Volume XII 2017 Explorations The Journal of Undergraduate Research and Creative Activities for the State of North Carolina
http://uncw.edu/csurf/Explorations/csurfexplorations.html
Center for the Support of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships UNCW Honors College Randall Library, room 2007 University of North Carolina Wilmington Wilmington, NC 28403 copyright © 2017 by the University of North Carolina Wilmington
Cover photographs: Bear: Logan P. Prochaska Crab: Logan P. Prochaska Flower: Logan P. Prochaska
ISBN: 978-0-9908932-1-9
Original Design by The Publishing Laboratory Department of Creative Writing University of North Carolina Wilmington 601 South College Road Wilmington, North Carolina 28403 www.uncw.edu/writers
Produced by the Center for the Support of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships Honors College University of North Carolina Wilmington 601 South College Road Wilmington, North Carolina 28403 http://uncw.edu/csurf/Explorations/csurfexplorations.html Staff
Editor-in-Chief Katherine E. Bruce, PhD Director, Honors College and Center for the Support of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships Professor of Psychology University of North Carolina Wilmington
Layout Editor Logan P. Prochaska Assistant Editor Honors Communication Studies Major University of North Carolina Wilmington
Consultant Jennifer Horan, PhD Associate Professor of Political Science Associate Director, Honors College University of North Carolina Wilmington
Copy Editors Tiffany Kronenwetter Psychology Graduate Student CSURF Graduate Assistant University of North Carolina Wilmington
Katie Dyer Psychology Graduate Student CSURF Graduate Assistant University of North Carolina Wilmington
Amanda Ceroli Honors Physical Oceanography Major University of North Carolina Wilmington
Sarah Helmy Honors Biology Major University of North Carolina Wilmington 2017 Board of Reviewers
Sarah Daynes, PhD Karen Murphy, PhD Department of Sociology Department of Psychology and University of North Carolina - Greensboro Neuroscience Duke University Wade Dudley, PhD Department of History Kate Nooner, PhD East Carolina University Department of Psychology University of North Carolina Wilmington Cynthia Edwards, PhD Department of Psychology Katie Peel, PhD Meredith College Department of English and Women’s and Gender Studies Amy Hedrick, PhD University of North Carolina Wilmington Department of Psychology Lenoir-Rhyne University Gina Peterman, PhD Department of English Susan Keane, PhD Campbell University Department of Psychology University of North Carolina - Greensboro Jennifer Place, PhD Department of Psychology James Martin, PhD Chowan University Department of History, Criminal Justice and Political Science Elizabeth Rambo, PhD Campbell University Department of English Campbell University Katherine Montwieler, PhD Department of English Sue Richardson, PhD University of North Carolina Wilmington Department of Film Studies University of North Carolina Wilmington Thomas Mueller, PhD Department of Communication Studies Sabrina Richardson, PhD Appalachian State University Department of Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience Joanne Murphy, PhD North Carolina State University Department of Classical Studies University of North Carolina - Greensboro Chad Ross, PhD Jutta Street, PhD Department of History Department of Psychology North Carolina Wesleyan College Campbell University
Tom Schmid, PhD Betty Witcher, PhD Department of Philosophy Department of Psychology University of North Carolina Wilmington William Peace University
Lee Schweninger, PhD Amy Zigler, PhD Department of English Department of Music University of North Carolina Wilmington Salem College
Helena Spencer, PhD With special thanks and appreciation to the Department of Music faculty mentors and volunteer reviewers. University of North Carolina Wilmington
Jaclyn Stanke, PhD Department of History, Criminal Justice and Political Science Campbell University Table of Contents
1 Letter from the Editor
3 Humanities
5 Adrianople: Before and After Corry Atkinson, East Carolina University
19 Mortar and Pestle, Orange and Navel:(M)otherhood, Exile, and Cultural Reproduction in Edwidge Danticat’s Breath, Eyes, Memory and Hanan al-Shaykh’s The Story of Zahra Olivia Chalkley, Guilford College
29 Exoticism in 18th Century Opera: Appreciation versus Appropriation Maggie Pazur, Western Carolina University
37 The Deviants of Athens through the Positivist Perspective Ena Prskalo, University of North Carolina - Greensboro
47 The Coming of the LORD:An Analysis of Religious Rhetoric in the American Civil War Drake Smith, Campbell University
59 Social Sciences
61 The Relation Between the Attachments of Female College Students and Their Self-reported Resiliency and Stress Levels in Emerging Adulthood Alyson Mann, Meredith College
72 The Relation Between Impulsivity and Neighborhood Safety on Attitudes Toward Risky Sexual Behavior Melissa Mayfield, University of North Carolina - Greensboro Brittany Armstrong, University of North Carolina - Greensboro Erin Denio, University of North Carolina - Greensboro
88 Neurocognitive Factors Related to Trauma Symptoms and Emotion Regulation Marie Rodriguez, University of North Carolina Wilmington
102 About the Student Authors
104 About the Faculty Mentors
106 Submission Process Letter from the Editor
e are pleased to present volume have done the layout for recent issues. I am WXII of Explorations, the Journal indebted to Ms. Logan Prochaska, our assis- of Undergraduate Research and Creative tant editor and layout designer and a member Activities for the State of North Carolina. of the UNCW Honors College Media Board; she has done an amazing job with layout and I was scheduled to step down as Editor keeping me on schedule. Logan is also the this year, but to ease the transition of Ex- photographer for our recent covers and I love plorations to a new home, I stepped in at her creative eye. I also appreciate the copy the 11th hour to serve one more year. Be- editing of our CSURF graduate assistants and cause of the transition, this year’s Explo- Honors student assistants. Many thanks to rations is a bit smaller than last year’s, but Jennifer Horan, Nathan Grove, Peggy Styes the quality of the published articles and es- and Morgan Alexander for day-to-day sup- says is high. This year we include eight pa- port in the Honors College office, and to the pers, selected from 13 submissions from UNCW Chancellors, Provosts and Associate students at nine different public or private Provosts, and Deans of Undergraduate Studies institutions in North Carolina. Topics range who supported Explorations over the years. from attachment styles to Roman history to literary criticism to neuroscience to opera. I am also very appreciative of the effort that the 27 ad hoc reviewers spent providing timely It is useful each year to provide a bit of and thoughtful reviews of the submissions this background about Explorations. I can hardly summer. These are the folks who ensure the believe the journal has been a reality for continued quality of Explorations. They offer twelve years! In 2005, the State of North constructive feedback to the student authors. Carolina Undergraduate Research and Cre- Again, this is the last year that I will serve ativity Symposium, affectionately known as as Editor-in-Chief of Explorations. I want SNCURCS (pronounced “Snickers”) was to especially thank all the faculty reviewers first held, and educators from all colleges, and mentors over the years. You have given universities, community colleges, and high of your time and energy to support these schools were invited to participate. Now in students, a heart-felt thank you to you! And its 13th year, SNCURCS offers a venue for thanks to all the student authors. I have learned undergraduates to present their research and so much from reading your manuscripts- you creative efforts. Explorations was the brain- are passionate and knowledgeable about your child of the 2005 meeting, and we are thank- research and creative projects. I feel ener- ful that Michael Bassman and East Carolina gized every summer reviewing your work! University organized and published the first So in the spirit of the excitement that fresh three volumes. In 2008, the late George Bar- approaches to research and discovery bring, thalamus, former Director of Undergraduate we offer you volume XII of Explorations. Research at NCSU and the visionary behind our state-wide undergraduate research ef- forts, convinced me to move Explorations to UNCW in time to produce the 2009 volume, and we have now published nine volumes at UNCW. At UNCW we are fortunate to have Katherine Bruce, PhD a very successful Publishing Laboratory that developed the current look of Explorations, plus I have a great team of students who
1
Humanities
Adrianople: Before and After
Corry Atkinson East Carolina University Faculty Mentor: Wade Dudley East Carolina University
ABSTRACT The Battle of Adrianople in 378, fought between the Roman Empire and the Goths, is often overlooked in the field of Roman history. The purpose of this paper is to argue that the Battle of Adrianople is more important to Roman history than conventionally thought, and that it marked a major turning point for the Roman Empire. Throughout this paper I will argue that the Gothic victory at Adrianople caused a domino effect which led to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Using primary sources I show that many of the events that occurred after the battle, and played a role in the collapse of the Western Empire, can be linked together as aftereffects of the Roman defeat at Adrianople.
he Gothic victory over the Romans at Adrianople led the Eastern Empire to abandon TAdrianople in 378 brought with it vast the West. Without the help of the East, the changes to the Roman world. The battle economically weaker Western Empire was in had a domino effect on both halves of the no condition to properly defend itself. Thus Empire, but the West suffered the most in 476 the Western Roman Empire finally severe consequences. The Western Roman disintegrated, and by 493 Italy and Spain had Empire would never recover from the emerged as independent Gothic kingdoms. East’s defeat in 378. The political fallout The major barbarian groups of the fourth that followed Emperor Valens death at century consisted of Germanic confedera- Adrianople created hostilities between East tions who lived close to Roman borders, ei- and West that never dissipated. Moreover, a ther to the east of the Rhine or north of the series of usurpers, some supported by Goths Danube. These confederations included the and others opposed by them would plague Franks, the Alamanni, the Quadi, and the the West. These usurpers would severely Goths.1 These confederations would all ha- damage the Western Empire forcing it to rass the Romans in their own way, but the rely increasingly on barbarians, such as the Goths were the only ones to pose a seri- Goths. These conditions allowed the Goths to ous threat to the Romans. The roots of the remain a dominant power in Western Europe Gothic people are unknown, but they may until the eighth century. have originated in Scandinavia before mi- Italy suffered from multiple barbarian grating to the Danube region. It is possible invasions, Rome itself was sacked twice, that before 376, there were several different before the Western Empire fell. These Gothic tribes north of the Danube, but the events occurred because the Roman defeat at historian Ammianus Marcellinus (330-395)
1Guy Halsall, Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West 376-568 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007) 118, 131.
5 Explorations |Humanities only ever mentions two: the Tervingi, and by this time, were awarded Roman citizenship the Greuthungi.2 It is also possible that the after their military service ended. The Romans Ostrogoths subsisted independently of these named this third category foederati, those two groups before 400, as Claudian mentions who had signed treaties allying themselves a group of Ostrogoths mixing with a group with Rome. Unlike the other two populations, of Greuthungi around 399.3 Still, the Tervingi the foederati did not live inside the Empire’s and Greuthungi culminated. borders, as Romans did not form alliances The Romans viewed the Rhine and the with their own subjects. As such if any of the Danube as the edge of the civilized world, foederati wanted to settle within the Empire from their point of view these borders were they had to become dediticii.7 definitive for the barbarians, but this was not Diocletian’s establishing the tetrarchy the case for the Romans themselves. While and dividing the Roman Empire into east- the Empire did possess finite borders, they ern and western halves laid the founda- seemed to have established more for conve- tion for the eventual demise of the west, nience rather than limitation. The Romans as did Constantine’s moving the Empire’s actually viewed the borders as being sine capital to Constantinople in 330. More im- finis, or without a limit; more or less perme- mediately the disastrous events that took able for Roman citizens. Those lands across place from 376-378, can be traced back to the border thus constituted an extension of the death of Emperor Jovian in 364. Upon the Empire.4 Jovian’s untimely demise, while the Eastern Despite their view of the border regions, field army was retreating out of Persia, civil the Romans still allowed groups of barbar- and military officials with the army held a ians to enter the Empire and occupy lands. vote. According to Ammianus, these men The Romans set up three categories of those unanimously declared Valentinian emperor who settled within the Empire. There were of both the East and West. After the army the dediticii, barbarians who had willingly reached Constantinople Valentinian made his surrendered themselves to the Empire. They younger brother, Valens, co-emperor award- were not awarded Roman citizenship but ing him the Eastern Empire. According to were provided land on which to settle and Ammianus, even though he held the same farm. It seems likely that the Goths may have rank as his older brother, Valens served as been admitted as dediticii.5 Second were the Valentinian’s lieutenant.8 It is difficult to as- laeti¸ which means “the happy people.” This sess the validity of Ammianus’ statement, name is quite ironic, and possibly represents as there are no other contemporary sources a joke on part of the Romans, because the la- which make mention of this hierarchical eti were barbarians who had been captured arrangement. Ammianus did possess bias in battle and settled on Roman lands. They against Valens as he blamed Valens for ad- were more regimented than other settled mitting the Goths into the Empire in the first barbarians.6 place. Thus Ammianus may have sought to The third category included those who discredit Valens’ memory, a common practice belonged to neither of the aforementioned among the Romans, since he was writing dur- groups. Those barbarians who served in the ing the reign of Theodosius. regular army, and they were quite numerous In 365 Valentenian left Constantinople for
2Ammianus Marcellinus, The Later Roman Empire: AD 354-378 trans. 7Ibid. Walter Hamilton, (Penguin Books, 1986) 415. The historian will hereinaf- 8Ammianus, 314, 317-318. ter be cited in the text as Ammianus 3Peter Heather, Goths and Romans 332-489 (Oxford: Clarenden Press, 1991) 89. 4Halsall, Barbairan Migrations, 140-141. 5Peter Heather, Goths and Romans, 124. 6Halsall, Barbarian Migrations 152-153.
6 Corry Atkinson the West, and shortly afterwards Procopius, winter. Valens then withdrew to Marcianople. who was related to the deceased Emperor In 369 he again crossed the Danube and finally Julian, declared himself emperor in the experienced some success. He actually won a East. Despite some initial setbacks on the skirmish against the Greuthungi, before de- part of Valens, Procopius’ reign only lasted feating a Tervingi army led by Athanaric. At nine months before the former defeated and this point the Tervingi sent envoys to Valens, executed him. According to Ammianus, Ammianus would have us believe they Valens went to war with the Tervingi because begged Valens for peace. Thus while only Athanaric had allied himself with Procopius. one of the Emperor’s three crossings brought Up to this point the Goths had been at peace success, and only marginally so, his army’s with the Eastern Empire since the time of continued presence near the Danube, and the Constantine.9 This constitutes, perhaps, the negative impact on trade probably influenced most interesting facet of Procopius’ reign, the Goths to seek peace.11 because he managed to convince Athanaric During the seven years between Valens’ to betray a peace that had lasted nearly four peace with Athanaric and the Tervingi cross- decades. ing the Danube, the Goths experienced in- Although the Huns typically receive the ternal strife. Athanaric had initiated a perse- majority of the blame for the Gothic migra- cution of Christians, fearing that they were tion in 376, much responsibility actually pro-Roman.12 After three years of warfare lies with Valens because of his war against with Valens the Gothic chieftain needed to the Tervingi, which stemmed from their sup- reassert his control over the Tervingi, and posed alliance with Procopius. While largely persecuting Christians could have repre- unsuccessful Valens did manage to cause vast sented a ploy to regain the trust of more tra- amounts of destruction, and forced the Goths ditional Goths. Whatever his plan, it quickly to sign a treaty which favored the Romans. backfired, as a rival faction led by the afore- This in turn led to a civil war among the mentioned Fritigern, who was a recent con- Tervingi, and Athanaric, who was now seen vert to Christianity, began to oppose him, and as a disgrace, was defeated by Fritigern. This war broke out. The Romans may have even civil war also had affected the Greuthungi supported the persecuted Christians to gain Goths and Alans, who were actually an Fritegern’s trust: any backing would have led Indo-Iranian group. Despite the aforemen- to further instability in the region.13 tioned turmoil, the Danube border actually The first people north of the Danube who remained intact, allowing Valens to focus his experienced the Hunnic invasion were the attention on Persia, until the Huns arrived in Alans. Ammianus tells us that a large number the 370s.10 of Alans were killed in this initial encounter, Valens first crossed the Danube in 367, and that the survivors became “friends” of the and the Goths immediately retreated into Huns, but subjects, or maybe even slaves, is the Carpathian Mountains. Because of this likely the more appropriate term for the new Valens was only able to apprehend a handful political situation. The Huns next invaded of stragglers, thus his first invasion proved the territory of the Greuthungi, eventually unsuccessful. He returned in 368 but due to driving King Ermnerich to suicide, and flood his army had to remain encamped until his people to defeat. Curiously, Ammianus
9Ibid., 320-321, 329-332, 336. 11Ammianus, Later Empire, 336-337. 10Halsall, Barbarian Migrations, 171-175. 12Halsall, Barbarian Migrations, 174. 13Ibid.
7 Explorations | Humanities explicitly states that the Greuthungi were Danube. If they did indeed occupy most of defeated by the Alans, it could be that these the Gothic territory at this time, their cross- were the Alans fleeing from the Huns, or they ing into the Empire by way of the Caucasus were simply the Alans now under Hunnic would have taken them thousands of miles rule. Nonetheless with the Huns defeating out of the way. Thus most of the Huns had the Greuthungi, the Tervingi remained as the to have been far to the East of the Carpathian only free people left in the region. Athanaric Mountains, likely still in the territory of the apparently tried to take the fight to the Huns, Alans.16 If the Huns were indeed still in Alan but he was easily defeated by a surprise territory, then there is good reason to dis- attack. It was at this point that the Tervingi count Ammianus’ description of the Tervingi. led by Fritigern and Alavivus departed for the It would have taken a lot of planning for tens Danube.14 As such, the Hunnic invasions of of thousands of people to make the long trip the Gothic territories still played a large role from the Tervingi territory to the Danube in causing the eventual battle at Adrianople, River, it is very unlikely that they migrated even if that role is often exaggerated. devoid of a plan. Additionally, the Tervingi Due to Ammianus’ portrayal of the would have been widely dispersed, for the Tervingi, one assumes the Tervingi were ter- most part, and thus it would have taken time rified of the Huns. According to Ammianus for the different settlements to communicate the Tervingi begged and prayed for Valens with one another. Whatever the case Valens to admit them into the Empire. Of course, admitted the Tervingi into the Empire, and Ammianus may have written from a biased things quickly spiraled out of control. point of view, and thus negatively recounted There is no direct evidence that the Tervingi the Goths’ entreaties. This bias is quite evi- were admitted into the Empire as dediticii, as dent in his writing: “And the greatest care the Romans most likely did not keep exten- was taken to ensure that, even if they were sive records in regards to these categories, suffering from a mortal illness, none of those but they seem to have been treated as if they destined to overthrow the Roman Empire were. The historian Zosimus Historicus, who should be left behind.”15 lived during the late fifth century, claims that This bias, however, does not make his de- Valens ordered the Goths to surrender their piction of the Tervingi false. One also has to weapons upon crossing the Danube;17 this ac- take into account the fact that Valens was in tion does not, however, appear in Ammianus’ Antioch at this time. This means communi- writings. It is unlikely that the Tervingi would cation between the Romans and the Goths even agree to such terms. Given their recent would have taken weeks, rather than days. hostilities with the Empire, moreover, had Thus the Tervingi had to wait on the north such an order been given, the Roman officials side of the river while envoys were sent to would not have been negligent enough to let Valens, and then sent back. If the Tervingi so the Goths retain their arms.18 Nonetheless, feared the Huns as Ammianus suggests, then Rome allowing the Goths to hold onto their there is certainly no reason they would have weapons contributed little to the latter’s later waited so long to hear back from Valens. rebellion, as other factors held more weight. Additionally, when the Huns raided the More so, the Tervingi would have rebelled, Empire in 395, they invaded by way of the weapons or no weapons. Due to the Roman Caucasus Mountains, rather than crossing the negligence in handling their receptio.
14Ammianus Marcellinus, Later Empire, 414-416. 16Peter Heather, Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth 15Ibid., 416-417. of Europe, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 163. 17Zosimus Historicus, Nova Historia, (London: Green and Chaplin: 1814), 4.104. 18Peter Heather, Goths and Romans, 125.
8 Corry Atkinson
Ammianus claims that the blame for all of the battles outcome. Lupicinus then invited the Empire’s trouble with the Goths lay with Fritegern and Alavivus, the other Tervingi their generals: Lupicinus and Maximus. leader, to a feast inside the city, where he These two were the Roman commanders at attempted to kill both Tervingi leaders.21 Marcianople, and as such they were in charge Ammianus leads us to believe that this idea of the Tervingi’s receptio. According to his was Lupicinus’ alone, but he probably had history, the corrupt Lupicinus and Maximus orders from Valens. It may even have been purposefully withheld food from the Tervingi, Roman tradition to kill the leaders of admit- so that they could sell it to them at exorbitant ted barbarian groups to replace them with prices.19 Ammianus is only partially correct someone who was pro-Roman.22 Tradition or here. It is more likely that the food was being not, Lupicinus’ treachery seems to have been moved to a location where it could be guarded, executed with Valens’ assent. thus creating a food shortage. It appears Lupicinus’ plot achieved only partial suc- that Lupicinus and Maximus exploited the cess, as he only managed to kill, or perhaps situation by selling the scarce food they did capture, Alavivus. According to Ammianus, have to the Goths.20 Because the Tervingi Fritigern managed to negotiate his own re- had not settled on available land, the only lease by promising to mollify the Goths food available came from their own reserves, outside the city, who were now quite dis- and the food the Romans supplied. It would ruptive. Ironically, after the Tervingi heard have been quite disingenuous for the Roman what had happened to Fritigern, they im- generals to intentionally starve people who mediately revolted and killed most of the Valens hoped to enlist in his army. Whatever Roman soldiers at Marcianople.23 When he the case, food shortages did not sit well with heard news of this uprising, Valens sent two the Goths, no matter the cause. It should also of his generals ahead of him, with a small be noted that the Romans treatment of the force, while he remained at Constantinople. Goths proved unsurprising, considering the These men, Profuturus and Trajan, managed Romans, including their generals, disdained to drive the Goths back across the Haemus the Germans as savages. The Goths were Mountains, but proved unable to win a deci- just another source of tax income, and new sive battle. The Goths then managed to break recruits to enlist for their wars. out and ravaged Thrace for a short period.24 In 377 Lupicinus committed his second According to Zosimus, when Valens heard folly, his first being the disdain with which that the Goths were ransacking Thrace he he treated the Tervingi. He decided to move sent a cavalry force against them. Zosimus the Tervingi to Marcianople, Ammianus also says that this cavalry force proved rather claims this was done out of fear of a revolt. successful and managed to annihilate a large Lupicinus needed all of his soldiers in order number of stragglers.25 There is no mention to move the Tervingi to Marcianople; this left of this by Ammianus, but he does mention a the Danube relatively undefended and the battle that occurred in Thrace in which the Greuthungi, having been denied entry ear- Goths were defeated by Frigeridus. It’s pos- lier, quickly crossed into the Empire. These sible that this is what Zosimus is referring same Greuthungi Goths would go on to par- to, except Frigeridus was one of Emperor take in the battle at Adrianople, alongside Gratian’s, Valens young nephew in the west, the Tervingi, and played an important role in generals. Nonetheless, while Frigeridus did
19Ammianus Marcellinus, Later Empire, 417. 21Ammianus Marcellinus, Later Empire, 418-419. 20Peter Heather, Goths and Romans, 132. 22Peter Heather, Goths and Romans, 133. 23Ammianus Marcellinus, Later Empire, 419-420. 24Ibid., 425-426. 25Zosimus Historicus, Nova Historia, 4.104.
9 Explorations |Humanities defeat the Goths in Thrace, a large number of him to wait. Whatever the reason for Valens’ them managed to escape. Moreover, as win- recklessness, these political divisions likely ter approached, Gratian was forced to recall kept both parties from coming to an agree- Frigeridus as he now had his own border is- ment. Not only did political fragmentation sues with the Alammani.26 result Valens’ downfall, but it also set in mo- At this point Valens enlisted another tion the events that would help bring about general, a man named Sebastian, to take the end of the Western Roman Empire. charge of the army he had recently sent to To further appraise the foolhardiness of fight the Tervingi. Sebastian managed to Valens’ expedition, his scouts informed him defeat some of the Tervingi near Beroea. that the Gothic force included only about Ironically Valens, who still did not have 10,000 men, but this number proved far claim to a glorious victory in his own name, larger. Nobody would realize this mistake un- resented the successes of his generals. To til it was too late, and Valens was now com- make matters worse, Gratian, who was only pletely determined to engage the Goths on his 18 and had only been emperor since 375, own. When Valens’ army finally came within now had a victory of his own victory while view of the Gothic force, on August 9th, ac- Valens still had none.27 Tradition mandated cording to Ammianus, the Goths became that an emperor be victorious in battle against distressed as part of their force had yet to ar- the barbarians, and Valens was likely feeling rive. They apparently sent envoys to Valens the immense pressure from this tradition. asking for peace, supposedly in hopes to stall Moreover, given the earlier usurpation by the Romans until the Gothic cavalry came on Procopius, and the fact that the Goths he had the scene. At some point during the negotia- admitted were now ravaging the Empire, it tions some of the Roman archers, without or- is possible that Valens felt quite inadequate. ders, fired at the Gothic position. This led to a This jealously also explains why Valens counterattack by the Goths. Ammianus con- decided to engage the Goths, now a mixed tends that the Gothic cavalry returned at this group of Tervingi and Greuthungi, in battle, very moment and tore through the Roman without waiting for Gratian’s reinforcements. lines.29 This is probably a romanticized ex- It should be noted, however, that Ammianus aggeration on his part; it is more likely that was writing during the reign of Theodosius the battle was briefly a stalemate, before the I, and so he may have had reason to make Gothic cavalry arrived. the previous emperor appear incompetent. Whatever the timing, the arrival of the Nonetheless, Valens’ decision to engage the Gothic cavalry marked the turning point in Goths without assistance would lead to his the engagement, as they managed to rout downfall at Adrianople. their Roman counterparts. This turn left the Even if Valens’ resentment was exagger- Roman infantry undefended, and they were ated by Ammianus, Zosimus tells us that slaughtered until they too retreated. Valens Valens was convinced to do battle on his was mortally wounded during the battle. own by his councilors. Apparently these men After their victory the Goths attempted to were opponents of Sebastian.28 Ammianus take the city of Adrianople as well. They also mentions this, except according to him managed to defeat a small Roman force Sebastian wanted Valens to give battle imme- outside the gates, but were held at bay. They diately and it was the others who had urged were eventually forced to retreat, as they did
26Ammianus Marcellinus, Later Empire, 427-428. 29 Ammianus Marcellinus, Later Empire, 432-434. 27Ibid., 432. 30Ibid., 439-441. 28Zosimus Historicus, Nova Historia, 4.106.
10 Corry Atkinson not want to engage in a prolonged siege.30 decimated Valens’ force only with his own Sometime after the Battle of Adrianople soldiers could Theodosius have made war so had ended, Valens’ cavalry commander, who quickly. Theodosius’ reign also hastened the apparently managed to escape the battle, in- decline in relations between the two halves formed Gratian of the defeat. Zosimus says of the Roman Empire, as the historians in the that Gratian was not bothered by the news East began to redact Gratian from their work. of his uncle’s death. Gratian then went to Theodosius’ policies, moreover, did not sit Constantinople where he installed his gen- well with the man who had raised him to the eral, Theodosius, as the new Eastern em- purple, beginning an East-West rivalry that peror.31 Gratian was probably able to choose would never abate. the new emperor because most of Valens’ After three years of war, Theodosius man- army had perished alongside him. This meant aged to defeat the Goths, although not se- there were few significant military officials in verely enough to actually remove them from the East who could choose a new emperor, the Empire. Another factor that would help to and they certainly did not have the where- destabilize the West. The emperor most likely withal needed to oppose the will of Gratian. fragmented the Goths and then settled them They readily accepted Theodosius as the new on land that had been deserted. There is also emperor, and he quickly prepared to go to no Gothic leader mentioned by any sources war with the Goths. for at least the next ten years.33 This lends fur- According to Saint Gregory of Tours, from ther evidence to the theory that Theodosius his History of the Franks, Theodosius fer- dispersed the Goths across the Empire. vently embraced Christianity: “Theodosius In 383 the Western Empire entered into put all his hope and all his trust in the mercy a period of great internal strife, which was of God. He held many peoples in check, more exacerbated by external problems. Firstly by vigils and prayer than by the sword.”32 Magnus Maximus, who was only the first While Theodosius may have been a better in a long line of Western usurpers after Christian than his predecessors, Gregory, as a Adrianople, was declared emperor in the West cleric, may have exaggerated the Emperor’s by his soldiers and revolted against Gratian’s piety. Moreover, Gregory’s claim that rule. There is no evidence of Gratian asking Theodosius controlled people through prayer for assistance against this pretender, nor of rather than by the sword holds no credibil- Theodosius offering any. It is possible that ity. The first three years of Theodosius’ reign due to the growing dissension between East were marked by his Gothic war, and he waged and West neither man wanted to help, or be two civil wars against usurpers. Nonetheless, helped by, the other. One might contend that Gregory’s writings, despite their overt bias, if Valens had still been emperor he would are still important because they chronicle probably be more willing to help his nephew, Theodosius’ decision to make Christianity despite their disagreements. Either way the state religion, a decision that would have Gratian took an army to Paris in order to very significant consequences. There is no deal with the usurper, but he was betrayed by evidence of Gratian allowing Theodosius to his own men. Magnus, the aforementioned keep his own legions with him in the East, usurper, then had Gratian executed. but seeing as how the Goths had recently Theodosius allowed Maximus to retain
31Zosimus Historicus, Nova Historia, 4.107. 33Halsall, Barbarian Migrations, 180-183. 32Gregory of Tours, History of the Franks, trans. Lewis Thorpe (Penguin Books, 1974), 92.
11 Explorations |Humanities control of Britain and Gaul, and Gratian’s controlled the East. Problems quickly arose; half-brother Valentinian II, who was only 12, as Stilicho claimed that he had been left in was awarded the rest of the Western Empire. charge of both boys, and tensions began to This agreement stayed in place until 388 rise between East and West.41 None of the when Maximus invaded Italy and was then contemporary sources give a reason for defeated by Theodosius, who transferred the Stilicho making this claim, but it is entirely rest of the Western Empire to Valentinian’s possible that he simply wanted to be the most control.34 Theodosius’ later wars, especially powerful man in the Roman world. It was not against the usurper Eugenius, would give rise uncommon for powerful Roman generals to to one of the biggest nemeses the Western further their own careers at the expense of the Empire ever faced, the Goth Alaric. Empire, and Stilicho himself would later try, The peace that Maximus’ death brought on multiple occasions, to take Illyricum from would only last six years; the young the Eastern Empire. No matter his reasoning, Valentenian died under suspicious cir- he did not have the well-being of Arcadius as cumstances in 392, and Eugenius was de- a permanent concern. This would lead to the clared emperor by the general Aborgast. first of Alaric’s three rebellions, which would According to the historian Orosius (c. 375- begin to bring about the end of the Western 418), Eugenius was nothing more than a fig- Roman Empire. urehead for Arbogast.35 In 394 Theodosius The fallout from Theodosius’ death, and raised a large army which also contained the tensions between Stilicho and Rufinus, a large number of Goths, who were led by created a favorable political environment for Alaric.36 In the ensuing battle a large number Alaric’s rebellion in 395. In that year, Alaric of Theodosius’ barbarian allies were killed37, and his Gothic troops left Italy and marched but Eugenius was also eliminated, and north to the war ravaged Balkans.42 Here Arbogast committed suicide, and Theodosius Zosimus is rather vague in his description of thus emerged victorious.38 With his credibil- what occurred. The only thing that is certain ity restored, Theodosius was able to place is that Stilicho had marched East with an his young son Honorius on the throne in the army comprised of soldiers from both halves West. Theodosius did not live much longer of the Empire, and Arcadius, probably under after this victory, dying in 395, after a period Rufinus’ influence, ordered Stilicho to hand of illness.39 over the Eastern soldiers. Stilicho did as At the time of his death Theodosius left he was ordered, and the Eastern troops led two young sons, Honorius who was only by Gainas, who was Gothic, met Rufinus 10 and Arcadius who was 17. They were near Constantinople. Gainas, possibly crowned as the Western and Eastern emperors under orders from Stilicho, had his troops respectively. Since Arcadius was still a child kill Rufinus. Gainas, however, was unable he was left in the care of the half-Vandal to take his place as Arcadius’ “advisor,” Stilicho, the most powerful man in the West. because Eutropius, a court Eunich, assumed Arcadius, despite being of age in Roman the title.43 Given Stilicho’s claim that he society, was left under the care of Rufinus,40 was the one left in charge of Arcadius, and and because he proved to be no more capable his willingness to go to war over said claim, than his younger brother, political factions Gainas’ assassination of Rufinus represented
34Ibid., 187. 41Halsall, Barbarian Migrations, 189. 35Orosius, Historiae Adversus Paganos, accessed April 29, 2017, https:// 42Ibid., 194. sites.google.com/site/demontortoise2000/orosius_book7. 43Zosimus Historicus, Nova Historia, 5.137 36 Zosimus Historicus, Nova Historia, 5.133. 37Ibid., 4.128. 38Orosius, Historiae Paganos, 7.35. 39Halsall, Barbrian Migrations, 188 40Orosius, Historiae Paganos, 7.37.
12 Corry Atkinson a component of Stilicho’s master plan. then quickly took Eutropius’ position as He ordered the assassination, because he Arcadius’ chief advisor, but this arrangement realized it would be too difficult for him proved ephemeral. In 400 a large portion of to control two emperors. Thus by having Gainas’ barbarian troops were slaughtered, Gainas take Rufinus’ place as Arcadius’ chief and he fled north where he was killed by advisor, Stilicho was able to directly control Uldin, who was the Hunnic king.47 the Western emperor, and would have had a After Gainas’ death it seems that Alaric had puppet advisor controlling the East. Given fallen out of favor in Arcadius’ court, and af- the turbulence of Roman politics this theory ter the murder of Fravitta, another prominent holds water. Goth, Alaric probably felt that his own life It is also known that at some point in 395 was at risk. It is also possible that he lost his Alaric had marched south towards Greece, position as magister militum, which meant but it is unclear exactly when he did so or that he could no longer pay or feed his men.48 why. According to Zosimus’ Nova Histroia, If Alaric was indeed stripped of his title, then Alaric’s raiding in Greece occurred before he probably saw little choice but to rebel. It Rufinus was killed, and Rufinus convinced had already become apparent that the Goths a disgruntled Alaric to take his troops into were no longer as welcome in the East as they Greece.44 Still, Zosimus cannot be com- had been, and Alaric probably would have pletely trusted here because he was favorably been forced to disband his troops. Moreover, inclined towards Rufinus. Another possibility given recent events, he probably feared that is that Alaric was in Greece because he had he would be next on his enemies’ list. Given originally intended to attack Constantinople, the Gothic chieftain’s actions after his inva- but after Stilicho’s forces returned it proved sion of Italy, it seems as if he rebelled out of too heavily defended. One might then con- necessity, rather than choice. clude that Alaric may have been in Greece Fearful for his life, Alaric launched a under orders from Rufinus, he was either surprise invasion of Italy in 401, while forced to remain there after the latter’s death, Stilicho was away. The latter, however, or did so under his own authority.45 Even returned to Italy and fought Alaric to a though we do not have much information standstill twice.49 According to Orosius, on Alaric’s presence in Greece, it is known Stilicho then concluded a secret alliance with that sacked several cities while he was there. Alaric, because the former wished to make According to Zosimus these included Athens, his own son the emperor.50 While Stilicho Sparta, and Megara.46 did parley with Alaric, the results were not as By 397 it appears that Alaric was once nefarious as Orosius contends. For whatever again serving Rome, possibly as the Magister reason Alaric remained silent from 402~405, Militum of Illyricum, as he fought off Stilicho he had probably been given another military who was trying to take the Peloponnesus for command, and by 405 he was most certainly the Western Empire. Two year later, things serving Honorius.51 once again began to spiral out of control. According to Orosius, Alaric was the Gainas, the same Goth who had killed Rufinus Gothic king when he sacked Rome in 410.52 in 395, allied himself with a rebel force, and It would make sense for Alaric to take this forced Arcadius to dismiss Eutropius. Gainas role, especially in 400. He did it to ensure the
44Ibid. 47Ibid., 5.144, 5.148. 45Halsall, Barbarian Migrations, 195. 48Halsall, Barbairan Migrations, 201. 46Zosimus Historicus, Nova Historia¸ 5.137 49Ibid. 50Orosius, Historiae Paganos. 51Halsall, Barbarian Migrations, 202. 52Orosius, Historiae Paganos.
13 Explorations |Humanities loyalty of his men now that he had lost his Stilicho’s plans were abandoned. This did Roman titles. Yet, considering he most likely not sit well with Alaric, and he demanded invaded Italy to force the Emperor to award that the Roman senate give him 3,000 pounds him a new title it would not make sense of silver. In order to maintain peace Stilicho for him to claim the title of king, one not convinced the senate to pay Alaric, but ac- recognized by the Roman Empire. Perhaps cording to Zosimus the senate assented more Alaric knew that he would have to give up because of their fear of Stilicho than a fear of his title as king after coming to terms with Alaric.55 It is not too hard to believe Zosimus Rome. Still, it is almost impossible to prove here, considering the fact that Stilicho was that Alaric was ever a king; it is more likely the West’s greatest general, and Alaric had that his brother Athaulf was actually the first yet to defeat him in battle. So the senate did to hold this position. not have much of a reason to fear Alaric, but After 405 Alaric re-emerged onto the angering a man as powerful and talented as scene. Later that same year the Goth Stilicho would have been detrimental. Radagaisus, whom Orosius also designates The year 400 also marked the beginning of as king, invaded Italy with a large force of the end for Stilicho, and by extension Rome’s barbarians. Radagaisus was supposedly hope of holding off Alaric. When Arcadius driven back into the mountains, without died in 408, Stilicho apparently marched east, food to feed his armies. Orosius says that hoping to become the young Theodosius II’s the Romans employed no army at this point, guardian. Rumors quickly began to circulate, and the barbarians quickly began to die however, that Stilicho actually intended to off. He, of course chalks this up as being a put his own son on the Eastern throne. By this miracle from God.53 It is more likely that the time Stilicho had gone back to Italy and was Romans actually did send an army to besiege in Ravenna, when one of Honorius’ magisters Radagaisus in the mountains, and instead of ordered that he be captured. A large number fighting, the starving barbarians surrendered. of Stilicho’s supporters were killed, and he Interestingly, Orosius also notes that a large himself was captured and executed.56 number of the captives quickly dropped Stilicho’s execution only served to exacer- dead after being sold into slavery, because bate the West’s barbarian problem, because, God willed it.54 What Orosius is most likely as mentioned earlier, a large number of his citing is the massacre of the families of these soldiers’ families were killed as well. When barbarians that occurred upon Stilicho’s they discovered what had happened to their execution, as most of the captives had been families these barbarians, many of whom drafted into the Roman army. Considering had invaded Italy with Radagaisus, promptly the fact that Orosius was a contemporary of rebelled and cast their lot with Alaric. Stilicho, he probably knew exactly what had According to Zosimus, these troops swelled happened, but being a cleric, he simply said Alaric’s force to some 30,000 men, which is a it was God’s will. credible number. Despite having such a large In 407 Stilicho intended to go to war with force, Alaric still preferred peace over war. Arcadius over the province of Illyricum; Honorius, however, refused to negotiate with Alaric agreed to help Stilicho and was sent Alaric, thus forcing Alaric to make a crucial East. In 408, however, Arcadius died and decision.57 If Alaric did in fact have 30,000
53Ibid. 55Zosimus Historicus, Nova Historia, 5.153-155 54Ibid. 56Ibid., 5.159. 57Ibid., 5.161.
14 Corry Atkinson men, as Zosimus claims, then he probably This is because Ravenna had replaced Rome did not pursue peace out of fear of defeat. as the capital of the Western Empire. In With Stilicho, dead there was not a general order to obtain more leverage Alaric decided in the West who would have been able to eas- to gain control of the African grain supply. ily defeat such a large Gothic force. Instead He marched his army south and intended to Alaric probably knew he would be better off invade Africa by way of Sicily, but died of an negotiating a peace treaty, because he may illness in 411. His brother Athaulf then took have been able to obtain land for his soldiers. his place as the Gothic leader.60 Honorius’ Whereas if he had gone to war, even if he repeated refusals to give in to Alaric’s would have won, he would have made the demands severely hampered the Western Romans resent him even further. Therefore Empire’s chances of defending themselves choosing to seek peace marked the most from future invasions. practical option for Alaric. Even though Alaric never won a true vic- Because Honorius refused to negotiate, tory over any Roman force during his re- however, Alaric had no choice but to march bellions, his impact on the Western Empire for Rome. He captured Rome’s port and then proved quite immense. He was able to derive besieged the city itself. The inhabitants of favorable terms from the Empire on multiple the city quickly ran out of food, and famine occasions, and had it not been for his lead- swept the city. The Romans also could not ership the Goths under his command prob- bury the dead outside of the city because ably would not have left such a large mark of the siege, and thus the corpses just piled on history. Had it not been for Alaric these up. Eventually, envoys were sent to Alaric Goths probably would have remained under to tell him that the senate would accept any the command of the Eastern Empire, or pos- reasonable demands. The members ended up sibly even killed during the turmoil of 399. giving him several thousand pounds of silver Alaric managed to rebel against the Romans and gold. Thus Alaric lifted his siege and on three occasions, and avoid a major defeat marched away from Rome.58 every time. Had he actually managed to in- Honorius, however, continued to refuse vade Africa, it is quite possible that he would Alaric’s demands for peace. Again, Alaric have succeeded in his goal. returned to Rome and besieged the city. After Alaric’s death the Goths would Again he was paid off by the senate and return to Roman service, and fought against spared Rome. Despite having already several barbarian groups in Spain. They besieged the Eternal City twice by this point, would eventually be settled in Tolouse by Alaric’s demands were once again refused Constantius, creating a buffer between Italy by Honorius. Thus Alaric returned to Rome, and northern Gaul (which the Romans no however this time he was allowed into the longer controlled). After being settled in city and spent three days stripping it of its Gaul, the Goths would continue to rebel wealth.59 This marks Alaric’s well known on several occasions, but would always Sack of Rome in 410. After this Alaric knew experience defeat.61 It is possible that the he had to do more than just sack Rome, which Romans allowed the Goths to remain in Gaul, was just a tourist destination by this point, if despite the multiple rebellions, because they he wanted Honorius to heed his demands. knew that they could not defend Gaul by
58Ibid., 5.163-165. 60Halsall, Barbarian Migrations, 217. 59Ibid., 5.166-167. 61Ibid., 223, 224-230
15 Explorations |Humanities themselves. victory at Adrianople, would prove an inter- By this point the Western Emperor only mittent thorn in the Empire’s side for the next controlled Italy, some of Gaul, and a small fifty years. The Western Roman Empire be- portion of Spain. The Empire was in complete came increasingly unstable in the years after disarray, and things would only get worse. Adrianople, and was plagued with a series of Attila the Hun twice invaded the West, first usurpers before finally collapsing. Since it ravaging Gaul, and then Italy itself. could no longer rely on help from the East, By 455, the year in which the Vandal king the Western Empire had to use more and Genseric sacked Rome, the Vandals con- more barbarians, often the Goths, in their trolled most of North Africa, and Spain be- civil wars, relinquishing to these groups more longed to the Visigoths, the Goths who had and more political power. Had the Romans followed Alaric. Then in 476 the Western won at Adrianople, they may have been able Roman Empire dissolved. Emperor Romulus to defeat the Goths and remove them from Augustus abdicated and Odoacer refused the the Empire. If this had been the case Valens imperial standards and proclaimed himself to would not have died, and both halves of the be the King of Italy. Empire may have retained better relations The defeat at Adrianople can be seen as with one another. As such the West would catalyzing all these events. Due to the fissure not have become so unstable, and since there between East and West that began during would be no Gothic threat, they might have Theodosius’ reign, which was only brought fared better against the usurpers. Alas the about because of Valens’ death at Adrianople, Romans did lose at Adrianople, and the dom- the Eastern Empire slowly began to stop inoes began to fall until the Western Empire cooperating with the West. The Goths who ceased to exist. gained a place inside the Empire with their
16 Corry Atkinson
REFERENCES Primary Sources:
Gregory of Tours. The History of the Franks. Translated by Lewis Thorpe. New York: Penguin Books, 1974.
Historiucs, Zosimus. Nova Historia. London: Green and Chaplin, 1814.
Marcellinus, Ammianus. The Later Roman Empire: AD 354-378. Translated by Walter Hamilton. New York: Penguin Books, 1986.
Orosius. Historiae Adversus Paganos. Accessed April 29, 2017 https://sites.google.com/site/ demontortoise2000/orosius_book7.
Secondary Sources:
Halsall, Guy. Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376-568. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Heather, Peter. Goths and Romans, 332-489. Oxford: Clarenden Press, 1991.
Heather, Peter Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
17 18 Mortar and Pestle, Orange and Navel: (M)otherhood, Exile, and Cultural Reproduction in Edwidge Danticat’s Breath, Eyes, Memory and Hanan al- Shaykh’s The Story of Zahra Olivia Chalkley Guilford College Faculty Mentor: Diya Abdo Guilford College
ABSTRACT In their novels The Story of Zahra and Breath, Eyes, Memory, Hanan al-Shaykh and Edwidge Danticat, both women writing in postcolonial settings at the end of the 20th century, delve into the myriad expectations put on women in the midst of anti-colonial nationalist projects. Examining the role of memory, reproductive labor, transmission of trauma in the mother- daughter relationships of their novels, this paper argues that al-Shaykh and Danticat subvert traditional and self-destructive forms of women’s participation in national projects, while introducing new modes of resistance that do not rely on the biological and cultural transmission of trauma.
anan al-Shaykh’s The Story of Zahra though Simone Alexander and Donette Hand Edwidge Danticat’s Breath, Eyes, Francis examine motherhood and transmis- Memory explore several similar topics, most sion of trauma extensively in their papers prominently exile, sexual violence, and war. on Danticat, which I draw from in my work. A common thread that weaves through each My hope for this project is to contribute to bildungsroman, and connects each of the pre- these critical conversations by pointing to viously mentioned elements, is the relation- common discourse on motherhood in post- ship between the protagonists – both young colonial feminist contexts, and shed light on women – and their mothers. Current scholar- subtle subversion of nationalist and colonial- ship on these two novels wrestles with simi- ist tropes by women writers. lar topics to those in this paper, specifically The mother-daughter relationship is a the role of the woman-as-nation trope and point at which the two main pillars of femi- gendered forms of resistance, and whether or nized reproductive labor – biological and not these characters’ actions can be deemed cultural reproduction – intersect. Women subversive (Adams 204, Alexander 373, are expected to participate in child-bearing Francis 82, Kabbani 340, Marroum 509). and child-rearing, while simultaneously up- Several of these scholars focus on the unique holding and reproducing cultural value sys- roles of women in exile, and how gender tems. The relationship between mother and roles in such cases intersect with nationalist daughter is a space where the expectations woman-as-nation tropes. Less common is associated with these gendered roles come the analysis of the mother-daughter relation- into conflict. This paper explores the ways ship as it interacts with these broader issues, in which these mother-daughter relationships
19 Explorations |Humanities are built and challenged by conditions of war, also bear the task of reproducing culture exile, patriarchy, and the intergenerational and values. Of cultural reproduction, Gloria transmission of trauma. Using the lens of Anzaldúa writes, collective memory and trauma transmission Men make the rules and laws; women transmit allows one to better “explain both the rela- them. How many times have I heard mothers tion between dominant social ideas and their and mothers-in law tell their sons to beat their ‘internalization’… how it is that subjects wives for not obeying them… for wanting their come to capitulate to their own subjugation,” husbands to help with the rearing of the children and to hold in tension the subject’s agency and the housework, for wanting to be something and selfhood with the societal forces acting other than housewives? (Anzaldúa 39). upon them (Radstone 11). The tension in Of course, as Anzaldúa says, the task of these fraught mother-daughter relationships reproducing culture and values, in patriarchal comes from the collective weight of inter- society, looks like reproducing patriarchal generational transmitted trauma, whether values. The pressure to participate in the it is passed down from woman to woman maintenance of values increases when a through biology or through cultural practices culture is under threat – for example, Haitian and expectations. I argue that these mother- culture in immigrant communities under daughter relationships are microcosms of the threat of assimilation, or Shi’ite Lebanese often-contradictory expectations thrust upon culture in the face of ethno-religious civil marginalized women, and they subsequently war. These contexts – the settings of the two become sites of both refuge and resistance novels this paper focuses on – demand a for the novels’ protagonist daughters. While lot of the women living within them. These mothers search for their own agency – in tra- demands often contradict each other. In the dition, in their children, in lovers, or some next section, I will examine these tensions as combination of the three – they compromise they manifest in al-Shaykh’s novel. that of their daughters. Fleeing the old ways that their mothers, through taking on duties Hanan al-Shaykh’s The Story of Zahra of cultural reproduction, enforce and come Hanan al-Shaykh’s The Story of Zahra to represent, these daughters run directly into takes place in Lebanon before and during the tension of being human while those they the Civil War, and also in an unnamed part love attempt to render them into symbols. of Africa. The protagonist, Zahra, a young In her book, Gender and Nation, Nira woman in her late teens and early twen- Yuval-Davis discusses the ways in which ties, travels to Africa to live with her uncle women’s roles have been perceived by Hashem, an exiled member of the Popular nationalist projects, both colonial and anti- Syrian Party, and eventually marries his colonial, as part of the nation but only insofar friend Majed, who comes from a lower-class as women give birth and reproduce the race Lebanese family. Tossed back and forth be- or nation. She argues that it is “women who tween her immediate family in Lebanon reproduce nations biologically, culturally and and her uncle in Africa, Zahra becomes a symbolically” (2). Yet not only are women woman both in the midst of war and in ex- typically excluded from traditional spheres ile. Clinging to Zahra as a symbol of the of “resistance,” but the forms of reproductive homeland, Majed and Hashem compromise labor with which they engage are understood her agency. Clinging to her mother, seeking to be acts lacking in creativity and agency. her approval and guidance into womanhood, Childbirth is seen as a natural occurrence, Zahra takes on her trauma. rather than a choice, and like other natural Ann-Marie Adams argues that “Hashem’s forces, it must be harnessed and mastered and Majed’s complementary visions of by men (Plumwood 38). In addition to Zahra actively foreground the ways in which physically reproducing children, women women are ossified and abstracted in national
20 Olivia Chalkley discourse” (Adams 203). When these men whenever I wished” and he assures himself, conflate Zahra and Lebanon, “Zahra’s- na “From now on, surely my feelings of depri- tional figuration is predicated on neither her vation must dwindle” (83). Majed also shows citizenship or her class but on her gender” us, however, the struggle of that depriva- (203). While her ability to tell her own story tion through his descriptions of a childhood throughout the majority of the novel may in poverty and his difficult assimilation into represent a challenge to male-dominated dis- Africa. Al-Shaykh says in an interview, “I course, Hashem and Majed’s narratives ex- feel that women are victims of society more pose the forces shaping her reality (Ghandour than victims of men because men are some- 233). times victims of society as well” (al-Shaykh Hashem, exiled from his home, “carrie[s] in Adams 206). After reading Majed’s experi- in his mind a symbolic image of his home- ence of the world, including his relationship land, believing it to be the actual homeland” with Zahra, this common victimhood is made (al-Shaykh 20) and seeks to have that sym- more apparent. Majed is not the enemy or bolic image confirmed and affirmed, first in purely oppressive. He is marginalized and ex- his letter exchange with Zahra and then in his iled, and he transfers that burden to Zahra. In physical interactions with her. When eventu- the imagination of Majed, wealth is land and ally his other relatives cease their letters to land is woman, and in coming to own a wom- him, Zahra remains. When she comes to live an’s body, he is shedding his disenfranchise- with him, he quickly develops strong feel- ment. Adams writes, “Neither man is able to ings, which he struggles to put into words, understand or help the troubled girl because and begins a series of behaviors that Zahra, each is too busy attempting to fashion her as in her narration, sees as disturbing and purely his own idealized image of Lebanon” (203). attention-seeking, but Hashem describes as All characters are exiled from the homeland compulsory. He is eager to wake her up every in some way, but they cannot be sources of morning, craving what she seems to offer, re- comfort from this isolation and confusion for gardless of her hesitation. He explains: one another, because Hashem and Majed are I never imagined that one day my feelings for unable to see Zahra as a bearer of the same Zahra would reach the pitch they did. I was only feelings, merely as a solution to them. Zahra trying to express the strange condition which is twice driven to flee the men in Africa and overtook me, once I had met her and let her return to her parents’ home, where she faces sleep in my room as I slept on the living room a different form of subjection. couch. After all those long years it seemed that Zahra is haunted by her mother’s trauma: I began to breathe again, and even to touch the her stagnant and sometimes abusive fabric of my commitment to my family and my marriage, her thwarted affair with a local homeland. I felt I wanted to touch her hands and face and the hem of her dress. Through her I doctor, and her otherwise strict adherence hoped to absorb all my life, both here and in to what is expected of her as a woman and Lebanon” (al-Shaykh 69). mother. Early in the novel, Zahra clearly recalls a memory of her mother having an He sees generations of Lebanese women in abortion that occurred before Zahra’s birth, Zahra, including her mother and his mother indicating a biological transmission of (Abdo 221). He is mystified by her resistance traumatic memory (Abdo 222). When Zahra and, at times, terror, but persists regardless. is young, her mother takes her along on visits Majed, rather than being particularly at- to her lover, the local doctor. Zahra describes tracted to the homeland associated with this experience as “embarrassing,” (al- Zahra, is focused on material gains, and op- Shaykh 12). It was possible that this man was portunities he would not be able to obtain in a source of her shame and timidity towards Lebanon but might in Africa. His joy on their others as an adult. She comes to understand wedding night comes from being “the owner why her mother brings her along, despite of a woman’s body that I could make love to
21 Explorations |Humanities
her suffering. Referring to a previous desire Edwidge Danticat’s Breath, Eyes, Memory expressed to be closer to her mother, Zahra Edwidge Danticat’s novel Breath, Eyes, says, “She wanted us to be inseparable, like Memory follows Sophie, a young Haitian the ‘orange and navel.’ She wanted me to woman who, after growing up in Haiti with shield her” (al-Shaykh 13). Her mother uses her aunt for the first eight years of her life, Zahra in her own quest for agency, and Zahra is sent to live with her estranged mother, reasons that this is simply her mother’s desire Martine, in New York City. Unlike Zahra, to be closer to her. Breath, Eyes, Memory does not directly take While Zahra’s mother uses and neglects place in the middle of war, but rather a reac- her, she showers Zahra’s brother with atten- tionary and repressive post-colonial regime. tion. Speaking of her parents’ prioritization Sophie’s primary fear is not snipers or bombs of her brother, Zahra says, “Meat continued but the tonton macoute – a militarized, vio- to be for Ahmad. Eggs were for Ahmad. lent police force doing the bidding of the Fresh tomatoes were for Ahmad. So were dictator (Francis 78). She is the product of a the fattest olives. If Ahmad was late arriving rape committed by one of the macoute in a home, my mother would rumple his bed and sugarcane field, an incident of sexual terror- push a pillow down under the bedclothes…. ism that haunts Martine throughout their time She lied for her son, even when he tried to together, and which Sophie herself cannot steal her gold bracelets as she slept” (25). escape (Francis 81). Unlike Zahra, Sophie’s Though, by erasing her own needs and those exile from her homeland is a return to her of her daughter, Zahra’s mother attempts to mother rather than a departure from her. Like partake in the project of survival in the face Zahra, the family she finds in her new home of violence, her sacrifice goes unappreciated. clings to her as a piece of the homeland, and Zahra bears witness to this process time and the values associated with it. The tension be- again, eventually internalizing it. tween Sophie, her American lover, and her After travelling between exile and home mother is tinged with the mother’s desire to for some time, Zahra lands in war-torn reproduce certain cultural values in Sophie, Lebanon in her family home. The effect of while simultaneously transmitting her sexual war on Zahra is, in many ways, a liberating trauma. one. She is able to shed her fear of people, Though Sophie and Zahra’s experiences her timidity, and her acne. She claims, “This of exile from homeland are quite different – war has made beauty, money, terror, and con- Lebanese immigration to Africa has different vention all equally irrelevant. It begins to oc- racial and economic dynamics than Haitian cur to me that the war, with its miseries and immigration to the United States, not to men- destructiveness, has been necessary for me tion Zahra chooses to leave while Sophie to return to being normal and human” (al- does not want to – Sophie’s experience of Shaykh 161). While Zahra’s statement might exile is also deeply bound up in experiences be slightly hyperbolic and certainly not uni- with men and sexuality. As an eighteen-year- versal, she speaks to the ways in which ca- old in New York, Sophie meets Joseph, who tastrophe can throw every aspect of social tells her, “I am not American. I am African normalcy – roles and customs determined by American… It means that you and I, we gender, class, and ethnicity – into question. are already part of each other” (72). While For these characters, tragedy and violence Sophie’s mother reacts to her coming-of-age offer opportunities for clarity, and then inter- by imposing strict regulations, telling her not vention. The protagonist in Danticat’s novel to talk to men, that she must be a “good girl,” experiences a similar catastrophic break fol- Joseph offers an escape, though he is also lowing the death of her mother. looking for something else in her.
22 Olivia Chalkley
When Sophie’s mother suspects that she stalk. It snapped back, striking my shoulder. is involved with a man, she begins “testing” I pulled at it, yanking it from the ground. My her. Sophie describes this as a practice palm was bleeding. passed down from woman to woman in their The men working in the fields look on, family, one that her aunt warned her about thinking she is possessed. Tearing the cane as a child. The mother puts her fingers into – at once a phallic image, a site of sexual the daughter’s vagina at the end of every day violence against her mother, and a site of to ensure her hymen is still intact. Martine colonial violence and exploitation – out by later tells Sophie that she began the testing its roots, Sophie refuses to settle for partial because it was something her mother did to liberation, the kind that led her mother to her, and though it was one of the “greatest abuse her. Generations of women surround pains” (170) of her life, she does not know her – her grandmother and Tante Atie – and another way to mother a teenage girl. echo, “Ou libere!” or, “Are you free?” (233). Because of the circumstances of her con- For Sophie, genuine freedom requires that ception, Sophie and her mother both have she break the cycle of transgenerational complicated relationships with the land – abuse in the name of cultural reproduction. both Haiti as a nation and as nature – and this This means going beyond the work done by manifests primarily in how they relate to cane mothers before her, and getting to the deeper fields. Cutting cane is typically gendered as origins of her trauma: patriarchal and racist a masculine sphere of work, yet Sophie’s exploitation. These origins are represented aunt associates the fields with childhood and by the cane field, at once sustaining and play. The fields are a male-dominated space, devastating, which she literally uproots. yet the nature of the colonial and postcolo- nial economy means that the men are com- Mothers Versus Lovers pletely alienated from the fruits of their labor, When Sophie’s mother firsts “tests” her, she so control of the space is not truly in their tells her the legend of the Marassas, or two hands. The work is brutal and dangerous: lovers who were duplicates of the same per- “Whenever she was sad Tante Atie would talk son. She explains that this level of closeness about the sugar cane fields, where she and is an ideal romantic relationship. She goes my mother practically lived when they were on to say, “The love between a mother and children. They saw people die there from daughter is deeper than the sea. You would sunstroke every day” (Danticat 4). Danticat’s leave me for an old man who you didn’t novel culminates in a scene of rupture. After know the year before. You and I could be like her mother commits suicide, Sophie returns Marassas. You are giving up a lifetime with with the body to Haiti so she may be buried in me” (85). In short, she tells her daughter that their family cemetery. Standing at her funeral she must choose between a man, who repre- among the graves of generations of women sents assimilation into American culture, and in their family, Sophie looks out and sees her a mother, who represents some version of family home, standing between her and the Haitian values, culture, and tradition. cane fields. In an inaugural act of rebellion against her I turned around and ran down the hill, ahead of mother and her mother’s values, Sophie de- the others, I felt my dress tearing as I ran faster cides to break her own hymen, to put a stop and faster down the hill. There were only a few to the “testing” regardless of the cost – ex- men working in the cane fields. I ran through pulsion from her home. Experiencing sui- the field, attacking the cane. I took off my shoes cidal thoughts, Sophie goes to her mother’s and began to beat a cane stalk. I pounded it until spice cabinet, retrieves the pestle, and returns it began to lean over. I pushed over the cane with it to her bed. She tells herself a story of a
23 Explorations |Humanities woman who transforms into a butterfly, then territory he controls, Zahra climbs to the performs the act: “My flesh ripped apart as I rooftop and, without exchanging any words, pressed the pestle into it. I could see the blood she and the sniper have sex. Al-Shaykh does slowly dripping onto the bed sheet. I took the not, initially, give the reader access to Zahra’s pestle and the bloody sheet. It was gone, the intentions in pursuing this relationship. It veil that always held my mother’s finger back seems like an act of insanity, affirming the every time she tested me” (Danticat 87). In narratives of the men in her life. Scholar this act, Sophie momentarily stops looking Rana Kabbani reads the instance as another for salvation or escape from her mother in example of Zahra’s “passivity” and lack of Joseph, who she could have easily asked to agency, but her argument does not hold up play the part of the pestle, but rather seizes to Zahra’s stated motives, which al-Shaykh agency independently. The goal of escaping eventually states later in the text: “My reason the “testing” supersedes any security or com- for coming to him was that I might put a fort granted to her by “home,” as well as any stop to the sniping. He probably thinks, me desire for Joseph. At the same time, this is an being a woman and this a time of war, that I act of desperation and self-mutilation – not to need a man, any man. He must see it as mere be mistaken for liberation. Sophie is unable chance that the one I have found happens to reject one form of control – the mother, to be a sniper” (al-Shaykh 162). Al-Shaykh and tradition – without falling into the other does not mention for which side the sniper – the lover, and assimilation. is working, and this matter does not seem to In contrast to Sophie’s rebellion, Zahra concern Zahra – which is appropriate for a more closely mirrors her mother’s sexual complex war fought between many parties transgressions and reluctant compromise to for many reasons (al-Shaykh 165). Zahra’s marry. While Sophie’s mother clings des- only intention is to intervene, to actively perately to her daughter, going so far as to put herself between her neighbors’ lives molest her, Zahra longs to be closer to her and the sniper’s bullets, regardless of party mother. allegiance. In addition to her determination I would watch her when she was with me, and to seize some form of agency, Zahra seeks study her when she was at a distance. I thought refuge from the neglect and monotony of all the while, as I looked up at her, how much her nuclear family in the sniper. In doing so I wanted to draw her towards me… I wanted to she follows the same pattern of destructive disappear into the hem of her dress and become escapism, and eventually self-sacrifice, paved even closer to her than the navel is to the by her mother. It must be noted that Zahra’s orange! But whenever I began to think this way, action is an altruistic one, and perhaps her I felt a bitterness towards her and shuddered. I mother’s precedent grants Zahra a certain carried this pain and hatred inside me whenever I disobeyed her and felt rejected. The man permission to carry out her mission. Zahra became the center of her life, and around him pays no attention to the sniper’s political was nothing but flying embers (al-Shaykh 8). allegiance, which in context represents a rejection of nationalism and colonialism Men – Zahra’s father, Dr. Shawky, and alike. She does not act purely in self-interest, Ahmad – come before Zahra in her mother’s as her mother did, nor does she act in the life. It is of little surprise that Zahra seeks name of any nation-building effort. She acts refuge from this disregard first in Majed for herself, and for others, but ultimately it and Hashem, then in her relationship with a kills her. character she refers to only as “the sniper” – replacing her mother with her own set of Conclusions men. Upon returning to Lebanon, Zahra uses If these two coming-of-age stories are illus- her newfound boldness to seek out a sniper trative of the tensions between race and gen- who occupies the rooftop of a building near der, nationalism and feminism, the good and her home. Risking her life to cross into the
24 Olivia Chalkley bad of both tradition and change, then the dif- theme dominates both Danticat’s and al- ferent poles of these tensions are represented Shaykh’s novels, speaking to and subverting quite differently. Zahra’s mother upholds a widespread paradigm that forces women both tradition and resistance, as she dedicates of color to choose allegiance to just one of her life to sacrificing for her husband and son, their identities, embodied here in the figures but also engages in acts of sexual deviance. of mother and nation. Hashem and Majed are pillars of patriarchal Buffeted back and forth between mothers tradition, insisting on restrictive gender roles and lovers, and all they offer and represent, and holding fast to traditional indicators of both women are driven to deviate drastically masculinity, but they are also victims of po- from the norm of acceptable behavior. In both litical exile and poverty. Martine holds fast cases, various guardians of traditional values to tradition, yet seeks liberation in her own interpret this as insanity. Sophie breaks her self-imposed exile. Joseph offers a certain own hymen and attacks a stalk of sugarcane. freedom, but insists on his own boundaries, For Zahra, these moments come in her reac- which are shaped by his own set of patriar- tions to Majed in wedlock, and then in her chal values. relationship with the sniper, which eventually The plurality of the mother characters, in leads to her death. particular, is unmistakable, yet what they One can deliberate endlessly over whether represent to Sophie and Zahra – as sources or not any of these are acts of liberation or if of repression and trauma, whether passively they are the reactionary results of living under or actively transmitted – is more one-dimen- multiple oppressions. To varying degrees, sional, mirroring the ways in which the young they all are both. They all disrupt oppressive women are reduced to symbols. In both cases, norms, but also come at great personal cost to traumatic transgenerational memory is trans- the actors, who are oppressed subjects. The mitted both willingly and unwillingly, but cost of Zahra’s final act of transgression is intention or lack thereof has no effect on her life: the sniper shoots her after she tells the outcome. Zahra and Sophie understand him that she is pregnant. In contrast, though the roots of their mothers’ trauma, perhaps some outsiders think her actions are marks better than most abused people understand of insanity, Sophie is uplifted by generations the trauma that caused their abuser to act in of women in her family in her final act of such a way, but that does not stop them from transgression. This difference aligns with searching for escape. The collateral damage the ways in which each character navigates in these mothers’ attempts at self-liberation her suffering throughout each novel. While is not their oppressors, but their daughters. Zahra retreats into the coping mechanisms Limited by the fact that “woman should ful- passed down by her mother, Sophie actively fill the individual male need for scopic/sexual confronts them and seeks out alternatives. gratification and yet be the figurehead for na- This is not to suggest that Zahra is passive tional culture” (Natarajan 401) the mothers or that she can be blamed for her death, but in these novels act within strict boundaries rather that the constraints on each character’s when seeking freedom, and those boundar- agency differ greatly based on context. For ies then become the burdens of Sophie and example, Sophie is able to seek refuge in Zahra. Simone Alexander writes, “Women group therapy, which is not an option for in Danticat’s novel unwittingly adopt certain Zahra. Ultimately, Sophie and Zahra succeed stereotypical roles. Nevertheless, these very where their mothers try but fail (Martine women frame a counter-discourse by oper- through self-imposed exile, Zahra’s mother ating within the existing (patriarchal) struc- through multiple abortions): they break tures of state violence, using their mutilated, the cycles of mother-daughter abuse and abused bodies as weapons to resist and rebel transgenerational transmission of trauma. against the nationalist agenda” (374). This However, Zahra only does this through her
25 Explorations |Humanities death, not by choice. brings her to her biological mother, while In exile of various forms, seeking redemp- ripping her from the forms of motherhood tion from the trauma of their mothers but of- she experiences in childhood. In both cases, fered no guidance as to how this can be done; estranged from both mother and homeland, Sophie and Zahra are led to these points of these characters cling to the memory of both, rupture that can be understood metonymi- sometimes conflating the two, in their search cally as the two possible conclusions of lives for agency and selfhood. lived under forces of oppression that demand In seeking orange and navel, and mortar self-destruction. Together, these novels illus- and pestle – symbols of the mother, women’s trate the complexity of forced transmission work, and points of connection and close- of culture, values and trauma – the weight of ness between mother and child – Zahra and being both an individual with agency and the Sophie long for connection to their mothers: product of history and systemic forces, which connection that feeds and nurtures. They are is exacerbated in a subaltern context. connected, deeply so, but it they are only able Speaking from a psychoanalytic stand- to find this connection through this transmis- point of the conflation of woman and nation, sion and reproduction of trauma. Martine and specifically the rendering of all women into Zahra’s mother’s motherhood itself is thus mother-symbols, Melanie Klein writes, compromised by the very demand that they … Anything that is felt to give out goodness perform reproductive labor. Mothers perform and beauty, and that calls forth pleasure and reproductive labor in the form of child-bear- satisfaction, in the physical or in the wider ing and child-rearing, which is then hindered sense, can in the unconscious mind take the by the ways in which they must perform cul- place of [the infant’s perception of the mother’s] tural reproduction and transmission of val- ever-bountiful breast, and of the whole mother. ues. In attempting to work towards freedom Thus we speak of our own country as the within the confines of their own oppression, “motherland” because in the unconscious mind these mothers act as oppressive forces in their our country may come to stand for our mother, and then it can be loved with feelings which daughters’ lives. By illustrating this tension, borrow their nature from the relation to her. al-Shaykh and Danticat challenge the valid- (Klein, 103) ity of the traditional woman-as-nation trope that renders all women into idealized mother For Zahra, Hashem and Majed, the figures. They expose the tax this expectation separation of mother and child is congruous of idealized motherhood has on both mothers with their exile from their nation. Joseph and daughters, stripping it of its fabled libera- and Sophie are both of diasporic identities tory potential. (though the homeland that he longs for is one he has never seen) but Sophie’s exile
26 Olivia Chalkley
REFERENCES
Abdo, Diya M. “Redefining the Warring Self in Hanan Al-Shaykh’s the “Story of Zahra” and Frank McGuinness’ “Carthaginians”” Pacific Coast Philology 42.2, Transoceanic Dialogues (2007): 217-37.
Adams, Ann Marie. “Writing Self, Writing Nation: Imagined Geographies in the Fiction of Hanan Al-Shaykh.” Tulsa Studies in Women’s Literature 20.2, Women Writing Across the World (2001): 201-16.
Alexander, Simone A. James. “M/Othering the Nation: Women’s Bodies as Nationalist Trope in Edwidge Danticat’s ‘Breath, Eyes, Memory.’” African American Review, vol. 44, no. 3, 2011, pp. 373–390.
Al-Shaykh, Ḥanan. The Story of Zahra. Anchor, 1994.
Anzaldúa, Gloria. Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza. San Francisco: Aunt Lute, 2012.
Danticat, Edwidge. Breath, Eyes, Memory. Soho Press, 1994.
Francis, Donette A. “‘Silences Too Horrific to Disturb’: Writing Sexual Histories in Edwidge Danticat’s Breath, Eyes, Memory.” Research in African Literatures, vol. 35, no. 2, 2004, pp. 75–90.
Ghandour, Sabah. “Hanan al-Shaykh’s Hikayat Zahra: A Counter-Narrative and a Counter- History.” Intersections: Gender, Nation, and Community in Arab Women’s Novels. Ed. Lisa Suhair. Majaj, Paula W. Sunderman, and Therese Saliba. Syracuse UP, 2002. 231-49.
Kabbani, Rana. “Fatal Passivity: Women in Arabic Fiction.” Third World Quarterly, vol. 10, no. 1, Jan. 1988, pp. 338–341.
Klein, Melanie. “Love, Guilt and Reparation.” 1937. Love, Hate and Reparation. Norton, 1964. 57-119.
Marroum, Marianne. “What’s So Great About Home? Roots, Nostalgia, and Return in Andrée Chedid’s ‘La maison son racines’ and Hanan al-Shaykh’s ‘Hikāyat Zahra’.” Comparative Literature Studies 45.4 (2008): 491-513.
Natarajan, Nalini. “Woman, Nation and Narration in Midnight’s Children.” Feminist Theory and the Body: A Reader. Eds. Janet Price and Margrit Shildrick. Routledge,1999. 399-409.
Plumwood, Val. Feminism and the Mastery of Nature. Routledge, 2015.
Radstone, Susannah. Memory and Methodology. Berg, 2000.
Yuval-Davis, Nira. “Women and the Biological Reproduction of the Nation.” Gender & Nation. Sage Publications, 1997. 26-38.
27 28 Exoticism in 18th Century Opera: Appreciation versus Appropriation
Maggie Pazur Western Carolina University Faculty Mentor: Christina Reitz Western Carolina University
ABSTRACT Tales of Turkish harems, imprisoned women, and Western heroes were widely popular during the height of Western Europe’s fascination with the Ottoman empire. The idea of these “seraglio stories” is a popular trope in the discussion of musical orientalism. “Exoticism in 18th Century Opera: Appreciation versus Appropriation” expands upon previous research to fully explore the concept of appropriation in regards to the Western interpretation of Turkish culture. Focusing on a study of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s (1756-1791) Die Entführung aus dem Serail (The Abduction from the Seraglio). This research analyzes the implications of the Western musical exploration of Turkish culture. Despite attempting to emulate Turkish traditions, Mozart’s music is ultimately inauthentic and diminutive. Additionally, the portrayal of Turkish characters as one-dimensional barbarians exposes Western culture’s true view of the Ottoman empire. My research finds that the Western portrayal of Turkish culture is more appropriative than appreciative due to the dichotomy between the Western world’s appreciative attitude towards their artistic traditions and their negative depiction of the Turkish people themselves.
rtistic fascination with Turkish culture trade relations. The Treaty of Passarowitz Awas not a novel idea by opera com- in 1718 introduced Austrians to the market posers in the 18th century. Plays featuring of Turkish goods and opened the gates for Turkish themes and characters date back to new products to flow into Europe (Balkis when Europeans first experienced Turkish 188). The influx of Ottoman goods - influ culture during the Crusades and consequently enced European trends and masquerade balls, brought aspects of Turkish culture back home. Turkish coffeehouses, and Alla Turca music The image of the Ottoman changed after the styles came into vogue (O’Connell 181). European victory in the Ottoman’s Siege Additionally, Turkish military bands, called of Vienna in 1683 (O’Connell 181). The Janissary bands, were often sent to European Ottoman’s failed expansion into Europe and courts as part of diplomatic exchanges lead- later retreat symbolized a shift in European ing to European imitation of their musical views towards their culture. The Ottoman styles (“The Alla Turca Style in the Late Empire’s expansion no longer threatened Eighteenth Century” 48). However, these European culture and the shift in power al- trends represented a shallow interpretation lowed Europeans to idealize their culture of Turkish culture. Europeans focused their rather than fear it. view of Turkish people and their culture as This shift in power also led to new alli- that of an “other” versus their own cultures. ances between European countries and the Turkish “otherness” was often portrayed Ottoman Empire which further led to new through the popular genre of operatic
29 Explorations |Humanities
“seraglio stories.” These stories had remark- won’t rest until I see you killed” and later de- ably similar plots despite being composed in scribes the many ways he wishes it to happen different languages and European cultures. with, “First you’ll be beheaded, then you’ll They often featured Western women being be hanged, then impaled on red hot spikes, abducted by Turkish pirates and held hostage then burned, then manacled and drowned; in seraglios, or harems. The Western wom- Finally flayed alive” (Bretzner). This stead- an’s lover, desperate to retrieve his love from fast determination to torture is a joke for the the sensuous embraces of the seraglio’s mas- audience but also reduces Osmin’s character ter, launches a failed rescue attempt. Despite to one defining trait, his barbaric personality. catching the fleeing Europeans, the seraglio’s Due to his comic nature, Osmin is not per- master displays an act of great magnanimity ceived as a real threat by either the Western and releases the Westerners and it’s Happily male heroes or the audience. As one of two Ever After for the Western heroes and hero- main Turkish characters in the drama, Osmin ines. This plot is seen in the little-known serves as a generalization of Turkish men. French opera La Corsaire composed by Effectively, his words and actions diminish Adolphe Adam, Gluck’s La Rencontre im- Western respect for the Turkish people by prévue, Mozart’s Die Entführung aus dem portraying them, through Osmin, as immoral Serail, and many others of varying notoriety and barbaric. (Stilwell 51-52). The musical aspect to Osmin’s character This research focuses on a case study provides further support for this generaliza- of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s (1756- tion. Osmin’s first aria in Act I, referenced 1791) Die Entführung aus dem Serail (The before as showing his fixation on barbaric tor- Abduction from the Seraglio) and the causes ture practices, is musically set to highlight his and effects of exoticism presented in the quick temper and harsh personality. The aria work that are common in the “seraglio story” is written with short notes and phrases which genre. It includes a discussion of the methods creates an angry mood that complements the in which the work portrays the differences be- violent lyrics. Additionally, the allegro assai tween Western and Eastern characters includ- is an unexpected ending to the aria that sub- ing two common Turkish tropes (the barbaric verts traditional expectations by presenting a Turk and the noble savage), the implied com- new meter and remote key. Mozart explained parison of Western women and their Eastern in a letter to his father: counterparts, as well as the differences in the There comes the allegro assai which is in a portrayal of Western and Eastern men. This totally different metre and in a different key; research will also discuss the causes and ef- this is bound to be very effective. For just as a fects of the inauthentic Western portrayal person in such a towering rage oversteps all the of Turkish musical traditions. Overall, this bounds of order, moderation and propriety and research attempts to highlight the differ- completely forgets himself, so that the music ence between genuine appreciation and the must also forget itself (Head 2). gross appropriation of an “other” culture by The nontraditional musical choices can be Western Europeans. equated to Osmin’s non-Western mannerisms. In Mozart’s opera, the character Osmin Osmin’s temper sends him into a state of provides an example of the stark separation barbaric rage that starkly contrasts the noble, between European and Turkish culture that is Western heroes. His aria features repetitive prevalent in this genre. Osmin is the guard of phrases and underdeveloped harmonies Pasha Selim’s harem and estate and is por- which portray him as less sophisticated trayed as a barbaric individual with a harsh or cultured than his Western counterparts. temper. However, he is written as a comic vil- While these choices, such as a remote key lain, trivializing his anger and ferocity (Kaiser and contrasting meter, may not come across 127-130). In his Act I aria, Osmin sings, “I as overly unsettling to the modern listener,
30 Maggie Pazur the musical traits of his aria mimic his angry Furthermore, his graciousness is muddied descent as far as the limits of 18th century by his repeated threats to Constanze and the music would allow. Mozart reminded his rest of the Western company. In his first intro- father, in the same letter referenced earlier, duction, he is shown with Constanze, inquir- “music, even in the most terrible situations, ing as to why she is still upset and assuring must never offend the ear” (Head 2). her that her honest answer will not upset him. Nevertheless, Osmin’s music contrasts with Her answer, in aria form, explains her affec- that of the Western men through clipped tion for Belmonte and how she wishes to stay phrases, brash dynamics, and foreign true to him (Rushton 68-69). Pasha Selim, modulations that culminate in a caricature of in turn, responds angrily reminding her that the “barbaric Turk” (Balkiş 191). she is under his control and he could exert Pasha Selim offers a different trope of force upon her if he so wished (Bretzner). Turkish characters, the noble savage. He is This change in emotion and control empha- the master of the seraglio, a setting that is sizes Pasha Selim’s role as the “noble sav- simultaneously extravagant and immoral, age.” While initially portrayed as kind and and holds power over the three Westerners gentle to Constanze, a woman he technically imprisoned there. He desperately seeks has in his control, his temper flares and he Constanze’s love and often retaliates with reverts to the “savage Turk” commonly por- empty threats when she refuses. It is implied trayed in the genre. This loss of control fur- by Pedrillo that he converted to Islam from ther diminishes the Western view of Turkish Christianity in a conversation with Belmonte rulers by portraying them as unsophisticated about Pasha Selim’s morals. The original li- or unstable. When taken as a whole, Pasha bretto suggests as such but neither the second Selim’s actions towards the European char- librettist nor Mozart confirm nor deny this acters creates a deceiving view of Turkish suggestion (Kaiser 93-94). Regardless, there people. Initially he seems to be a fair ruler is no doubt that Pasha Selim is first and fore- (as fair as a harem owner can be) but his un- most an antagonist in the drama. He holds derlying motivations and irrational behavior the Western company hostage and repeat- undermine this interpretation. edly threatens them. However, he earns the The interactions within Pasha Selim’s se- “noble” aspect of the noble savage when he raglio also exemplify European views of frees the Westerners after their failed escape Turkish culture. While the drama lacks any attempt. This action may seem contradictory non-European women speaking roles, ac- to the negative effects of exoticism but impli- tions and statements from European women cations of his actions prove otherwise. create comparisons and generalizations to- As mentioned before, Pasha Selim is a wards Turkish women. Blonde’s character “renegade,” a European converted to Islam serves both as the spunky, lively sidekick to and living as an integrated part of Turkish Constanze as well as a comparison to the gen- culture (Mozart’s Operas 94). Pedrillo eralized Turkish woman (Kaiser 39). Act II tells Belmonte that Pasha Selim’s former features a scene between Osmin and Blonde, Christianity still grants him “sufficient deli- who was given to the guard as a slave by cacy not to force any of his women” (Kaiser Pasha Selim. Blonde fends off Osmin’s ad- 160). This places Pasha Selim’s gracious be- vances and informs him that European girls havior towards members of his harem on his are “quite different” (Bretzner). While she European background rather than his current offers no one specific to base the compari- Turkish setting. This attribution then under- son on, the implication is that she is “quite mines the positive portrayal of Turkish cul- different” than the girls Osmin is used to, ture by insinuating that his admirable morals meaning the Turkish women of the seraglio. are exclusive to Western tradition and should She describes English women as “good” and not be taken as a reflection of Turkish culture. “free” and scoffs at the idea of giving into
31 Explorations |Humanities
Osmin’s sexual advances, indicating that she coloring him as unintelligent or completely is above the expectations of Turkish women controlled by base emotions. This is further (Bretzner). Her actions towards Osmin in enforced by Osmin and Pedrillo’s Act this scene subvert the expected master/ser- II, Scene 8 interaction in which Pedrillo vant relationship. Her words taunt him and convinces Osmin to go against his religion and she undermines his power by reminding him drink alcohol with him. Pedrillo convinces of her connection to Pasha Selim through Osmin to join him by trivializing the rules of Constanze (Bretzner). Additionally, her his religion, saying “he [Muhammad] has got phrases mock his coarseness and barbarism better things to do than to worry about your through mimicry of his low bass notes (Head bottle of wine” (Bretzner). Pedrillo is initially 91-93). Blonde’s actions and their musical able to overtake the brute force of Osmin by setting pushes Osmin below her in terms of lacing the wine with a sleeping draught, once social status, which was already below that again proving that European refinement and of European men. This further demotes and intelligence can overtake even the scariest of belittles Turkish women to an even lower Turkish men. standing without even being portrayed in the It is important to note the causes and ef- drama. Blonde’s role functions to assign a fects of Pedrillo’s role as comic relief. As one-dimensional generalized character to the mentioned in the analysis of Osmin’s char- idea of the “Turkish woman,” a role that is acter, the source of his humor is his barbaric simply defined as being less than European behavior in regards to the Europeans, spe- women. cifically Pedrillo. His threats are exaggerated Similar conclusions can be drawn from and unsupported by his actions. In short, he the interactions between Osmin and Pedrillo. is the butt of his own joke. Osmin is also the Pedrillo is Belmonte’s servant being held source of Pedrillo’s humor. Pedrillo draws captive by Pasha Selim who is despised by out Osmin’s savage behavior by taunting him Pasha Selim’s guard, Osmin (Kaiser 148). such as in their first scene together. Pedrillo Pedrillo’s character mirrors that of Osmin, repeatedly implores Osmin to explain his both serving as comic relief and a sidekick hatred until Osmin lashes out musically in to their respective countrymen. They are also his harsh aria. Essentially, Pedrillo is not in- related through their amorous connection dependently comedic but instead his comic to Blonde (with Pedrillo winning out over character traits rely on the reactions he en- Osmin, further enforcing European domi- tices from Osmin creating a dynamic not un- nance). Their similarities create an easy com- like an animal trainer and his circus lion. parison as Osmin functions as Pedrillo’s foil The last aspect of orientalism in The throughout the production. Their first interac- Abduction from the Seraglio to consider is tion in Act I, Scene 3 sets up their individual the musical interpretation of Turkish culture. characters as well as their relationship with Mozart is often regarded as a master of mu- Belmonte teasing Osmin and Osmin react- sic, a title he earned from his virtuosic and ing with violent intentions. The spoken scene seemingly endless musical contributions. ends humorously with Osmin not being able However, his Alla Turca music included in to logically defend his hatred of Pedrillo, re- the singspiel show that he failed to portray an sponding simply with “Because I can’t stand accurate depiction of Turkish music. you” (Bretzner). This sets the tone for the rest Mozart captures Turkish music in the Alla of the singspiel as Pedrillo consistently has Turca style, a style that is not necessarily the upper hand. representative of Turkish culture. It is This introductory scene also highlights based off the janissary band music that a recurring theme between the characters. the Turkish military used during wartime Osmin is repeatedly outsmarted by Pedrillo (Balkis 189-190). This style of music was which adds to his barbaric portrayal by introduced to the Europeans during their
32 Maggie Pazur wars with the Ottoman Empire. Paul Rycaut, whole. Alla Turca music was often written a British diplomat and authority on the in key signatures with few flats or sharps, Ottoman Empire, wrote about the janissary keys that were considered at the time to be bands at the Siege of Vienna in 1683, “On “simple keys” (Locke 120). Related to this the 26th, the Turks designing to make a idea of “simple” music, the phrase structure furious Assault, caused all their warlike and form of Alla Turca music was often short Musick, such as Flutes, Cymbals, and brass and simple. Independent phrases added onto Trumpets, which gave a shrill Sound, to play each other to build larger, simple form struc- with their highest Notes, to encourage their tures (Locke 121). Another style trait found Soldiers to make the Onset” (Meyer 485). in Alla Turca operas and singspiel, is patter While Europeans had first been introduced singing and skewed structures. Patter sing- to Eastern instruments and music during the ing, a rhythmic and syllabic form of expres- Crusades, interest and knowledge in this type sion, is commonly seen in comedic settings of music did not become popular until after and perpetuates the idea of a simple-minded, the failed expansion of the Ottoman Empire rambling Turk. The structures of these arias at Vienna (Meyer 485). Despite the influx of are often also purposefully altered from their Turkish goods, Eastern music continued to be traditional forms to sound confused or un- portrayed only through modified Janissary- finished (Locke 121). This contributes to the style music. aforementioned negative portrayal of Turkish Instead of offering a genuine Turkish mu- characters when compared to the polished, sic experience, Mozart, as well as other com- traditional style arias written for European posers of the time, reduces Janissary bands characters. to a few defining traits and applies them uni- One example of these Alla Turca musical versally to every situation. The most com- style traits found in The Abduction from the mon trait to be associated with Janissary Seraglio is during the Janissary Chorus in the music is the extensive use of percussion. At final scene. The strings introduce the repeated the beginning of exoticism’s popularity, the third interval early which is later imitated by only percussion employed in Western music the vocalists in unison. The rhythm of the was the kettledrum so the percussion sounds main motive is very short and repetitive, heavily featured were exciting for these audi- relating to the “simple” approach to writing ences. Cymbals, triangles, and tambourines Alla Turca music. Of course, percussion were extensively used in this Alla Turca style is heavily featured in the chorus. The most music which were close approximations to commonly expected percussion instruments the Turkish instruments traditionally used (cymbals, percussion, and triangle) are all (Meyer 485-486). Keyboard percussion in- present, adding a specific color to the texture. struments were often altered to include ad- The cymbals and bass drum emphasize the ditional parts that mimicked other Janissary rhythmic pattern of the chorus members with style instruments (Locke 120). Another com- hits on the emphasized beats of the vocal line. mon musical trope of Turkish music was the This close relationship between different use of repeated thirds. This was traditionally parts also relates to the simple, unison style associated with Turkish music and often em- trait often associated with Alla Turca music. ployed to give the piece a defining aspect of The triangle adds an omnipresent color as it orientalism (Head 383). Further characteris- is struck on every beat of the closing chorus. tics include simple meters, unison parts, and While these traits are not always found in uncomplicated harmonies (O’Connell 183). every instance of Alla Turca music, the Some characteristics of Alla Turca music combination of them in this situation gives derive less from the musical examples set the piece a definitive Turkish sound to the by Janissary bands and more from European European listener. interpretations of the Turkish culture as a With such a specific collection of musical
33 Explorations |Humanities traits attributed to the 18th century Alla can be seen in a letter written by Mozart Turca style, a return to the discussion of regarding Osmin’s savage nature. He writes, appropriation versus appreciation is called “music, even in the most terrible situations, for. Mozart was exceedingly focused on must never offend the ear” (“The Alla Turca crafting music that pleased the European Style in the Late Eighteenth Century” 48). listener while still incorporating Eastern This implication, that Turkish music in its elements to give it the flair that the public was traditional form is offensive to Western ears, looking for (Head 14). This modification of illustrates the Western appropriative view of Eastern musical traditions to suit a European Turkish music rather than a truly appreciative standard of beauty was the first element of view. appropriation of Turkish culture. Further, These changes made to the traditional Turkish music was almost exclusively Turkish music style in reverence to the represented through Janissary-style music Western ear resulted in a style of music unre- in European settings (O’Connell 183). This lated to what it was originally inspired from. military-style music was applied universally While the style of Alla Turca music written to all Turkish settings in drama despite them in the 18th century would be recognizable to often having no relation to the military. Europeans as “Turkish,” Aleksandr Ulibichev, Pasha Selim was not a military figure in a music enthusiast after Mozart’s time, ar- The Abduction from the Seraglio yet he is gued, “The Persians and the Turks would introduced and praised through the Janissary not recognize themselves in these Choruses style of music. This shows the apathetic of Janissaries” (Locke 114). Mozart himself approach of Western artists towards the wrote that he included Alla Turca style traits subtleties of other cultures. in Die Entführung because his Western audi- Contrarily, consideration must be given to ence would expect to hear them included in the composer’s ability to conform Turkish an opera set in Turkey (Locke 121). While music styles to Western musical notation. the original source material was based in Is it fair to decry a piece of Western art Turkish culture, Alla Turca music took on music for cultural appropriation when the its appropriative position when composers frame in which they composed was not based their alterations of the style on what able to accurately capture Turkish music would conform to Western beauty standards. styles? Perhaps the largest obstacle that True appreciation of these cultures would Mozart and other composers who wrote in portray Turkish characters with multi-dimen- the Alla Turca style faced was the physical sional personalities and motivations. Music difference between the instruments that styles would vary and be representative of comprised traditional Janissary bands and the correct style of music traditionally played the Western instruments that made up the in that setting. The portrayal of other cultures European ensembles. Additionally, the would be educational instead of the slapstick original intent of Janissary military music sideshow approach used in the many “abduc- was not to be performed in a concert setting. tion” style seraglio stories. Johann Adam Hiller, an observer of Western- Mozart, Gluck, Rameau, and other interpreted Janissary performance in 1739, composers were all complicit in perpetuating reported that the performance lacked the negative stereotypes of Turkish culture irregularity and roughness of the true Turkish through European art music in the Alla Turca sound (“The Alla Turca Style in the Late style popular in the 18th century. This genre Eighteenth Century” 48). The limitations of art and exoticism reduced an entire culture that composers encountered were not always to only a few defining traits for the sensory as unavoidable. Composers self-imposed enjoyment of Europeans. While these a distinction between Western music and composers are praised and immortalized for that of true Janissary music. This limitation their work, it is important for music scholars to
34 Maggie Pazur listen critically and understand the problems of other non-Western cultures, have the same they present within their context. Musicians subtleties of Western art music expressed are tasked with representing different cultures through their unique traditions and deserve to through their compositions and performances be represented in their true forms rather than and it is crucial to understanding the line be remembered through the appropriative between appreciation and appropriation. True compositions of Western composers. Turkish music styles, as well as music styles
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Balkiş, Lale Babaoǧlu. “Defining the Turk: Construction of Meaning in Operatic Orientalism.” International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music, vol. 41, no. 2, 2010, pp. 185–193., www.jstor.org/stable/41203366.
Bretzner, Christoph Friedrich and Gottlieb Stephanie. Die Entführung aus dem Serail. Composed by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. 1782. Naxos Records: N.d. Web.
Head, Matthew William. Orientalism, Masquerade and Mozart’s Turkish Music. Altershot, Hants, England: Ashgate, 2002. Print.
Hunter, Mary. Mozart’s Operas: A Companion. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008. Print.
Hunter, Mary. “The Alla Turca Style in the Late Eighteenth Century: Race and Gender in the Symphony and the Seraglio.” The Exotic in Western Music, edited by Jonathan Bellman, Northeastern University Press, 1998, pp. 43-73.
Kaiser, Joachim. Who’s Who in Mozart’s Opera: From Alfonso to Zerlina. Trans. Charles Kessler. New York: Schirmer , 1987. Print.
Locke, Ralph P. Musical Exoticism: Images and Reflections. Cambridge University Press, 2011.
Meyer, Eve R. “Turquerie and Eighteenth-Century Music.” Eighteenth-Century Studies, vol. 7, no. 4, 1974, pp. 474–488. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3031600.
O’Connell, John Morgan. “In the Time of Alaturka: Identifying Difference in Musical Discourse.” Ethnomusicology, vol. 49, no. 2, 2005, pp. 177–205., www.jstor.org/stable/20174375.
Rushton, Julian. The New Grove Guide to Mozart and His Operas. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Print.
Stilwell, Jama. “A New View of the Eighteenth-Century ‘Abduction’ Opera: Edification and Escape at the Parisian ‘Théâtres De La Foire’.” Music & Letters, vol. 91, no. 1, 2010, pp. 51–82., www.jstor.org/stable/40539094.
Szabolcsi, Bence. “Exoticisms in Mozart.” Music & Letters, vol. 37, no. 4, 1956, pp. 323–332., www.jstor.org/stable/730434.
35 36 The Deviants of Athens through the Positivist Perspective
Ena Prskalo University of North Carolina - Greensboro Faculty Mentor: Joanne Murphy University of North Carolina - Greensboro
ABSTRACT During the Classical period of 5th to 4th century BCE, citizens of Athens identified deviants through literature and unique burials. Oftentimes, what the Greeks said about deviancy did not coincide with what they did to the actual deviants. Despite the differences in what Greeks said and did, both actions are cohesive enough to reflect the application of a particular perspective of deviancy: Positivism. I argue that the Athenian’s identification and understanding of devi- ancy, via contemporary literary and physical evidence, coincide with the positivist perspective of deviancy. The positivist perspective is comprised of three assumptions: absolutism, objec- tivism, and determinism. Absolutism is seeing deviancy as real via physical characteristics; objectivism refers to examining others like objects; and determinism refers to uncontrollable forces dictating deviancy. To better understand the unification of Greek words and actions un- der the positivist perspective, I connect both to the perspective’s assumptions to prove how they coincide with an ancient society’s interpretation of deviancy. By incorporating this perspective, we develop a better understanding of the Greek mindset and how diverse words and actions can still reflect a united interpretation of deviancy.
uring the Classical period, from 5th to athletes, children, and the physically dis- D4th century BCE, the Greeks clearly abled. However, these groups are dramati- defined their socially inferior and superior cally different from those originally identi- members through literary means and burial fied in ancient texts as warranting uncommon practices. However, both word and deed ap- burials. Despite the apparent difference be- pear to contradict one another. In surviving tween what the Greeks said and did, I argue texts, Greeks claimed to bury their socially that the Greeks had a common understand- inferior through a variety of unconventional ing of deviancy and the way they constructed ways, such as throwing their remains into the term is through the application of what open bodies of water or fissures. Those - la sociologists call the positivist perspective. beled as inferior were pirates and murder- In applying the positivist perspective, I will ers people typically thought of when it came show that although Greek word and deed dif- to not following society’s expectations. fer, there is actually a cohesive understanding However, there is no physical evidence to of deviancy. support that any of these groups were actu- In order to reach this conclusion, I will ally buried in these unique manners. That is first explain how deviancy will be- under not to say that Greek society was absent of stood in this paper, and then I will explain its anomalies. There is evidence for atypical the positivist perspective as it is understood burials for other groups, such as warriors, by the sociological discipline. I will apply the
37 Explorations |Humanities perspective to literary and archaeological ev- attribute that exists permanently in a person idence to show an understanding of deviancy and it is recognized as a biological trait that that is consistent throughout its application. is absent in “normal” people. Objectivism is The literary and physical evidence is limited the assumption that defines deviant behavior to a specific assortment of references exam- as an observable object (Thio 2013: 5-6). In ined diachronically in order to support a con- other words, “normal” people can separate sistent understanding of deviancy adopted by themselves from deviant persons and can those in the Classical Period. study them as if they were a physical phe- nomenon that they cannot relate to. Finally, UNDERSTANDING DEVIANCY determinism is the assumption that sees de- viancy as caused by forces beyond a person’s Deviancy is a versatile term, one with no control, i.e., there are many factors that could universal meaning because of its vast inter- have influenced an action or how someone pretations by different disciplines. Even in turned out (Thio 2013: 6-7). In the following, the Sociological realm, deviancy has op- I apply these three assumptions to what the posing explanations that fit into diverse Greeks said and did in order to show that the categories, thus making it a term that no superficial contradiction between text and ac- one discipline can agree on (Thio 2013: 3). tion instead reflects a unified understanding However, in this paper I classify deviancy as of deviancy. people that exceed or fall inferior to the ex- pectations set in place by Greek society. It is WHAT THE GREEKS SAID important to understand that one of “moral virtues” of Greek society was Arete, which Absolutism in Ancient Texts translates to “excellence.” Thus, members of The Greeks wrote a great deal about those ancient Greek society were expected to con- that went above or below their societal ex- stantly engage in activities that made the av- pectations. These texts primarily contain erage person distinguished and memorable. descriptions of observable, biological traits However, it is important to note, that while that are not typically found in the average, people may have attempted to be excellent, socially accepted person of Classical Greek not everyone was. Only certain members of society. These descriptions are located in the community were recognized for their su- texts that discuss health, which additionally perior efforts, thus granting them an elevated reveals the application of absolutism. status. Thus, this paper will primarily focus Aside from the expectation of excellence, on those who went beyond the societal ex- Greeks also had to be healthy. Health, as un- pectations and those who fell inferior will be derstood in Plato’s Laws, is having a “sound mentioned as a means of providing a stark and hale” body (Plato 1926). This type of contrast. body allowed the average person to complete the necessary tasks affiliated with their daily THE POSITIVIST PERSPECTIVE life. From farming, training, fighting, and engaging in the political realm, the average The Positivist perspective has three as- Greek had to be physically capable of endur- sumptions: absolutism, objectivism, and de- ing all of their unique responsibilities. In a terminism (Witting 1990). Absolutism is the competitive environment where everyone assumption that states that deviancy is abso- strove to be excellent but not all could be, lutely real (Thio 2013: 5; Hirschi 1973). In a health issue, such as a physical deformity, order for something to be seen as absolutely was a sign of weakness that prevented the cit- real, it is understood that deviant people have izen from building their reputation. Ancient certain characteristics that make them differ- texts, such as Histories, reinforced this un- ent from the socially accepted. Deviancy is an derstanding and identification of healthy
38 Ena Prskalo people by saying they were “free from de- objective examination was primarily applied formity and disease, has no experience of to those who went below the expectations evils, and has fine children and good looks of society. Thus, this section will primarily (Herodotus 1972).” focus on understanding how the unwanted The expectation for all Greeks was to be members of society were observed. The ap- healthy, because it gave them the ability to plication of objectivism is evident through pursue excellence. However, there were ancient published texts that acknowledge the those that went above this societal expecta- outcasts through a scientific lens rather than tion and thus, their excellence was displayed an approach that recognizes the outcast as a through their superior health. This superior human with their own experiences. health was reflected by warriors and athletes, An example of this attempt at observing because their bodies were at their absolute outcasts through an objective lens is in peak. Athletes had a body that was seen as Aristotle’s biology-centered text, Generation “a token of physical and moral superiority of Animals. In his work, Aristotle discusses (Papakonstantinou 2012: 1658).” These men not only the means of animal reproduction, constantly exercised and trained in order to but also incorporates a discussion of certain represent their city-state in games, combat, “human” deformities such as baldness or to be dominant in a particular sport. The (784 a). Through the inclusion of a human athlete’s body articulates physical strength; “deformity” alongside the discussion of beauty, social dominance, and sexual potency animals, it is clear that he disassociates (Papakonstantinou 2012: 1659). While the himself from the “unwanted” within his own average body of a Greek citizen reflects their species and he affiliates such deformities stable health and ability to tackle personal re- with non-human entities; thus, Aristotle sponsibilities, it does not compare to what the attempts to have an objective discussion athletic body represents, endures, and sacri- about physical abnormalities in the same way fices for the larger society. he does about animals and their reproductive This superiority is reinforced through pre- process. served works such as Pindar, a 5th century In addition to identifying baldness as a poet, who celebrates the athletic body, as well deformity in Generation of Animals, Aristotle as the contributions and victories established also states that women are deformed, by the athlete (Pindar 1990). The athlete because they are contorted versions of men achieves superior health, displays it through (737 a). He also underlines imperfection as his body, and uses it as a means of carrying his a hereditary trait evident in a child being community to victory during competitions. born with an underdeveloped nostril or ear The warrior does the same, but in battle. He (Aristotle 1943: 775 a). Other ancient texts uses his body to maneuver through blows, to belonging to the Classical period identify the endure wounds, and as a weapon against oth- following to be considered deformities: weak ers who threaten the city-state he fights for. legs were seen as unfavorable defects in There are enemies that have advanced their Diseases (Mirko 1991: 2.66); children were bodies for war as well, but to ensure victory, seen as imperfect when being born to too he makes his body better; thus he is obligated young or to old parents in Aristotle’s Politics to go beyond average. This is precisely what (1335 a-b); and Metaphysics identifies a makes the athlete and warrior deviants, be- person who is missing limbs as having a cause they possess physical, observable traits deformity. It is important to examine closely that go beyond society’s expectation. where these discussions of deformities are taking place within ancient texts. Aristotle is Objectivism in Ancient Texts administering a conversation about humans Deviancy was also examined objectively by and their “deformities” in a text primarily the socially-accepted citizens of Athens. This affiliated with animals. Thus, he is attempting
39 Explorations |Humanities to apply the same lens used to study animals can impose. As mentioned before, the athlete to how he observes fellow humans who and warrior are typically seen as those who harbor traits that deviate from the socially go above societal expectations. However, accepted population. By doing this, he does while both groups can train to perfect their not acknowledge the deviant as a person who bodies and they can do things the average thinks and feels, but rather as an entity that is man cannot, it is the impact they make in visibly different from humans thus making it their varying arenas that truly makes them “possible” to observe objectively. superior representatives of their society. The warrior and athlete are recognized if they win Determinism in Ancient Texts competitions and conquer the battlefield and One’s ability to go above or below societal those who succeed in either arena are seen expectations was attributed to forces outside as favored by the gods. It is the gods that al- of the Greeks’ control, thus establishing the lowed this particular athlete or warrior to tri- usage of determinism. In this section, both umph over others; they influenced the meth- the favored and unwanted citizens will be ods enacted by these men in order to ensure addressed in order to understand how they victory. came to occupy such varying statuses. The Favoritism from the gods is even seen in Greeks believed that phenomena such as ancient texts. In one scene from the Iliad, physical abnormalities, the process of aging, Athena displays a preference for the Greeks, dying at birth, and doing exceptionally well thus ensuring their victory against Troy in competition or battle came from the whim (Homer 1951). Throughout the book, there of the gods or even other external forces that are times when Athena’s efforts are out- could not be combated. The gods were con- weighed by the influence of other gods, caus- nected to an assortment of realities; from the ing the Greeks to lose a few battles. However, sky, earth, sea, and so on. Their presence ex- it was Athena’s ability to ultimately outwit plained select phenomena and they existed as her opposing brothers and sisters that ensured incarnated idols that dominated over particu- the success of her favored army. Despite the lar realms (Schwab 1946: 22). Because gods gods being mythological entities, this par- were seen as the ultimate driving force for ticular point syncs well with the determinism certain occurrences, it comes as no surprise view. If a god favors a particular side, group, that some would believe that the gods were or person, then they are likely to receive vic- the reason for the birth of physically disabled tory due to the influence of a divine force. children. However, there were members of Deformity was affiliated with “divine ancient Greek society that believed certain anger;” the gods had a reason to express phenomena were determined by forces animosity towards either a family or a child, unrelated to the gods. These forces are thus leaving the latter with a physical ailment primarily biological and are used to explain (Garland 1992). The Greeks reasoned that the origin of those who fail to meet the societal these deformed children were punished for expectation of health. The History of Animals the sins of their fathers or other members of by Aristotle makes the “scientific” claim that the family, either because they broke an oath “lame parents produce lame children” (585 b. or they failed to provide a proper tribute to 586 a). According to Aristotle, if two parents a god (Garland 1995). Because of this lack had physical abnormalities themselves, then of recognition, honor, and respect to the they were the reason for the child contracting gods, these unfavorable actions warranted a a physical ailment as well. Another ancient wrathful response. text known as Sacred Diseases identifies While the Greeks acknowledge that the “lameness” as something that lies in heredity gods can do harm, they are also aware of the (Hippocrates 1868: 3). Like History of beneficial outcomes these supernatural forces Animals, Sacred Diseases attempts to
40 Ena Prskalo support the claim that physical ailments can piece, the figure is crafted in a naturalistic occur from hereditary means and thus can be fashion; embracing an open posture, proudly transferred over from those who have initially displaying his masculine, fit physique while suffered from a particular deformity. Both of nude. While other prominent members of these texts explain how the child is born into society also received statues in their honor, a circumstance that they cannot control, thus they were primarily depicted clothed. These crediting the phenomenon to an additional particular citizens got to their prestigious factor beyond the gods. rank because of their ability to communicate The ancient Greeks have acknowledged effectively and use their brains. However, those who are inferior and superior within when the athlete was constructed, he was their own society through text. Within the depicted nude because the body itself was literature, these deviants are comprised of credited for getting the athlete to a prominent unique physical characteristics not typically position. The athlete was the pinnacle of per- found in socially accepted citizens. In addi- fection, an idol worth striving for; his design tion, those that write about these different mimics the manner by which artists construct groups attempt to disassociate themselves the gods. He is in a rank beyond the average from fellow man in order to examine these man, thus making him a deviant due to his anomalies with an objective, scientific lens. uneasily attainable form, what that body was Furthermore, the Greeks believe that one’s able to accomplish, and how it was displayed successes and shortcomings are credited to through art. Such attributes can be observed the will of the gods and other external forces outside of ancient books; the deviant quali- beyond one’s control. Each assumption fur- ties of men like him are reinforced through ther solidifies the Greeks’ application of the physical manifestations for all to see, thus positive perspective to identify the inferior making the anomaly real. and superior deviants through text. The posi- Athletes in the Classical period were even tivist perspective is also evident in Greek ac- celebrated in death and their superior status tion, which further proves the Greeks had a influenced the burial practices specifically consistent understanding of deviancy despite reserved for them and warriors. While the how different word and deed appear to be. average citizen had a specific place allo- cated for their burial, those who went above WHAT THE GREEKS DID societal expectations received a funerary process that was far more grand and presti- Absolutism in Ancient Actions gious. Deceased athletes and warriors had As previously stated, excellence was large stelai dedicated to them and they were something many Greek citizens strove for. typically integrated into these large, life-size Each citizen attempted to attain excellence in monuments. The stelai were specifically their own way. To be excellent, many citizens designed to draw the eye to the athlete and emulated qualities belonging to heroes they warrior in order to signify their importance identified with. In addition, these citizens (Lorenz 2007; Stansbury-O’Donnell 2006). also showcased their strength and influence The figures on the stelai were often crafted as in political, athletic, and other competitive nude, further emphasizing the body that suc- arenas in order to reinforce their superior- cessfully got the athlete or warrior the repu- ity (Papakonstantinou 2012). With athletic tation for which they are being recognized. events being exceptionally prized, it was It is the body that reveals much about the important to have a near flawless physique. deceased’s accomplishments, they “speak of Thus, the ideal body as seen on athletes is hard training, of hours devoted to mastering reinforced through artistic means such as and moulding the body’s possibilities – and statues such as the Diadumenos which was the stelai deliberately evoke the routines of completed around 420 BCE. In this particular the training ground” (Turner 2012: 222). The
41 Explorations |Humanities stelai serve as a physical reference to strength broken back and a caved in skull, prior to his and dedication that earned these men a favor- burial. These injuries occurred during early able reputation; thus, man and his body were adulthood and left the man crippled as they further celebrated in death. The athlete and healed, thus proving that the injuries on this warrior are deviant because they contain dis- discarded body were not the product of a tinct, physical characteristics that are not evi- murder. Because of the skull fracture, it is dent in the majority of citizens. Even when highly plausible to assume the man suffered artists constructed statues, athletes and war- neurological defects, thus affecting his mo- riors were crafted nude to display the very tor skills. This particular behavior and his bodies that represented their hard work and appearance could have contributed to the un- active, elite engagement in the Athenian so- usual method of burial given to this man, thus ciety (Turner 2012: 221, 223). The way the making him an outcast (Papadopoulos 2002: athletic body is perceived and portrayed by 104). One might ask, if he had no ailments citizens and artists alike serves as real, ob- prior to his injury, why would he still be bur- servable evidence of identities sought after. ied outside of the socially accepted burial lo- cation? Because of his impairment, it is dif- Objectivism in Ancient Actions ficult for this man to be further engaged with Objectivism is not only evident through the his society; he would have to rely on others texts of the time, but also through the actions for support, thus making him unable to con- embraced by the socially accepted citizens as tribute as an active member of his commu- well. This can be primarily examined through nity due to codependency. This inability to the burial practices associated with those who find a place within society could warrant for fell inferior to societal expectations. The re- a reason to abandon his body in a well. These fusal of burial or conventional burial was pri- wells were primarily affiliated with trash and marily devoted to the negatively-stigmatized abandonment; thus the presence of animal re- deviants of the ancient society (Morris 1987: mains such as horse, sheep, bovine, dog, and 105). Some Greeks concluded that whatever pig skulls were found with many of the men, anomalies the person possessed warranted women, and children interred in these wells them a unique funerary process. In other (Kritzas 1976-78: 174). words, if the person could not conform and Wells located in the Athenian agora went below societal expectations, then they also contain the remains of hundreds of were not provided a burial typically arranged discarded children, some who had physical for a socially accepted citizen. The two ac- abnormalities from abuse or bacterial tions went hand in hand and were done as a infections that developed during the first means of reinforcing the legitimate existence week after their birth (Houby-Nielsen 2000: of deviancy. Because it was easy to identify 152). These children were unable to make it those who failed to meet societal expecta- past ten days of birth or to the vital age of tions, so too would their inadequacy be evi- three because of such ailments; thus, they dent in death and burial. were not officially considered part of the In one case, Little and Papadopoulos family, which made their abandonment in (1998) analyzed the remains of a man found disposable areas like wells easier. One of in a well north of the Acropolis. The physi- the wells was filled with an assortment of cal remains of the man were arranged on bone fragments belonging to various bodies, a stone slab carefully and he was interred thus making it difficult to piece together the with a small cup, which further solidifies remains properly. This complicated finding the claim that this was a unique burial and solidifies how easily disposable the unwanted not a man who simply fell into the well and were. The bodies were stacked upon one attained his fractures from the fall. The re- another in a random formation, without mains indicate that the man suffered from a much thought or care attached to the disposal
42 Ena Prskalo of these infants. The fractures evident upon activities that swayed the god’s decisions in some of the remains also reinforce how order to favor their own outcomes or the out- undesirable physical abnormalities were comes of others. Greeks could communicate used to identify these deviants, thus leading their desires and seek favors through sacri- to their questionable and unfavorable burial fice, which is a practice that establishes “a (Papadopoulos 2002: 105). connection between man and gods” (Vernant For the more favorable deviants, such as 1995: 178). It is through sacrifice that one athletes whose physical appearance was seen can ask for a bountiful harvest, a safe pas- as a goal to strive for, burials were located in sage home, a successful trade, and so on. more prestigious locations, but still remained However, people had to communicate the re- outside of conventional burial grounds. quest to the proper deity. Specific gods were Some of these athletes were buried on road- responsible for certain phenomena and they sides (Humphreys 1980). Warriors were also required specific sacrifices to ensure a price buried on the roadside, thus attaching to the paid for the request made. In some cases, location an aura of fame, importance, and sacrifices were meant to honor the gods, thus prominence. Thus, the citizens of Athens warranting the killing of certain animals over wanted travelers to see when they made their others because some had more value to them. way towards the city. While not outwardly For example, cows were the more favorable identified as deviant or assigned any negative sacrificial option (Bremmer 2007: 133),- es connotations, the warrior is still considered pecially in Athens, whereas sacrificing fish an anomaly because he was the only one in revealed how lowly placed the divine god is the society who was allowed a public burial, (Bremmer 2007: 135). Many of these sacri- whereas every other socially accepted citizen fices took place in temples built for particu- was buried through private means (Houby- lar deities, an example is the Altar of Zeus Nielsen 2000: 160-161: 11; Cilliers 2006: (Romano 2005: 384). Around these particular 52). areas, animal remains could be found (mostly of sheep and goats), thus solidifying the use Determinism in Ancient Actions of animal sacrifice as a means of communi- The Greek citizens believed that their op- cating to the gods in order to sway or influ- portunities and outcomes were determined ence their future actions (Bremmer 2007: by the gods. A person’s ability to meet the 143). expectations of society or to fall above or below these standards depended on whether CONCLUSION the gods favored him or not. While people could easily train to become an athlete or The Greeks engaged in practices that ap- engage in the political realm, their infamy pear to differ from what they said they did was primarily developed by their success in in their ancient texts, implying a contradic- tournaments, competitions, or prominent po- tion between word and deed. However, de- sitions of power that oversaw other leaders. spite the dramatic differences between text However, these victories were only ensured and deed, the Greeks actually had a unified if these people were favored by the gods. understanding of who was seen as exceed- Misfortunes and negative outcomes also ing societal standards and who fell inferior came from the gods as they imposed trails to each expectation. Using the positivist per- and hardships on those who were believed to spective as a lens to examine Greek society, be unworthy because of their family or their we can see that there are not inconsistencies own blasphemous actions. between text and practices relating to their While one’s ability to fall above or be- social superiors and outcasts. This shows low societal standards was out of a person’s how diverse representations of groups can be control, many people attempted to engage in cohesive enough to reflect a society’s values
43 Explorations |Humanities and beliefs. The positivist perspective is what Classical anomalies through a neutral, “in- links the content of text and action together tellectual” standpoint that was objective and it is all comprised of a set of assumptions for its time. The determinism assumption is that further establish this unification: absolut- supported through the Greeks belief that the ism, objectivism, and determinism. gods, or heredity, were the reason for devi- The absolutism assumption was expressed ants and deviant phenomena, which are both through the observable physical and/or bio- out of a person’s control. Combining the logical differences that made a person within evidence that establishes and supports these the Athenian society stand out, thus making three assumptions leads to the development deviancy absolutely real. The objectivism as- of the positivist perspective. It is through the sumption existed in physical copies of texts positivist perspective that we develop a link- and through the remains found in abnormal age between word and deed that reflects a burials that attempted to explain ancient deeper understanding of society.
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Aristotle. 1944. Politics. Translated by Harris Rackham. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Artistotle. 1991. On the History of Animals. Translated by David M. Balme. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Bremmer, J. 2007. “Greek Normative Animal Sacrifice.”Companion to Greek Religion: 132- 144.
Cilliers, P. 2006. “Burial Customs, the Afterlife and the Pollution of Death in Ancient Greece.” AJOL, 26: 44-59.
Garland, R. 1992. “Deformity and Disfigurement in the Graeco-Roman World.” History Today, 42(11).
1995. The Eye of the Beholder. London: Gerald Duckworth & Co.
Herodotus.1972 (1954). The Histories. Translated by Aubrey De Sélincourt. London, New York: Penguin Books.
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Hirschi, T. 1973. “Procedural Rules and the Study of Deviant Behavior.” Social Problems, 21: 166-171.
Homer. 1951. The Iliad. Translated by Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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Houby-Nielsen, S. 2000. “Child burials in ancient Athens.” Children and Material Culture. London: Routledge. 156-162.
Humphreys, S.C. 1980. “Family Tombs and Tomb Cult in Ancient Athens: Tradition or Traditionalism?” Journal of Hellenic Studies, 100: 96 – 126.
Kritzas, Ch. B. 1976-1978. My kenaiko pegadi me skeletous sto Argos. In Peloponnesiaka Parartema 6. Proceedings of the first international colloquium on Peloponnesian, Sparta, 7-14. 2: 173-180.
Little, L., and Papadopoulos, J. 1998. “A Social Outcast in Early Iron Age Athens.” Hesperia, 67:375-98.
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45 46 The Coming of the LORD: An Analysis of Religious Rhetoric in the American Civil War Drake Smith Campbell University Faculty Mentor: Jaclyn Stanke Campbell University
ABSTRACT Propaganda has always served an important function in warfare. In the American Civil War, much of the propaganda of both the United States and the Confederacy utilized religion or religious rhetoric. A key aspect of the religiosity of both sides in the war was the notion of an all-powerful Providence that guided history as He saw fit, and while it was a powerful source of encouragement early in the war, as the death toll rose, it posed problems for many people, especially Southerners. The sermons and speeches delivered during the war demonstrate that political and religious rhetoric intermingled freely in churches, and show that political leaders eagerly claimed the favor of God on their causes. Each nation’s claims to divine favor reflected distinctive views of God. The Union and Confederacy alike came to define themselves through religion as well as politics, and they defined their opponents in the same ways. The North held itself to be a crusading force, striking down godless rebels who sought to overthrow rightful au- thority. By contrast, the South portrayed itself as an embattled defender of Christian tradition against invaders who were heretics at best, and infidels with no regard for Scripture at worst.
he United States, being such a vast the Civil War in general, from the great Tcountry, has always had distinctive revival of the Confederate armies to the clash regional cultures, and by its very nature, over biblical interpretation.1 This paper, the American Civil War brought those however, aims to look at a narrower aspect differences to the fore, both highlighting and of this topic: the role of religious rhetoric as deepening them. Not only were North and propaganda in the war. South at odds over matters of economics, Religious rhetoric was a fundamental societal organization, and government, but aspect of Civil War propaganda for both also over matters of faith. The outbreak of the the Confederacy and Union, on the home Civil War, like most wars, led to incredibly front and in their respective armies. It was nationalistic propaganda on both sides. In used to motivate soldiers to take up arms, a situation in which both the Confederacy to encourage confidence on the home front, and Union were deeply religious, it is to keep up morale, and, eventually, to color unsurprising that religious rhetoric was ever- perceptions of the war even after it ended. A present in their propaganda. Much has been key aspect of the religiosity of both parties written about the interaction of religion with in the war was the notion of an all-powerful
1George Rable, God’s Almost Chosen Peoples: A Religious History of the American Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press), 2010; Mark Noll. The Civil War as a Theological Crisis (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press), 2006.
47 Explorations |Humanities
Providence that guided history as He saw it will but remain for us, with firm resolve, fit, and that notion would permeate wartime to appeal to arms and invoke the blessings rhetoric, as well as pose a profound challenge of Providence on a just cause.”4 In another to people’s faith as the war dragged on and speech after the war had begun, Davis echoed more men fell.2 this language, stating, “It may be that we shall The sermons and speeches delivered during have to encounter sacrifices; but, my friends, the war are particularly valuable in studying under the smiles of the God of the just, and this issue. These serve to demonstrate that filled with the same spirit that animated our political and religious rhetoric intermingled fathers, success shall perch on our banners.”5 freely in churches, and show that political Abraham Lincoln, too, utilized religious leaders eagerly claimed the favor of God on rhetoric in his inaugural address. However, their causes with absolute confidence. Each his tone was less confident than Davis’ cer- nation’s claims to divine favor reflected tainty of God’s favor. Lincoln used cautious distinctive views of God. The Union and language, saying, “If the Almighty Ruler of Confederacy alike came to define themselves Nations, with His eternal truth and justice, be not just through ideological differences, on your side of the North, or on yours of the but through the religious rhetoric in their South, that truth and that justice will surely propaganda. The North portrayed itself as a prevail by the judgment of this great tribunal heroic force crushing the rebels against right of the American people.”6 Lincoln thus re- and good, while the South portrayed itself as frained from overzealous declarations while a protector of tradition and doctrine. still suggesting that the secessionists were in danger of running afoul of God’s will. The Approach of the War While the presidents invoked God to one The secession of the Deep South and the for- degree or another, the religious communities mation of the Confederate States of America of the Union and Confederacy set about made the religious differences immediately thoroughly sanctifying their causes. In both obvious. The Northern states were far from nations, the clergy took up the cause with irreligious. However, the Confederate gov- zeal, and ministers unabashedly preached ernment went out of its way to claim God’s politics, proclaiming in apocalyptic terms favor. Where the United States Constitution the righteousness of their cause and the is a purely secular document, the Confederate wickedness of their enemy. Still, there were Constitution explicitly aligned itself with the- voices of moderation. The Reverend Thomas ism by opening with a preamble similar to Atkinson, an Episcopalian bishop and that of the U.S. Constitution, but adding the minister at St. James Church in Wilmington, phrase “invoking the favor and guidance of North Carolina, preached that the Confederate Almighty God.”3 Jefferson Davis, in his inau- cause was just, and argued that the taking of gural address, invoked divine favor as well, arms was necessary and right. However, declaring that God would judge who was cor- he warned the Confederates to look to their rect. President Davis suggested that, in the own morals, and prepare for a long, difficult event of war, they could count on Providence struggle that might end in defeat, explaining: to protect them, stating that if “...the integrity I cannot then doubt, and it seems a singular of our territory and jurisdiction be assailed, hallucination that any man should mistake, the 2Kimlyn Bender, “The American Experience of a Darkening and Receding 4Jefferson Davis, “First Inaugural Address,” February 18, 1861, The Providence: The Civil War and the Papers of Jefferson Davis. Accessed 5/29/2017. http://www.civilwar.org/ Unmaking of an American Religious Synthesis,” Cultural Encounters 9, education/history/primarysources/davisinaugural1.html. no. 2 (2013): 111, accessed October 25, 5Jefferson Davis, “Speech at Richmond,” June 1, 1861, The Papers of Jef- 2016, doi http://dx.doi.Org/10.11630/1550-4891.09.02.109; Noll. The ferson Davis. Accessed 4/19/2017. https://jeffersondavis.rice.edu/archives/ Civil War as a Theological Crisis, p. 77. documents/jefferson-davis-speech-richmond. 3CSA Constitution, March 11, 1861, The Avalon Project. Accessed 6Abraham Lincoln, “First Inaugural Address,” March 4, 1861, The Avalon 9/3/2017. http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_csa.asp Project. Accessed 4/192017. http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/ lincoln1.asp.
48 Drake Smith
righteous cause in this present most lamentable Universalist preacher, declared the South a controversy, and I hope and I believe that God wicked enemy of freedom, and claimed that will bless with temporal success the righteous “God calls us out of these events, henceforth cause. He may not, however, for He does not to consecrate the Church – its spiritual power, always see fit to make right visibly triumphant.- its moral strength, and all it has, to freedom.”10 -But succeed or not, it is the cause on the side of which one would desire to be found. Yet, Political philosophy and theology mingled however this thought may cheer us, we cannot freely in these passionate sermons, as many disguise from ourselves that success, should clergy preached politics in the most literal we obtain it, will not probably be reached possible sense, making arguments based until after an arduous and painful struggle, equally on legal theory and theology. involving severe trials of the feelings, and of the character of the community, and of ourselves Religion in the Union Camps 7 individually. Neither government in the Civil War was Other clergy were less restrained. Ministers averse to using religious rhetoric as propa- on both sides preached sermons with the ganda, nor were civilian preachers. However, national cause put forth as the manifest one should note the different tones struck will of God. In accordance with President by each side. Where the Confederates por- Davis’ call for a day of prayer, Reverend trayed themselves as defenders of Christian Daniel Dreher, delivered a sermon in which tradition against apostates and infidels, the he declared, “...a just God will hold the rhetoric of the Union lent itself towards an offender responsible for the injury done” and aggressive, crusading view that reflected the condemned Northern leaders as “fanatics” military situation – Southerners on the de- and “inhuman.”8 The rhetoric sounding the fensive, Northerners heading south to defeat call to arms in the North was hardly less them. In the Federal view, the Confederacy furious. Pastor Henry Bellows thundered to was a blight that needed to be stamped out his congregation that: aggressively, for its very existence endan- I wish to know nothing of that kind of religion gered the Union and American Christianity. which will not defend the sacred interests of An extremely useful source for insight into society, with all the power, physical and moral, the Federal view of the war is the songs sung which God and nature have supplied. My own by the troops, for war songs provide a view enemies I will forgive, and continually turn into the mind of the soldier and the emotions to them the other cheek; but the enemies of resonating within him. The most famous of humanity — the enemies of all order, truth, the Union war songs is the classic “Battle and virtue — the enemies of my country I will Hymn of the Republic.” The Battle Hymn not, upon any theory of peace or meekness, remains popular today and uses apocalyptic unresistingly suffer to achieve their guilty purposes, so long as there is a drop of blood in imagery taken from biblical prophecy to de- my heart, a fibre of muscle in my arm, or a note scribe the Civil War as a battle between good of warning in my voice!9 and evil, a “fiery gospel writ in burnished rows of steel” and associates the Confederacy In addition to the assertion that the interests with the biblical “Serpent” - Satan - that is to of the nation and the interests of God were be crushed under the heel of the Union army, the same, Reverend J.G. Bartholomew, a which is associated with Jesus, “the Hero
7Thomas Atkinson, “Christian Duty in the Present Time of Trouble,” 9Henry Bellows, “Duty and Interest in the Present Crisis,” April 14, 1861, 7, Documenting the American South, accessed 12/7/2016, http:// 1861, 16, Religious Aspects of the American Civil War, accessed docsouth.unc.edu/imls/atkinsonsermon/atkinson.html. 12/7/2016, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=loc.ark:/13960/ 8Daniel Dreher, “Day of Humiliation and Prayer,” June 13, 1861, 14, t1cj8j72r;view=1up;seq=20. Documenting the American South, accessed 12/7/2016, http://docsouth. 10J.G. Bartholomew, “The Hour of Peril,” April 21, 1861, 19, Religious unc.edu/imls/dreher/dreher.html. Aspects of the American Civil War, accessed 12/7/2016, https://iiif.lib. harvard.edu/manifests/view/drs:46311388$21i.
49 Explorations |Humanities born of woman.”11 of the Confederate states and the rebellion War songs were not the only songs sung of Satan, declaring, “Like the great apostasy by the troops, and evangelism-minded in Heaven, ‘a third part’ of the banded stars Northerners supplied troops with hymn of the confederacy forsook their loyalty to books. Most of the songs contained within Union and to law.”15 By drawing these Old these books were hymns that might be heard Testament comparisons, an overarching in church, but they also contained patriotic Unionist narrative of the war was formed; songs with a martial theme. The rhetoric in specifically, that it was a war against a these songs is explicit in its association of the rebellion which for all intents and purposes Union cause with God’s will. For instance, was a reenactment of Satan’s original act of the song “On- Right Onward” outright calls evil. on the singer to “Strike for Jesus! Strike to-day!”12 The Sacred Union Equally relevant are the sermons preached One of the themes of Unionist rhetoric to the troops. These sermons reflected a firm was the notion of the Union itself as a sacred belief that the Confederates had commit- thing. The recurring citation of Romans 13, ted not only treason against the Union, but St. Paul’s warning against disobeying legiti- also a crime against God. George Whitefield mate authorities, ties in neatly with this no- Bosworth delivered a sermon in which he tion, as the Northern clergy preached that turned to the common theme of the sinful- secession from the Union was an act of un- ness of rebellion. He cited a story in the godly rebellion. Reverend Edward J. Stearns Old Testament, in which the Israelite tribe of heavily emphasized this idea in a sermon on Benjamin refused to surrender a criminal. In the matter. He sought to define St. Paul’s response, God commanded the rest of Israel “submission to authority,” and argued that to take up arms and march on Benjamin to God ordains authority in that He instituted punish them, a story which Bosworth con- civil government. Stearns defined legitimate tended was an almost perfect parallel with authority as those in possession of the “ma- the secession of the South, suggesting, “It chinery” of civil government, making resist- may be that they [Benjamin] started the ques- ing lawful government a sin.16 tion of State rights, and remonstrated against In a sermon, aptly titled “Unconditional coercion.”13 Loyalty,” Pastor Henry W. Bellows went The Old Testament was a recurring theme, even further, arguing that, as government as it contains many stories of rebellion was divinely sanctioned, it was immoral to bringing punishment. In a sermon to an obstruct its operation in any way. He argued Ohio regiment, Reverend B.W. Chidlaw that “The head of a nation is a most sacred was ferocious in his condemnation of the person,” and even that “To rally round the Confederates, calling secession a “Baal” President – without question or dispute and claiming the civilians of the North – is the first and most sacred duty of loyal were spared harm by God’s divine favor on citizens.”17 While few took the doctrine the Union.14 Reverend Andrew L. Stone, in as far as Bellows, the divine ordinance of 1862, drew a parallel between the secession government and the sinfulness of rebellion
11“The Soldier’s Friend,” 113-114, Religious Aspects of the American 14Benjamin Chidlaw, “A Thanksgiving Sermon,” Nov. 28, 1861, 9, Civil War, accessed 12/7/2016, https://iiif.lib.harvard.edu/manifests/view/ Religious Aspects of the American Civil War, accessed 11/29/2016, https:// drs:46308331$117i. babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=loc.ark:/13960/t3xs5xt17;view=1up;seq=15. 12Ibid., 103-104 15Andrew Stone, “Praise for Victory,” Feb. 23, 1862, 5, Religious Aspects 13George Whitefield Bosworth. “The Soldier’s Commission Against of the American Civil War, accessed 11/29/2016, https://iiif.lib.harvard. Rebellion,” April 28, 1861, 5, Religious Aspects of the American Civil edu/manifests/view/drs:47581118$5i. War, accessed 11/29/2016, https://iiif.lib.harvard.edu/manifests/view/ 16Edward Stearns, “The Powers that Be,” 1862, 4, Religious Aspects of the drs:46308330$1i. American Civil War, accessed 11/29/2016, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/ pt?id=loc.ark:/13960/t4wh2pn91;view=1up;seq=5.
50 Drake Smith was the defining theme of pro-Union religious have been the wedge that split the Union, the propaganda. Union itself was the object of the Civil War. In that same vein, Reverend Ezra Williams Lincoln did not hesitate to state that his ob- expounded on the nature of rebellion as jective was to preserve the Union, not to end fundamentally sinful. Reverend Williams’ slavery. Moreover, actual abolitionists were sermon was unusually aggressive in tone, rare even in the North. Despite this, the abo- but contained several themes common to litionist minority made itself heard and did Union religious propaganda – the evil of the an exceptional job of grafting abolition into Confederacy, the wickedness of rebellion, Union rhetoric, especially after Lincoln’s and the sanctity of civil government. He Emancipation Proclamation in 1862 lent took a nuanced view and argued that an im- much more credence to their cause. moral government was subject to the right of The abolitionists viewed the pro-slavery revolution, but only after every constitutional governments of the South as an enemy, and method had been exhausted. He contended this hostility meshed well with the aggressive that the Federal government was a just gov- propaganda already employed by the Union. ernment, that the South had no legitimate President Lincoln, in his second inaugural grievances, and that secession was an unac- address, declared that slavery was a crime ceptable means of opposition. He began by against God, explaining, quoting Proverbs 17:11, which states that “A If we shall suppose that American Slavery is wicked man seeketh only rebellion,” and then one of those offences which, in the providence explained, of God, must needs come, but which, having We have in these words this plain announcement- continued through His appointed time, He now that Rebellion is a crime, and shall be visited wills to remove, and that He gives to both North with terrible judgment... God declares his and South, this terrible war, as the woe due thought, and utters his sanction of law. This to those by whom the offence came, shall we is also the expression of natural conscience - discern therein any departure from those divine vindicating in our breast the Divine procedure, attributes which the believers in a Living God 19 when the majesty of insulted government is always ascribe to Him? asserted, and penalty applied.18 While he refrains from stating it directly, While the United States government did not Lincoln makes clear the idea that slavery openly endorse religion in its documents, the is an offense against God for which He is theology of the sacred government was the punishing the United States. Thus, in a overwhelming theme of Northern sermons brilliant bit of oration, Lincoln avoids the related to the war. However, there was also overconfident declarations of God’s favor in an undercurrent of abolitionism that showed many sermons and speeches, both North and itself throughout the war, and became a key South, whilst invoking the looming threat of part of Unionist rhetoric. God’s judgment on the war. Many Northerners were significantly less Abolition as a Holy Cause tactful than Lincoln in their condemnations From the very beginning of the war, the of slavery. Reverend Daniel Steele delivered North made it clear that, while slavery may another sermon comparing the Confederacy
17Henry Bellows, “Unconditional Loyalty,” Feb. 6, 1863, 5, Religious 19Abraham Lincoln, “Second Inaugural Address,” March 4, 1865, The Aspects of the American Civil War, accessed 11/29/2016, https://babel. Avalon Project, accessed 4/19/2017, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_ hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=loc.ark:/13960/t5s75gw1j;view=1up;seq=11. century/lincoln2.asp. 18Ezra Adams, “Government and Rebellion.” April 28, 1861, 3, Religious Aspects of the American Civil War, accessed 11/29/2016, https://babel. hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=miun.abj5506.0001.001;view=1up;seq=5.
51 Explorations |Humanities to the rebellious tribe of Benjamin, and said in a sermon to Confederate cadets in 1861, of slavery: warned them not to surrender themselves to In the one, undestroyed idolatry bred the passions of war, though they “behold her disobedience to the law of Moses, and treason [the South’s] pleasant places made desolate to the Commonwealth; and in the other, by an infidel and fanatical foe.”21 Equally African slavery, abhorred of God, engendered a harsh was Reverend George Pierce’s depic- hideous barbarism in the noon of the nineteenth tion of the allegedly faithless politics of the century, and organized a foul revolt against the North: wisest government ever framed for the good of mankind. In both was there an irresistible A perverted public sentiment, largely tinctured uprising of the loyal hosts against the insurgents, with atheism, which excludes God from the an uprising inspired and commanded by God affairs of earth, and confines Him, (if it admit Himself. For the voice of the King of Kings was His existence at all,) to heaven and heavenly no more clearly heard marshalling the faithful things, is a fruitful source of venality and tribes of Israel against Gibeah, the champion corruption in high places and low places, of of murder, than it is heard resounding through insubordination, of commercial fraud and all our loyal States, commanding our sons and infidelity to contracts, of impious legislation brothers to set themselves in battle array against and wide-spread contamination. Our republican fathers wisely separated the Church from Richmond, the strong-hold of slave-breeding.20 the State; their degenerate successors madly Thus, through song and sermon, pro-Union separated the State from Heaven. It has been the religious rhetoric created a clear-cut battle of fashion to theorise and decide on politics, as if good versus evil. The Union was a sacred Christianity were not a superior, supreme law, thing, its government instituted by God, and and as though God had abandoned his book and the Confederacy, in rebelling against the his rights to the chances of a doubtful contest. Statesmanship has become an earthly science, divine institution of government, was cast a philosophy without religion, and a system of in the role at best of the tribe of Benjamin, expediency without a conscience.22 and at worst of Satan. Slavery only served as more proof of Southern wickedness, whether Similarly, Reverend Joel Tucker roundly the objection was to the “Slave Power” or condemned the North, describing the conflict to slavery itself. Defining themselves and as a religious one and telling his Fayetteville, their cause in these religious terms, Northern North Carolina, congregation that “Your troops marched southward to crush the great cause is the cause of God, of Christ, of hu- evil that threatened the whole of the nation. manity. It is a conflict of truth with error--of the Bible with Northern infidelity --of a pure The Confederates as Defenders of Christianity with Northern fanaticism--of lib- Conservative Christianity erty with despotism--of right with might.”23 In a contrast to the Union and its aggres- Far from viewing themselves as “rebels,” sive rhetoric portraying the Confederates as the Confederates viewed themselves as an evil to be struck down, the Confederacy upholding a long tradition of Christian painted itself as a defender and cast the government and were conservative in their Federals as an invading army of heretics, in- policies. Davis argued in his inaugural fidels, and mercenaries, with Southerners as address that the Confederate Constitution a bulwark between Christian Dixie and the was no revolutionary document, but an Northern invaders. Reverend Robert Sledd, improvement upon the United States Constitution.24 In a similar vein, they argued 20Daniel Steele, “Two Rebellions: Benjamin and American Slavehold- 21Robert Sledd, “Before the Confederate Cadets, on the Occasion of ers,” August 4th 1864, 10, Religious Aspects of the American Civil their Departure for the Seat of War,” April 22, 1861, 14, The Southern War, accessed 11/29/2016, https://iiif.lib.harvard.edu/manifests/view/ Homefront 1861-1865, accessed 11/29/2016, http://docsouth.unc.edu/imls/ drs:46312840$12i. sledd/sledd.html. 22George Pierce, “The Word of God a Nation’s Life.” March 19, 1862, 9, The Southern Homefront 1861-1865, accessed 11/29/2016, http://docsouth. unc.edu/imls/pierce/pierce.html.
52 Drake Smith that it was in fact the Northerners who was, to the Confederates, clear proof of the were going against the divine order. Along holiness of their cause, and Lee’s status as the with portraying themselves as defenders of ideal Christian soldier was rivaled only by Christianity, the Confederates also contrasted one of his corps commanders, Major General the North’s alleged faithlessness with the “Stonewall” Jackson. South’s piety. Jackson earned a reputation as an incredibly devout Christian, praying frequently and Piety as a Virtue of the Confederate openly. Were he merely an unusually devout Military man, it is doubtful he would have had the Another major Confederate narrative con- impact he did, but his remarkable success in cered the piety of their military. From gen- battle combined with his piety to establish erals to private soldiers, the Confederate him as the ultimate religious role model in armies were considered highly religious. the Southern armies.27 The Confederacy That perception was a boon to Confederate could not have created a better source of propaganda, meshing nicely with the ac- propaganda if it had tried. Jackson achieved cusations of Northern heresy and godless- a status shared by few other men, and became ness. Particularly notable officers in this re- a revered legend in his own lifetime while gard were General Robert E. Lee and Major earning the almost fanatical admiration of General Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson, men his troops. This is reflected in the popular who were highly regarded in the Confederacy. Confederate song “Stonewall Jackson’s General Lee spent most of the war com- Way.” The ditty expresses a profound respect manding the Army of Northern Virginia. In for his faith with, that capacity, he exhibited a strong faith that Silence! ground arms! kneel all! caps off! deeply impressed many. Confederate chap- Old “Blue Light’s” going to pray. lain William Bennett had nothing but praise Strangle the fool that dares to scoff! for the Virginian, writing, “General Lee at- Attention! it’s his way. tached his men to him not less by his good- Appealing from his native sod, ness of heart and his deep-toned, unobtru- In forma pauperis to God, sive piety, than by his skill and courage as Say “Bare Thine arm; stretch forth thy rod, 28 a warrior – he was to them the model of a Amen!” “That’s Stonewall Jackson’s way.” Christian soldier.”25 Similarly, in his book, The near-religious reverence for Jackson Robert E. Lee: The Christian, William J. was not reserved to his troops. On the Johnson shows that Lee was overwhelmingly home front, Confederate citizens idolized regarded by his contemporaries as a model the general, as much for his devout faith as Christian soldier. He noted, among other in- his military abilities. When Jackson died, stances, that after Lee’s death an assembly the outpouring of grief was incredible, and of soldiers and officers who had served with ministers delivered entire sermons pondering him adopted a resolution that included the the meaning of his death. Jackson was used statement, “We have been daily witness to his to illustrate that God might do something quiet, unostentatious Christian life; we have seemingly hostile to a Christian cause for seen him prove that ‘no adversity could ever His own ends, a concept that provided move, nor policy at any time entice to shrink Southerners with consolation as the defeat of from God and from His Word.’”26 Lee’s faith the Confederacy loomed.29
23Joel Tucker, “God’s Providence in War,” May 16, 1862, 11, The South- 26William J. Johnson, Robert E. Lee: The Christian (Arlington Heights, ern Homefront 1861-1865, accessed 12/6/2016, http://docsouth.unc.edu/ IL: Christian Liberty Press, 1993), 235 imls/tucker1/tucker.html. 27Daniel W. Stowell, “Stonewall Jackson and the Providence of God.” In 24Jefferson Davis, “Jefferson Davis’ Inaugural Address.” Civil War Trust. Religion and the American Civil War, ed., Randall M. Miller, Harry S. Accessed April 19, 2017. http://www.civilwar.org/education/history/ Stout, and Charles Reagan Wilson (New York: Oxford University Press, primarysources/davisinaugural1.html. 1998.), 187. 25William W. Bennett, A Narrative of the Great Revival Which Prevailed 28John Palmer. “Stonewall Jackson’s Way : Palmer, John Williamson, in the Southern Armies During the Late Civil War Between the States of 1825-1906 : Free Download & Streaming.” Internet Archive. Accessed the Federal Union (Harrisonburg, VA: Sprinkle Publications, 1989), 67 April 19, 2017. https://archive.org/details/stonewalljackson00palm.
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While General Jackson’s life and death That religion has a profound effect on the served to inspire troops and civilians alike, morale of soldiers is borne out repeatedly he was no passive bystander in evangeliz- by eyewitnesses, but the uniqueness of the ing, either. He actively sought to increase the Confederate revival is found in its extent. presence of ministers among the Confederate James Graham of the 27th North Carolina forces, the most notable of these being his wrote to his mother that “The revival in our chief-of-staff, Virginia theologian Robert L. Brigade is still going on and there are a good Dabney, a Presbyterian minister and die-hard many converts every day and almost every- Confederate. Though his position as chief- body is becoming serious. Instead of hearing of-staff was decidedly brief, Dabney played a swearing all the time you seldom hear an oath critical role in defining the Confederate cause in our Reg’t now,” and that “All the churches as a religious one and promoted the concept are filled to overflowing every night.”32 of the soldier as a martyr. Unsurprisingly, The Confederate revival made for superb Jackson was one of the examples he cited, propaganda in portraying their cause as a and Dabney was a major advocate of the idea holy one. Noted Civil War historian James of his superior officer and good friend as not McPherson writes, 30 merely a national hero, but a Christian one. The Confederate revivals had gone a long The efforts of Lee, Jackson, Dabney, and nu- way toward raising morale in the Southern merous other officers and chaplains of the armies from its low point at the end of 1863. Confederate armies culminated in one of the Heightened religiosity helped to prevent the most fascinating events of the war – the great collapse of both armies during the carnage of Confederate revival. 1864, but was a particularly potent force in the The immense revival that occurred in the Confederacy. It may not be an exaggeration to say that the revivals of 1863-64 enabled Confederate armies was a unique event. Confederate armies to prolong the war into While the Federal forces saw some revival- 1865.33 like events, they never came close to the incredible scale of that of the Confederates. The Confederate narrative of the war, then, This revival provided enormous strength to focused on the piety of the Southerners in the claim that the Confederates were the true contrast to Northern faithlessness. Southern defenders of Christianity, especially with its religious propaganda was a call for Christian highly visible, highly religious leaders. Southerners to rally and hold the line against Chaplain William W. Bennett, a firsthand a heretical invader. That they would be able witness of this event, recorded his experiences to hold these invaders off even in the face after the war in his book, The Great Revival of superior resources was, of course, not a in the Southern Armies. The greatest growth question. in religiosity occurred after the Confederate defeat at Gettysburg, but according to Reactions to the End of the War Reverend Bennett, the whole of the war saw When the Confederacy finally fell to the growth in religious belief.31 Bennett describes United States, North and South handled the the effect that the spread of Christianity had conclusion of the War quite differently. In on the soldiers as being near-miraculous in its the North, it was vindication of their cause, ability to keep troops from panic and despair. condemnation of the rebellion, and in many
29Stowell, “Stonewall Jackson and the Providence of God.” In Religion 31Bennett, A Narrative of the Great Revival Which Prevailed in the South- and the American Civil War, 195. ern Armies During the Late Civil War Between the States of the Federal 30Wallace Hettle, “The Minister, the Martyr, and the Maxim: Robert Lewis Union, 363. Dabney and Stonewall Jackson Biography,” Civil War History; 49, 4 (Dec 32Letter from James Graham to his mother, Oct. 4 1863, The Civil War 2003): 364, accessed October 25, 2016. Day by Day, accessed 11/29/2016, http://blogs.lib.unc.edu/civilwar/index. php/2013/10/04/4-october-1863/ 33James McPherson, For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 75.
54 Drake Smith cases considered proof of the wickedness even making an idol of Confederate inde- of slavery. Reverend Norman Seaver spoke pendence itself.37 Others freely admitted that on the subject, celebrating the War’s end as they simply could not comprehend it, but that proof of God’s favor towards the U.S. gov- it was part of God’s oft-inscrutable plan and ernment, declaring that “In overthrowing must be accepted. Richmond, the hand of God hath pointed out republicanism as the one true and universal Conclusion – America’s Great Schism form of government for all the nations of the The religious differences between the earth.”34 North and South are too ingrained and long- Others took a more reflective view and standing to place the blame wholly, or even found the War to be a humbling experience. mostly, on the propaganda of the Civil War. Reverend James Vose took this view, but Nonetheless, propaganda played a crucial nonetheless also saw it as a triumph and vin- role in justifying and sanctifying the respec- dication of the values of the North, preaching tive causes of the combatants in the Civil War that “The spirit of New England shall infuse and, like much of history, offers us a glimpse every part and portion of the South, and men of an earlier form of differences and disputes shall wonder and be astonished that rebel that are still relevant today. The Civil War leaders ever laid their sacrilegious hands was not a religious war by any stretch of the upon the ark of our holy covenant.”35 imagination, but many of the numerous reli- Southerners viewed the result of the gious soldiers did see the conflict through the war in an entirely different light. Defeat lens of their faith. To understand the rheto- was baffling, because in the opinion of the ric of war is to gain a better understanding Southerners, it was the loss of an unques- of what spoke to the common soldier, and it tionably morally superior cause and army to is this author’s hope that this paper has shed an obviously less moral one; yet at the same some small light on the way the Christian sol- time, it was necessarily also the will of God.36 diers of the Civil War defined themselves and Many interpretations arose regarding the de- their enemies. feat. According to some, it was a punishment for idolizing leaders such as General Lee, or
34Norman Seaver, “The hand of God as seen in the fall of Richmond,” 36Paul Harvey, ““Yankee faith” and Southern redemption : white April 9, 1865, 7-8, Religious Aspects of the American Civil War, Southern Baptist ministers, 1850-1890.” In Religion and the American accessed 11/29/2016 https://iiif.lib.harvard.edu/manifests/view/ Civil War, 173-175 drs:46312831$9i 37Rable, God’s Almost Chosen Peoples, 393 35James G. Vose. “The Decisive Battle,” April 9, 1865, 16, Religious Aspects of the American Civil War, accessed 11/29/2016, https://iiif.lib. harvard.edu/manifests/view/drs:46312847$18i.
55 Explorations |Humanities
REFERENCES
Primary Sources
Bennett, William W. A Narrative of the Great Revival Which Prevailed in the Southern Armies during the Late Civil War between the States of the Federal Union. Harrisonburg, VA: Sprinkle Publications, 1989.
The Civil War Day By Day, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, http://blogs.lib.unc. edu/civilwar
The Southern Homefront 1861-1865, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, http://docsouth.unc.edu/imls/
Religious Aspects of the American Civil War, Harvard Divinity School, http://guides.library. harvard.edu/hds/civil-war/hds/civil-war-songs-prayers
The Avalon Project, Yale Law School, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/default.asp
The Papers of Jefferson Davis, Rice University, https://jeffersondavis.rice.edu/
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Bender, Kimlyn J. “The American Experience of a Darkening and Receding Providence: the Civil War and the Unmaking of an American Religious Synthesis,” Cultural Encounters (Online) 9, no. 2 (2013): ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed October 25, 2016).
Dollar, Kent T. Soldiers of the Cross: Confederate Soldier-Christians and the Impact of War on Their Faith. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2005.
Gourley, Bruce T. 2013. “Baptists and the American Civil War: In Their Own Words.” Baptist History And Heritage 48, no. 2 (2013): 91-112. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed October 4, 2016).
Hettle, W. “The Minister, the Martyr, and the Maxim: Robert Lewis Dabney and Stonewall Jackson Biography.” Civil War History, 49(4) (2003): 353-369. Retrieved from http://proxy.campbell.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/208251997 ?accountid=9858.
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Noll, Mark A. The Civil War as a Theological Crisis. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006.
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57 58 Social Sciences 60 The Relation Between the Attachments of Female College Students and Their Self-reported Resiliency and Stress Levels in Emerging Adulthood Alyson Mann Meredith College Faculty Mentor: Cynthia Edwards Meredith College
ABSTRACT Past research has identified emerging adulthood as a period of vulnerability and heightened academic and interpersonal stress (Busari, 2011; Dahl, 2004; Seligman & Wuyek, 2007). Research has found that the trust and security of strong attachments provide support and resil- iency during times of distress (Bowlby, 1969). The purpose of the present study was to inves- tigate the association between strong attachments, stress, and resilience in emerging adults. The hypothesis was that participants with stronger attachments and higher resiliency would report less academic and relational stress. Additionally, classic attachment theorists and de- velopmental psychologists have indicated that attachment shifts from parents and caregivers to peers and romantic partners in emerging adulthood (Bowlby, 1969; Erikson 1950; Hazan & Shaver, 1994). Recent research indicating more familial reliance may suggest emerging adults are making the attachment shift to peers and romantic partners in college but later return the primary attachment function to parents and family members. Our hypothesis aligned with this model of attachment transfer. A survey was distributed to current female college students (N = 174) collecting data on demographics, stress, resiliency, and attachment. Results partially sup- ported the hypothesis of transfer of attachment from family to peers and romantic partners and back to family. When predicting academic and relational stress, strong attachments to college friends and resiliency were found to be significant.
he developmental period of emerging college freshman have been found to expe- Tadulthood (18-25) is a time of peak phys- rience clinical levels of separation anxiety ical resilience and strength, but morbidity and and the inability to cope with heightened mortality rates increase 200% through this academic stress (Seligman & Wuyeck, 2007; same period of maturation (Dahl, 2004). This Misra, McKean, West, & Russo, 2000). paradox of physical health and negative out- Using the Perceived Stress Scale, comes has led researchers to begin to focus researchers Misra, and colleagues (2000) on the unique life stage of emerging adult- determined that within the college population, hood, characterized as a time of exploration underclassmen had higher mean levels of and instability. Individuals are transitioning stress than upperclassmen due to change, into different academic environments, living conflict, and frustration. The challenging situations, and adult roles in society (Arnett, transition into college may explain why 2000), and as a consequence, are experienc- underclassmen were found to have higher ing higher levels of physiological, academic, behavioral, emotional, and physiological and relational stress (Dahl, 2004). Within the reactions to stress (Misra et al., 2000). transition from high school to college alone, Not only faced with academic stress,
61 Explorations |Social Sciences emerging adults in transitional phases often explore their environment. The relationship experience significant interpersonal stress. with the primary caregiver in infancy serves Seligman and Wuyek (2007) explored the as an internal working model for attachments separation anxiety symptoms experienced across the lifespan (Bowlby, 1969). by first-semester college students. These Attachment is a function of relationships students were living on campus and throughout life. Researchers found that the experiencing significant time apart from their attachment behavioral system that motivated homes and loved ones, many for the first infants to remain close to caregivers is also time. Using the Adult Separation Anxiety present in adult relationships (Bowlby 1980; Checklist, researchers found that 21% of Hazan & Shaver, 1987, 1994). Attachment participants could be expected to meet the is characterized by three defining features: diagnostic criteria for Separation Anxiety proximity maintenance, safe haven, and Disorder. These studies suggest that the secure base (Bowlby, 1969). In order of transitions of emerging adulthood, such depth, proximity maintenance is the desire as high school to college, may exacerbate to remain physically close to an attachment stress due to the change in relationships and figure, safe haven is the attachment figure academic expectations. providing comfort in times of distress, and The stress of this developmental period is secure base is the attachment figure serving a strong correlate of mental health as found as an emotional stronghold, or anchor, from in a study of 1,257 young adults where stress which the individual feels confident exploring was the strongest predictor of mental health the world (Bowlby, 1969). (Bovier, Chamot, & Perneger, 2004). Social Emerging adults, like children, seek prox- support was found to be an intervening imity to and comfort from a known and trusted variable in the relation between internal person in times heightened stress (Bowlby, resources and stress, suggesting social 1969; Fraley & Davis, 1997). Adjustment support exerts its influence by strengthening difficulties from transitions such a moving internal resources (Bovier, et al., 2004). from home, beginning college, or joining the The increase in stress during emerging workforce may lead emerging adults to expe- adulthood makes internal resources such as rience greater needs for protection and secu- resiliency critically important. Resiliency rity provided through attachments (Bowlby, serves an adaptive function as a protective 1969). The increased relational and academic factor for adjustment (Masten, et al., 2004). stress of emerging adulthood (Dahl, 2004) In periods of constant instability such as may suggest that attachment functions may emerging adulthood, the need increases for be more intensely needed than in other life the ability to “bounce back” and “recover stages (Bowlby, 1969). from stress” (Smith, et al., 2008). Masten Attachment in Emerging Adulthood and colleagues (2004) found that resiliency The emotional bond of attachment is a endures the transition of emerging adulthood function of relationships throughout life, and continues through young adulthood. shifting from caregivers to peers and roman- Resiliency was associated with early life tic partners (Bowlby, 1980; Hazan & Shaver, experiences, such as quality parenting, 1987, 1994). While attachment to parents is and with adaptive resources in emerging important throughout the lifespan, Bowlby adulthood, such as the presence of a (1980) found this relationship to be modified supportive adult. with age. The figure to whom attachment be- Attachment havior is directed changes in adolescence and Erik Erikson (1950) first identified trust adulthood, typically shifting from parents to as a basis for independent exploration in romantic partners and peers (Bowlby, 1969). children. Infants that perceive their caregiver Researchers have found that this attachment as attentive and accessible feel secure to transfer is sequential by function. Proximity
62 Alyson Mann seeking function transfers in early childhood, during times of distress (Bowlby, 1969). The safe haven function transfers in adolescence purpose of the present study was to investigate and early adulthood, and secure base function the association between strong relationships transfers in adulthood (Hazan & Zeifman, with hometown friends, college friends, 1994; Fraley & Davis, 1997). Fraley and family members, and romantic partners, Davis found that while young adults are pre- stress, and resiliency. The hypothesis is that dominately attached to parents (secure base), participants with stronger attachments and attachment related components (proximity higher resiliency would report less academic maintenance, safe haven) are emerging in and relational stress. peers. Emerging adults are experiencing the Classic attachment theorists and transfer of their attachment stronghold as developmental psychologists have indicated they navigate a stressful and unstable devel- that attachment shifts from parents and opmental period, creating another transition families to peers and romantic partners in and potential for disruption. emerging adulthood (Bowlby, 1969; Erikson While classic attachment theorists such 1950; Hazan & Shaver, 1994). Recent as Bowlby (1980) and Hazan and Shaver research has suggested emerging adults (1994) identify this attachment shift from remain dependent on their families in times parents to peers and romantic partners of stress and for financial and residential as linear, emerging research suggests the support. This continued reliance, along transfer of attachment from parents to peers with positive and frequent communication, and romantic partners then back to parents may suggest that parents provide emotional throughout emerging adulthood. In emerging support in emerging adulthood as well. This and young adulthood, peers and romantic research supports a model of attachment partners begin to serve as primary attachment transfer where emerging adults are making figures. However, parents continue to fulfill the attachment shift from parents and attachment needs, attesting to the continued families to peers and romantic partners dependence on the parent-child relationship but later returning the primary attachment (Doeherty & Feeney, 2004). Emerging function to parents and families. We aim to adults and parents of emerging adults report examine the trends of attachment figures financial and residential dependency as well including two hometown friends, two as frequent, positive communication (Arnett college friends, two family members, and a & Schwab, 2013). Citing Goldschneider and romantic partner (if applicable) across the Davano’s (2000) term “semi-autonomy,” four years of college. Our hypothesis aligns Arnett describes emerging adults as having with the model of attachment transfer from incomplete independence, responsibility, and parents, to peers and romantic partners, and freedom. With this continued dependence and back to parents in emerging adulthood. We need for support, the emotional bond between also expect attachment functions (proximity parent and child may be strengthened after the maintenance, safe haven, and secure base) typical shift to peers and romantic partners, to move sequentially as the attachment shift therefore returning the primary attachment from parent to peer back to parent progresses. function to parents and family. Method Hypotheses Participants The literature has indicated that emerging Participants (N = 174) included females adulthood is an exceptionally stressful time ages 18-25 attending a women’s college in (Dahl, 2004), and resiliency is a protective the Southeast United States. Participants factor in a period of vulnerability and were recruited through Blackboard pages and transition (Masten et al., 2004). Past research undergraduate courses in various disciplines. has found that the trust and security of strong Extra credit was offered in the courses at the attachments provide support and resiliency discretion of the professors. Participants who
63 Explorations |Social Sciences did not meet the age restrictions were al- Woolard’s scale. The scale was developed by lowed to participate and receive extra credit, evaluating reliability indices by computing but their responses were not included in the Cronbach’s Alpha on Pantlin’s original analyses. Participation was voluntary and sample (N = 11; α = .745). There was a strong confidential, and participants were treated correlation between the scales (r = .85; in accordance with the “Ethical Principles p<.01). of Psychologists and Code of Conduct” Procedure (American Psychological Association, Participants gave informed consent and 2013). The participants were not otherwise indicated they were at least 18 years of age compensated. by continuing past the first page of the elec- Materials tronic survey. An overview of the confidenti- In April 2016, a survey was distributed ality procedure was provided indicating that including a demographic questionnaire, names would be replaced with numbers for attachment scales, the Brief Resiliency the duration of the study. The attachment Scale (Smith et al., 2008), and the Brief scale was completed for seven attachment Relational and Academic Stress Scale. The figures: two family members, two - home demographic portion of the survey asked town friends, two Meredith College friends, participants to identify age, class affiliation, and a romantic partner if applicable. The at- major, minor, licensure, grade point aver- tachment scale measured the three functions age, size of hometown, distance from home, of attachment (proximity maintenance, safe and program involvement. The attachment haven, secure base) and was combined for a scales were adapted from Fraley and Davis total attachment score. The attachment scores (1997) and used previously in the Meredith were combined for each type of attachment Emerging Adulthood Longitudinal Studies figure except romantic partners, as there was (Pantlin & Woolard, 2014). Participants were only one romantic partner reported. Where asked to think of an attachment figure (two these scores are compared, Z-scores are used hometown friends, two college friends, two in the analyses. After completing the survey, family members, and a romantic partner, if participants were provided contact informa- applicable) and rate six statements using tion for the researchers and information for a 7- point Likert scale (1 = Not at all, 7 = the on-campus counseling center. Definitely). Scale items assessed the attach- Results ment strength across all three functions of A stepwise regression with backward attachment (proximity maintenance, safe ha- elimination was chosen to predict stress ven, secure base). The Brief Resiliency Scale based on resiliency and attachments. This consisted of eight items measuring resiliency method of analysis was used to investigate as the ability to “bounce back” and “recover” whether the set of variables have significant from stress using a 7- point Likert scale (1 predictive capability even though a subset = Strongly disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree) of them may not. By testing the impact of (Smith et al., 2008). Participants needed an the deletion rather than the insertion into electronic device and Internet access to com- the model, variables that don’t predict plete the survey. well individually will have joint predictive Brief Relational and Academic Stress capability noticed. For the purpose of this Scale. Pantlin and Woolard (2014) adapted study, this method allowed us to investigate two stress scales to measure both academic the strength of attachments and resiliency and relational stress in emerging adults (see together as overlapping and inextricably also Busari 2011; Seligman & Wuyek, 2007). linked concepts of internal and external The original adaptation of the measure was resources. 41 items, and the current study utilized a An ANOVA was conducted to compare condensed 11 item version of Pantlin and total attachment to each type of figure
64 Alyson Mann
(hometown friends, college friends, family, was found (F(2, 102) = 3.526, p < .05), with romantic partner) across the four years an R2 of .254 suggesting that resiliency may of college. Total attachment scores were exert influence independent of attachment converted into Z-scores to include romantic strength. partners in the analysis, as the other scores Attachment Trends. A one-way ANOVA were an aggregate of reports on two figures. was conducted to compare total overall Attachment, Stress, and Resiliency. Stress attachment of each figure (hometown and resiliency were found to be significantly friend, college friend, family, and romantic correlated (r(174) = -.46, p < .01). Resiliency partner) between class years. A significant did not significantly correlate with any spe- difference was found in hometown friends cific attachment. Stress only correlated- sig across class year (F(1, 86)=4.499, p < .05; nificantly with attachment to college friends see Figure 1). When attachment functions (r(174) = -.23, p < .01). (proximity seeking, safe haven, secure base) A stepwise regression with pairwise were examined between freshman and senior exclusion of missing cases and backward year, only changes in hometown friendships elimination was performed to predict stress were significant. The change in safe haven based on resiliency and the strength of function for hometown friends was found to attachment to college friends, hometown be significant (F(1, 86) = 4.755, p < .05) and friends, family members, and romantic the change in secure base was approaching partners. Table 1 shows the results of significance (F(1, 86)=3.703, p < .058; See regression analysis with four significant Table 2). models. The first model includes all variables Discussion (hometown friends, college friends, family, Attachment, Stress, and Resiliency romantic partners, resiliency). A significant The hypothesis of the present study was regression equation was found (F(5, 99) = that participants with stronger attachments 2 7.109, p < .01), with an R of .264. The second and higher resiliency would report less model eliminated attachment to family and academic and relational stress. Regression remained significant (hometown friends, analysis was used to investigate the relation college friends, romantic partners, resiliency) between attachments, stress, and resiliency. 2 (F(4, 100) = 8.961, p < .01), with an R of Results indicated that higher resiliency and .264. The third model (hometown friends, stronger attachment to college friends were college friends, resiliency) had a significant significant predictors of lower stress. College regression equation after eliminating friends appear to serve as immediate support romantic partners (F(3, 101) = 12.041, p < and directly buffer stress better than other at- 2 .01), with an R of .263. tachment figures. The fourth model included college friends Attachments were still a significant and resiliency with a significant regression predictor of stress after controlling for equation (F(2, 102) = 18.093, p < .01), resiliency indicating that the relationships of 2 with an R of .262. This model eliminated hometown friends, college friends, family, the other attachments with beta values of and romantic partners may exert protective -0.41(hometown friends), -.033 (family influence on stress independent of resiliency. members), and - .032 (romantic partners). This does not support previous findings that Participants’ predicted stress was equal to suggest resiliency is a generative mechanism 84.517, with beta weights of -.616 (resilency) through which social support influences and -.173 (college friend). stress (Masten et al., 2004; Bovier, Chamot, A linear regression was conducted to & Pernerger, 2004). Similar to previous predict stress based only on attachments to studies, the present study recognizes the assess the role of resilience as a mediating predictive capability of strong attachments variable. A significant regression equation and resiliency, but findings suggest that
65 Explorations |Social Sciences the external resource of social support years of college. The trends supported the and the internal resource of resiliency hypothesis of attachment shift from family to may act independently. Classic theories of peers back to family. attachment are supported, indicating that Limitations attachment serves as a buffer to distress and The institution from which the sample was allows securely attached individuals to face derived has an all-female and largely in-state difficulties with less disruption (Bowlby, student body. The geographical distance 1969). from home may have influenced the home- Attachment Trends town and family relationships, as some of the We expected attachment functions typical separation felt during college would (proximity maintenance, safe haven, and be lessened by local accessibility (Seligman secure base) to move sequentially as the & Wuyeck, 2007). Additionally, attachment attachment shift from parent to peer back to transfer tends to be a function of relationship parent progresses. Among the functions of length and only longer lasting friendships attachment, safe haven changed significantly are likely to be attachment bonds (Fraley & from freshman to senior year and secure base Davis, 1997). This may explain hometown was approaching significance. In transition friends trending as the primary attachment years, college friends and family remain figure across all four years of college. An relatively stable. Although the interaction expanded sample and longitudinal studies between all class years and attachments was will be needed to clarify the nature of these not significant, trends indicate that hometown trends. friends are the primary attachment figure Conclusion across all four years of college (See Figure Stress is significantly predicted by- re 1). Differences in attachment across class siliency and attachment to college friends. years may not have been significant due to Attachment to hometown friends changes small sample size, as the original sample significantly in transition years, and all- at size was divided by class. The hypothesized tachment drops in senior year of college. The attachment transfer from parents to peers and transitional and unstable nature of emerg- romantic partners back to parents was seen in ing adulthood is reflected in the difficulty the secondary attachment figure throughout of identifying consistent trends. The clear- college (Arnett & Schwab, 2013; Fraley & est finding of the current study is the impor- Davis, 1997; see Figure 1). Family members tance of proximate social support structures were the secondary attachment figure in mediating stress during a challenging de- freshman, junior and senior year. College velopmental life stage. The stress buffering friends were the secondary attachment figure function of college friends is most salient in sophomore year. Romantic partners were not early transition years in college, indicating included in the observation of trends, as the the importance of peers who understand the other attachment scores were a sum of two immediate demands of academic and college figures. Overall, attachment drops among related social stress. Whereas family and all figures in senior year, but particularly hometown friends may provide longer-term hometown friends (see Figure 1). This could attachment functions relevant to the concerns be a reflection of the imminent changes of about an uncertain future common among graduation and another transitional period college seniors. of emerging adulthood. Future studies will continue to investigate the strength of attachment to different figures across the four
66 Alyson Mann
Figure 1: Mean attachment score for each figure (hometown friends, college friends, family) for each class year. Standard errors are represented in the figure by the error bars attached to each column.
Table 1: Summary of Multiple Linear Regression Analysis with Backward Elimination for Variables Predicting Stress
Note: Pairwise elimination was performed for missing data *p < .05. **p < .01
67 Explorations |Social Sciences Attachment Function by Class Year Table 2: Table Soph
68 Alyson Mann
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American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5. Washington, D.C: American Psychiatric Association.
Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469-480.
Arnett J. J., & Schwab, J. (2013). The Clark University Poll of Parents of Emerging Adults: Harmony, support, and (occasional) conflict. Worcester, MA: Clark University.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vol. 3. Attachment. New York, NY: Basic Books
Bovier, P.A., Chamot, E., Perneger, T.V. (2004). Perceived stress, internal resources, and social support as determinants of mental health among young adults. Quality of Life Research 13, 161–170.
Busari, A. O. (2011). Validation of Student Academic Stress Scale (SASS). European Journal of Social Science, 21, 94-105.
Dahl, R. E. (2004). Adolescent brain development: A period of vulnerabilities and opportuni ties. Keynote Address. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 1–22.
Doherty, N. A., & Feeney, J. A. (2004). The composition of attachment networks throughout the adult years. Personal Relationships, 11, 469-488.
Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
Fraley, R. C., & Davis, K. E. (1997). Attachment formation and transfer in young adults’ close friendships and romantic relationships. Personal relationships, 4(2), 131-144.
Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. R. (1994). Attachment as an organizational framework for research on close relationships. Psychological Inquiry, 5(1), 1-22.
Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. R. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511-524.
Hazan, C., & Zeifman, D. (1994). Attachment processes in adulthood. In Bartholomew K., Perlman D. (Eds.), Advances in personal relationships, Vol. 5. (pp. 151–178). London, UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Masten, A. S., Burt, K. B., Roisman, G. I., Obradovic, J., Long, J. D., & Tellegen, A. (2004). Resources and resilience in the transition to adulthood: Continuity and change. Development and Psychopathology, 16(4), 1071-94.
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70 71 The Relation Between Impulsivity and Neighborhood Safety on Attitudes Toward Risky Sexual Behavior
Melissa Mayfield, Brittany Armstrong and Erin Denio University of North Carolina - Greensboro Faculty Mentor: Susan P. Keane University of North Carolina - Greensboro ABSTRACT Existing work has suggested a link between early impulsivity and risky behavior in adoles- cence. Despite the negative ramifications of risky sexual behavior in adolescence, few studies have examined impulsivity and risky behavior that is sexual in nature. The current study exam- ined impulsivity in middle childhood as a predictor of attitudes toward risky sexual behavior (RSB) in adolescence. Neighborhood safety was also examined as a protective factor for at- titudes toward RSB. Participants included 249 children from a longitudinal study of devel- opment. Impulsivity (age 10) was measured using mother-report on the Behavior Assessment System for Children. Attitudes towards RSB (age 15) were assessed using adolescent-report on the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System. Neighborhood safety (age 15) was measured using mother-report on the Neighborhood Location and Structural Characteristics question- naire. Regression analyses yielded a main effect of impulsivity on healthy attitudes towards RSB (β =-0.58 p<.05). Neighborhood safety moderated the association (β=0.135 p<.05) such that neighborhood safety amplified the positive effects of low impulsivity on healthy attitudes toward RSB. Findings provide additional support for impulsivity as a risk factor for adolescent risk taking. Additionally, neighborhood safety and impulsivity interacted to predict unhealthy attitudes towards RSB. More work is needed to examine potential mechanisms explaining these relations and other risk and protective factors.
dolescence has long been characterized 1997; Biglan & Cody, 2003; Sickmund Aas a transitional period of emotional & Puzzanchera, 2014). Adolescent risky instability, risk-taking, and acting without behavior has also been linked to a myriad thinking (Romer, Reyna, & Pardo, 2016). of serious health complications involving Adolescents are often expected to display preventable injuries, sexually transmitted higher levels of sensation-seeking with little diseases, heart disease, and cognitive forethought. To this point, there appears to deficits (Centers for Disease Control and be a small subsection of youth who engage Prevention, 2015). Aside from medical in a disproportionate amount of high-risk concerns, risky behavior is linked to 72% behaviors that are problematic for both of all deaths between the ages of 10 and 24 themselves and society (Romer, 2010). For (American Psychological Association, 2002). example, in the United States, fewer than Understandably, adolescent risk-taking is a 10% of all juvenile offenders are chronic major concern for social scientists as they offenders. However, 10% of these offenders attempt to understand, explain, and prevent are responsible for two-thirds of all violent maladaptive risky behavior in America’s offenses (United States Department of Justice, youth.
72 Mayfield, Armstrong and Denio
In order to achieve this goal, many behaviors such as alcohol use, cigarette smok- researchers have attempted to identify ing, drug use, violence, and school problems antecedents of risky behavior patterns. (Caspi & Silva, 1995; Romer et al., 2009; Fulkerson and colleagues (2006) divided Romer et al., 2011; Jaser, Yates, Dumser, & risky behavior into 8 high-risk behavior Whittemore, 2011; Treloar et al., 2012). For patterns: the Alcohol Risk Pattern, the example, if a teen is suddenly asked by a peer Tobacco Risk Pattern, the Illicit Drug Risk to participate in cigarette smoking, this teen Pattern, the Sexual Intercourse Risk Pattern, may be more likely to engage in the activ- the Depression-Suicide Risk Pattern, the ity if they typically act without thinking. Antisocial Risk Pattern, the Violence Risk However, there is limited literature involving Pattern, and the School Problems Risk the relation between impulsivity and sexual Pattern. These risk patterns represent life- behaviors that are risky in nature. When risky course persistent development paths that can sexual behavior (RSB) is mentioned in the lit- be traced back to temperament styles that are erature, it is often conceptualized as the act of evident in early childhood (Moffitt, 1993; sexual intercourse and/or the lack of protec- Romer, 2010). In fact, externalizing behaviors tion against pregnancy and STDs (Fulkerson have been suggested to be linked to a set of et al., 2006; Braddock et al., 2011; Khurana core temperament traits (e.g., impulsivity) et al., 2015; 2012; Romer, Reyna, & Pardo, which can be observed as early as 3 years 2016). However, RSB involves more than old (Caspi & Silva, 1995; Caspi, Henry, these two concrete behaviors. McGee, Moffitt, & Silva, 1995; Kreuger et According to the Centers for Disease al., 2002; Romer, 2010). Impulsivity, which Control and Prevention (2015), RSB is any is characterized by impatience, sensation- behavior that poses a threat to one’s sexual seeking, and the tendency to act without health. These behaviors include actions that forethought, has been linked to future risk- increase the risk for HIV, STDs, and unin- taking behaviors (Romer, 2010; Braddock tended pregnancy. RSB is noted among the et al., 2011; Treloar et al., 2012). Examining leading causes of preventable deaths in the impulsivity as a precursor of risky behavior United States (Mokdad, Marks, Stroup, & may help us understand and potentially Gerberding, 2004). However, healthy sexual prevent the development of harmful risky behavior is not limited to the absence of dis- behavior patterns. ease or conception. Sexual health encom- When exploring the relation between im- passes both healthy sexual behaviors and pulsivity and risky behaviors, Romer (2016) healthy sexual attitudes that allow for sexual divided risk-taking into two groups: 1) mal- experiences that are safe, appropriate, and adaptive risk behaviors such as substance use free of coercion, discrimination, and violence and risky sex and 2) adaptive risk behaviors (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, such as participation in sports and competi- 2015). While the literature on impulsivity and tions. Romer found that rash-impulsive traits risky behavior has begun to examine the rela- were associated with maladaptive risk be- tion between childhood impulsivity and later haviors, but not adaptive ones. These find- sexual risk-taking, little research has investi- ings suggest that early signs of impulsivity gated the impact of childhood impulsivity on in childhood may be more predictive of the adolescent attitudes toward RSB. Thus, this maladaptive high-risk behavior patterns is one purpose of this study. Fulkerson et al. (2006) proposed. In contrast, In terms of prevention, it is important to they may be less predictive of the average identify and understand variables that may (or adaptive) array of risky behaviors seen in act as risk or protective factors. Extensive adolescence. research has identified how lower cognitive The link between impulsivity and high-risk ability and lower working memory can con- patterns has been suggested for many risky fer risk on sexual risk-taking. For example,
73 Explorations |Social Sciences we know adolescents with lower cognitive environmental influence that may contribute abilities are at a greater risk for premature to adolescent attitudes toward RSB. Studies sexual initiation, early childbearing, and hav- generally show that neighborhood and ing sexual relations with multiple partners community characteristics have significant (Halpern, Joyner, Udry, & Suchindran, 2000; effects on both the development and Khurana et al., 2015). These results indicate prevention of problem behaviors in youth. that cognitive capacity has an impact on sex- Neighborhood safety is typically assessed ual risk-taking behavior. More importantly, via parental report on the frequency of the cognitive content also seems to be impor- crime and violence in one’s neighborhood tant in the decision to engage in risky behav- (Pinderhughes et al., 2001). Unsafe iors. In particular, feedback processing (the neighborhood characteristics have been cognitive ability to understand and assess the linked to other risk-taking behaviors related consequences of a decision) appears to be to juvenile offending, antisocial peer groups, related to the ability to make healthy evalua- and school problems (Chung & Steinberg, tions of objective risk conditions (Schiebener 2006; Chung, Mulvey, & Steinberg, 2011). & Brand, 2015). Pertaining to this study, this Neighborhood safety also relates to exter- suggests that the evaluation of, or attitudes nalizing behaviors (including risky behav- towards, risky sexual behaviors may be an iors) in children and adolescents through its important factor to consider in conceptualiz- impact on parental stress (Franco, Pottick, & ing risk for later RSB. Huang, 2010). Low levels of neighborhood Empirically, adolescent perceptions and safety, which are marked by aversive neigh- attitudes toward risk have been linked to borhood events such as crime and vandalism, risky behaviors. Feinberg, Ridenour, and predict higher reports of stress and feelings Greenberg (2007) found that attitudes toward of powerlessness (Guterman, Lee, Taylor, risky behavior correlate positively with & Rathouz, 2009). Parental stress levels in risky behavioral tendencies. Adolescents turn can negatively affect a child’s develop- with attitudes that tolerated, encouraged, or ment of prosocial attitudes and behaviors, as underestimated the consequences of risky higher parental stress inhibits adaptive par- behaviors were more likely to participate in ent-child relations (Pinderhughes et al., 2001; those risky behaviors. In multiple studies, Franco, Pottick, & Huang, 2010; Guterman risk attitudes have been found to mediate et al., 2009) that allow for healthy child de- the relation between measures of impulsivity velopment. Thus, we propose that neighbor- and risky behaviors such as alcohol and drug hood safety will relate to adolescent attitudes use (Romer, 2010; Jaser, et al., 2011; Mishra toward RSB as well. & Lalumière, 2016). For example, Mishra The link between neighborhood structure & Lalumière found risk attitudes to be and RSB has also been established empiri- associated with impulsive and shortsighted cally. For example, Leventhal & Brooks- behaviors such as engaging in unprotected Gunn (2000) reported a number of studies sex. Considering the impact that attitudes supporting a link between neighborhood have on behavior, it may be important to socioeconomic status (SES) and adolescent examine how other factors impact attitudes. sexual activity. Specifically, low SES neigh- Examining the relation between impulsivity borhoods consistently predicted higher rates and adolescents’ attitudes toward RSB may of adolescent childbearing, younger age of increase our understanding of an individual first intercourse, and lower rates of reported difference variable that relates to high-risk contraception use at first intercourse (Pleck, sexual behavior engagement. However, there Sonenstein, & Ku, 1990; Crane, 1991; may also be environmental factors that shape Leventhal & Brooks-Gunn, 2000). This re- adolescents’ attitudes toward RSB. lation may be explained through Bandura’s A child’s neighborhood is one (1969) Social Learning Theory. According
74 Mayfield, Armstrong and Denio to Bandura, the processes of observation, potential moderating effect of neighbor- imitation, and modeling may shape a child’s hood safety on this association. Our goal is attitudes in a way that mirrors one’s environ- to contribute to a better understanding of the ment. Low SES neighborhoods, which tend relation between impulsivity in middle child- to have fewer resources and opportunities, hood and healthy attitudes toward RSB in may provide more models of RSB than high adolescence. SES neighborhoods (Bandura, 1969; Crane, Consistent with previous literature, it was 1991; Leventhal & Brooks-Gunn, 2000). hypothesized that there would be a nega- Thus, children in low SES neighborhoods tive relation between these children’s im- may be more likely to evaluate high-risk pulsivity in middle childhood and later re- sexual behaviors as normative and develop ported healthy attitudes towards RSB. This unhealthy attitudes towards RSB. would indicate that children who displayed Considering the strong correlation be- high levels of impulsivity would show less tween SES and perceptions of neighborhood healthy attitudes toward RSB in adolescence. safety, particularly for urban neighborhoods It was also hypothesized that higher levels (Bowen & Chapman, 1996; Feldman & of neighborhood safety in middle childhood Steptoe, 2004), we believe that perceptions would predict healthier attitudes toward RSB of neighborhood safety will impact child de- in adolescence. To address our second goal, velopment in ways similar to neighborhood we examined whether neighborhood safety SES. That is, we predict neighborhood safety buffered the relation between impulsivity on to negatively correlate with unhealthy atti- attitudes toward RSB. It was hypothesized tudes toward RSB. Consistent with research that neighborhood safety would interact with suggesting that neighborhood safety moder- impulsivity to predict attitudes toward RSB, ates the link between family variables and such that children with higher levels of im- adolescent risk-taking, we predict that neigh- pulsivity and whose mothers reported safe borhood safety will work to protect children neighborhood characteristics would have from developing unhealthy attitudes toward healthier attitudes toward RSB than would be RSB. This is the second goal of this study. predicted by impulsivity alone. The Current Study Methods Healthy attitudes toward RSB acknowl- Recruitment and Attrition edge the risks, such as unintended pregnancy, The current study utilized data from inherent in premature and unprotected sexual three cohorts of children who are part of activities. For example, a teen with healthy an ongoing longitudinal study of social and attitudes toward RSB may understand the emotional development (Smith, Calkins, & importance of using protection during sexual Keane, 2006). The goal for recruitment was to intercourse in order to prevent pregnancy. obtain a sample of children who were at risk Since healthy attitudes are at least in part a for developing future externalizing behavior reflection of an adolescent’s knowledge of problems, and who were representative of the risks involved in sexual activity, exter- the surrounding community in terms of nal factors that impact the education and ac- race and socioeconomic status (SES). All knowledgement of these risks may serve to cohorts were recruited through child day moderate the relation between impulsivity in care centers, the County Health Department, middle childhood and adolescent attitudes to- and the local Women, Infants, and Children ward RSB. In the present study, we examine (WIC) program. Potential participants for neighborhood safety as a moderator. cohorts 1 and 2 were recruited at 2-years Our goals in the present study were two- of age (cohort 1: 1994-1996 and cohort 2: fold. First, we examined impulsivity in mid- 2000-2001) and screened using the Child dle childhood as it relates to attitudes toward Behavior Checklist (CBCL 2-3; Achenbach, RSB in adolescence. We also examined the 1992), completed by the mother, in order
75 Explorations |Social Sciences to over-sample for externalizing behavior assessment, χ2 (1, N = 447) = 9.31, p = .002. problems. Children were identified as being Participants at risk for future externalizing behaviors The sample for the current study included if they received an externalizing T-score of 249 families (145 girls, 104 boys) who par- 60 or above. Efforts were made to obtain ticipated in the 10 and 15-year assessments. approximately equal numbers of males and Four participants were dropped from the cur- females. This recruitment effort resulted in a rent study due to developmental delays. In total of 307 children. Cohort 3 was initially addition, only participants with complete data recruited when infants were 6 months of for all variables of interest were included in age (in 1998) for their level of frustration, the analyses. Sixty-six percent of the sample based on laboratory observation and parent was European American, twenty-eight per- report, and were followed through the toddler cent African American, and six percent other. period (see Calkins, Dedmon, Gill, Lomax, Families were economically diverse based & Johnson, 2002, for more information). on Hollingshead (1975) scores at the 10-year Children from Cohort 3 whose mothers assessment, with a range from 17 to 66 (M = completed the CBCL at two-years of age 44.93, SD = 11.90), and represented families (N = 140) were then included in the larger from each level of social strata typically cap- study. Of the entire sample (N = 447), 37% tured by this scale. Hollingshead scores that of children were identified as being at risk for range from 40 to 54 reflect minor professional future externalizing problems. There were no and technical occupations considered to be significant demographic differences between representative of middle class. cohorts with regard to gender, χ2 (2, N = 447) Procedures = .63, p = .73, race, χ2 (2, N = 447) = 1.13, Participants and their mothers participated p = .57, or two-year SES, F (2, 444) = .53, in an ongoing longitudinal study when the p = .59. children were 10 and 15 years of age. Families Of the 447 originally selected participants, came to the university for two laboratory vis- six were dropped because they did not par- its, during which children and their mothers ticipate in any data collection at 2 years old. engaged in various tasks designed to elicit An additional 12 families participated at re- emotional and behavioral responding and cruitment, did not participate at two-year, but parent-child interactions. At each visit, chil- did participate at later years. At age 10, 357 dren/adolescents and their mothers completed families participated, including 31 families a packet of questionnaires in separate rooms that did not participate in the 7-year assess- with separate examiners. During the consent ment. No significant differences were noted and assent process participants were informed between families who did and did not par- that their information would be kept confiden- ticipate in the 10-year assessment in terms of tial unless abuse, neglect, or suicidal ideations child gender, χ2 (1, N = 447) = 3.31, p = .07; were reported. Families no longer living in race, χ2 (3, N = 447) = 3.12, p = .08; 2-year the area were asked to complete and return a SES, t (432) = .02, p = .98; or 2-year external- packet of questionnaires mailed to their home. izing T score, t (445) = -.11, p = .91. At age The current study utilized child self-report 15, 327 families participated, including 27 questionnaires from the 15-year time point and families that did not participate in the 10-year maternal questionnaires from the 10 and 15- assessment. There were no significant differ- year time point. ences between families who did and did not Measures participate in the 15-year assessment in terms Demographics. Mothers completed ques- of race, χ2 (3, N = 447) = 3.96, p = .27; 2-year tionnaires to provide demographic informa- SES, t (432) = -.56, p = .58; or 2-year exter- tion, such as child’s sex and ethnicity, parent nalizing T score, t (445) = .24, p = .81. Boys marital status, and income and education for were less likely to participate in the 15-year each parent.
76 Mayfield, Armstrong and Denio
Impulsivity. Mothers reported on their by the CDC to monitor health risk behaviors perceptions of the child’s behavior using the (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 160-item Behavior Assessment System for 2005). Questions from the YRBSS were Children 2nd Edition (BASC-2; Reynolds reworded to ask participants to rate how much & Kamphaus, 2004) when children were they agreed or disagreed with statements age 10. Mothers responded to statements about risky behaviors being “okay,” rather indicating how well a range of adaptive and than reporting on frequency of their own maladaptive behaviors describes the child re- behaviors. Response options ranged from cently within the last several months. Each 0 to 4 and included (0 = strongly agree, 1 question uses a scale of 0 to 3 indicating how = agree, 2 = neither agree nor disagree, 3 = frequently the behaviors occur (0 = never, 1 disagree, 4 = strongly disagree). Seven items = sometimes, 2 = often, 3 = almost always). were phrased differently from other items, A sum of 5 items assessing the child’s impul- using the phrasing “it is important” or “teens sivity was used in the current study; higher should” rather than “it is okay.” For instance, scores indicated higher impulsivity. Sample “It is important to be concerned about getting items include statements such as, “acts with- HIV/AIDS,” and “Birth control should be out thinking” and “has poor self-control.” used when s/he has sexual intercourse.” Internal reliability for these items was ad- Due to these changes in phrasing, these equate (Cronbach’s alpha = .76). items were reverse coded such that higher Neighborhood safety. Mothers completed scores indicated higher approval of these the Neighborhood Location and Structural safety behaviors (higher scores on other Characteristics questionnaire which assesses items indicated greater disapproval of risky the quality and social aspects of the neigh- behavior). The current study used the sexual borhood, using participant perceptions of the behaviors subscale which included 14 items neighborhood (Chung & Steinberg, 2006). such as, “it is okay to have had several sexual Mothers reported on 16 items about their partners” and “it is important to be concerned family’s current neighborhood when chil- about getting an STD” with higher scores dren were age 15. Of note, the Neighborhood indicating healthier attitudes toward RSB. Location and Structural Characteristics ques- Internal reliability for this scale was adequate tionnaire was not administered to parents (Cronbach’s alpha = .76). when children were age 10, thus, data col- Data Analytic Strategy lected at 15 year were employed in the cur- The present study included participants rent study. The current study used the neigh- with complete data for all measures at ages borhood safety subscale which includes 5 10 and 15 (N=249). SPSS (IBM Corp., 2012) items such as “how often are there problems was used to compute descriptive statistics with muggings, burglaries, assaults, or any- and measure the correlation between all thing else like that around here” and “how measures. Also using SPSS, a multiple linear much of a problem is the selling and using of regression analysis was calculated to predict drugs around your neighborhood.” An aver- attitudes toward RSB at age 15 based on age score was calculated such that higher val- impulsivity and neighborhood safety. ues indicating higher neighborhood safety. Results Internal reliability for this scale was adequate Preliminary Analyses (Cronbach’s alpha = .78). Data from the Neighborhood Location Attitudes toward risky sexual behavior. and Structural Characteristics questionnaire Adolescents reported on 60 items assessing and the Attitudes Toward Risky Behavior their perceptions of how “okay” various questionnaire were imputed at the single risky behaviors are when they were 15 years item level to account for missing items (e.g., old. Items are from the Youth Risk Behavior a mother chose not to answer certain items, Surveillance System (YRBSS), developed accidentally skipped items, or skipped a
77 Explorations |Social Sciences page of items). Imputation was completed by attitudes toward RSB in adolescence (r = removing all cases with completely missing -.16, p < .05) and with positively associated data and using the expectation maximization with neighborhood safety at age 15 (r = .19, (EM) method to impute at the item level for p < .01). the remaining participants. The BASC-2 was Regression Analyses not imputed due to the standardized nature of Hierarchical linear regression analyses the measure. were conducted to test the main and modera- Descriptive statistics were examined to tion effects of impulsivity and neighborhood assess for normality. Data for all variables safety on adolescent attitudes toward RSB. fell within normal limits. The Neighborhood Continuous variables were centered by sub- Location and Structural Characteristics tracting the grand mean score of each vari- questionnaire had a minimum score of 3.3 able from the data. At the first step, impulsiv- and maximum score of 50. The mean of ity at age 10 and neighborhood safety at age the Neighborhood Location and Structural 15 were entered to assess for main effects. Characteristics questionnaire was 41.3 and The interaction term of impulsivity X neigh- the standard deviation was 7.8. The Attitudes borhood safety was calculated by multiplying Toward Risky Behavior questionnaire had centered impulsivity with centered neighbor- a minimum score of 1.6 and a maximum hood safety and was entered in the second score of 4 with a mean of 3.1. The Attitudes step of the regression. Table 2 describes the Toward Risky Behavior questionnaire had a beta weights and significance levels for all standard deviation of 0.5. The BASC-2 had steps of the regression. Consistent with pre- a minimum score of .00 and maximum score vious literature, children’s impulsivity sig- of 13. The mean of the BASC-2 was 3.9. The nificantly predicted adolescent’s attitudes BASC-2 had a standard deviation of 2.3. towards RBS. More specifically, as rates of T-tests were conducted to assess for poten- impulsivity increased when children were tial sex differences across the study’s vari- 10, adolescents were more likely to endorse ables. Analyses indicated that girls tended to less healthy attitudes toward RSB (β = -.16 p have healthier attitudes toward RSB (t (247)= < .01). There was no significant main effect -6.53, p < .001). No other sex differences for neighborhood safety (β = .007, p = .91). were observed among study variables. However, there was a significant moderation Correlations among demographic variables of the link between children’s impulsivity indicate several significant differences for and later attitudes toward RSB (β = -.14, p < race and socioeconomic status (SES). More .05). A simple slope analysis was conducted specifically, race was significantly associated using the guidelines developed by Aiken and with SES. In addition, families reporting West (1991). Results indicated that children higher SES had children with healthier with moderate (t(245) = -2.76, p < .01) and attitudes toward RSB in adolescence (r = .15, high (t(245) = -3.18, p < .01) levels of neigh- p < .05). In terms of neighborhood safety, borhood safety and lower rates of impulsivity Caucasian participants reported living in were more likely to report healthier attitudes safer neighborhoods compared to African towards RSB at age 15 (see Figure 1). In fact, American or “other race” participants (F(3, children with the lowest rates of impulsivity 245) = 3.42, p = .018; Caucasian: M=42.32, at age 10 and the highest levels of neighbor- SD=6.76; African American: M=39.66, hood safety reported the healthiest attitudes SD=8.42; Mixed: M=36.33, SD=14.88). towards RSB at age 15. Correlations among study variables were Discussion also examined (see Table 1). Significant The first goal of the current study was to correlations were in the expected direction. test whether impulsivity in middle childhood Children’s impulsivity at age 10 was sig- predicted healthy attitudes toward RSB in ad- nificantly negatively correlated with healthy olescence. Consistent with previous literature
78 Mayfield, Armstrong and Denio and our hypothesis, children with higher lev- RSB; instead, neighborhood safety amplified els of impulsivity at age 10 were more likely the positive effects of low impulsivity on to have unhealthy attitudes toward RSB at healthy attitudes toward RSB. Children with age 15. Although the link between impulsiv- low impulsivity who lived in neighborhoods ity and risky behaviors has been documented categorized as moderately and highly in numerous studies (Braddock et al., 2011; safe at age 10, had the healthiest attitudes Treloar et al., 2012), the link between impul- toward RSB at age 15 (see Figure 1). That sivity and attitudes toward risky behaviors is, for adolescents with low impulsivity, has been less clear. These results indicate neighborhood safety has additional benefits, that children’s impulsivity may be important specifically when involving adolescent to consider in the development of adolescent attitudes toward RSB. However, the negative cognitions about risky behavior, not just the impact of high impulsivity on adolescent behavior itself. However, it is also important attitudes toward RSB was not ameliorated by to note that the correlation between impul- neighborhood safety. With this in mind, it is sivity and attitudes toward RSB, although important to look at other factors, aside from significant, is relatively small r( = -.16), sug- an adolescent’s neighborhood environment, gesting a weak relation. This indicates that that may play a part in adolescent attitude there are other factors influencing the forma- formation and involvement with RSB. tion of adolescent attitudes toward RSB. For example, adolescents may need more In fact, another potential predictor of atti- proximal positive influences, such as positive tudes toward RSB is neighborhood safety. We family factors and peer relationships, to cope hypothesized that higher neighborhood safety with high levels of impulsivity. would predict healthier attitudes toward RSB RSB in adolescence is influenced by fam- in adolescence. However, neighborhood ily factors. Markham and colleagues (2010) safety was not correlated with attitudes to- conducted a systematic review of the lit- ward RSB. This finding is inconsistent with erature of adolescent family connectedness previous literature examining the effects of on adolescent RSB. Family connectedness, community characteristics on risk-taking be- measured by adolescent attachment, bond- haviors in general (Chung & Steinberg, 2006; ing, affiliation, trust, and belonging to a Fulkerson et al., 2006); however, these stud- family group, may reduce risk for adoles- ies did not look specifically at RSB. There cent RSB. Markham and colleagues (2010) may be something different about attitudes highlight two specific protective factors for toward behaviors that are sexual in nature adolescent RSB: parent-adolescent commu- that sets them apart from other forms of risky nication about sex and parental monitoring. behaviors, such as drug use and violence. In Their results indicate that increased commu- addition, it is possible that some adolescents nication about sex was protective against ad- were reluctant to provide accurate informa- olescent’s early sexual initiation, in particu- tion regarding their attitudes to RSB, despite lar. Likewise, parental monitoring decreased assurances of confidentiality. rates of adolescent participation in early The second goal of this study was to examine sexual initiation and contraction of sexually whether neighborhood safety buffered the transmitted infections as well as increased relation between children’s impulsivity on adolescent contraceptive use. Results such as attitudes toward RSB. As hypothesized, these confirm that family factors, including neighborhood safety moderated the effect of communication and parental monitoring, are impulsivity on adolescent attitudes toward strongly associated with adolescent sexual RSB. However, the moderation effect was behaviors. Therefore, it is possible that more different than predicted. Neighborhood safety proximal family variables are more important did not buffer against the negative impact of in determining adolescent RSB behaviors impulsivity on unhealthy attitudes toward than the neighborhood environment. Further
79 Explorations |Social Sciences examination of adolescent attitudes toward attitudes toward RSB. By examining and RSB may enhance our understanding of the understanding other risk and protective variables that predict positive and negative factors related to RSB, we can facilitate behavioral outcomes. parenting techniques and develop beneficial Data also suggest that peers have a strong programs to address risky and unhealthy influence on adolescent attitudes and risky sexual behaviors. In addition to considering behaviors. Gifford-Smith, Dodge, Dishion, other moderating factors, future work could and McCord (2005) explain that if one ado- look at a later stage in adolescence (e.g., age lescent in a peer group is partaking in risky 17). It is possible more RSB is taking place behaviors it is more likely for other adoles- during late adolescence, marking this time cents in the peer group to participate in risky as an important period to examine attitudes behaviors. For example, if one adolescent toward RSB. participates in early sexual initiation, other We view this work as a first step in under- adolescents from his/her peer group are then standing the relation between impulsivity and more likely to engage in the same risky be- contextual risk variables on attitudes toward havior. Peer group influence is a powerful RSB. However, the study is not without limi- influence and if an adolescent is afforded op- tations. For instance, one limitation was its portunity to interact with risk-taking peers, sole reliance on questionnaire data. Future positive family factors may no longer be a studies should consider using observational protective factor against risk-taking behav- measures of impulsivity (e.g., Continuous iors (Gifford-Smith et al. 2005). However, if Performance Test; behavioral coding), or us- parents are aware that their adolescent’s peer ing census data to assess neighborhood risk. group participates in risky behaviors and re- It is also possible that teens may not be re- strict their adolescent’s involvement in the porting honestly about their attitudes toward peer group, this parental monitoring may buf- RSB. Thus, peer report on their friend’s at- fer the negative impact of the peer group. On titudes toward RSB may be informational for the other hand, continued exposure to a group understanding teen’s attitudes toward RSB. of risk-taking peers will in turn influence the In addition, only a small amount of variance adolescent’s own risk taking attitudes and in attitudes toward RSB was explained by behaviors (Galan, Shaw, Dishion, & Wilson, this model (4%), indicating that other fac- 2016). Overall, family and peer factors may tors are important to include in future work. be important to consider in the context of There are multiple environmental and indi- impulsivity and attitudes toward RSB, aside vidual difference variables that, when taken from neighborhood safety. It is possible that together, may better explain adolescent atti- adolescents living in unsafe neighborhoods tudes toward RSB. with close family and less risky peers will be Despite some limitations, the current study protected against risk taking attitudes and be- has multiple strengths. For instance, multiple haviors that are sexual in nature. reporters were employed in the assessment of Given the documented importance of study variables, limiting the impact of same- family and peers in predicting adolescent reporter bias. More specifically, impulsivity risky behavior, future studies may wish and neighborhood safety were assessed by to examine the interplay of parent, peer maternal report, but teens reported on their and environment on the relation between attitudes toward RSB. Given the internal impulsivity and adolescent attitudes toward nature of attitudes and the private nature RSB. This additional exploration of family of sex, self-report may be a more accurate factors (e.g. connectedness, communication, indicator of this construct. Additionally, the parental monitoring) and peer factors may longitudinal design permitted a prospective lead to a better understanding of how and why analysis of the research questions. To adolescents form healthy versus unhealthy our knowledge this is the first study that
80 Mayfield, Armstrong and Denio examined factors in per-adolescence that influence of the neighborhood environment. relate to later attitudes toward RSB in early In addition, there may be something struc- adolescent, which is a particularly salient turally different about attitudes toward RSB time. The transition from pre-adolescence to that sets them apart from other forms of risky adolescence is an important period when peer behavior. Finally, neighborhood safety and influences may outweigh parental influences impulsivity did interact to predict unhealthy in attitude formation (Galan et al., 2016). attitudes towards RSB. Neighborhood safety Our study indicates that for those with high amplified the positive effects of low impul- impulsivity in childhood, neighborhood sivity on healthy attitudes toward RSB. For safety alone does not protect against forming adolescents who were reported to have low unhealthy attitudes during adolescence. impulsivity at age 10, those currently living However, literature shows that both family in a neighborhood with higher safety have factors and peer factors can buffer the negative attitudes toward RSB that amplify above impact of unhealthy attitudes toward RSB. the main effect of impulsivity. More work Therefore, future research should examine is needed to examine potential mechanisms these factors in concert. explaining these relations and other risk and In conclusion, the present study provides protective factors. additional support for impulsivity as a risk Acknowledgments factor for adolescent risk-taking. Children Support for this project was provided by a with higher levels of impulsivity were more grant from the National Institutes of Mental likely to have unhealthy attitudes toward Health (55625, 58144, & 55584) awarded to RSB at age 15. It was expected that neighbor- Dr. Susan D. Calkins, Dr. Susan P. Keane, hood safety would be related to attitudes to- Dr. Marion O’Brien, and Dr. Lilly Shanahan. ward RSB as well; however, results indicated I would like to specifically thank Dr. Susan no correlation between the two. This finding Keane for her support and assistance with is inconsistent with previous literature, but this paper and for being an exceptional men- these studies examined other forms of risky tor during my undergraduate career. Also, a behavior (e.g. drug use, violence) and not huge thank you to all of the RIGHT Track RSB. It is also possible the influence of family families for participating! and peer factors on RSB may overpower the
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Table 1: Correlation Coefficients for Study Variables
Table 2: Attitudes Toward RSB Regressed onto Impulsivity, Neighborhood Safety, and Their Interaction
82 Mayfield, Armstrong and Denio
Figure 1: Children’s impulsivity and neighborhood safety interact to predict adolescent attitudes towards sex. * Indicates a significant slope.
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86 87 Neurocognitive Factors Related to Trauma Symptoms and Emotion Regulation
Marie Rodriguez University of North Carolina Wilmington Faculty Mentor: Kate Nooner University of North Carolina Wilmington
ABSTRACT Previous research has found that implicit or automatic emotion regulation (AER) is a less stud- ied aspect of emotion regulation, and that it may also be useful for coping with negative emo- tions following traumatic experiences. Alterations in brain function and trauma symptoms have both been linked to deficits in emotion regulation; however, they have not been studied together with AER. We hypothesized that brain changes related to poorer AER would be more strongly associated with negative facial emotions than with positive ones. In addition, we hypothesized that higher trauma symptoms would also be associated with brain changes for positive and negative faces but not neutral. To test these hypotheses, the current study examined AER and trauma symptoms in twenty-three college students while measuring event-related potentials (ERP) with electroencephalography (EEG) during a cued implicit response inhibition task. Results indicated no differences in brain function as measured with ERP latencies at the two electrode sites for the positive, negative, and neutral faces. However, higher trauma symptoms were significantly related to shorter ERP latencies for neutral and negative faces but not for positive. Examining the ways in which trauma symptoms are related to implicit and explicit emotion regulation as well as brain function may help researchers develop novel interventions aimed at improving outcomes for individuals who have trauma symptoms.
motion regulation is the process search is automatic emotion regulation Eof responding to life events and (AER), which is the implicit process of regu- experiences with a range of emotions that lating emotions without consciously exerting are socially and individually appropriate to any effort to do so (Mauss, Cook, & Gross, the situation. Effective emotion regulation 2007; Zaki & Williams, 2013). Though most is flexible and facilitates modifying and of the current research has focused on explicit delaying emotional reactions according to emotion regulation, the current study is one the situation (Zaki & Williams, 2013). In of the first to examine implicit emotion regu- traumatized individuals, particularly those lation. Previous research has found that AER with symptoms of post-traumatic stress is necessary for individual wellbeing and can disorder (PTSD), researchers have found be useful in reducing the undesired or prob- that regulating emotions, especially negative lematic impact of negative emotions, such as ones, can be difficult (Etkin, Prater, Hoeft, anger, in a more immediate and fluid man- Menon, & Schatzberg, 2010; Shepherd & ner than explicit emotion regulation (Mauss Wild, 2014). Given the need for emotion et al. 2007; Mauss, Bunge, & Gross, 2007). regulation in everyday life, an aspect of Previous electroencephalography (EEG) emotion regulation that is emerging in re- studies of brain function have found that
88 Marie Rodriguez individuals with PTSD have difficulty regu- with difficulty regulating, and specifically lating and reducing negative emotions and reducing, negative emotions. However, de- show marked deficits in AER (Felmingham, spite the availability of research surrounding Bryant, Kendall, & Gordon, 2002; Shepherd general emotion regulation and PTSD, there & Wild, 2014). Learning more about both ex- is limited research on how PTSD relates spe- plicit and implicit emotion regulation should cifically to AER. help individuals with trauma symptoms have Automatic emotion regulation (AER). more options for recovery. Much of the current research on emotion Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). regulation focuses on the explicit side of PTSD is a widespread mental health diagno- it, but little attention has been given to the sis that can occur after experiencing a trau- implicit side of emotion regulation (Etkin, matic event. According to the Diagnostic et al., 2010). However, in the past decade and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, AER has attracted considerable attention Fifth Edition (DSM-V), yearly prevalence from researchers (Etkin et al., 2010; Mauss, of PTSD among U.S. adults is about 3.5%. Bunge, & Gross, 2007; Zhang & Lu, 2011). Depending on the severity of the disorder, in- For example, while reviewing the available dividuals with PTSD may experience a range research on AER, Mauss, Bunge, & Gross of symptoms. These include intrusion symp- (2007) found little evidence regarding the toms such as recurring distressing dreams, cognitive processes underlying AER in avoidance of anything surrounding the trau- previous studies. To account for the lack matic event, negative changes in thoughts and of information on AER, they turned to mood associated with the event, and varia- past neuroscientific literature involving tions in arousal and reactivity associated with neuroimaging studies that may have found the event (American Psychiatric Association, underlying mechanisms of AER. This analysis 2013). The directly experienced traumatic identified two distinct processes involved in events in Criterion A of the DSM-V include, AER: response-focused AER, which occurs but are not limited to, exposure to war as a after an emotional response, and antecedent- combatant or civilian, threatened or actual focused AER, which occurs earlier in the physical assault, threatened or actual sexual emotional response. Interestingly, these violence, being kidnapped, being taken hos- two types of AER appear to have separate tage, terrorist attack, torture, incarceration neural correlates. It seems that response- as a prisoner of war, natural or human-made focused AER may be supported by the disasters, and severe motor vehicle accidents subcallosal cingulate cortex, dorsal pathway, (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). and cerebellum. There is evidence that PTSD and emotion regulation. For antecedent-focused AER may be supported emotion regulation to be effective, it should by neural pathways involving portions of the help shape emotional reactions to fit the prefrontal cortex, the anterior and posterior needs of the situation. Some commonly cingulate cortices, and basal ganglia. The used emotion regulation strategies are reap- existence of two separate processes involved praisal, distraction, expressive suppression, in AER may provide an explanation for why and distancing (Zaki & Williams, 2013). it has been associated with both adaptive and Interestingly, research has found evidence maladaptive emotional response patterns. that emotion regulation processes are dys- In a more recent study of 17 patients with functional in individuals with PTSD. Both generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and 24 Cisler and Olatunji (2012) and Pitman et al. healthy controls, Etkin et al. (2010) examined (2012) found more PTSD symptoms to be abnormalities in implicit regulation of emo- associated with increased deficits in emotion tions using fMRI. Participants completed an regulation. Most recently, Shepherd and Wild emotional conflict task, in which they labeled (2014) also found that PTSD was associated facial affect while ignoring superimposed
89 Explorations |Social Sciences affect label words. They found that healthy for the importance of AER in everyday controls could regulate emotional conflict on social interaction and emotion regulation. a trial-by-trial basis, but patients with GAD These results are important not only for were unable to do so. In fact, they showed understanding how AER can effectively a marked inability to lessen amygdala activ- decrease negative emotions, but also how its ity during the task. These results suggest that absence may affect the emotional health of patients with anxiety disorders like GAD ex- the individual. hibit deficits in implicit emotion regulation Event-related potentials. The current processes, otherwise known as AER. study examined the relationship between AER and PTSD. One aspect of AER PTSD and AER by measuring event related that may be important for individual health potentials (ERPs) captured using EEG. ERPs is helping individuals regulate negative emo- are small voltages produced in the brain in tions (Mauss, Cook, & Gross, 2007). If in- response to specific stimuli (Sur & Sinha, dividuals develop PTSD following trauma, 2009). Following the presentation of a stim- it is common for them to have difficulties uli or event, these electrical potentials are regulating emotions, especially negative ones observed as changes in EEG that are time- (Felmingham et al., 2002; Shepherd & Wild, locked to the stimuli or events in cognitive 2014). Though limited research has been tasks (Luck, 2014; Sur & Sinha, 2009). done on the direct relation between PTSD Researchers often study ERPs because ERPs and automatic emotion regulation, we sus- can achieve a level of temporal accuracy that pect that individuals with trauma symptoms other measurements, such as fMRI imaging, will exhibit deficits in AER. These deficits do not (Karl, Malta, & Maercker, 2006). ERP may also contribute to a reduced ability to waveforms can be described in terms of la- regulate negative emotions. tency, which reflects time in milliseconds, or To examine if the relatively unexplored amplitude, which is measured in millivolts automatic processes in emotion regulation and reflects amount of mental effort exerted could effectively reduce negative emotions, (Clayson, Baldwin, & Larson, 2013). Mauss, et al. (2007) conducted a two-part P300 Waveform. The P300, or P3, wave- study. First, researchers investigated if it was form is one of the most commonly studied possible to manipulate an implicit component ERP components. It is the third positive peak of emotion regulation such as AER. Next, in an ERP component that occurs following a they examined the affective consequences of task-related stimulus (Clayson et al., 2013). It AER. In the first part of the study, researchers may also be elicited by the absence of a stim- experimentally manipulated AER by priming ulus, if participants are instructed to respond either emotion control or emotion expression to the absence of a certain stimulus. The P3 using a modified version of the Sentence tends to occur post-stimulus around 300ms, Unscrambling Task and subsequently asking which is how it was termed the “P300” participants to report their anger. The second (Luck, 2014). However, latencies for P3s can part of the study was conducted similarly, but be variable, ranging anywhere from 200ms researchers also measured the occurrence of to 700ms, leading researchers to refer to it overall negative emotion and cardiovascular simply as the P3 (Luck, 2014). In general, responses. The second half of the study P3 latency is a more reliable sign of cogni- aimed to find out if AER could reduce anger. tive dysfunction than P3 amplitude, because Researchers hypothesized that priming for it is less altered by attention (Picton, 1992). A emotion control would lead to less anger than common way to measure the P3 component priming for emotion expression. The findings of the ERP using EEG is to use an oddball from this study suggest that AER may lead paradigm, in which a participant identifies to reductions in anger after anger provocation infrequently presented target stimuli in a task in the lab, which has real-world implications consisting primarily of standard non-target
90 Marie Rodriguez stimuli. Typically, the infrequent stimuli will than the control group (Felmingham et al., generate a larger P3 wave than the frequent 2002). More recently, Johnson et al. (2013) stimuli (Luck, 2014). conducted a meta-analysis of 22 studies N200 Waveform. The N200, or N2 found on Psych Info and PubMed regarding waveform is one of the most frequently stud- ERP components and PTSD. Researchers ied negative-going ERP waveforms. It is used a random effects model and included commonly referred to as the N2 because it all studies looking at P3 components and peaks approximately 200ms after onset of a PTSD between 1990 and 2010. Specifically, task-related stimulus. Often, it is evoked dur- they wanted to further the existing literature ing stimulus discrimination tasks, in which on the clinical usefulness of the P3 ERP and the participant must ignore one stimulus and its components, including less commonly focus on another. Like the P3, the N2 is com- studied parts of the P3 including the P3a, monly evoked using the oddball paradigm P3b, and P3wm (working memory). The P3a (Felmingham et al., 2002). However, both P3 is a subcomponent of the P3 that tends to be and N2 waveforms have been evoked in pre- elicited when the brain is processing novelty, vious studies using a version of the Go/Nogo and is usually invoked using infrequent target paradigm in which there are equal presenta- stimuli. The P3b is another subcomponent tions of target and non-target stimuli (Zhang that can be elicited by novelty, and is often & Lu, 2012; Luck, 2014). used to measure cognitive load. The P3wm PTSD and P3 Latencies. The relationship is a third component that measures working between P3 waveforms and PTSD has been memory during a task (Johnson et al., 2013). studied in previous literature, but the results This analysis found that P3a latency in have been largely inconclusive (Johnson et response to neutral distracters was longer in al., 2013). While some studies have found patients with PTSD compared to non-PTSD P3 latencies to be shorter in populations patients, but these results were not statistically with PTSD than healthy populations, many significant for sites Fz, Pz, or Cz. This meta- studies have also found them to be prolonged analysis also did not reveal any significant (Felmingham et al., 2002; Johnson et al., differences in P3b latency between the PTSD 2013; Schaefer & Nooner, 2017; Stanford et and control groups at sites Fz, Cz, and Pz. al., 2001). Two commonly selected electrode Finally, the effect size for P3wm latency for sites used for analysis of ERP data include Fz, Cz, and Pz was not significant. Based Cz and Fz. Both of these midline electrode on this meta-analysis, the current literature sites have been widely used by researchers on the relationship between P3 latency and to examine P3 latency. For example, Stanford PTSD appears to be inconclusive. Further et al. (2001) found that when presented research is necessary to determine if there are with negative, trauma-relevant pictures, differences in P3 latencies between PTSD participants with PTSD exhibited shorter P3 patients and healthy controls. latencies at electrode site Cz than a control Go/NoGo task. To study the time course group without PTSD. Nooner and Schaefer of AER, Zhang and Lu (2012) measured ERPs (2017) found evidence of shortened P3 during an implicit Go/NoGo emotion task. latencies at site Cz in a high trauma symptom Researchers recorded ERPs from 20 partici- group compared to the low trauma symptom pants during the task with positive, negative, group. Conversely, Felmingham et al. (2002) and neutral faces. The task was gender-cued, used an auditory oddball paradigm to elicit meaning that participants were presented with P3s from a group with PTSD and a control a gender word (“male” or “female”) and then group who were exposed to 40 target tones presented with a face to respond to. The par- and 247 common tones. The results of this ticipant was instructed to press the space bar study found evidence of longer P3 latencies if the face matched the gender of the preced- at electrode site Fz in the PTSD group ing cue (“Go” condition), and to do nothing
91 Explorations |Social Sciences if it did not (“NoGo” condition). The findings hypothesized that shorter P3 peak latencies of this study suggested that N200 amplitudes in the neutral valence condition in the central and latencies in the Go condition following cortex as measured by Cz would be associ- positive and negative faces decreased more ated with more trauma symptoms. Finally, than those following neutral faces, but N200 we hypothesized that participants would ex- amplitudes and latencies in the NoGo condi- hibit shorter P3 latencies at sites Fz and Cz tion didn’t change with valence. Positive and when presented with negative and positive negative faces created larger P3 amplitudes faces but not neutral faces. and smaller P3 latencies than neutral faces Method in all trials (Zhang & Lu, 2012). The current Participants study replicated Zhang and Lu’s (2012) Go/ Twenty-three volunteers (16 women, 7 NoGo task to examine similar neural pro- men, Mage = 20.087 years, age range 18 - 33 cesses and extend these results to encompass years) were recruited from the University of the relationship between trauma symptoms North Carolina Wilmington using flyers. All and AER. To replicate Zhang and Lu’s study participants had normal visual acuity and no as closely as possible, the current study uti- history of neurological deficits at the time lized a Go/NoGo with equal presentations of of the experiment. Participants signed an in- “Go” and “NoGo” conditions, instead of a formed consent prior to the experiment and typical oddball paradigm. received no compensation. All study materi- Current Study. Explicit emotion regu- als were approved by the UNCW Institutional lation has been a popular topic in previous Review Board (IRB). Including informed literature, but implicit emotion regulation has consent, the study took one hour or less to remained elusive. Two of the important func- complete. Participants received two student tions of this implicit regulation, known as research credits for volunteering. AER, include reducing negative emotions and contributing to better outcomes in individu- Materials als following trauma. Previous studies have Behavioral Measures shown that individuals with trauma symp- TSC-40. Participants completed the toms exhibit marked deficits in AER, perhaps 40-item Trauma Symptom Checklist (TSC- contributing to a reduced ability to regulate 40) trauma questionnaire. The TSC-40 their negative emotions (Felmingham et al., is a 40-item self- report instrument for 2002; Shepherd & Wild, 2014). However, adults containing six subscales: Anxiety, the previous literature on the relationship Depression, Dissociation, Sexual Abuse between AER and trauma is limited, and Trauma Index (SATI), Sexual Problems, and because of that the current study aims to ex- Sleep Disturbance, as well as a final overall amine AER as it relates to trauma symptoms. score. Items are rated according to frequency Specifically, we replicated a previous study of occurrence over the prior two months, using to examine the relationship between trauma a four-point scale ranging from 0 (never) to 3 symptom scores and P3 latencies in three (often). It takes approximately 10-15 minutes separate emotional valence conditions (posi- to complete the TSC-40, and it can be scored tive, neutral and negative). Based on more in approximately 5-10 minutes. Previous recent findings by Zhang and Lu (2012), we studies using the TSC-40 indicate that it is a first hypothesized that negative and positive relatively reliable measure (subscale alphas faces would elicit briefer P3 latencies than typically range from .66 to .77, with mean neutral faces. Then, we hypothesized that alphas for the full scale between .89 and .91). shorter P3 latencies in the negative valence The TSC-40 has predictive validity regarding condition in the frontal and central cortices as a wide range of traumatic experiences (Elliott measured by sites Fz and Cz would be associ- & Briere, 1992). ated with more trauma symptoms. Next, we Demographics. Participants com- pleted a demographics survey,
92 Marie Rodriguez indicating race, ethnicity, gender, and age. the space bar when the gender word matched Cued Implicit Response Inhibition Task the gender of the face that immediately NimStim Set of Facial Expressions. The followed it (Go condition). They abstained NimStim set consists of 43 professional actors from pressing the space bar if the gender and 672 total stimuli, including 18 female word did not match the face that immediately and 25 male faces between ages 21-30. Four followed it (NoGo condition). During the ethnicities are represented in the NimStim, task, a blank screen appeared for 1200 ms including African (N = 10), Asian (N = 6), between each trial. Each trial began with a European (N = 25), and Latino-American small black cross (+), which was visible for (N = 2). Each actor exhibited a happy, sad, 500 ms. This was followed by the word for disgusted, fearful, angry, surprised, neutral, a gender cue (“male” or “female”) presented and calm expression, including open and on the computer screen, which appeared for closed mouth versions of all except surprise 1000 ms. A face was presented at random for (Tottenham et al., 2011). One hundred and a random duration between 150-250 ms and twenty-six of these faces met the criteria for participants had the opportunity to push the our study, meaning they exhibited either a space bar or not depending on their perception positive (happy), negative (angry), or neutral of the condition as a Go or NoGo. The entire valence. Each positive, negative, and neutral experiment consisted of 21 randomized expression for each actor was presented blocks, with 12 randomized trials each. twice during our task: once in the Go There was a 20 second resting baseline every condition and again in the NoGo condition. 9 blocks to allow participants to have a break The final task included 84 presentations of from the stimuli. In accordance with Zhang positive faces, 84 presentations of negative and Lu’s (2012) task, an equal number of Go faces, and 84 presentations of neutral faces. and NoGo trials were presented to account We used 10 African American, 6 Asian, 24 for the novelty of NoGo cues. The task took European, and 2 Latino-American faces. approximately 21 minutes. Finally, our faces included 24 men and EEG. The current study used a Food 18 women. The NimStim set was chosen and Drug Administration (FDA) approved over other sets because it provided racial 64-channel Biosemi EEG system with diversity, showed high validity, and included ActiveTwo Pin-type electrodes provided neutral expressions, which some sets do not by Cortec Solutions to assess brain activity (Tottenham et al., 2011). We acquired the while participants completed the Go/NoGo NimStim by contacting Nim Tottenham, the task. Participants’ heads were measured in creator of the set and the researcher in charge centimeters using a tape measure before the of the Developmental Affective Neuroscience experiment to determine the appropriate EEG Lab at Columbia University, and receiving cap size to use. We also used four reference her permission to use the set in our task. electrodes, referenced to the left or right Go/NoGo Task. To find out if PTSD mastoid. We also included references on the is correlated with ERP dysfunction, we left and right cheekbone to detect eye blinks. measured ERPs collected during a cued EEG data were acquired simultaneously with emotional Go/NoGo task that was modified Paradigm stimulus presentation. from another study on AER (Zhang & Lu, Procedure 2012). We sought to replicate Zhang and After arriving at the laboratory, each Lu’s (2012) Go/NoGo task using Paradigm, participant signed an IRB-approved informed a psychology research software program. consent. Participants completed the Trauma The final cued emotional Go/NoGo task Symptom Checklist (TSC–40; Elliot & consisted of 42 validated and standardized Briere, 1992) and a demographics survey. faces from the NimStim facial stimulus set Directly after completing these assessments, (Tottenham et al., 2011). Participants pressed participants completed the Go/NoGo task
93 Explorations |Social Sciences while the EEG activity was recorded. A no difference in the Fz latencies between licensed psychologist was present to monitor positive, negative or neutral stimuli, F(2, 28) clinical safety. For confidentiality, participant = .473, p = .78 (see Figure 2). identifiers were removed, including names, We found a strong, significant negative birth dates, and assessment dates. All data was correlation between P3 peak latency at site Cz secured using an encrypted, computerized with a neutral valence and trauma symptom data collection and management system, the score, which indicated that those with shorter Collaborative Informatics and Neuroimaging P3 latencies tended to report more trauma Suite. symptoms, r(13) = -.592, p < .01. A strong, EEG Data Processing. We processed significant negative correlation between P3 data using the EEGLab and ERPLab plug- peak latency at site Fz with a negative va- ins designed for MATLAB following the lence and trauma symptom score indicated methods outlined on the ERPLab Toolbox that those with shorter P3 latencies tended to Web site (Lopez-Calderon & Luck, 2014). report more trauma symptoms, r(13) = -.529, The EEG data were divided into epochs, p < .05. A strong, significant negative correla- which are windows of time during stimulus tion between P3 peak latency at site Cz with a presentation generated from -200 ms to 1000 negative valence and trauma symptom score ms relative to the onset of stimuli. Then we indicated that those with shorter P3 laten- modified the EEG data sets in MATLAB to cies tended to report more trauma symptoms, eliminate bad channels, electrical noise, and r(13) = -.650, p < .01. We found no signifi- unnecessary artifacts such as blinks, which cant correlation between P3 peak latency at can distort brain waves. We analyzed the site Cz with a positive valence and trauma data using steps from the ERPLab Toolbox symptom score. We also found no significant tutorial, which outlines the best steps for correlation between P3 peak latency at site Fz analyzing EEG and ERP data (Lopez- with a positive valence and trauma symptom Calderon & Luck, 2014). ERPLab was used score. to create ERPs without artifacts to examine Tests of the three hypotheses were P3 latency at two electrode sites: Fz (frontal) conducted using Bonferroni adjusted alpha and Cz (central). We chose the P3 component levels of .017 per test (.05/3). Three separate of the ERP and the midline electrode sites simple regression analyses were calculated to because both were used frequently in the test if P3 peak latency at electrode sites Fz previous literature (Zhang & Lu, 2012). and Cz with negative and neutral emotional Results valences significantly predicted participant Scores from the Trauma Symptom score on the TSC-40 (see Table 1). The first Checklist were used as a continuous variable simple linear regression was calculated to in our analyses. Descriptive statistics for the predict trauma symptom score based on TSC-40 (M = 30.53, SD = 14.09) indicated P3 peak latency at electrode site Cz with a that our sample fell below the clinical range, neutral valence. A significant regression which is 65 and above. equation indicated smaller Cz peak latencies A one-way repeated measures ANOVA when viewing neutral stimuli predicted 2 indicated a trend in the Cz latencies between higher trauma symptoms with R = .300, p positive, negative and neutral stimuli F(2,28) < .02. The second simple linear regression = 3.128, p = .059 (see Figure 1). Post- was calculated to predict trauma symptom hoc comparisons at site Cz indicated that score based on P3 peak latency at electrode latencies to positive stimuli were marginally site Fz with a negative valence. A significant longer than those to negative stimuli and that regression equation indicated smaller Fz latencies to neutral stimuli did not differ from peak latencies when viewing negative stimuli 2 those to positive or negative stimuli. A one- predicted higher trauma symptoms with R = way repeated measures ANOVA indicated .224, p < .02. The last simple linear regression
94 Marie Rodriguez was calculated to predict trauma symptom that individuals with shorter P3 latencies at score based on P3 peak latency at electrode electrode sites Cz were more likely to report site Cz with a negative valence. A significant greater trauma symptoms. regression equation indicated smaller Cz The results of our study are supported peak latencies when viewing negative stimuli by findings in previous literature. Stanford predicted higher trauma symptoms with R2 = et al. (2001) found that when presented .377, p < .01. with negative, trauma-relevant stimuli, Discussion participants with PTSD exhibited shorter P3 While emotion regulation has been re- latencies at electrode sites Cz and Pz than garded as an important topic for some time, a control group without PTSD. Previous most of this research has focused on explicit research has also found evidence of longer or skill-based emotion regulation that is used P3 latencies at electrode site Fz in response following trauma or a challenging life ex- to negative visual stimuli (Felmingham et perience (Etkin et al., 2010). However, the al., 2002), which would explain why P3 implicit aspect of emotion regulation, known latencies at site Fz did not reach significance as AER, may also be important for reducing in our sample. Karl et al. (2006) found that negative emotions and contributing to bet- individuals with PTSD exhibited shorter P3 ter outcomes for individuals suffering from latencies at site Cz in response to neutral trauma, particularly following a traumatic stimuli, which supports our findings. Johnson event (Shepherd & Wild, 2014). et al. (2013) conducted a meta-analysis of a The current study examined AER in an decade of P3 component research and found implicit emotion regulation task. The task nothing of significance for PTSD and P3 was explicitly a response inhibition task latency at midline electrode sites Fz and Cz, known as a Go/NoGo task in which partici- but our findings suggest that more trauma is pants had to match gender words to gender related to shorter latencies at sites Fz and Cz. pictures. However, the pictures also had It is important to note that our findings add emotional valences of positive, negative, or support to previous studies that have found neutral, which was the implicit portion of the evidence of shorter P3 latencies at sites task. Participants were told to match faces Cz and Fz in response to negative stimuli. but were not told anything about the emo- However, to account for inconsistency in tions on the faces, nor were they asked to do results of previous research, it is clear that anything with the emotions on the faces. We further study is needed to determine the were interested in seeing if response times relationship between trauma and P3 latency. (i.e., latencies) in the Go/NoGo task differed Our findings at site Cz (i.e., that latencies as a function of the emotion of the face pre- were shorter for neutral faces) were not sented. Our hypotheses that positive faces supported in Zhang and Lu’s (2012) study. would elicit shorter P3 latencies at sites Fz However, it is possible that participants in and Cz were not supported. Our next hypoth- our sample reporting high trauma might have esis (i.e., shorter P3 latencies with negative suffered from a negativity bias, resulting in faces at sites Fz and Cz would be associated shorter latencies in response to both neutral with more trauma symptoms) was supported. and negative faces. Etkin et al. (2010) found For negative faces, we found that individu- that in a sample of women with PTSD and als with shorter P3 latencies at electrode sites a control group, women with PTSD were Fz and Cz were more likely to report greater unable to process differences between trauma symptoms. Our last hypothesis, (i.e., negative and neutral faces because of their shorter P3 latencies with neutral faces at sites trauma. Unless the faces had a clearly Cz and Fz would not be associated with more positive valence, they were processed as trauma symptoms), was supported for site negative faces. Because the neutral faces in Fz but not Cz. For neutral faces, we found the NimStim set appear have a more negative
95 Explorations |Social Sciences valence than positive, it is possible that chose to present an equal number of target participants with more trauma symptoms in and non-target stimuli in our task as well. At our sample exhibited this negativity bias at this time, it is impossible to know the effects site Cz. In cases such as these, it is possible of using an oddball versus a traditional Go/ that latency would decrease in response NoGo task to examine AER. Future research to negative and neutral faces compared to should examine differences between the two positive, because individuals with trauma methods. symptoms process all stimuli that isn’t clearly Finally, limited statistical power because positive as negative as a result of their trauma of the modest sample size in the present study (Etkin et al., 2010; Tottenham et al., 2011).. (n = 15) may have played a role in limiting Limitations. This study included several the significance of some of the statistical limitations that should be considered for fu- tests that were conducted. A post hoc power ture research. One limitation of the current analysis was conducted using G*Power on study was our relatively small sample size. the basis of the mean for the 15 participants. While we recruited a total of 23 participants, The between-groups comparison effect size only 15 of those participants were included observed in the present study was less than in our final analyses. Six participants were 1 standard deviation (d(13) = .74 to .93). excluded from our analyses because of dif- With a recommended cutoff of .80 (Cohen, ficulties with EEG data collected while pre- 1988), the effect sizes for Cz neutral (d(13) = senting the Go/NoGo task using Paradigm. .93) and Cz negative (d(13) = .85) were suf- Because these six data files lacked markers ficiently powered to detect a between-groups to indicate when participants were presented effect, while Fz negative (d(13) = .74) was with positive, neutral, and negative stimuli, not. we were unable to track their response times There are several areas of interest future and include their data. Two other participants research should consider. One of these would were also excluded because their EEG data be looking at AER in a population with a contained too much noise to use for analy- PTSD diagnosis. While the TSC-40 is a sis, especially at site Fz which is close to reliable measure used to gauge severity of eyebrows and forehead muscles that tend to trauma symptoms, further exploration of the move even at rest. relationship between AER and PTSD would It is common for researchers to elicit P3 require participants with a formal diagnosis, waveforms using an oddball paradigm, in which we were unable to attain. Furthermore, which infrequent target stimuli are randomly the clinical applications of AER would be interspersed among more frequent non- greater if a similar relationship could be target stimuli. Indeed, much of the previous established between PTSD and AER instead literature used an oddball paradigm to elicit of just AER and trauma. Another point of P3 amplitudes and latencies (Karl et al., interest may be examining gender differences 2006). Thus, it may have been a limitation in AER and trauma, which we were unable to our study that we attempted to study P3 to do. Unfortunately, much of the data we latencies without using an oddball paradigm. had to exclude from analysis was from male However, the study we replicated (Zhang & participants, leaving us with an unbalanced Lu, 2012) is one of the first to successfully sample of 11 women and 4 men. Partly due use affective stimuli without using an to this gender imbalance, we decided not to oddball paradigm to elicit P3s, which was include gender as a variable in our analyses. intentional. Zhang and Lu (2012) specifically We also chose not to include gender because chose to have an equal number of target and it was not found to be significant in Zhang non-target stimuli in their Go/NoGo task, and Lu’s (2012) analyses of their original Go/ to control for the novelty of NoGo cues. To NoGo task. Future research might incorporate replicate their task as closely as possible, we parietal areas of the brain by using electrode
96 Marie Rodriguez site Pz, which is often included in analyses with more trauma symptoms. Finally, we of midline electrodes like Cz and Fz, to see found that briefer latencies in frontal areas of if there are any noticeable differences in the brain in response to negative faces were latency at that region of the brain. While our associated with more trauma symptoms. Our analysis did not include site Pz, much of the results suggest that individuals with trauma previous literature found significant evidence symptoms may exhibit difficulties with that site Pz is related to trauma symptoms. implicit regulation of negative emotions, and Conclusion. The goal of the current may be subject to a negativity bias in which study was to examine emotion regulation, they process all stimuli that isn’t clearly specifically implicit regulation known as positive as negative. These findings add to the AER, as it relates to trauma symptoms existing literature on brain function, trauma, using an implicit Go/NoGo task. We found and differences in emotion regulation. Our in frontal regions of the brain, latencies did study is also one of the first to address the not significantly vary by face type. However, implicit side of emotion regulation as it relates in central areas of the brain, latencies for to trauma using affective stimuli. Examining positive faces were longer than for negative this relationship further may help to develop faces. We also found that briefer latencies new interventions to improve prognoses in central areas of the brain in response to for individuals with trauma symptoms, and negative and neutral faces were associated perhaps in the future, PTSD.
Figure 1: P3 latency in milliseconds at site Cz in positive, neutral, and negative emotional valence conditions. No statistically significant differences were found between emotional valences.
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Figure 2: P3 latency at site Fz in positive, neutral, and negative emotional valence conditions. No differences were found between emotional valences.
Table 1: Summary of Simple Linear Regression Analysis for TSC-40 Score and P3 Latency at Cz and Fz
Cz
Cz
Fz
Note. Positive valence was not included for either site because P3 latency and TSC-40 score were not significantly related in relation to positive stimuli. Neutral valence was not included for site Fz because P3 latency and TSC-40 score were not significantly related.
98 Marie Rodriguez
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100 101 Explorations About the Student Authors
Brittany Armstrong Psychology. Her research interests include is currently a research associate at the examining the role of early protective and University of North Carolina at Greensboro risk factors on the development of emotion where she also received her bachelor’s degree regulation skills and later outcomes. in Psychology. She continued her education with a master’s program. Her current work with the RIGHT Track Project, a longitudinal Alyson Mann study funded by the National Institutes of recently graduated magna cum laude Mental Health, looks at health trajectories, from Meredith College where she was a emotion regulation, and development over Meredith College Teaching Fellow. She was time. recognized as Meredith’s Outstanding Senior in Psychology, chaired the annual Special Populations dance, and enjoyed working Corry Atkinson collaboratively on a DuPont funded summer is currently a graduate student at East research grant with a team of students from Carolina University, where he is pursuing his Meredith College and Wake Young Women’s MA in history, with a keen interest in ancient Leadership Academy and faculty from North Roman history. He recently graduated from Carolina Governor’s School East. She is East Carolina University with a BA in currently enrolled in Meredith’s Masters classical studies and history. His goal is to of Arts in Teaching program and holds a earn his PhD in both classical studies and graduate assistantship for teaching and history, focusing on the Roman Empire.. research. Alyson plans to teach high school special education and eventually pursue a PhD in education or psychology. Olivia Chalkley graduated from Guilford College in May of 2017 with a Bachelor’s degree in English. Melissa Mayfield While at Guilford, she minored in Quaker is a recent graduate from the University of studies and community and justice studies, North Carolina at Greensboro where she and was involved in several racial- and received her bachelor’s degree in Psychology. gender-justice campus organizations. Over In addition to her studies, she worked as the next year she will complete a fellowship a research assistant in the RIGHT Track with the Quaker Voluntary Service in Atlanta, laboratory under the direction of Dr. Susan Georgia, and also plans on applying to Keane. She aspires to continue her education graduate programs in theology and literary by pursuing a law degree and becoming studies. involved with legal policy research.
Erin Denio Maggie Pazur is currently a graduate student at the is an undergraduate student at Western University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Carolina University where she is pursuing where she is pursuing her doctorate in Clinical her BSEd in Music Education. Outside of the
102 About the Student Authors
classroom, she holds a key student leadership role in the Pride of the Mountains Marching Marie Rodriguez is a recent graduate of the University of North Band and is an active member and officer in Carolina Wilmington where she obtained her the Eta Theta chapter of Sigma Alpha Iota, BA degree in Psychology with a minor in International Music Fraternity. She plans Neuroscience. She is currently working as to continue her studies pursuing a graduate a neuropsychology technician for a private degree in historical musicology with hopes practice in Wilmington. She aspires to to teach and continue researching at the continue her education by pursuing a degree collegiate level. in clinical psychology.
Ena Prskalo is a 2017 graduate from the University of North Carolina at Greensboro where she completed her BA degree in Sociology with Drake Smith a concentration in Criminology and a minor is currently pursuing his MA in history at the in Classical Studies. She has started her first University of North Carolina at Greensboro, year of graduate school at the University and earned his BA in history from Campbell of North Carolina at Greensboro where University in 2016. His primary interest lies she will pursue a MA degree in Sociology in the study of the South, particularly from a with a concentration in Criminology and a cultural perspective, and his long-term goals Post Baccalaureate Certificate in Teaching are to earn his PhD, teach history at the college Sociology. She aspires to be a professor in level, and foster a greater understanding of her field of study and hopes to achieve her the South and its relationship with the rest of dream by continuing to further her education the United States. and seizing research opportunities.
103 Explorations About the Faculty Mentors
emergent adult life transitions. Edwards Diya Abdo, PhD has served in a number of administrative is associate professor of English at Guilford posts, including as head of the Department College. Her teaching, research and of Psychology and Social Work. In this role, scholarship focus on Arab women writers she has guided the development and launch and Arab and Islamic feminisms. She has of Meredith College’s new graduate program also published poetry, fiction and creative in industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology. nonfiction. Her public essays focus on the Edwards holds a PhD in developmental intersection of gender, political identity, and psychology and an MA in psychology from vocation. She is the founder and director of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Every Campus a Refuge, an initiative which Hill and a BA in psychology from Wake advocates for housing refugees on campus Forest University. She has co-authored a grounds and assisting them in resettlement. reader in the history of psychology, published in Developmental Psychology, presents regularly at national and international Wade G. Dudley, PhD conferences, and has mentored numerous is a Teaching Professor in East Carolina students to national conference presentations University’s Department of History, and publications. Edwards reviews regularly specializing in Naval and North Carolina for the Journal of Research on Adolescence History. Dr. Dudley holds an MA in and Social Development. She is a faculty Nautical Archaeology (ECU 1997) and a mentor in the Duke University Preparing PhD in History (University of Alabama at Future Faculty program, and a member of Tuscaloosa 1999). He is a member of the the faculty at the Center for Developmental university’s graduate faculty and advisor to Science at the University of North Carolina the Lambda-Eta Chapter of Phi Alpha Theta at Chapel Hill. History Honor Society. Professor Dudley’s publications include eight books and several dozen chapters, articles, and short stories. Among the books is Splintering the Wooden Susan P. Keane, PhD Wall: The British Blockade of the United serves as a professor of Clinical Psychology States, 1812-1815, which received a John at the University of North Carolina at Lyman Book Award from NASOH. Greensboro and is the director of clinical training for the UNC-Greensboro Psychology Clinic. She received her doctoral degree in Cynthia Edwards, PhD Clinical Psychology from Purdue University. enjoys diverse research interests and Dr. Keane works closely with undergraduate particularly enjoys working collaboratively students enrolled in independent research with students in the development of research and since 1983, she has graduated over projects. Her research program is comprised 40 PhD students who hold positions at of a series of cross-sequential longitudinal universities, medical centers, and mental studies aimed at understanding the role of health agencies across the nation. She has family and peer social support in mediating more than 60 peer reviewed empirical the stressors associated with adolescent and publications and has presented her research
104 About the Faculty Mentors
findings at more than 100 major national biomarkers of underage binge drinking in and international conferences. She is also youth. licensed as a Practicing Psychologist/Health- Services Provider in the State of North Carolina. Christina Reitz, PhD is an Associate Professor of Music at Western Carolina University. She earned a BM from the Dana School of Music and an MM and Joanne Murphy, PhD PhD from the University of Florida. Her is an Associate Professor of Classical primary research interest is the music of Studies at the University of North Carolina Jennifer Higdon and her findings have been Greensboro and has served as the Fellow for published in the Grove Dictionary of Music, Undergraduate Research at UNCG for the the North Carolina Literary Review, and the past three years. She specializes in Greek International Alliance for Women in Music archaeology with a focus on Bronze Age Journal amongst others. Her monograph on archaeology and methodologies. Her research the orchestral and operatic music of Higdon is explores the ways in which communities forthcoming with an anticipated publication manipulate ritual and death to create their in early 2018. society and express ideologies.
Jaclyn Stanke, PhD Kate Nooner, PhD is an Associate Professor of History at is a licensed clinical psychologist and Campbell University. She graduated from associate professor of psychology at UNCW. Washington State University with BA degrees She also holds a faculty appointment in the in Political Science and Russian Language Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral and Literature. She earned her MA and PhD Sciences at Duke University School of in History from Emory University in Atlanta. Medicine and is a co-investigator of the NIH- Her research interests are American foreign NIAAA U01-funded National Consortium on relations, the Cold War, and the Cold War in Alcohol Neurodevelopment in Adolescence. popular culture and memory. She is currently the principal investigator of a NIH-NIAAA grant aimed at identifying
105 Explorations Submission Process Who is Eligible? The primary author or authors must be undergraduates at a 2 or 4 year college or university in the state of North Carolina working on original research under the direction of a faculty mentor. Works may be co- authored. Students at North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics are also eligible.
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Suggestions for Success 1. Make sure your name is on everything you submit. 2. Once your work has been approved by your faculty mentor and reviewed by another faculty member familiar with the research area, you may submit your work yourself or your faculty mentor may submit it. If you are a single author, you will be the main contact. If you are one of multiple authors, decide who will be the main contact and have him/her submit on behalf of all. 3. Proofread, proofread, proofread.
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