil shale): 960 million tons

» recoverable resetves(oil): 100 million tons

• mean calorific value(shale): 1,310 kcal/kg

• mean SO 3 content(shale): 4.83% by weight

Results of an updated feasibility study by the Consortium of Lurgi and Kiockner in

1986 on a 50,000 barel/day(66f/d) retorting complex including a circular fluidized bed combustion (CFB) and upgrading plant yield the following data:

Rate of oil shale feed stock =74,500 metric tons per day.

Derived products in metric tons per day(mt/d)are:-

• 5070 mt/d syucrudc(38 API,0.5%S)

.1512 mt/d naptha(65 API,0.12%S) • 5,350 mt/d refinery gas

• 1,416 mt/d pure element sulfur

• 350 MW electrical power of which 135 MW would be required by the retorting

complex and 215A/1V would be available for distribution to the grid

According to the results of a study for a mini-retorting plant (Lurgi and Klockner,

1988), the products per year of the upgrading plant are

• 656,000 m3 naptha

• 612,000 tu3

• 490,000 m3 diesel oil which 32000 m3 is needed for internal combustion

• 482,000 m3 fuel oil

• 442,000 m3 pure element sulfur

The total water consumption required to operate the retorting complex is estimated to be 5 million m3 per year if air cooled, and 20 million m3 per year if water cooled.

2.3.2 SULTANI

The Sultani deposit is located about 100km south of Amman adjacent to the Desert

Highway south of Qatrana.

A summary of information from studies on this deposit is listed below.

• geological reserves (shale):989,205,000 metric tons

•» oil held in place0.1I.I.P:95,952,785 metric tons exploitable reserves (shale)=942,100,000 metric tons

• recoverable reserves(oil)=91,383,000 metric tons

• mean S03content= 4.38% by weight

• mean P2O3 content=3.48% by weight

• mean calorific value(shale)=5,689Kcal/kg

• elemental composition of organic matter in percent is:

— organic carbon 78.6%

— hydrogen 8.95%

— nitrogen 0.73%

— oxegen 1.94%

— sulfur 9.78%

• trace element identified in the shale are Mo,Cr,W,Zn,V,Ni,Cu,La,aud Co. Phos­

phorous is found in variable quantities.

2.3.3 Jurf ed Darawish

This oil shale deposit is located approximately 115km south of Amman near the Desert

Highway and the town of Jurf ed Darawish. The deposit covers an area of approximately

.200 km2 and the characteristic of the Jurf ed Darawish deposits:

- oil shale thickness: 19 to 128m(mean, 68.3m)

• thickness of overburden: 29 to 62m (mean,47.3m) oil content: 1 to 14.9%(mean, both members, 5.7%) 17

• specific gravity of oil: 0.778 at 15°C, 13 API(American Petroulum Institute)

• Geological reserves: 8.0563 billion metric tons.

• oil held in place (O.H.I.P) million metric tons.

• exploitable reserves, lower member: 2.495 billion metric tons

« Oil content, exploitable reserves: 195.66 million metric tons(1.27 billion barrels)

• SO3 content(oiI shale): 4.37% by weight

• P203 content (oil shale): 1.53% by weight

• calorific value, total shale:864kcal/kg

• calorific value, lower member:l, 300kcal/kg

• elemental composition of organic matter, lower shale member (%) C- 79.01; H 8.70;

N-0.87; 0-1.61; S-8.65; As-0.10.

2.3.4 Attar at Um Ghudran

This oil shale deposit is located approximately 34km east of Qatrana, the area of the deposit has the following properties:

• Thickness: 10 to 60m(mean, 45m)

■* Thickness of overburden: 45 to 62m (mean, 53.2m)

• Oil shale: 9 to 13% by weight(mean, 11%) • Specific gravity (oil shale): 0.904 at 15 C; 15 API 18

• Geological reserves(shale): 11.3 billion metric tons

• Oil content, geological reserves: 1.177 billion metric tons

• Exploitable reserves(oil shale): 10.7billion metric tons

• oil shale, exploitable reserves: 1.027 billion metric tons

• Sulfur contents(shale): 1.093 to 5.31% by weight

• Mean P203 content (shale): 4.0% by weight

• Mean calorific value(shale): l,050kcal/kg

2.3.5 Wadi Maghar

This deposit is approximately 40km southeast of Qatrana. It is the southern extension of the Attarat Um Ghudran deposit, The characteristics of this deposit are:-

1. Thickness: 10 to 61m(mean, 49m)

2. Thickness of overburden: 32.5 to 50m (mean,40.5m)

3. Oil content: 5.8 to 9% by weight (mean, 6.84)

4. Specific gravity (shale oil): 0.98 at 15°C, 12.98° API

5. Geological reserves (shale): 31.6 billion metric tons

(i. Oil content, geological reserves: 2 billion metric tons

7. Exploitable reserves (shale): 21.5billion metric tons 8. Oil content, exploitable reserves: 1.5 billion metric tons

9. Sulfur content (shale): 0 9 to 3.5% by weight

10. Mean P203 content (shale): 4.0% by weight

.11. Mean calorific value (shale):l,050kcal/kg

2.3.6 Nabi Musa

It is located approximately 25km east of Jerusalem along the dead sea- Jericho highway, from the measured section; the characteristics of this deposit are:

• Thickness of oil shale: 25 to 40m (mean, 32.5m)

• Thickness of overburden: 0 to 30m (mean, 15m)

• Oil content: 7.5 to 11.8% (mean, 9.6%)

• Specific gravity of oil: 0.969 at 15°C; 15° API

• Geological reserves(shale): lOOmillion metric tons

• Oil content of geological reserves: 9.6million metric tons

• Exploitable reserves(shale): 95 million metric tons

• Oil content, exploitable reserves: 9.12million metric tons

• Mean SO3 content(shale):4.04% by weight

• Mean P2O3 content(shale): 2.89% by weight

Mean calorific value(shale): 1,212 Kcal/kg Chapter 3

THEORY OF COMBUSTION

3.1 Intoduction

All conventional fossil fuels, whether solid, liquid, or gas, contain basically carbon and/ or hydrogen which in variably react with oxygen in the air, forming carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide or water vapor. The heat energy released els a result of combustion can bn utilized for heating purposes[19].

The liquid fuels are burned either by vaporizing and mixing with the air before the ignition when they behave like gaseous fuels, or in the form of fine droplets which get evaporated while mixing with the air steam and during burning.

The gaseous fuels are either burned in burner where the fuel and air are premixed or the fuel and air flow separately into a burner or furnace and simultaneously mix together as combustion proceeds. The first type of burning gives a premixed flame where as the second type is called burning with a diffusion flame.

Gaseous fuels have a number of advantages over a solid or liquid fuels . They burn without any smoke and ash, their combustion is complete with a small percentage of excess air, and the control of gas flames is relatively easy. The disadvantage is the difficulty in storing large quantities of gaseous fuels as compared to liquid and solid fuels. All solid fuels contain basic elements such as carbon hydrogen, and sulfur or its compounds. The combustion reactions can, therefore, be dealt with the help of a few simple reaction equation which cover the combustion of other types of fuel as well. The surface area of the liquid and solid fuels exposed to the air or oxygen is usually very small.

The surface area of the liquid exposed to the air can be increased by reducing the size of liquid droplets or size of particle of a solid. The liquid fuel can be evaporated and mixed with air before combustion by breaking the liquid into small particles and providing sufficient space for these processes to take place

The combustion of liquid fuel consists of the following processes: the mixing of spray with air, its evaporation, and the combustion of the mixture in case of a solid fuel, the atomization step can be eliminated if it is injected inside the combustion chamber as a dust e g coal. Also , the process of atomization and mixing are eliminated if a solid fuel bed is used. The combustion of a solid fuel also includes the evaporation process,

which is negligible in most case. The major difference between the solid and liquid fuels:

the combustion of all hydrocarbon fuels occur in the vapor phase. But solids may be

considered to evaporate according to the equation established for liquid fuels.

3.2 Combustion of liquid fuels

A liquid fuel can burned in the form of vapor, small drops, or in a pool depending on the

size of liquid droplet.

The mode of combustion of fuel droplets in spray can be considered as:

* If the drops are extremely small and their concentration is large, they may evaporate 23 and mix by duffusion with the air in the preheat zone of an established flame front.

• If the drops and distance between the individual spheres are large, they may burn

as diffusion flame in the local atmosphere surrounding them.

Droplet- combustion can be divided into two type:

• bipropellant combustion

• monopropellant combustion

fix bipropellant combustion fuel vapor and oxidant diffuse from opposite direction and a flame is formed at the contact surface at some distance from the drop monopropcllant droplets evaporate and decompose exothermaly.

3.3 Combustion of solid fuels

The solid fuels are burned in beds in cliunck or pellet form or in pulverized form suspended in the air stream.

When piece of coal is gradually heated in a furnace in presence of air , the following happen:

• the water vapor from coal is released as the temperature is raised. This process

gets over at about 100°C

• The decomposition of its unstable compounds starts. This coal now start emitting

volatile gaseous, if the furnace temperature is sufficient to ignite the volatile gases,

they will burn like the liquid fuel droplets which continuously supply the vapors as

the drops are consumed. The coal piece remains dark during these processes because of the burning of the volatile matter around the coal piece, its temperature is raised

but normally does not exceed 600°C to 700°C. The flame gradually shortens and

is extinguished when all gases get consumed. The piece which now remain is coke.

If the rate of heating is very fast and the size of coal is very small, the coal particles

may be ignited before the volatile matter is completely burned.

3.4 Combustion of gas fuels

Gaseous fuels, including natural gas, are the easiest fuels to burn. The gas needs little or no preparation before combustion. It may be simply proportioned, mixed with air, and

ignited. This can be accomplished in several ways[20].

The atmospheric gas burner is one of the more common gas burners. In these systems,

the momentum of the incoming gas is used to draw the primary air into the burner. The

operation of these systems is normally satisfactory with primary air gas premix from 30

to 70 percent. Secondary air is drawn in around the burner to complete the combustion

process.

3.5 Type of flames

A flame is a thermal wave in which rapid exothermic chemical reactions occur and travel

with subsonic velocities. The shape of a flame is mainly governed by two factors: the

flame pattern of the mixture or products and the quenching effect of solid surface.

I.. Pre mixed flame

In premixed flames, the fuel/ air mixture must always be close In stoichiomet-

ric(chemically correct) for reliable ignition and combustion, with premixed reac- zb

tants the flame moves relative to the reactants, so separating the reactants and

products. An example of premixed combustion is with oxy acetylene equipment,

for welding, the flame is fuel rich to prevent oxidation of the metal, while, for metal

cutting, the flame is oxygen rich in order to burn as well as to melt the metal[21].

2. Diffusion flames

The diffusion flame arc formed when the combustible and oxidizer arc not premixed

before entering the reaction zone. The burning of fuel droplets is diffusion flame.

In the diffusion flames, the flame occurs at interface between fuel and oxidant. The

products of combustion diffuse into the oxidant, and the oxidant diffuses through

the products. Similar processes occur on the fuel side of the flame, and the burning

rate is controlled by diffusion. A common example of a diffusion flame is the candle.

The fuel is melted and evaporated by radiation from the flame, and then oxidized

by air, the process is evidently one governed by diffusion as the reactants are not

premixed.

The Bunsen burner, shown in figure 2.1, has both a premixed flame and a diffusion

flame. The air entrained at the burner is not sufficient for complete combustion

with a single premixed flame, a second flame front is established at the interface

where the air is diffusing into the unburnt fuel.

For premixed combustion the effect of turbulence is to break up the flame front.

There can be pockets of burnt gas in the unburnt gas and vice versa. This increase

the flame front area and speeds up combustion. Figure 3.2 shows a comparison of

laminar and turbulent flame fronts. For diffusion controlled combustion the turbulence again enhances the burning ve ­ locity. Fuel is injected as a fine spray into air which is hot enough to vaporise and ignite the fuel. Chapter 4

EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS, CONDITIONS AND TECHNIQUES

4.1 Introduction

The experiments were conducted in a combustion chamber, Several instruments were used to measure the mass of air consumption, temperature of the flame inside the combustor along the axes of the nozzle tip, and along the vertical axes from the nozzle tip, mass of fuel consumption, stack temperature, and volumetric product concentration. A general view of the combustor rig and instruments are shown in figure 4.1.

In this chapter a full description of combustor rig and measuring techniques used in the present work will be presented.

The second section of this chapter (4.3) is devoted to represent the component of the experimental rig that was designed by the researcher and manufacted locally and installed

by the researcher the in lab, while the third section of this chapter (4.3) is devoted to

represent the existing faclalies that was used in the experiment 4.2 Combustor component

The combustor is of a coutant shape which horizontally oriented and it is cooled by means of a water jacket. An air blower is used to supply the combustor with the necessary combustion air.

Figure 4.1.shows the combustor and tube centerline dimensions.

4.2.1 Combustor wall lnl.ially, an attempt was carried out to construct the combustor rig by welding two halves of casted metal, unfortunatly and during the welding it was realized that some welded joint broken due to high thermal stress. Then it was decided to use carbon steel sheet to build the rig instead of cast iron since it is much easier to weld this type of material.

The combustor wall [22] construction must be one that will resist ash build up and tolerate the erosive action of wall blowers to remove any accumulated ash.

To ensure continuity in operating conditions the combustor bottom must be designed ' . for continuous ash removal. This suggests the use of a ('coutant/ type bottom where wall tube are bent to form the hopper shaped bottom as shown in figure 4.2, with ash being discharged to a hopper through the narrow opening. The opening must be kept small to prevent slagging in the ash hopper by excessive leakage radiation.

A conceptual furnace design employing these specific design feature is presented in figure 4.3 through 4.5.

Figure 4.3 shows the cross sectional shape of furnace with its coutant bottom and

Inral.ivn of Die oil shale burners.

Itetails of the longitudinal convection section are given in figure 4.4, which shows the vertical U-tube and ash hopper which extends over the entire length of the furnace.

Simple baffles in the ash hopper can be used to prevent bypassing of hot flue gas, figure

4.5 is a plan view showing the over arrangement of the radiant and convective section.

Figure 4.6 shows photograph of the experimental combustor with the associated sup­ ply system and auxiliary equipment.

4-2.2 Combustor Flame Tube

The combustor flame tube is made from carbon steel sheets to withstand liigh tempera­ ture. The dimension of the combustor wall tube are shown in figure 4.1, it is cooled by a water jacket.The following holes are drilled in the wall:

1. A 0.10 X 0.20m2 rectangular hole on the top of the combustor was covered with

0.15 x 0.27.m 2 rectangular glass of thickness 0.013 m, it was used to observe the

flame temperature, shape, length and colour.

2. Two circular pipe hole of 0.070. m length on the side view of combustor are welded

to the wall tube in which thermocouple are inserted inside these circular pipe.

3. A 0.07m circular pipe hole on the side of the combustor was connected to a vacuum

pump and a trap and it was used to collect the exhaust gas for samples.

4.2.3 Exhaust pipe

The exhaust pipe is made from sheet metal with 0.10 m in diamcter(stack diameter) and

10 m in the length to convey the gaseous product of the combustion above the building.

The exhaust pipe is fixed with the combustor tube by means of flanges and bolts. The

f’xhansl pipe has a hole drilled into it. In withdraw sample of exhaust product and to

measure the stack temperature. 30 4.3 Existing facilities

4.3.1 Oil burner nozzles

An oil burner nozzle [23] is a device designed to deliver a fixed amount of fuel to the combustion chamber in a uniform spray pattern and spray angle best suitable to the requirement of a specific burner. The oil burner nozzle atomizes fuel oil (i,e breaks it down into extremely small droplets) so that the vaporization necessary for combustion can be accomplished more quickly.

Fuel oil supplied under pressure to the nozzle where it is converted to velocity energy in the swirl chamber by directing it through a set of tangential slots. The centrifugal force caused within the swirl chamber drives the fuel oil against the chamber walls producing a core of air in the center. The latter effect moves the oil out through the orifice of the tip of the nozzle in a core shaped pattern.

The component of an oil burner nozzle is shown in figure 4.7

The two basic types of spray cone pattern are:

• the hollow cone

• the solid cone

Each has certain advantages depending upon its use, The hollow cone pattern is shown in figure 4.8 is recommoned for use in smaller burner (those firing 1.00 GP.ll and under)as shown in figure 4.10. there is little or no distribution of droplets in the center of cone.

The principal advantage of the hollow pattern and angle under adverse conditions than solid rone patterns operating under the same conditions and at the same Mow rale.

The solid cone pattern illustrated in figure 4.9 is characterized by a uniform dis ­ tribution of fuel droplets throughout the cone pattern, nozzles producing this type are particularly recommended for smoother ignition in oil burner firing above 2.00 or 3.00

GPU .Also recommended where long fires are required or where the air pattern or the oil burner is heavy in the center.

Oil burner nozzles are also selected on the basis of the spray angle that produce was shown figure 4.10. The spray angle refers to the angle of the spray cone and this angle will generally from 30 to 90, (the nozzle size of my work was 0.50 GPII and the spray angle is 80(23]. V 4.3.2 Inlet nozzle /

The inlet nozzle [23] is made from sheet metal with 0.16 m in diameter and 0.175 in in length. The nozzle is fixed with the combustor tube by means of flanges and bolts.

4.3.3 Temperature measurement

Tubes are mounted on the flame combustor tube through the water jacket in three differ ­ ent location of the combustor rig, the first lubes are located at 12.5 cm from the nozzle tip, it was used to measure the temperature distribution along the vertical axes of the flame, the second tube located at 37.5 cm from the nozzle tip, it was used to measure the temperature along the axes of the flame, and the third tube located at 37.5 cm from the nozzle tip in a vertical U-tube, for gas sampling.

A five Chromel-Alumel thermocouple were used to measure the temperature of the flame along the axes of the nozzle tip, while the number of thermocouples used to mea­ sure the temperature of the flame along the vertical of the nozzle tip were four. These thermocouple are distributed uniforinally at equal spaces. 5%

The thermocouples are externally connected to digital microprocessor to read the flame temperature directly.

4.3.4 Air supply system

The air system used consists of the following:

• Air blower

The necessary combustion air was supplied by means of centrifugal blower driven

by electric motor of constant speed, the air mass flow rate was controlled by two

means of movable gate mounted at the blower suction, the first gate was used to

control the primary air neccarrey for combustion,while the second gate (secondary

air) was used for flame length controlling and turbulent air mixing, in other word,

the mean function of the secondary air to enhance the combustion elfccieucy in the

lean region( rich oxygen).

• Air intake nozzle and pitot tube:

The air intake nozzle was 76 mm in diameter and made from sheet metal. The nozzle is connected to square box which is fitted on the suction line of the centrifugal fan. A pitot tube is attached to the nozzle tapping to measure the dynamic head and hence the velocity of air is calculated, thus the mass flow of air is calculated using:

rna = A * U * p * Co (4.1) where A is the nozzle area

U is the stream velocity p is the stream density

and Cp is the coefiicent of discharge which was taken equal (.625)

4.3.5 Fuel supply systems

The fuel supply system consist of the following:

• Fuel pump used to supply the burner with necessary fuel.

• fuel tank used to store the liquid fuel, and it was placed at 2 m above the burner.

• control valve placed on the main line.

• electric motor used to drive the fuel pump.

• separated funnel used to measure the amount of fuel consumed.

• delivery pipe used to return the unburned fuel to the main tank.

4.4 Instrument measurement

In this section a full description of the measuring techniques used in presented work.

4.4.1 Velocity measurement

A pitot tube was used to measure pressure difference in order to measure the velocity of

the stream . Applying Bernouli equation ,the velocity of the stream is :

u = y]2g{hx - h2)/n (4.2)

wlu’m (/;t —h2) is the deflection of the. manometer in {iumH20), p is the. stream density {kg jin

U is the velocity of the stream. 4.4.2 Fuel consumption

The mass of fuel consumption was calculated using

volume »«/ = ' e * specific.gravityof fuel (4.3)

where the specific gravity was found experimentally by dividing the density of the liquid fuel over the density of the water, and the volume of fuel consumption was read directly from separated fanel

4.4.3 Gas analysis

The gas sampling arrangement was shown in figure 4.11, which consisted of :

1. vacuum pump

2. trap was used to absorb the moisture of water vapor in the section line and prevent

this moisture to enter the vacuum pump, and the component of the trap, which

shown in figure 4.11, axe:

• glass flask

• absorbing material to remove the moisture content

A typical gas analyzer was used to determine the volumetric concentration of the

exhaust gas.

The sample of the flue gas was drawn into the trap to remove all moisture content

before it. was introduced into the vacuum pump, finally the drawn sample was collected

by ballon for sampling. 35 The analysis of the exhaust gas sample was carried out to investigate the volumetric product concentration of the following product through gas chromatograph:

• carbon monoxide

• carbon dioxide

• oxygen

• nitrogen

• sulfur

4.4.4 Heating value and energy losses

Combustions results in a release of thermal energy or heat. The quantity of heat generated

by complete combustion of a unit of sped lie fuel is constant, and is termed the heating

value, heat of combustion or calorific value of that fuel.

The heating value of a fuel can be determined by measuring the heat evolved during

combustion of a known quantity of the fuel in a calorimeter, or it can be estimated from

chemical analysis of the fuel and the heating value of several chemical elements in the

fuel.

Higher healing value is determined when water vapor in fuel combustion products is

condensed, and the latent heat of vaporization of water is included in the fuels heating

value. Conversely, lower heating value is obtained when latent heat, of vaporization is

iv >1, included. When the heating value of a fuel is specified without designating higher or

lower value, it generally means the higher heating value. When complete combustion, not all fuel is completely oxidized, and the heat released is less than the heating value of the fuel. Therefore, the quantity of heat produced per unit of fuel consumed decrease, implying lower combustion efficiency.

Not all heat released during combustion can be utilized effectively. The largest heat loss in the form of increased temperature(thermal energy) of hot exhaust gases above the temperature of incoming air and fuel called dry gas loss(DGL)[20].

The DGL can be calculated using:

DGL = (ra, + my) * CP * [T. - Ta) (4.4)

where Cp is the specific heat of flue ga.s(assumed to be the same as that

of air), T, is the stack temperature, Ta is the air temperature

The incomplete combustion loss (ICL) is the energy lost as a result of the formation

of carbon monoxide instead of carbon dioxide in the combustion process. This loss, like

the unburned carbon loss, is equal to the mass carbon monoxide produced per unit mass

of fuel limes the higher heating value of carbon monoxide. The incomplete combustion

loss can be obtained from the

CO ICL — 23G30 *Ct* cq~^Tc02 <4 5>

where C& is the mass of carbon burned per mass of fuel and CO.%, C02.% are the values

of volumetric gaseous analysis

4.5 Type of liquid fuel used in experiment,

The following liquid fuels were used in the experiment: 37 1. VDiseal fuel

Several experiments were carried out on this type of fuel to investigate the following

parameter:

• temperature distribution of the flame

• stack temperature

• volumetric product concentration analysis

2. A mixture of shale oil and diseal fuels

The properties of Jordanian shale oil used in the experiment are:

• specific gravity = 0 981

• the elementary analysis are:

- C% = 78.75

— H% = 9.91

- S% = 8.78

— N% = 0.42

• water content = 1.1 % by weight

• calorific value(Kcal/I

" viscosity = 8.47

density = 0.8852 Six sets of experiments were carried out on this type of fuel to investigate the following parameter:

• temperature distribution of the flame.

• stack temperature

• volumetric product concentration analysis

• combustion efficiency

During the experimental work, the shale oil was heated to 23°C to overcome the liigli viscosity of shale oil. The shale oil was mixed with diesel at different percentage namely:5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 since the amount of shale oil that was supplied by NRA was terminated.

It should be mentioned that the University of Jordan had tried to get 2 liter of shale oil from the NRA through the Dean of faculty of Engineering and Technology to continue my experiment, unfortunatly, the NRA was refused our request.

4.6 Experimental observation

Some observation were noted during the experimental work namely :

1. The noise of the combustor was increased as the mass of the fuel was increased .

2. The length of the flame was increased as the mass of the fuel and the mass of air

were increased.

3. The length of the flame of a mixture of shale oil and diesel was greater than the

length of the flame of diesel liquid fuel as a result of an increase in the flame

temperature. 39 4. The color of the flame turned more light orange .as the reaction reached the com­

pletion stages as a result of more mixing between the reactant and air.

4.7 Experimental procedure

The following procedure was followed in each test:

• The shale oil was heated to overcome the high viscosity of this liquid, and, at the

s&me time, mixed with low fuel viscosity (diesel).

» The mixture of shale oil and diesel was clean from durities by passing it through

paper filter.

• The tank of fuel was full of fuel before the beginning of the experiment.

• The water jacket around the combustor chamber was full of water , at the beginning

of the test process.

• the water supply and the drain of the water was continuously opened to ensure

continuous cooling.

• The manometer clamps on the side of the pitot tube control panel was adjusted to

give zero reading.

• The pressure difference in mm H20 and the temperature distribution within the

flame was measured every 5 minute.

• The flame length and color were observed during the experiment operation.

• After one hour of operation, the main electrical supply was switched off and the

volume of diesel consumption was read

NEXT PAGE(S) I left BLANK § [■■■■■■■■■iiueewMenMnJ Chapter 5

RESULTS

5.1 Introduction

The temperature distribution of the flame, stack temperature, combustion efficiency, volumetric concentration of mean gaseous product, combustion process are represented.

5.2 Flame Temperature Measurement

5.2.1 Temperature of diesel Sc mixture of shale oil and diesel

Figure 5.1 & 5.2 show the isothermal contours temperature lines inside the combustion chamber for diesel & mixture of shale oil and diesel.

5.2.2 Effect of air consumption on flame temperature

Figure 5.3 & 5.4 show the effect of air consumption on the flame temperature inside the combustion chamber along both vertical and horizontal axes of the flame at a constant fuel consumption for diesel liquid fuel.

5.2.3 Effect of fuel consumption on the flame temperature figure 5.5 & 5.6 show the effect of fuel consumption on the flame temperature inside the combustion chamber along both vertical and horizontal axes of the flame at a constant air consumption for diesel liquid fuel.

5.2.4 Effect of air fuel ratio on the flame temperature

Figures 5.7 through figure 5.10 show the effect of air fuel ratio on the (lame temperature inside the combustion chamber along both vertical and horizontal axes of the flame

5.3 Stack temperature

5.3.1 Effect of air consumption on stack temperature

Figure 5.11 shows the effect of air consumption on the stack temperature at a constant fuel consumption for diesel fuel.

5.3.2 Effect of fuel consumption on stack temperature

Figure 5.12 shows the effect of air consumption on the stack temperature at a constant fuel consumption for diesel fuel.

5.3.3 Effect of air fuel ratio on stack temperature

Figure 5.13 & figure 5.14 show the effect of air fuel ratio on stack temperature for different types of fuel.

5.3.4 Effect of shale oil percentage on stack temperature

Figure 5.15 show the of shale oil percentage on stack temperature 5.4 Volumetric concentration of the mean gaseous product

5.4.1 Effect of air consumption on volumetric concentration of the mean gaseous product

As previously discussed, the analysis of the product gas concentration is an essential parameter affecting on the combustion efficiency and environment.

Figure 5.16 & figure 5.17 show the effect of air consumption on volumetric concentra ­ tion of the mean gaseous product at a constant fuel consumption for diesel fuel.

5.4.2 Effect of fuel consumption on volumetric concentration of the mean gaseous product

Figure 5.18 & figure 5.19 show the effect of fuel consumption on volumetric concentration of the mean gaseous product at a constant of air consumption for diesel fuel.

5.4.3 Effect of air fuel on volumetric concentration of the mean gaseous product

Figure 5.20 & figure 5.21 show the effect of air fuel ratio on volumetric concentration of the mean gaseous product for diesel liquid fuel.

5.4.4 Effect of shale oil percentage on volumetric concentra­ tion of the mean gaseous product

Figure 5.22 & figure 5.23 show the effect of percentage of shale oil on volumetric concen ­ tration of the mean gaseous product for shale oil fuel. 5.5 Dry gas combustion loss

5.5.1 Effect of air consumption on dry gas combustion loss

Figure 5.24 shows the effect of air consumption on dry gas combustion loss (DGL) at constant fuel consumption for diesel fuel.

5.5.2 Effect of fuel consumption on dry gas combustion loss

Figure 5.25 shows the effect of fuel consumption on dry gas combustion loss at constant air consumption for diesel fuel.

5.5.3 Effect of air fuel ratio on dry gas combustion loss

Figure 5.26 & 5.27 show the effect of air fuel ratio on dry gas combustion loss for diesel fuel & mixture of of shale oil and diesel fuels.

5.5.4 Effect of shale oil percentage in the mixture on dry gas combustion loss figure 5.28 shows the effect of shale oil percentage in the mixture on dry gas combustion loss .

5.5.5 Effect of stack stack temperature on dry gas combustion loss figure 5.20 through 5.32 inclusive shows the effect of stack stack temperature on dry gas combustion loss for diesel fuel & mixture of shale oil and diesel fuels. 5.6 Incomplete combustion loss

5.G.1 Effect of air consumption on incomplete combustion loss

Figure 5.33 shows the effect of air consumption on incomplete combustion loss at constant fuel consumption for diesel fuel.

5.6.2 Effect of fuel consumption on incomplete combustion loss

Figure 5.34 shows the effect of fuel consumption on incomplete combustion loss constant air consumption for diesel fuel.

5.6.3 Effect of air fuel ratio on incomplete combustion loss

Figure 5.35 & 5.36 show effect of air fuel ratio on incomplete combustion loss for diesel

fuel & mixture of shale oil and diesel fuels.

5.6.4 Effect of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide on incom­ plete combustion loss

Figure 5.37 shows the effect of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide on incomplete com­

bustion loss for diesel fuel & mixture of shale oil and diesel fuels. «tb

Chapter 6

DISCUSSION

As previously mentioned, the experiments were carried out to investigate the following items:

1. the flame temperature along the vertical and horizontal axes of the flame

2. volumetric concentration of the main gaseous product

3. stack temperature

This chapter is devoted to discuss the results obtained during this research.

6.1 Flame Temperature

6.1.1 Flame temperature within diesel flame & mixture of shale oil and diesel flames

Figures 5.1 and 5.2 show the isothermal contours temperature lines of diesel fuel, & a

mixture of shale oil and diesel fuel flames. As expected ,the flame temperature of the

mixture of shale oil & diesel fuels was higher than the flame temperature of diesel fuel

, since the calorific value of the mixture of shale oil & diesel fuels was greater than the

calorific value of diesel fuel. 47

6.1.2 Effect of air consumption on the flame temperature

Figure2 5.3 and 5.4 show the effect of air consumption on flame temperature along the vertical and horizontal axes for diesel fuel.The general trend of these curve indicate con ­ tinuous increase in the flame temperature along the vertical and horizontal axes as the air consumption is increased. This is due to the fact that as more air is supplied the combustion efficiency will increase which leads to an increase of the temperature.

6.1.3 Effect of fuel consumption on the flame temperature

All figures that contain only two data points are used to give an indication of the be­ haviour of the specified parameter since the experimental measurement are only a pre- mi raly ones.

Figures 5.5 and 5.6 show the effect of fuel consumption on the flame temperature along both vertical and horizontal axes for diesel fuel. The general trend of these curves indicate continuous increase in the flame temperature ns the fuel consumption is increased. This is due to the fact that the rate at which heat or thermal energy released will be increased ns a result of increase fuel consumption.

6.1.4 Effect of air fuel ratio on the flame temperature

Figures 5.7 through figure 5.10 show the effect of air fuel ratio on the flame temperature

along vertical and horizontal axes for diesel fuel, and mixture of shale oil & diesel fuels.

As expected, the general trend of these curves indicates that the flame temperature will

be increased with the air fuel ratio, this is due in the fact that as more air is supplied,

the < 'unbustiou efficiency will increase which leads to a raise in the flame temperature.

Also when the air fuel ratio reaches its optimum value, the flame temperature will be decreased with air fuel ratio because the combustion effecicncy was decreased. 48

6.2 Stack temperature

G.2.1 Effect of air consumption on stack temperature

Figure 5.11 shows the effect of air consumption on stack temperature at constant diesel fuel consumption. The general trend of this curve indicates continuous decreasing in stack temperature as the air consumption was increased, as a result of cooling the gaseous product by the excess air in the exhaust.

G.2.2 Effect of fuel consumption on stack temperature

Figure 5.12 shows the effect of diesel fuel consumption on slack temperature at constant air consumption. The general trend of this curve indicates continuous increase in slack temperature with the diesel fuel consumption, as a result of more release of heat or thermal energy.

G.2.3 Effect of air fuel ratio on stack temperature

Figures 5.13 and 5.14 show the variation of stack temperature with air fuel ratio. As expected, the general trend of this curve indicate that the stack temperature will be

increased with air fuel ratio as a result of increasing in the combustion rlfeciency. when

I lie air fuel ratio reaches its optimum value the stack temperature will be decreased with

the air fuel ratio as a result of decreasing in the combustion effeciency. 6.2.4 Effect of shale oil percent in the mixture on stack tem­ perature

Figure 5.15 shows the effect of shale oil percentage in the mixture on slack temperature.

As previously mentioned, the stack temperature was affected by the heat or thermal en­ ergy released, which depends on the calorific value of the fuel, so that the energy released will be increased as the percent of shale oil in the mixture is increased. Consequently the stack temperature will be increased with shale oil percent increased.

6.3 volumetric product concentration of the main gaseous product

6.3.1 Effect of air consumption on volumetric concentration of the main gaseous product at constant diesel fuel con­ sumption

Figures 5.16 and 5.17 show the effect of air consumption on the volumetric concentration of the following gaseous product:

• oxygen content

• nitrogen content

• carbon momoxide( CO )content

• carbon dioxide( Co2 )content

Basically, as the air consumption is increased, the carbon monoxide will react with oxygen to produced carbon dioxide. Consequently, the volumetric concentration of carbon dioxide will be increased & the volumetric concentration of carbon monoxide will be decreased as more air is supplied.ns a result of increasing of combustion elfccicncy The general trend of these curves indicates an increase in the concentration of nitrogen & 50 carbon doixide and a decrease in the concentration of oxygen &: carbon monoxide , as a result of increasing the air consumption.

6.3.2 Effect of fuel consumption on volumetric product con­ centration at constant mass of air consumption

Figures 5.18 and 5.19 show the effect of increase fuel consumption on volumetric product concentration. Basically, as the fuel consumption is increased, the concentration of carbon monoxide will be increased, and the concentration of carbon dioxide will be decreased ms

a result of incomplete combustion

The general trend of these curve indicate a decrease in concentration of oxygen and

carbon dioxide and a relative increase in concentration of oxygen and carbon monoxide .

6.3.3 Effect of air fuel ratio on volumetric concentration of the mean product

Figures 5.20 and 5.21 show the effect of air fuel ratio on volumetric concentration. As

expected, the general trend of this curve indicate that the volumetric concentration of

the of carbon monoxide was increased while that of the carbon dioxide was decreased

as the air fuel ratio was increased, as a result of incomplete combustion. When the air

fuel ratio reaches its optimum value, the volumetric concentration of nitrogen and carbon

monoxide will be decreased while that of oxygen and carbon dioxide will be increased

6.3.4 Effect of shale oil percentage on volumetric product con­ centration

Figures 5.22 and 5.23 show the effect of shale oil percentage with diesel on the volumetric

product concentration. The general trend of these curve indicate that this effect is the same as that of diesel fuel.

6.4 Dry gas combustion loss

As previously mention in chapter 3, the DGL was function mainly of stack temperature and mass of flue gas.

6.4.1 Effect of air consumption on dry gas combustion loss

Tliis section is devoted to reresent the effect of air consumption, fuel consumption, air fuel consumption, and stack temperature on the percent of dry gas loss of higher heating value.

Figure 5.24 shows the effect of air consumption on percent of dry gas combustion loss

(DGL)at constant fuel consumption for diesel fuel. The general trend of this curve indi ­ cate that the variation of DGL is relatively constant as the air consumption is relatively increased because the stack temperature was relatively decreased.

6.4.2 Effect of fuel consumption on dry gas combustion loss

Figure 5.25 shows the effect of fuel consumption on the percent of dry gas combustion loss at constant air consumption for diesel fuel. The general trend of this curve indi ­ cate continuous increase in DGL as the fuel consumption is increased since the stack temperature was increased.

6.4.3 Effect of air fuel ratio on dry gas combustion loss

Figures 5.26 and 5.27 show the effect of air fuel ratio on dry gas combustion loss for diesel

fuel & mixture of of shale oil and diesel fuels. As expected, the general trend of these curve indicate that the DGL will he increased as the air fuel ratio was increased, until the air fuel ratio reach its optimum value, because the stack temperature was increased, then, the percent of the DGL will be decreased with increase in the air fuel ratio because the stack temperature was decreased.

6.4.4 Effect of shale oil percentage in the mixture on dry gas combustion loss

Figure 5.28 shows the effect of shale oil percentage in the mixture on dry gas combustion loss.

The general trend of this curve indicate continuous decreasing in DGL ns the percent of shale oil in the mixture is increased because the stack temperature was decreased.

6.4.5 Effect of stack stack temperature on dry gas combustion loss

Figure 5.29 through 5.32 inclusive show the effect of stack temperature on dry gas com­

bustion loss for diesel fuel & mixture of shale oil and diesel fuels.

As previously mention in chapter 4, the DGL was mainly function of slack tempera­

ture, as a result, the general trend of figure 5.29 indicate continuous increase in DGL as

the fuel consumption was increased, also, the general trend of figure 5.30 indicated that

that the DGL was relatively constant as a relative increase in air consumption. Further

more, the general trend of figure 5.31 & 5.32 indicate that the DGL will be increased as

the air fuel ratio is increased, until the air fuel ratio reach its optimum value, because

• he stack temperature was increased, then, the DGL will be decreased with increase in

the air fuel ratio because the stack temperature was decreased. 6.5 Incomplete combustion loss

6.5.1 Effect of air consumption on incomplete combustion loss

Figure 5.33 shows the effect of air consumption on incomplete combustion loss at constant fuel consumption for diesel fuel. The general trend of this curve shows continuous decrease of ICL as the air consumption was increased because the carbon monoxide was decreased and the carbon dioxide was increased.

6.5.2 Effect of fuel consumption on incomplete combustion loss

Figure 5.34 shows the effect of fuel consumption on incomplete combustion loss constant air consumption for diesel fuel.

The trend of this curve indicated continuous increasing of ICL as the fuel consump ­ tion was increased because the carbon monoxide(CO) was increased and the carbon dioxide(C02) was decreased.

6.5.3 Effect of air fuel ratio on incomplete combustion loss

Figures 5.35 and 5.36 show effect of air fuel ratio on incomplete combustion loss for diesel fuel & mixture of shale oil and diesel fuels.

The general trend of this curve indicate that the ICL will be increased as the air fuel ratio was increased, until the air fuel ratio reach its optimum value, because the carbon monoxide(CO) was increased & the carbon dioxide (C02) was decreased, then, the ICI will be decreased with increase in the air fuel ratio because the carbon monoxide will be decreased and carbon dioxide will be increased

I NEXT PAGElS) ! ANK rf-'Y r^Tgarml Chapter 7

Conclusion and Recommendation

7.1 Conclusions

This section is devoted to asses the important points which have emerged from the present investigation. These can be summarized as follows:

1. It was found that the temperature of shale oil is greater than temperature of diesel

under the same conditions.

2. The emissions of sulfur monoxide and dioxide during diesel fuel combustion was

lower than that of a mixture of shale oil and diesel fuels.

3. The NOx emissions for diesel was 14 PPM.

4. The percentage of the dry gas energy loss from the higher heating value was very

high

5. The incomplete combustion loss was very low.

7.2 Recommendation

The literature survey together with the present experimental investigation suggest that there are areas which need further experimental and theoretical investigation. Some of these areas are mentioned in this section as follows: 56 • Studying the effect of oil shale on environment especially the fly ash.

• Studying the mode of heat transfer rate along the combustor wall experimentally

and theoretically .

• Building large retorting unit to extract the shale oil .

• Investigation the effect of the location at which the gas sample was withdrawn on

the volumetric concentration .

• Studying the burning of oil shale directly in CFB

NEXT PAGEIS) ieU BLANK tsse&asae arimm references

1. Jordan Electric!ty Authority "The Investment of Oil Shale by Direct Combustion",

Report , Amman, Augest 1991.

2. Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, NRA, "Mineral Resources of Jordan",

Amman, 1989.

3. Natural Resources Authority, Report, Jordan, "Oil Shale”, 1990.

4. Fox et al. "Chemical Characterization and Analytical Consideration for an in Situ

Oil Shale Process Water”, Department of Energy, Latame, WY, Energy Technology

Center, 49P, November 78.

5. Ilepler et al. "Toxicological Evaluation of an in Situ Oil Shale Process Water”,

Oil Shale Symp Process, Golden, Colo., Publ by Colo Sch of Mines Press, Golden,

pp.139-148, Aprial 18-20, 1979.

G. Sierka et al. "Physical — Chemical Treatment of Oil Shale Retort Water", Process

of the Specific Configuration — Water Form ' 81, San Francisco, Califonia, USA,

vol. 2, pp.902-909, Augest 10-14 1981.

7. Chen cl id. "Basic. Mechanism to Achieve Clean Combustion of Oil Shale in Flu­

idized Beds", "National Science Foundnalion, Washington, DC. Div. of INduslrial Science and Technological Innovation", Report no.: N5F/CPE-82(.117 , pp.117, 31

March 82 .

8. Kuchi, M. ; Steller, P., ’’Technical Study on the Possibility of Oil Shale Combustion

in a Fluidized Red Furnace Including Cost Estimate for a Plant to He Constructed ”,

Report no. : DM FT- TB- T- 82-085 June 82 G3P.

9. Macauley et al. "Some Geological Consideration for the Economic Evaluation of

Candian Oil Shale deposits", Oil Shale Symp. Proc., pp.G 1-13, 1983.

10. Department of Energy, Morgantown, Wv. Morgantown Energy Technology Center,

"Oil Shale Combustion Retorting", Report no.: DOE/METC/SP-197 pp.49, May

83.

11. Insguva, lb, "Physics of Oil Shale : A Program of Theoretical and Experimen­

tal Studies", Quarterly Progress Report, , Report no. : DOE/LC/ ID7R3-6, pp.7,

January 1- April 1, 1983.

1.2. Levy, Y., "Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion Using Oil Shale for Gas Tur­

bine Operation ”, Journal of the Institute of energy, void, No/1/18, pp.157-16'1,

September 1988.

13. Vasatos et al. "Modeling of Oil Shale Fluid Bed Combustor", Industrial & Engi ­

neering Chemistry Research, vol.27, No. 2, , pp 317-321, Febuary 1988.

1-1. Shirav (Schwartz) cl al. "Pathway of Trace Element During Oil Shah: Combustion/-A

In Their Availability fur Leaching Process ’’, Envirornctilal Geoh'gy mid Water Sci­

ence, vol.ll, No.l, Febuary 1988. 60

j5. Krypina et al. "Ail Lnvctigalion of the tlicnnal Decomposition of Combustible

Shale", Ilimija tverdogo topliva, 1989(4) 16-21.

1C. Dung et al. "Modeling of Oil Shale Retorting Block Using ASPEN Process", Fuel,

vol.69, no. 9, pp.1113-1118, September 1990.

17. Natural Resources Authority, "Oil Shale Resources in Jordan"

18. Betchal National, "Prefcasibilily Study Oil Shale Utilization for Power Production

in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan ”, vol.VI of VI- Appendices 7 Thru 12, Report

no. 89-02, May 1989.

10. SP Slianna, Chander Moliam "Fuels and Combustion", Tala McGraw-Hill Jjic .,

1984.

20. Culp "Principle of Energy Conversion ”, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1979.

21. Richard Stone "Introuction to Internal Combustion Engines, Macmillan Publishers

LTD, 1985.

22. O’Sulivan et al. "Coal-Fired Process Heaters”, Energy Managmenl, pp.87-94.

23. Audi ,IIeat and Ventilation Oil burners.

NEXT PAGE(S) left BLANK appendix Diffusion flame

Pre mixed flame

Air regulator

wit.li p remixed and diffusion flames L'a 0 Bunsen burner Riire 1 64-

Figure 3.2 Comparison between laminar ancl turbulent, fronts for

premixed combustion C 2# J 05

Air

Fuel vapour

Figure 3.3 Comparison between laminar flame front in stagnant air with turbulent flame front and ordered air motion for

diffusion controlled combustion C 5» 3 (if-i

0.0?

Figure '1.1 The combustor rig component 67

Figure 4.2 Combustor section showing cout.ant bottom Burner -

4..3 Sectional view oi burner wall showing combustor shape 53

T n[i J-t)>?

I

•jt-i !!ii|! L. Ash hopper Bottom U-bends —- -A_L/ 0 a I lie

Figure 4.4 Sectional view of the vertical tube convection section 70

o oo Flue gas —liCtui.

Figure 4.5 Sectional plan showing lire box and sonvection section 71

NEXT FAQE(S) 73

Figure. 4.8 Hollow spray cone pattern 74

Figure 4A) Solid spray cone pattern 7% 76

Figure 4.11 Gas sampling arrangement

air vacuum pump glass flask absorbing material ballon 77

r1in1..«nr<; I fmji't.il Iir<* Imri iushI'* < l>r < ..iuli|-:l wix Ji.] Isnl IkTIII.I

-li -vi m!.f-.r f <• *-«] f«11 LO CU

figure 5.2 hothcrmil cnnlimrs icmp'-r-ihirc lines imM'" the cnmlmslirm

rlwml.'rr f<.»r mixlure »»f slirvlr oil fc 'liesrl r 0 mo—20.22 gm#/* ^ma=»24.76 gme/« 1000 r

? 700

l 500

15 , , 20 Axfot dfetoncofrom tho noxzf* Up (cm)

Figure 5.3 Horizontal axes temperature distribution for two different

quantity of air flow for diesel fuel Flame temperature along the vertical axes (C) 500 400 600 Figure

- - - O

mo

5.4 i — 24.763

Vertical

gmi/i

axes

temperature Vertical £ of

ma»*2Q.21 air flow distance

8 for

gme/e distribution

from diesel

the

fuel nozzle

for

tlp(cm)

two

different

quantity =§

the axes of flame (C) Figure 700

Qmf- 5.5

Horizontal 0.4668

gm«/s quantity

axes

eml-,6539 temperature Axial of

distance fuel

for gme

from

/1 diesel

distribution

the

nozzle fuel

tip

(cm) for

two

different d\ 1100 r • mf—.5538 gme/« ^mf«».e651 gme/e

900 -

800 -

£ 700

Vertical dletance from the nozzle tip (cm)

Figure 5.6 Vertical axes temperature distribution for two different quantity

of fuel for diesel fuel qx —5 cm /, x-25 cm

O O

Air fuel ratio

Figure 5.7 Effect of air fuel ratio on the variation of the flame

temperature along the horizontal axes for diesel fuel t£4

q. 5 cm —5 cm 540 r

f 380

Figure 5.8 EiFect of Air fuel ratio on tLe variation of llame Ifmperature t along the vertical axes for diesel fuel tl

x~ 25 000 r

500 l

Air fuel ratio

Figure 5-ti f.lfect «ir fuel ratio mi the variation of the !Ume

tern;:,rnmr: along the horizontal axes for oil shale g>.n

j- 0

>,-|i-,|

i

u

5" aiv

o }

o; 11 # |

r> viivj

ii"

j>|j

jva \ iv uvi

jo

sip

^tuvrj^

«oC* mf-.4405a 9gm/e

Air consumptlon(gm/»)

Figure 5.11 EIFect of air consumption on stack temperature under

constant fuel consumption for diesel fuel 8.300

Fuel consumption (gms/s)

Figure 5.12 Effect of fuel consumption on stack temperature under

constant air consumption for diesel fuel Air fuel ratio

Figure 5.13 variation of air fuel ratio with stack temperature for diesel

fuel 600 r

Air fuel ratio

Figure 5.14 variation of air fuel ratio with stack temperature for mixture

of shale oil k. diesel fuel 91

Shale oil percent by volume

Figure 5.15 Effect of percentage of shale oil in the mixture on stack

temperature Volumetric product concentration carbon Figure

monoxide 5.16

Effect

and

of

air carbon

Air consumption

consumption

dioxide diesel fuel

(gms/e) at

on

constant

volumetric

fuel

concentration

consumption

for of

9& Volumetric product concentration # Figure oxygen N2

5.17 and

Effect nitrogen

of

air A

Air at

02 consumption

coneumptlon(gme/e) constant fuel

on consumption

volumetric

concentration for diesel fuel

of e co A C02

AJr fuel ratio

Figure 5.18 EiFect of fuel consumption on volumetric concentration of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide at constant air consumption for

diesel fuel 95

0.56 , Fuel consumption (gms/s)

Figure 5..19 Effect of fuel consumption on volumetric concent ration •’!

osygen c«u1 coustmit vii consumption for .liesc] fuel Volumetric product concentration 42

Figure

-44 5.20 and

Variation

carbon 46

dioxide

of

volumetric 48

with Air

fuel

air ratio

concentration

50 fuel

ratio

52 for

54 "Z>

of diesel

carbon V

fuel

monoxide 56

X ioo r

Air fuel ratio

Figure 5.21 Variation of volumetric concentration of oxygen and nitrogen

with air fuel ratio for diesel fuel Volumetric product concentration Figure

5.22 and Variation carbon

of dioxide

volumetric with

concentration percentage of

of shale

carbon oil

monoxide

/ Volumetric goaoua concentration 100

r Figure

5.23

Variation

of with

Shale volumetric percentage

oil

percent

concentration

by

volume of shale oil

of

oxygen

and

nitrogen Dry gaseous loss percentage Figure

5.24

ElFrct.

of

air consumption

consumption Air

consumption for

on diesel (gm/s)

«.lry fuel

gas

loss

at

constant

fuel Fuel coneumptlon (gm/e)

Figure 5.25 ElFect of fuel consumption on dry gas loss at constant air

consumption for diesel fuel Air fuel ratio

Figure 5.26 Variation of dry gas loss with air fuel ratio for diesel fuel 11)3

AJr fuel retie

f i-.'iifr t Variation «>f .fry 5 as lost will) air fu*l ratio }nr ,,,| 104

Shole oil percentage

Figure 5.28 Variation of dry gas loss with percentage of shale oil for

diesel fuel 70

60

50 8

O **•

20------'------»— 250 260 270 280 290 300 31 0 St o ck temper olure (C)

Figure 5.29 Variation ol dry combustion loss |>cirentage with stark

temperature at constant aii consumption for diesel fuel 300 , % Stock temperoturo (C)

Figure 5.30 Variation of dry combustion loss percentage with stack

temperature at constant furl consumption for diesel fuel 107

420 43( Stack temperature (C)

Figure 5.31 Variation of dry combustion loss percenta^r with stack

temperature for diesel fuel

110 fe>i

20 * 1 t. . —.i.. . - x------1------1------1——I------1—.—j 375 400 425 450 475 500 Stock temperature (C)

Figure E>.-32 Variation of dry combustion loss percentage with stack

temperature for mixture of shale oil k. diesel fuels I —

Incomplete gaeeoua lose (KJ/Kg) 10.00 Figure

r

Fi.."V3

Eifect. ol

-iir consumi'l-ion Alr

consumption on

(gm/s) inconjjilclr loss lor

-liesrl furl 10^ loss (KJ/Kg) 101

r Figure

5.3*1

EIFert.

«>f fuel

fuel

Fuel consumption

consumption

consumption

(gm/») for

on diesel

ineonij>lc(-c furl

less

ol

ronst-'viit

Incomplete gaseous loss (KJ/Kg) 10'

42 r Figure

5.35 44

V.iri.\lio» 46

of

incomplete for 48 Air diesel

fuel

rmnl.mstiou ratio fuel 50

loss 52

witli

,\ir 54

fuel

ratio 56 111 j=lUUi

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