248 Rangelands 4(6), December 1982

eameI4 on Ute Iestea,v Raiqe

James A. Young

Rangemanagers are being called upon to play an increas- and the typical, flat-spreading camelidfoot came into being. ingly important role in understandingthe ecology and soci- Toward the end of the Tertiary, camelids emigrated via the ology of nomadic and subsistence agriculture in the broad Bering land mass to the Old World. Emigrations continued belt of semiarid to arid lands stretching across North sporadically through the Pliocene,where the genus Came- and extending into southwestern Asia from Mauritania to /us, to which our present day belong, left North Somalia and northward to Afghanistan and the trans Altai- America. Camelops, a camelid well over 6.5 feet (2 meters) Gobi .Some 14 million camels providethe focal point high at the shoulder, existed in westernNorth America until of grazing systemsin this desert area. Similarly, in the well into the Pleistocene. Well-preservedremains of - highlands of South America the members of the camel ops besternus, Yesterday's Camel, have been found in the related genus Lama (the wild vicuna and guanaco and the arid Southwest,which led workers to believecamels existed domesticated llama and alpaca) are of major concern in in North America until recent times. However, evidence range management.To the majority of western range man- points to a late glacial extinction some10,800 to 12,600 years agers camels are the least familiar to most western range ago. the domesticated herbivores. scientists of all large Preferred the 19th inwestern North America,camels Forage During century Camels can exist on poorer and more or were used as pack animals in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, quality thorny and British Columbia with spiny browse than cattle, horses, sheep, or even goats. A California, Nevada, breeding pop- used Russian for ulations in California and otherareas. We came commonly procedure ranking forage perhaps very has winter for camels as the bottom close to having a population of feral camels on the western always forage category. This is how Halogeton glomeratus is ranked.Camels can use range. What characteristics makecamels such uniquerange animals? Evolution of Camels The only living species of camelsare the [one- humped, or Arabian camel (Came/usdromedarius)] and the Bactrian [two-humped camel (Came/usbactrianus)]. In gen- eral, the is found in mountainous, rocky terrain fromTurkmenistan (USSR) eastwardthrough Siberia east of Lake Baikal into and northern Chrna. The northern limit of the cold resistant Bactrian camel is about 50° north latitude. In the Tien Shan and Pamir regions of central Asia, the Bactrians exist ataltitudes ashigh as 13,000 feet (4,000meters). In the remotedeserts of central Asia feral or truly wild populations of the Bactrian camel may still exist. Thedromedary is found in almost all the arid and semiarid regions of the Old World with the main population in North Africa. The distribution ofdromedary camelsnearly reaches the equator in northern . In Asiathedromedary occurs throughout the and extends north and northeastward to Turkey, southwestern Russian, Pakistan, northwestern and into Sinkiang (China). Because of past exportation of ,they are found in and the Canary Islands. The wild populations of dromedary camels were extinct by historic times. Like the horse, the ancestors of the camels evolved in North America. The first camels can be traced through the Tertiary Period to primitive upper Eocene ancestors not larger than rabbits. Body size increasedalong the main evo- line of the camelids the Miocene and PIio- lutionary during Came! feeding on the spiny Astragalus spinous. Photography cene epochs. The teeth and skull became more specialized from the Ecology and Utilization Desert Shrub Rangeland in Iraq. (Reproducedwith permission of W. Junk, Publishers). Author is range scientist. u.s. Dept. of Agriculture,Agricultural Research Service, 920 Valley Road, Reno, Nevada89512. Rangelands 4(6), December 1982 249

'Camel train in Nevada"drawn by Frenzeny(Photograph provided by Nevada Historical Society). their hairy prehensilelips, the upper two halves ofwhich are less evaporationis requiredat high temperatures. separated and move independently, to handle thorns or has the dual and contradictory function of simultaneously spines that would turn goats back. The upper palatein cam- protecting against high temperatureswhile allowing the dis- els is less highly evolved than in otherruminates because the sipation of body heat to thesurrounding air. The net result of lateral incisors are still retained. The camel may draw off all these adaptations is that duringthe 6 or 7 cool months of leaves from a branch or clip off an entire twig. By stretching the Desert, camels usually do not drink, but rather its neck straight up, a camel can browseto aheight of 11 feet rely on obtaining water from food plants which average50% (3.5 meters). Camels typicallygraze in open herds with the moisture during the cool season. individual animals in nearly continual movement,often cov- ering 1.6 miles (2.5 kilometers) per hour. During these strol- Camels in the American West ling periods of grazing, camelsmay bequite selectivein their The proposal that camels be tried asa substitute for horse, food habits, sampling everything from grasses to trees if mules, and ox teams in transportation of supplies for the available.Grasses such as Aristida pungens, A. mutabilis, or army seems to have originated with Major George Gross- Panicum turgidum are highly preferred by dromedary cam- man, who had beenquartermasterfor ZacheryTaylor'scom- els in North Africa. mandduring the Seminole War. In 1851, an effortwas made Water Requirements to appropriate $30,000to purchase 50 camels and hire 10 The water requirementsof camels suffer from manypopu- Arab camel drivers. It failed, but finally in March of 1855, lar misconceptions. The camel has a very large drinking when Jeff Davis was secretary of war, the appropriation for capacity, but does not store waterfor future needs, butrather camels passed at Davis's personal request. replenishes water already lost through evaporation, urine, The camels purchased by the war department were and feces. Because of the camel's almost unique ability to dromedaries from North Africa and the Middle East. The survive for days withoutdrinking water, even in the hottest army assembled a herd of 70 camels at Camp Val Verde, 80 deserts, early workers assumedthat water was stored for use miles (130km) southwestof San Antonio, Texas. Lt. Edward in the animals's body. There is no anatomical evidencethat R. Beale drove a camel train from Texasthrough what is now camelscan store water despitethe fact that a camel can drink New Mexico and Arizona by way ofthe MojaveDesert. Lieut- as much as 26 gallons (100 liters) after going several days enant Beale stayed in California and developed extensive without water. The huge amounts of water consumed ranching properties at Tejon, near modern Bakersfield. replace losses from dehydration that may approach 25°h of Secretary of War John BuchananFloyd placed20 camels in the camel's body weight. With an adequatediet, tolerance of the handsof Beale for use in surveyingexpeditions. By 1861, dehydration is great. this brooding herd had increased to 28 animals. Camels have several adaptations that reduce water At the timeof the Civil War,there were several war depart- requirements including a fluctuating body temperature so ment camel pack trains scatteredamong the variousfrontier 250 Rangelands 4(6), December 1982 posts in the southwest.During thewar the major camel camp A British Columbian gold miner known as Grizzly Morris in Texas was under control of the Confederatearmy and the had the distinction of bagging the most fantastic "grizzly camels were disposed of in Mexico. At many of the other bear" on record. One day when peering through the brush western posts, thecamels were turned loose during thewar. nearBeaver Lake hesaw the largestgrizzly he had everseen In 1864, Army QuartermasterSamuel McLauglin decided in his life. Taking careful aim he brought it down with one the camels were surplus and tried to round up the free shot only to discover that his "bear" was a two-humped remaining camels at Fort Yuma and Tejon. Most of these camel! animalswere taken to the military post at Benecia, Calif., and In Nevada the camels were used as previously mentioned auctioned February 26, 1884. By this time, Beale's herd at to pack salt (primarily NaCI) from playas in the bottom of Tejon had increased to 34 head. pluvial lake basins to thesilver mills where the salt was used During the early 1860's, Otte Esche, a wealthy San Fran- to treat refractory ores. For centuries camels had beenused cisco merchant, decided that the answerto transportation to transport salt from North Africa tothe blackempires below problems in the "Great Sandy Desert" between the Sierra the Sahara,where salt couldbe traded for an equal weight in NevadaMountains and Salt Lake City was the development gold. of camel trains. Esche wentto the AmurRiver areabetween The camel trains were not successful in Nevadafor two Mongolia and Siberiaand purchasedBactrian camels for use reasons. First, they did not have proper handlers. In 1865, in what is now Nevada. He had a difficult time keeping the Professor Brewer, from Yale University, described camel two-humped camels alive on the long voyage across the trains he saw near Virginia City, Nev. "Their backs had not Pacific. Most ofthe camels that Esche purchased were sold been cared for and they had been used in packing heavy to Julius Bandman who formed a company to transport salt loads of salt from the deserts. Salt, water, and alkali had from desert playas to the silver mills of the Comstock Lode. accumulated in the long hair of their humps, their pack These camels crossed the Sierra Nevada Mountains by the saddles had galled them and great, loathsomesores nearly way of the Mariposa grovesof big trees or inland redwoods covered the parts touched by the saddle." The second prob- (Sequoiadendron gigariteum) groves. The Bavarian artist lem was that camels, horses, and mules did not mix. Corn- Edward Vischer accompaniedthe camel train on itsjourney stock horseswere not accustomedtothe sightof those great over the mountains recording through his art work"Camels shaggy beasts. It would require Mark Twain to describe the in the Big Trees," "Camels in Washoe Valley," and other effect of a camel train on a Virginia City street crowded with noted sketches. In 1864at least lOofthe dromedary camels 20-mule-jerkline teams, rumbling ore wagons, buggies, declaredsurplus by the army were also sent tothe Comstock horses and prospector's burros. Besidesthe physical dam- to pack salt. age from runaways,there was an underlying social fear that TheComstock was notthe only mining areatoexperiment camels and foreign camel drivers would take businessaway with camels duringthe mid 19th century. On April 16, 1862, from mule skinners,freighters, and packers.The complaints the ship Herman arrived at Victoria, British Columbia, with became severe and completion of the Central Pacific Rail- Bactrian camels. These camels were sent to Douglas, B.C., road through Eagle Valley and its salt works lessened the for pack trains on the Douglas-Lilooet Road in the Cariboo demandfor camel-transportedsalt. By the early 1870's many region. of Nevadacamels were drivento Arizona topack ore fromthe

"Descent to Carson Valley," Nevada. Painting by Edward Vischer. (Photograph provided by Nevada Historical Society). Hangelands 4(5), December 1982 251

Silver King mine to Yuma. In Arizona, the camels met the dominated a harem located in the Carson Sink. His reddish same prejudices and problems encountered in Nevadaand mane grew 4 feet (1.2 meters) in length. A vaquero from a most were turned loose in the desert. In 1875, there were Mason Valleyranch decided that Twill's mane would begreat many feral camels along the Gila River. Camels were found material from which to spin hair ropes. As soon asthe vaque- nearAjo, Ariz., as lateas 1913. A similar fate befell the camels ro's rope dropped over Twili's head,the camel charged. For in British Columbia where the camelswere turned loose on the next year Twili trailed the broken lariat in his wanderings Grande Prairie (now called Westwold) about 40 miles (64 in the Carson Desert. kilometers) southeastof of Kamloops.The last camel feral in Camels were much more successful in Australia.Breeding British Columbia died about 1905. programs were undertaken to produce camels adapted to In Nevada, the feral camel populations apparently were Australian conditions. Today there probably are about much at homeon the salt desert rangesof the Carson Desert. 20,000 feral camels in the Australian deserts. Given time A favorite browseof the feral camel was greasewood(Sarco- would the Nevada populations have expanded to similar batus vermiculatus). Greasewood is a North American levels? endemic, but in thesalt bush(Atriplex) speciesof the Carson We never had the chance to determine how successful Desert the camels found members of a genera they were these feral camel populations would have become because familiar with. In North Africa, Atriplexhalimus is a preferred of a Nevada rancher named Hugh Earling. Mr. Earling was a browse species for camels. There is conflicting evidenceon state legislator and during January of 1875, he was peace- whether the Carson Desert camel population ever repro- fully driving from his Lyon County ranch to a legislative duced. Some sources claim that the animalswere too old to session in CarsonCity. Nearthe place that cameto be known reproduce when they were released and others indicate that asthe Dead Camel Mountains, a feral camel rose up from the camels were born in the desert. Reportedly, the Nevada greasewood and the buckboard team ran away. When a camels sufferedfrom foot injuries causedby rocks. Although shaken Mr. Earlingarrived in Carson City, hisfirstaction was the camel belongs to the order Artiodactyla, whose other to introduce legislation outlawing feral camels in Nevada ruminating membersall have cloven hooves,the camel's feet and from allowing camels to be turned loose on the range. are not hooves, but rather large pads with two anterior toe Eventuallyall the camels were shot. nails. The pads are a great adaptation for travel over sand, Some camels persisted in Nevadauntil 1876, when a pack but they crack and bleed when forced to travel over rough train of 8 animalswere used to pack wood to the top of 9,000 and stonysurfaces. The camel's abilityto practically exist on foot (2770 m) Mt. Davidson tohold a great bonfirefortheJuly metabolic water made it the only large herbivore that could 4th centennial celebration. compete on the samelevel with the native jackrabbit (Lepius The Dead Camel Mountainsare a somber,treeless range sp.) in the salt deserts of the Great Basin. Freedom from overlooking the southern Carson Desert which has been watering points allowed camelsto utilize forage and browse called the most desolate landscapein western North Amer- on the desert ranges. ica. As you drive along the base of the Dead Camels in the Someof the feral camelswere distinctive and easily recog- sand dunes northeast of Mason Valley it is not difficult to nized by desert travelers.Twili was adromedary who report- visualize the great shaggy ghost of Twill rising up from the edly came from the original war department imports. Twili greasewood.

Position: Research Associate For Sale: Journal of Range Mgt., Vol. 2-25; Vol. 2-7; 11-14; Qualifications: M.S. degree in Range Science or closely 21-22 complete. associated discipline with experience in economics, preferably risk analysis. Vol. 8 #3,4,6 Vol. 18 #1,2,3,4,5 Vol. 19 #1,2,4,6 Duties and Responsibilities: This person would be Vol. 9 #2,3,5,6 to models to describe Vol. 10 #2,3,4,5,6 Vol. 20 #2,5,6 expected develop appropriate Vol. 23 ranch firms and evaluate risk. He would live in residence Vol. 15 #2,4,5,6 #1,2,3 Vol. 16 #2,3,4,5,6 Vol. 24, #2,3,4,5 at the Southeastern Colorado Research Center at Vol. 17 #1,2,3,4 Vol. 25 #1,5,6 Springfieldand be responsible for range research initia- tion, data analysis and reporting. The person would Extra issues: Vol. 3-7; 11-13; 20-22; 26. 169 issues in all. Good work with ranchers in research demonstration condition, $300. Postage included if purchased in the contin- programs. ental US. S.F. Greenfield; 671 NESeward; Bend, Oregon97701. Salary: Commensurate with experience and qualifica- tions. Salary range $17,000-$21,000 per year. CSU benef- its are applicable. Please send letter of detailed A symposiumon theecology and managementof saitsage Applications: application, will be resume and names of three for recommenda- and closely related genera of the Chenopodiaceae persons held in Utah. The will be tion to: R. Science May 4-6, 1983, Provo, Symposium Larry Rittenhouse, Range Depart- Utah State Colorado State Fort Collins, Colorado jointed sponsored by University, BrighamYoung ment, University, University, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment 80523, phone 303/491-7433. Station, and Utah Division of Wildlife Resources. Persons Deadline: January 3, 1981 interested in any other details of the symposium should CSU is EEO/AA employer. E.O. Office: 314 StudentSer- contact Dr. Kendall L. Johnson, Cooperative Extension vice Building. Service,Utah State University, UMC-49,Logan, Utah, 84322.