This Thesis Has Been Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for a Postgraduate Degree (E.G. Phd, Mphil, Dclinpsychol) at the University of Edinburgh

This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: • This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. • A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. • This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. • The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. • When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. 1 Examining Editions of THE NATURAL HISTORY OF ALEPPO: Revitalizing Eighteenth-Century Texts Janet Catherine Murray Starkey Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD University of Edinburgh 2013 2 PhD abstract University of Edinburgh 2012 Examining Editions of The Natural History of Aleppo: Revitalizing Eighteenth-Century Texts Janet Catherine Murray Starkey Abstract This thesis revisits the liberal intellectual tradition of the Scottish Enlightenment by comparing two editions of The Natural History of Aleppo (1756: 1794) written and/or edited by Scottish physicians, half-brothers Alexander and Patrick Russell, in which they recorded their observations of Aleppo in northern Syria. There has been only one other monograph written about this text, entitled Aleppo observed by Maurits van den Boogert and published in 2010. As yet no comparative study of the two editions seems to have been made. As a result, this thesis should revitalize interest in The Natural History of Aleppo (1756 and 1794) across academic fields including Levantine and Ottoman studies, subject-specific disciplines and in the Scottish context. This thesis is divided into four parts. In the first part Chapter 1 provides a literature review and outlines the structure of this thesis. Chapter 2 is a synopsis of the authors’ life histories as background for subsequent discussion. In Part II, the popularity of the two editions (1756 and 1794) is assessed (Chapter 3). This assessment is followed by an appraisal of literary aspects of the two editions of an eighteenth-century text (Chapter 4). To assess the quality, originality and relative significance of Aleppo further, selected topics covered variously in the two editions are explored in Part III (Chapter 5 on medicine, Chapter 6 on flora and fauna, and Chapter 7 on aspects of the exotic). The final Part IV provides a range of conclusions to revitalize eighteenth-century texts and suggests topics for further research. [Word count 99,990] 3 Declaration I declare that no portion of this thesis has previously been submitted for a degree or professional qualification in this or any other University. The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without the author’s prior written consent. All information derived from this thesis must be acknowledged appropriately. I declare that this thesis has been composed by Janet Catherine Murray Starkey only. ……………………………………………………………………………………… ………… 4 Dedication Peace and prosperity for the people of Aleppo 5 CONTENTS Abstract 2 Declaration 3 Dedication 4 Acknowledgements 9 Part I Setting the scene CHAPTER 1. Introducing the Research Project 11 1.0 Introduction 11 1.1 Research remit 11 1.1.1 Selection of Aleppo as the case study 14 1.1.2 The authors of Aleppo 15 1.1.3 The city of Aleppo as the subject of Aleppo 16 1.2 Literature review 18 1.2.1 Previous work on Aleppo 18 1.2.2 Studies about Aleppo. Contextualizing the research project 24 1.3 Summary of this thesis and associated conclusions 30 CHAPTER 2. The Russell family: life histories and chains of friendship 33 2.0 Introduction 33 2.1 In Edinburgh 33 2.1.1 Family background 33 2.1.2 The Scottish Enlightenment, education and medical training 37 2.1.3 Later qualifications 41 2.1.4 Towards Aleppo 42 2.2 In Aleppo 46 2.2.1 The Russells as Physicians in Aleppo 46 2.2.2 The Russells and the Levant Company 47 2.2.3 Leisure and entertainment 52 2.2.4 Leaving Aleppo 54 2.3 After Aleppo: medical and social networks 55 2.3.1 Family 56 2.3.2 Physicians in London 58 2.3.3 Interlude in India 63 2.3.4 Deaths and bequests 66 2.4 Conclusion 68 6 Part II Examining Aleppo CHAPTER 3. The Readership: popularizing and publicizing Aleppo 70 3.0 Introduction 70 3.1 The Scottish Enlightenment — and related genres 71 3.1.1 Aleppo within the genre of ‘natural history’ 73 3.1.2 Aleppo within the genre of travel writing 78 3.2 Engaging Europe: Aleppo in translation 82 3.3 Popularizing Aleppo: compendia 83 3.4 Contemporary reviews of Aleppo 85 3.4.1 The Critical Review 86 3.4.2 The Literary Magazine 91 3.4.3 The Monthly Review 95 3.4.4 Reviews of Aleppo2 97 3.4.4.1 The Monthly Review 97 3.4.4.2 The British Critic and other reviews of Aleppo2 105 3.5 Conclusion 106 CHAPTER 4. Analysing Aleppo. Inspirations and authorities 108 4.0 Introduction 108 4.1 Structures 109 4.1.1 Aleppo1 109 4.1.2 Aleppo2 119 4.2 Literary devices and apparatuses 121 4.2.1 Arabic typefaces 121 4.2.2 Footnotes 122 4.2.3 Indexes 122 4.2.4 Illustrations 125 4.2.5 Related texts 127 4.3 Influential literary models 128 4.3.1 Models for Alexander 129 4.3.2 Models for Patrick 133 4.4 Bibliographic authorities 137 4.5 The editorial process: a case study 149 4.6 Conclusion 153 7 Part III Medicine, flora and fauna, and ‘pleasures of the imagination’ CHAPTER 5. Towards ‘new medicine’ 155 5.0 Introduction 155 5.1 From humoral to ‘new’ medicine 156 5.1.1 Traditional medicine 156 5.1.2 Boerhaave’s ‘new’ medicine 160 5.2 Epidemic diseases: three different research paths 165 5.2.1 Embellishing Alexander’s research: cutaneous leishmaniasis 169 5.2.2 Cooperation: variolation and prevention of smallpox 171 5.2.3 Developing Alexander’s research on the plague 175 5.3 Epidemic Diseases: causation and pestilential contagion 181 5.4 Conclusion 183 CHAPTER 6. Flora and fauna: towards Linnaean classification 185 6.0 Introduction 185 6.1 The Natural History of Aleppo 186 6.2 From Aristotle to Aleppo2 191 6.2.1 A case study on stimulants 198 6.3 The influence of Linnaeus 202 6.3.1 Linnaean terminology 204 6.3.2 Gardens: collecting plants and seeds 209 6.4 New therapeutics and experimental pharmacology 211 6.5 Conclusion 217 CHAPTER 7. ‘Pleasures of the imagination’: exploring the exotic 221 7.0 Introduction 221 7.1 The Scottish Enlightenment and the celebration of pleasure 223 7.2 Exploring the exotic and rational objectivity 224 7.2.1 Exoticism or accuracy: Turkish baths and the harem 226 7.2.2 Searching for authenticity: coffee houses and puppet shows 232 7.2.3 Substantiating observations: music 235 7.3 ‘The Century of the Arabian Nights’ 242 7.4 Conclusion 253 Part IV Epilogue CHAPTER 8. Conclusions and future projects 255 8.0 Drawing conclusions 255 8.1 Comments on selected topics 258 8.2 Suggestions for future research projects 261 8.3 Conclusion 265 8 Appendices and Bibliographies 267 APPENDIX 1. Diagrams and maps 268 APPENDIX 2. Merchants and officials 271 APPENDIX 3 Archives: collections, illustrations and manuscripts 276 Bibliography 1. Publications and other works by members of the Russell family 284 2. Pre-1805 publications including those cited in Aleppo 288 3. Post-1805 publications 312 Figures FIGURE 1. Russell family portraits 37 FIGURE 2. The march of the medical militants to the siege of Warwick Lane Castle in 59 the year 1767 (London: R. Sayer and J. Smith, 1768). 1 2 FIGURE 3. A comparison of the structure and contents of Aleppo and Aleppo 118 1 2 FIGURE 4. A comparison of a selection of index items in Aleppo and Aleppo 124 2 FIGURE 5. Niebuhr’s plan of the city of Aleppo (Aleppo , i, opposite p.13) 127 FIGURE 6. ‘The Prospect of Aleppo’ from Henry Maundrell, A journey from Aleppo to 142 Jerusalem, 1 (c.1703). Signed ‘MB’, probably M. Burghers (artist and engraver) FIGURE 7. A comparison of two sample pages of Cleghorn’s Epidemical diseases and 187 Alexander’s Aleppo. FIGURE 8. The Little Bittern drawn from the same specimen (Arabic. Sulwa; Aves 195 Grallae minuta; now called Ixobrychus minutus) 2 FIGURE 9. Examples of Ehret’s illustrations (Plate XV, Aleppo , ii, 265) 199 FIGURE 10. From left, a kādī smoking a kalian (water pipe qalyān); a sardār (aga of 206 the Janissaries) a page boy and a bashaw smoking a pipe (Aleppo2, i, 102–4). FIGURE 11. Comparing a small group of the many botanical terms used by Alexander 219 and Patrick Russell, with modern terminology FIGURE 12. ‘Turkish lady of condition in the proper dress of Aleppo. She is 229 represented as sitting carelessly on a divan smoking a pipe and her servant presenting a dish of coffee in the usual manner.’ (Aleppo2, i, opposite p.107) FIGURE 13. A Turkish concert, exhibits the several instruments used in chamber music 237 (Aleppo2, i, 152). 1 2 FIGURE 14. A comparison of terms used in Aleppo and Aleppo for musical 239 instruments FIGURE 15.

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