—. “ at the turn of the century: the causes of separatism.” Central Asian Survey, 20/3 (2001): Bactrian and Bactrian- 289-303. Hybrids McMillen, Donald H. Chinese policy and power in Xinjiang, 1949-1977. Daniel Potts1 Boulder: Westview Press, 1979. University of Sydney Millward, James A. Violent Separatism in Xinjiang: A Critical Assessment. Policy Studies, No. 6. Washington, DC: East-West Center If the may be described mental adaptations of C. Washington, 2004. as “the bridge between Eastern bactrianus (see below). and Western culures,” then the Sautman, Barry. “Is Xinjiang an Bactrian should rightfully The survival of C. ferus in Inner internal colony?” Inner Asia, 2/2 be considered the principal Asia was long suspected but no (2000): 239-71. means of locomotion across that firm evidence was available until N.M. Przewalski killed and Seymour, James D. “Xinjiang’s bridge. Yet there is a great deal of misinformation concerning the described several specimens in production and construction corps, 1873 (Camelus ferus Przewalski and the sinification of Eastern and its relatives, Turkestan.” Inner Asia, 2/2 (2000): particularly in the ancient Near 1878 [?]). C. ferus has been 171-193. Eastern literature. This paper described as “relatively small, explores some of the problems lithe, and slender-legged, with Toops, Stanley. “Recent Uygur surrounding Camelus bactrianus very narrow feet and a body that Leaders In Xinjiang.” Central Asian and the little-known hybrids of looks laterally compressed” Survey, 11/2 (1992): 77-99. 2 the Bactrian with the Arabian (Schaller 1998: 152). C. ferus dromedary (Camelus drome- has “low, pointed, cone-shaped White, Lynn T., III. “The Road to humps - usually about half the Urumchi: Approved Institutions in darius). Search of Attainable Goals during size of those of the domestic Zoologists nowadays tends to camel in fair condition” (Bannikov Pre-1968 Rustication from favor the idea that Camelus Shanghai.” China Quarterly, 79 1976: 398). Representations of bactrianus and dromedarius are (1979): 481-511. camels in the rock art of descendants of two different sub- Palaeolithic caves in eastern Zhao, Yueyao. “Pivot or Periphery? species of Camelus ferus (Peters , such as Chojt-Zenker Xinjiang’s Regional Development.” and von den Driesch 1997: 652), Cave, show what are believed to Asian Ethnicity, 2/2 (2001): 197- and modern research suggests be C. ferus (Peters and von den 224. that the original habitat of the Driesch 1997: 653, 661).3 (Fig. 1) wild, two-humped camel ex- About the Author C. ferus were still hunted in the tended from the great bend of medieval era in the Khotan, From 2003-2005 Nathan Light the Yellow River in northwestern Turfan, Tarim, Lob and Katak was Visting Assistant Professor China through Mongolia to regions of Inner Asia, and in in the Department of Sociology central Kazakhstan (Schaller Mongolia (Roux 1959-60: 50-51), and Anthropology at the 1998: 154; Nowak 1999: 1078; while 18th-century Chinese University of Toledo (Ohio, USA). Bannikov 1976: 399) generally at His Indiana University Ph.D. elevations of 1500-2000 m. dissertation, “Slippery Paths: The above sea-level. Although some Performance and Canonization of scholars have suggested the Turkic Literature and Uyghur original habitat of C. ferus may Muqam Song in Islam and have extended as far west as the Modernity,” is available online at Caspian Sea, this is unlikely. If his extensive website focussing this were true, we should expect on and Kazakhs . He is around the Caspian, but this is currently working on a book, not the case. Moreover, to tentatively titled From Stone suggest that the natural distribution areas of the wild

Inscriptions to Sufi Classicism: An Copyright © Daniel C. Waugh 2004 Interpretive History of Eastern two-humped camel extended so Turkic Literature. He may be far to the west flies in the face of Fig. 1. Pre-historic cave image of contacted at nlight@UTNet. everything that is known about camel. Display in National Museum UToledo.Edu. the physiology and environ- of Mongolian History, Ulaan Baatar.

49 records attest to the presence of camel, but he seems to have we are dealing with a “sloping wild camels on the northern and been responsible for introducing chronology,” i.e. a progression western edges of the Chinese a term into the literature which from earlier finds in the east empire (Lehmann 1891: 99). should never have been applied towards later finds in the west. Small numbers are present in the to a mammal that was almost The principal difficulty that arises region to this day (Heptner, certainly domesticated outside of in verifying this hypothesis is the Nasimovic and Bannikov 1966: the region with which it is relative paucity of well-studied 85-94; Bannikov 1976; Schaller popularly associated. and dated faunal assemblages 1998: 151-162). from sites within the range of C. Pure-bred Bactrians stand ferus. Camelid faunal remains are The wild range of C. ferus, in 1.5-2.4 m high to the top of the said to have been found (Olsen all likelihood, extended only as humps and are normally 1.68- 1988: 21)5 at Neolithic sites near far west as central Kazakhstan. 1.63 m long, with a mean weight () and This is significant for a number of of 460 kgs (Epstein 1969: 118). Lake Barkhol (northeast reasons but first and foremost They have been known to carry Xinjiang), and although it is not because this means that the loads of 220-270 kgs some 30- certain that these are C. natural distribution of the wild, 40 kms daily, or 80-100 kms if bactrianus as opposed to C. ferus, two-humped progenitor of what pulling a loaded cart (Walz 1954: they were certainly two-humped. we know as the domesticated 4 56). Bactrian camels, which can The likelihood that these were Bactrian camel would not have live to be 35-40 years old, are domestic Bactrians is considered included Bactria (northern generally put to work at the age strong given that the locales Afghanistan/southern of four and can expect to have would have been difficult to reach Uzbekistan) at all. How, then, to 20-25 years of productive work without the use of the camel explain the name “Bactrian” (Epstein 1969: 120). They are at (Peters and von den Driesch given to the domesticated two- their best in the dry cold of the 1997: 661). As Lehmann wrote humped camel? winter and spring months in in 1891 (p. 141; my translation): Inner Asia, when their thick coats The term “Bactrian” was first “Without the camel neither the provided them with ample applied to two-humped camels icy steppes of Western Siberia warmth. Able to withstand by Aristotle, who wrote of “the nor the inner Asian plains were extremes of heat and cold, two species of camel, Bactrian inhabitable; they would have Bactrians prefer temperatures and Arabian” (Historia Animalium remained until today an below 21° C but are capable of 2.1 [498b9]) and noted that “The insurmountable obstacle to tolerating a 70°-broad range Bactrian camel differs from the communication and would have between winter lows and Arabian in having two humps as made a nomadic existence summer highs (Manefield and against the latter’s one” (Historia impossible.” Tinson 2000: 38). Consistent Animalium 2.1 [499a15-17]). heat, however, is intolerable for By the middle of the fourth Some scholars have suggested Bactrians and the caravans which millennium BCE C. bactrianus was that the name “Bactrian” became once set out from China probably present in southern associated with the two-humped westwards across the Gobi Turkmenistan. This being the camel because camel-breeding always travelled in winter case, and assuming a more or developed in Bactria after initial (Walz 1954: 55-56). Bactrians less continuous distribution of C. domestication in eastern Iran have been known to function at bactrianus from central and/or southern Turkmenistan altitudes of up to 4000 m. above Kazakhstan to the west, the (Schuegraf and Terbuyken 2001: sea level, e.g. in the Pamirs animal was probably already 1225), but, as indicated above, (Gauthier-Pilters and Dagg 1981: present in Bactria by this time as this is not supported by the 6 6). After a long journey they were well. Other sites on the faunal evidence and it seems typically rested for 1-2 weeks and southern (Iranian) side of the more likely that the Bactrian were pastured for the summer Kopet Dagh, however, do not camel was introduced into Bactria months on the steppe, where show evidence of C. bactrianus at proper from further east, not the 7 they built up their fat reserves this early date. More Turkmenian south (eastern Iran/Seistan) or again in anticipation of further evidence of C. bactrianus dates to the west (Turkmenistan). Thus, caravan crossings the following the first half of the third like many commodities one can winter (Walz 1954: 56). millennium BCE. This includes think of — Brussels sprouts or terracotta models of wheeled ink — C. bactrianus would The precise chronology of the carts drawn by Bactrian camels seem to be a misnomer. We have gradual westward spread of the found at Altyn-depe in contexts no idea where Aristotle got the Bactrian camel is difficult to dating to the Namazga IV period designation “Bactrian” for the determine, but the available (Kohl 1992: 186) as well as domesticated, two-humped evidence nonetheless suggests faunal remains from Shor-depe,

50 Chong-depe and Hapuz-depe bringing Bactrian camels to the bactrianus is attested archae- (Compagnoni and Tosi 1978: imperial capital, and a Bactrian ologically outside the presumed Table 3). 8 By the late third and camel appears on one of the native habitat of C. ferus. early second millennium BCE the small gold plaques from the Oxus Although the data are not as Bactrian camel is attested in the Treasure (Curtis and Searight plentiful as one would like, there iconography of copper stamp 2003: Fig. 6.50). Thereafter, is a general sense in which we seals and figurines thought to be depictions of Bactrian camels move from the earliest evidence from Bactria.9 become increasingly common, in the east (Neolithic Inner e.g. the Sarmatian gold plaques Mongolia) towards the west, Looking much further west, at Filippovka near the Ural River with evidence beginning to an unprovenanced cylinder seal on the Eurasian steppes north of appear in Turkmenistan (mid- in Old Syrian style in the Walters the Caspian (Aruz et al. 2000: fourth millennium BCE), Margiana Art Gallery on which a Bactrian Figs. 68, 96, 98) of fifth/fourth and Bactria (mid-third millennium camel is depicted has been dated century BCE date. A particularly BCE) and surrounding areas to stylistically to c. 1750-1700 BCE clear depiction from the late fifth the north (Andronovo, Tripolye (Gordon 1939: Pl. 7.55; Collon century BCE occurs on a red- contexts) and south (Pirak, in 2000: Fig. 8), but whether the figured squat lekythos (E 695) in Pakistani Baluchistan) as we fact that it bears a rider should the British Museum (Curtius move into the later second and be read as an indication that 1928: Abb. 6). Some scholars early first millennium BCE. Above Bactrians were being ridden (e.g. suggest that the Greeks first all, the available evidence flatly Pohl 1950: 252) is unclear. came into contact with Bactrian contradicts the idea that the two- Gordon noted that the camels in Asia Minor, to which humped camel was first domes- awkwardness of the camel’s form region they had been brought as ticated in Bactria, and then on the Walters seal indicated a result of Achaemenid expan- spread eastward to China. In that the seal-cutter was sion (Schauenburg 1962: 99). fact, it was precisely the unfamiliar with Bactrian camels. Indeed Herodotus says that opposite. We cannot say whether this seal camels carried provisions for the reflects the presence of Bactrian advancing Persians, marvelling It is against the background camels in the Syro-Anatolian area that Xerxes’ camel train was of the archaeological evidence in the early second millennium attacked by lions while marching just reviewed that we turn now BCE, direct contacts between between Acanthus and Therma, to some important epigraphic Syro-Anatolia and a region in even though the lions “had never evidence attesting to the which Bactrians were present seen that beast before, nor had presence of C. bactrianus in (whether native or introduced), any experience of it” (7.125). We Assyria from the end of the and/or indirect contacts between do not know whether these were second through the middle of the such regions via intermediaries , like those used by first millennium BCE. like Elam or Assyria.. Cyrus against Croesus of Lydia In a badly preserved fragment (Herodotus 1.80).13 A possible indication of the of the annals of Assur-bel-kala northwestward spread of the According to Soviet research (1074-1057 BCE) on a tablet from Bactrian camel by or during the (cited in Peters and von den Assur, the Assyrian king says that third millennium BCE may be Driesch 1997: 662), Bactrian he sent merchants to acquire provided by faunal remains in camels were present and female Bactrian camels, udrate today’s Tatarstan and Ukraine,10 probably eaten during the (Heimpel 1980: 331). On the and there is evidence of the Hellenistic period in Choresmia, Kurkh stele, Shalmaneser III southward and eastward spread between the Aral Sea and the (858-824 BCE) says that he of C. bactrianus into Pakistani Amu Darya (Oxus) River. Finally, brought back seven Bactrian Baluchistan beginning in the early T’ang period (seventh/eighth camels as part of the booty from second millennium BCE.11 As we century) tomb figures of Bactrian a campaign against Gilzanu move ahead into the Iron Age, camels from China, some of which (Mitchell 2000: 188, n. 7 with there is little persuasive evidence stand more than half a meter tall, refs.), now thought to have been to demonstrate the presence of are shown heavily laden with in the area south of Lake Urmia Bactrian camels in western Iran.12 cargo (Vollmer, Keall and Nagai- in northwestern Iran (Zadok Berthrong 1983: 47, 66) con- 2002: 142-143). These are This brings us, chronologically firming their use as pack animals indeed illustrated twice, on the speaking, to the Achaemenid at this time. Black Obelisk, excavated by period when the Bactrian Layard at Nimrud, where they delegation, illustrated on the In summary, the evidence just occur in Band 1 (Bulliet 1975: Fig. Apadana reliefs at Persepolis reviewed attests to an ever- 70), and on the bronze gate (Fig. 2, p. 58, below), is shown expanding zone in which C. decoration (Band 7) from

51 Balawat, ancient Imgur-Enlil, Adad-dan. [I]f they do not pay From the seventeenth century several kilometers northeast of the silver, it will increase by 2 onward, a series of European Nimrud (Bulliet 1975: Fig. 71). shekels per mina. travellers, anthropologists and Interestingly, Bactrian camels are veterinary scientists have also shown in Band 3 on the Black These sources raise a number amassed an important record of Obelisk as tribute from Musri of questions. First, what of the observations of the intentional (Egypt). lands from which Bactrian camels cross-breeding of Bactrian and were acquired? With the possible dromedary camels (Kolpakow Roughly a century later the exception of Patusharra, which 1935; Menges 1935; Tapper Iranian stele of Tiglath-Pileser III may have been located as far east 1985). As with most hybrid- (744-727 BCE), the exact as the Pamirs (thus Vallat 1993), ization, the aim in crossing camels provenance of which is unfor- all of the regions mentioned as has been to produce a “better” tunately unknown, itemizes a sources of Bactrian camels were camel, in this case a more robust long list of rulers from whom situated in western Iran, from individual, stronger as a pack tribute was exacted, including modern day Iranian Azerbaijan animal. In general, the best first several in the Zagros region of southwards to western Luristan. generation hybrids are the northwestern Iran. There we Yet as our review of the available products of male Bactrians read, “And as for Iranzu of faunal and other archaeological crossed with female drome- Mannaea, Dalta of Ellipi, the city evidence of C. bactrianus has daries, although female Bactrians rulers of Namri, of Singibutu (and) shown, nothing suggests that crossed with male dromedaries of all the eastern mountains - these areas were even remotely are also attested. In cultures horses, mules, Bactrian camels, close to the most westerly which practised camel hybrid- cattle (and) sheep I imposed regions where Bactrian camels ization, the stud function of upon them (as tribute) to be are known in iconography and Bactrian males was paramount, received annually in Assyria” the faunal record. Indeed, while small numbers of Bactrian (Tadmor 1994: 109). (15) In his judging by the faunal inventory females were kept in order to first Babylonian campaign, the at sites on the Iranian Plateau, maintain a supply of pure army of Sennacherib (704-681 Turkmenistan seems to be the Bactrian males. Tapper provides BCE) seized both Bactrian and most westerly of those areas evidence on this practice over a dromedary camels in Merodach- where Bactrian camel use could region extending from Af- Baladan’s abandoned camp near be said to have become ghanistan to Anatolia. For Kish (Luckenbill 1924: 56, l. 7). common. On the contrary, the example, amongst the Shah- Esarhaddon (680-669 BCE) presence of C. dromedarius sevan of Azerbaijan, he campaigned against Patusharra remains at Chalcolithic Tepe observed, “Only the wealthiest of to the east of Assyria, seizing Ghabristan (period 4, c. 3700- Shahsevan keep Bactrians, both Bactrian camels as booty.16 3000 BCE) and early Iron Age male and female, and solely for Tepe Sagzabad (late second breeding purposes. Female A debt-note from the reign of millennium BCE) shows that the Bactrians are rarely if ever bought Esarhaddon, dating to 674 BC dromedary was known on the or sold, though they may change (Postgate 1976: 149, no. 38), Iranian Plateau from an early hands as gifts or be demanded shows us an Assyrian official date. In view of this evidence, it as part of a bride-wealth.” named Dannaya putting two could be suggested that the (Tapper 1985: 59-60). In Central Bactrian camels at the disposal Bactrian camels demanded of Asia, Kolpakow (1935: 619) of three individuals. The text Mannaea, Ellipi, Namri, Singibutu found that 6-7 year old Bactrians reads (Kwasman and Parpola or Gilzanu would not have been were optimal for use as studs. 1991: no. 241): native to those districts, but themselves imported from further Although larger and stronger, Two double-humped camels east. Presumably, however, the hybrids look like dromedaries in belonging to Dannaya, at the Assyrians would not have that they have one hump, though disposal of Yahutu, Ilu-kenu- demanded Bactrian camels of this is normally not very [usur], and Adad-aplu- these regions if they had not symmetrical and often has a [ddina]. They shall give the seen them there. The question small indentation between 4 and camels back on the first of arises, therefore, why were west 12 cm deep which divides the [Marchesvan] (VIII). If they do Iranian communities keeping rear portion of the hump — often not give them, they shall pay Bactrian camels, and might this 2-3 times as large as the front — 6 minas of silver. Month Tishri have something to do with their from the front part. Alternatively, (VII), 14th day, eponym year of eventual use by the Assyrians? the hump may end up looking Sarru-nuri. Witness Siqi-Issar. The answer, I suggest, lies in quite flat, and has been Witness Sulmu-sarri. Witness camel hybridization. compared to a flattened pyramid.

52 Hybridization produces a large and carrying capacity, its tification of these individuals as animal, which can stand 2.32 m aesthetically pleasing appear- hybrids was based on the high at the hump or 2.15 m high ance, and its correspondingly morphometric analysis of at the shoulder (Kolpakow 1935: greater value, in both financial selected bones (axis, astragalus, 618, n. 5). The legs are long, the and ceremonial terms.” In view first phalanx) as compared with height of the camel often greater of the evidence just reviewed, dromedary and Bactrian material. than its length, and the weight which extends from Anatolia and In addition to this material, sometimes in the 900-950 kg in the west to Afghanistan Uerpmann (1999: 111-113) has range, though more often in the east, we can safely say identified the phalanx of a approaching an average of c. 650 that small numbers of Bactrian probable hybrid from a Roman kg (Kolpakow 1935: 620). camels have been kept, over the context at Troy. Finally, I. Köhler- past 300-400 years, by groups Rollefson (1989: 149) has All of the sources confirm the which, in the main, raised identified possible hybrids greater strength and load- dromedaries, for the purpose of amongst the faunal remains from bearing abilities of the hybrids producing hybrids of outstanding early Islamic Pella, in Jordan. and indeed references to hybrids strength. Further, these hybrids These are presumed to have able to carry 400-500 kgs, were used specifically as caravan been killed by an earthquake in roughly double that of a and draught animals. It can at 747. dromedary and more than double least be suggested, therefore, Additional archaeological that of an ordinary Bactrian, are that the reason why Assyrian evidence includes camel figurines not uncommon. It should not be kings seized Bactrian camels and from Parthian contexts at a surprise then that the sources demanded them as tribute from Seleucia-on-the-Tigris which, as are also consistent in recording Iranian lands to the east of Bulliet (1975: Fig. 80) noted the substantially higher price of Assyria was to acquire studs and nearly 30 years ago, exhibit the hybrids vs dromedaries (Tapper breeding females in order to small indentation in the hump 1985: 57, 59). practice the same sort of characteristic of the hybrid. There is a considerable body hybridization as just outlined, of evidence concerning subse- with a view to developing Conclusion quent generations of hybrids stronger pack animals for a crossed with pure-bred or other variety of purposes (military, The ethnographic and historic hybrid individuals, all of which commercial, agricultural). While observations reviewed above points to their bad temper, we have as yet no archae- leave one in no doubt about the inadequate size and generally ological evidence of camel benefits and geographically poor quality. For this reason, hybridization from the Assyrian widespread evidence of hybrid males were usually period, we do have some from hybridization, while the archae- castrated (Tapper 1985: 61). As later periods in the Near East, ological evidence from Mleiha and Tapper (1985: 63) notes, “The which demonstrates that Troy confirms the existence of hybrids were not allowed to hybridization was practiced in hybrids by the Roman or Parthian breed, as their offspring would be antiquity. period. But this evidence alone vicious and dangerous.” does not sustain Bulliet’s (1990: Statements to the effect that the In recent years, archaeo- 731; cf. 1975: 168; Peters and dromedary-Bactrian crosses zoologists have identified faunal von den Driesch 1997: 654) were infertile (Gray 1972: 161) evidence of camel hybrids at assertion that Diodorus “contains are incorrect, and ample evidence Mleiha in the United Arab the first recorded reference to demonstrates the contrary Emirates, Troy in western Turkey, cross breeding of the dromedary (Peters and von den Driesch and Pella in Jordan. Chrono- and the Bactrian camel.” I would 1997: 654). Already in the early logically, the earliest evidence suggest that the Neo-Assyrian nineteenth century Eduard dates to the Roman or Parthian sources cited above — the Friedrich Eversmann reported period. In 1994, Dr. S.A. Jasim inclusion of Bactrian camels in the seeing fertile offspring in excavated an important ceme- list of livestock demanded as Turkestan (Hartmann 1869: 70). 17 tery near Mleiha, in the interior tribute by Tiglath-Pileser III and of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates, Esarhaddon, the receipt of To sum up, Tapper (1985: 67) which contained the graves of at Bactrian camels from Musri and notes, “in my experience, the least 12 camels, most of which, Gilzanu as shown on the Balawat main advantage of the hybrid judging from associated finds, gates and the Black Obelisk, the over the purer species, to both date to the first two centuries CE loan of Bactrian camels by nomadic and commercial users, is (Jasim 1999). The faunal remains, Dannaya, Sennacherib’s capture less its supposed versatility than studied by H.-P. Uerpmann, of Bactrian camels in Merodach- its vastly greater size, strength included three hybrids. Iden- Baladan’s camp, and Assur-bel-

53 kala’s damaged reference to 1991) and the Univ. of Sydney Report of Fourth Season of Work, udrate — all point to the presence (1991- present). He is a specialist October 1930 - March 1931. New of Bactrian camels in Babylonia in the archaeology of Iran, Haven: Yale University Press, and Assyria some 500-1000 Mesopotamia and the Persian 1933. years before Diodorus observed Gulf, and has published widely on them. Furthermore, given what these areas. He is the founding Boardman and Vollenweider we know of the distribution of C. editor of Arabian Archaeology & 1978 ferus and C. bactrianus, and of the Epigraphy, and is a Fellow of the J. Boardman and M.-L. Vollen- presence of C. dromedarius on the Australian Academy of the weider. Catalogue of the engraved Iranian Plateau at an early date, Humanities. He may be contacted gems and finger rings (Ashmolean I would suggest that the Iranian at: [email protected]. Museum, Oxford) I. Greek and groups, mainly Median, from Etruscan. Oxford: Clarendon whom the Assyrians sought References Press, 1978. Bactrian camels were already Brentjes 1960 engaged in camel hybridization Amiet 1986 B. Brentjes, B. “Das Kamel im by the time the Assyrians P. A m i e t . L’âge des échanges inter- Alten Orient.” Klio, 38 (1960): 23- became conscious of the practice. iraniens, 3500-1700 avant J.-C. 52. Whether the Syrian cylinder seal Paris, 1986. Notes et documents from the eighteenth century BCE des Musées de France 11. Bulliet 1975 allows us to push that date even R. W. Bulliet. The Camel and the further back in time is difficult to Amschler 1939 Wheel. Cambridge: Harvard answer, but in view of the ever- J. W. Amschler. Tierreste der University Press, 1975. increasing body of evidence for Ausgrabungen von der “grossen ties beween Central Asia and Königshügel” Shah Tepé, in Nord- Bulliet 1980 Elam (Amiet 1986: 146-207), and Iran. Stockholm, 1939. Reports R. W. Bulliet. “Camel ii. In Persian between Elam and Assyria and from the Scientific Expedition to history and economy.” Ency- Mari in the early second the North-West Provinces of clopaedia Iranica, 4 (1980): 730- millennium BCE (Potts 1999: China under the Leadership of Dr. 733. 166ff), it is entirely possible that Sven Hedin —The Sino-Swedish this was the period in which the Expedition — Publication 9. Collon 2000 peoples of the Near East first D. Collon. “L’animal dans les became aware of C. bactrianus. Aruz et al. 2000 échanges et les relations Whatever the case may be, it is J. Aruz, A. Farkas, A. Alekseev, diplomatiques.” In: Les animaux now clear that the Bactrian camel and E. Korolkova, eds. The Golden et les hommes dans le monde has little beyond its name in Deer of Eurasia. New York and syro-mésopotamien aux époques common with the region of New Haven: Metropolitan Mus- historiques. Lyon: Topoi Supple- Bactria, and that its origins lie eum of Art and Yale University ment 2 (2000): 125-140. much further east, on the high Press, 2000. steppes of Inner Asia. That it Compagnoni and Tosi 1978 came to play an important role Badam 1984 B. Compagnoni and M. Tosi. “The further west, already by the G. L. Badam. “Holocene faunal camel: Its distribution and state Assyrian period if not earlier, material from India with special of domestication in the Middle seems clear. The raison d’être reference to domesticated East during the third millennium behind the Assyrian interest in animals.” In: Animals and B.C. in light of finds from Shahr-i the Bactrian camel, and behind archaeology: 3. Early herders and Sokhta.” In: Meadow, R.H. and its later occurrence as far west their flocks. J. Clutton-Brock and Zeder, M.A., eds. Approaches to as Anatolia, lies in the breeding C. Grigson, eds. British Achae- faunal analysis in the Middle East. of Bactrian-dromedary hybrids, ological Reports Int. Ser. 202. Peabody Museum Bulletin 2. the strength of which was un- Oxford, 1984, pp. 339-353. Cambridge, 1978, pp. 91-103. surpassed by any other domestic animal, apart from the elephant, Bannikov 1976 Curtius 1928 in the ancient Near East. A. G. Bannikov. “Wild camels of L. Curtius. “Sardanapal.” Jahr- About the Author the Gobi.” Wildlife, 18 (1976): 398- buch des Deutschen Archä- 403. ologischen Instituts, 43 (1928): Daniel Potts was educated at 281-297. Harvard (AB ’75, PhD ’80) and has Baur et al. 1933 taught at the Freie Universität P. V. C. Baur, M. I. Rostovtzeff, and Curtis and Searight 2003 Berlin (1981-1986), the Univ. of A. R. Bellinger, The Excavations J. Curtis and A. Searight. “The Copenhagen (1980-1981, 1986- at Dura-Europus...Preliminary gold plaques of the Oxus

54 Treasure.” In: Culture through Gray 1972 Pella of the Decapolis, Vol. 2. objects: Ancient Near Eastern A. P. Gray. Mammalian hybrids, 2nd Wooster: College of Wooster, studies in honour of P.R.S. Moorey. ed. Slough: Commonwealth 1989, pp. 142-164. T. Potts, M. Roaf and D. Stein, Agricultural Bureaux, 1972. eds. Oxford: Griffith Institute, Kolpakow 1935 2003, pp. 219-240. Hancar 1956 V. N. Kolpakow. “Über Kamel- F. H a n c a r. Das Pferd in kreuzungen.” Berliner Tierärztliche Douglas van Buren 1939 prähistorischer und früher Wochenschrift, 51 (1935): 617- E. Douglas van Buren. The fauna historischer Zeit. Vienna, 1956. 622. of ancient Mesopotamia. Rome, Wiener Beiträge zur Kultur- 1939. Analecta Orientalia 18. geschichte und Linguistik 11. Kuhrt 1999 A. Kuhrt. “The exploitation of the Duerst 1908 Hartmann 1869 camel in the Neo-Assyrian J. U. Duerst. “Animal remains R. Hartmann. “Studien zur empire.” In: Studies in ancient from the excavation at Anau and Geschichte der Hausthiere I. Das Egypt in honour of H.S. Smith. A. the horse of Anau in its relation Kameel.” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, Leahy and J. Tait, eds. London: to the history and to the races of 1 (1869): 66-79. Occasional Publications of the domesticated horses.” In: R. Egypt Exploration Society, 1999, Pumpelly, ed. Explorations in Heimpel 1980 pp. 179-184. Turkestan, Expedition of 1904. W. Heimpel. “Kamel.” Reallexikon Washington: Carnegie Institu- der Assyriologie 5 (1980): 330- Kwasman and Parpola 1991 tion, 1908, pp. 341-442. 332. T. Kwasman and S. Parpola. Legal transactions of the royal During Caspers 1972 Heptner et al. 1966 court of Nineveh, Part 1. Tiglath- E. C. L. During Caspers. “La V. G. Heptner, A. A. Nasimovic, Pileser III through Esarhaddon. hachette trouée de la sépulture and A. G. Bannikov. Die Säugetiere Helsinki, 1991. State Archives of E de Khurab, dans le Balou- der Sowjetunion 1. Paarhufer und Assyria 6. chistan persan, examen retro- Unpaarhufer. Jena: Gustav spectif.” Iranica Antiqua, 9 Fischer Verlag, 1966. Lamberg-Karlovsky 1969 (1972): 60-64. C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky. “Fur- van Ingen 1939 ther notes on the shaft-hole pick- Epstein 1969 W. van Ingen. Figurines from axe from Khurab, Makran.” Iran, H. Epstein. Domestic animals of Seleucia on the Tigris. Ann Arbor 7 (1969): 163-168. China. Farnham Royal: Com- and London: Univ. of Michigan monwealth Agricultural Bureaux, and Oxford Univ. Press, 1939. Lattimore 1929 1969. O. Lattimore. The Desert Road to Jettmar 1967 Turkestan. Boston: Little, Brown, Gauthier-Pilters and Dagg 1981 K. Jettmar. Art of the Steppes. New 1929. H. Gauthier-Pilters and A. I. Dagg, York: Crown Publishers, 1967. The Camel: Its Evolution, Ecology, Lehmann 1891 Behavior, and Relationship to Man. Kohl 1984 O. Lehmann. “Das Kamel, seine Chicago and London: Univ. of P. L . Ko h l . Central Asia: Palaeolithic geographische Verbreitung und Chicago Press, 1981 Beginnings to the Iron Age. Paris: die Bedingungen seines Éditions Recherche sur les Vorkommens.” Zeitschrift für Geiger 1979 Civilisations, 1984. wissenschaftliche Geographie 8 W. Geiger. Ostiranische Kultur im (1891): 93-141. Altertum. Aalen: Scientia, 1979 Kohl 1992 (repr. 1882 ed.). P. L. Kohl. “Central Asia (Western Luckenbill 1924 Turkestan): Neolithic to the Early D. D. Luckenbill. The Annals of Ghirshman 1938 Iron Age.” In: R. W. Ehrich, ed. Sennacherib. Chicago, 1924. R. Ghirshman. Fouilles de Sialk, Chronologies in Old World Oriental Institute Publication 2. près de Kashan, 1933, 1934, Archaeology, 3rd ed. Chicago and 1937. Paris: Geuthner, 1938. London: Univ. of Chicago Press, Manefield and Tinson 2000 1992, pp. 179-195. G. W. Manefield and A. H. Tinson. Gordon 1939 Camels: A compendium. Sydney, C. H. Gordon. Western Asiatic Köhler-Rollefson 1989 2000. T.G. Hungerford Vade seals in the Walters Art Gallery. I. Köhler-Rollefson. “Zoological Mecum Series for Domestic Iraq, 6 (1939): 3-34. analysis of camel skeletons.” In: Animals Series C 22.

55 Mashkour 2002 camel.” Proceedings of the Schauenberg 1962 M. Mashkour. “Chasse et élevage Academy of Natural Sciences of K. Schauenberg. “Neue antike au nord du Plateau central Philadelphia, 140 (1988): 18-58. Cameliden.” Bonner Jahrbücher, iranien entre le Néolithique et 162 (1962): 98-106. l’Âge du Fer.” Paléorient, 28 Peters and von den Driesch (2002): 27-42. 1997 Schuegraf and Terbuyken 2001 J. Peters and A. von den Driesch. Mashkour et al. 1999 O. Schuegraf and P. Terbuyken. “The two-humped camel “Kamel.” Reallexikon für Antike M. Mashkour, M. Fontugne, and (Camelus bactrianus): New light und Christentum, 19 (2001): C. Hatte. “Investigations on the on its distribution, management 1224-1241. evolution of subsistence and medical treatment in the economy in the Qazvin Plain past.” Journal of Zoology, 242 Shafer 1950 (Iran) from the Neolithic to the (1997): 651-679. E. H. Shafer. “The camel in China Iron Age.” Antiquity, 73 (1999): down to the Mongol dynasty.” 65-76. Pohl 1950 Sinologica, 2 (1950): 165-194, Mashkour and Yaghmayi 1996 A. Pohl. “Das Kamel in Meso- 263-290. M. Mashkour and E. Yaghmayi. potamien.” Orientalia, 19 (1950): Tadmor 1995 “Faunal remains from Tappeh 252. Hessar (Iran), results of the 1995 H. Tadmor. The inscriptions of excavation.” In: Atti del XIII Postgate 1976 Tiglath-Pileser III, king of Assyria. Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Congresso, Vol. 1. Forli: Unione J. N. Postgate. Fifty Neo-Assyrian Sciences and Humanities, 1994. Internazionale delle scienze legal documents. Warminster: Aris preistoriche e protostoriche, & Phillips, 1976. 1996, pp. 543-551. Tapper 1985 R. Tapper. “One hump or two? Potts 1999 Meadow 1993 Hybrid camels and pastoral R. H. Meadow. “Continuity and D. T. Potts. The archaeology of cultures.” Production pastorale et change in the agriculture of the Elam: Formation and trans- société, 16 (1985): 55-69. Greater Indus Valley.” Interna- formation of an ancient Iranian tional Association for the Study of state. Cambridge: Cambridge Uerpmann 1999 Univ. Press, 1999. the Cultures of Central Asia H.-P. Uerpmann. “Camel and Information Bulletin, 19 (1993): horse skeletons from proto- Roux 1959-60 63-77. historic graves at Mleiha in the J.-P. Roux. “Le chameau en Asie Emirate of Sharjah (U.A.E.).” Menges 1935 centrale.” Central Asiatic Journal, Arabian Archaeology & Epigraphy K. Menges. “Die Wörter für 5 (1959-1960): 35-76. 10 (1999): 102-118. ‘Kamel’ und einige seiner Kreuzungsformen im Türkischen.” Santoni 1979 Vallat 1993 Ungarische Jahrbücher, 15 (1935): M. Santoni. “Les objets.” In: J.-F. F. Va l l a t . Les noms géographiques 517-528. Jarrige and M. Santoni. Fouilles des sources suso-élamites. de Pirak, vol. 1. Paris: Boccard, Mitchell 2000 Wiesbaden, 1993. TAVO Beiheft 1979, pp. 167-232. T. C. Mitchell. “Camels in the B 7/11 [= Répertoire Géo- graphique des Textes Cunéi- Assyrian bas-reliefs.” Iraq, 62 Sarianidi 1998a (2000): 187-194. formes 11]. V. S a r i a n i d i . Myths of ancient Nikylina 1994 Bactria and Margiana on its (sic) Voigt and Dyson 1992 N. M. Nikylina. Iskusstvo Ionii i seals and amulets. Moscow: M. M. Voigt and R. H. Dyson, Jr. Achemenidskogo Irana. [Art of Pentagraphic, 1988. “The chronology of Iran, ca. 8000- Ionia and Achaemenid Iran.] 2000 B.C.” In: R. W. Ehrich, ed. Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1994. Sarianidi 1998b Chronologies in Old World Archae- V. S a r i a n i d i . Margiana and ology, 3rd ed. Chicago and Nowak 1999 Protozoroastrism. Athens: Kapon London: Univ. of Chicago Press, R. M. Nowak. Walker’s mammals Editions, 1988. 1992, pp. 122-178. of the world, 6th ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1999. Schaller 1998 Vollmer et al. 1983 G. B. Schaller. Wildlife of the J. E. Vollmer, E. J. Keall, and E. Olsen 1988 Tibetan Steppe. Chicago and Nagai-Berthrong. Silk Roads, S. J. Olsen. “The camel in ancient London: University of Chicago China Ships. Toronto: Royal China and an osteology of the Press, 1998. Ontario Museum, 1983.

56 Walz 1954 2. This thinness has given rise depiction of a Bactrian camel on to the Mongolian name for C. R. Walz. “Neue Untersuchungen a sherd from period III4 at Tepe zum Domestikationsproblem der ferus, havtagai, from havtag, Sialk (Ghirshman 1938: Pl. 79, altweltlichen Cameliden.” Zeit- meaning ‘flatness’ (Bannikov A2) near Kashan has been schrift der Deutschen Morgen- 1976: 398). interpreted as evidence of C. ländischen Gesellschaft, 104 3. C. ferus are also well- bactrianus on the Iranian Plateau (1954): 45-87. represented in the rock art of the in the late fourth millennium BCE Altai, Tul-Kun, Tamurasche, (Compagnoni and Tosi 1978: Wapnish 1984 Uryankhai, Turgai and Minusinsk Table 3). P. Wapnish. “The dromedary and (Suljek) regions between Inner 8. Further south and east, Bactrian camel in Levantine Asia and Siberia but these are skeletal remains of Camel sp. — historical settings: The evidence difficult to date (Heptner, possibly but not definitely from Tell Jemmeh.” In: Animals Nasimovic and Bannikov 1966: Bactrian — have been found in and archaeology: 3. Early herders 87-88, Abb. 26; Peters and Von strata assigned to Period II and their flocks. J. Clutton-Brock den Driesch 1997: 653). (phases 5-7) at Shahr-i Sokhta and C. Grigson, eds. British Arch. 4. Epstein 1969: 120, puts in Iranian Seistan (Compagnoni Reports Int. Ser. 202. Oxford, the average load at 120-150 kgs. and Tosi 1978: 92), datable to c. 1984, pp. 171-200. 5. Olsen did not give a written 2700-2200 BCE (Voigt and Dyson 1992: 152), most probably to the Winkelmann 1999 reference for this information, but referred to the fact that the earlier part of this period. That S. Winkelmann. “Von Formen und camelid remains had been Seistan, noted for its aridity, is Stilen — ein Versuch der Glied- “excavated by archaeologists certainly well outside the natural erung baktrischer Stempel- und from the Museum of Inner habitat of the C. ferus is Rollsiegel.” Hallesche Beiträge zur Mongolia in Huhhot” (Olsen 1988: suggested by the absence of Orientwissenschaft, 28 (1999): 21), which he visited in the early camel remains in earlier, period I 112-209. 1980’s. Dr. Jianjun Mei (Needham levels at the site, and the Research Institute, Cambridge) absence of camels among the Zadok 2002 kindly looked for written nearly 1300 zoomorphic figurines R. Zadok. The ethno-linguistic confirmation of this information found there (Peters and von den character of northwestern Iran and but was unable to find any. Driesch 1997: 656). Kurdistan in the Neo-Assyrian Faunal remains of probable period. Jaffa: Archaeological 6. Camelid remains found at Bactrian camel dating to the Center Publications, 2002. Anau-depe in period II contexts were identified as Bactrian on the second half of the third millennium BCE (Namazga V Zeuner 1955 basis of comparisons with modern Bactrian camels (Duerst period) have been found at Ulug- F. E. Zeuner. “The identity of the 1908; cf. Compagnoni and Tosi depe, Altyn-depe and Namazga- camel on the Khurab pick.” Iraq, 1978: 96 and Table 3), an depe in southern Turkmenistan 17 (1955): 162-163. identification that has recently (Peters and von den Driesch Notes been reconfirmed (Peters and 1997: 659), where E.E. Kuzmina von den Driesch 1997: 658). thinks “the use of Bactrian camels 1. This is a modified version for draft purposes was a local 7. Tepe Hissar has no camelid of a lecture delivered for the development...peculiar to fauna at all (Mashkour and Inner Asia/Silkroad Study Group southern Central Asia” (Kohl Yaghmayi 1996) while at Zagheh (IASSG) and co-sponsored by the 1984: 114), and at Shah Tepe in and Tepe Ghabristan (Qabrestan) Silkroad Foundation and the northeastern Iran (Compagnoni on the Qazvin plain (west of Stanford University Center for and Tosi 1978: Table 3; Amschler Tehran), only C. dromedarius East Asian Studies, 21 October 1939: 77-80; but queried by seems to have been present in 2004. The paper was based on Peters and von den Driesch the fourth millennium BCE the author’s “Camel hybridization 1997: 660). and the role of Camelus (Mashkour, Fontugne and Hatte bactrianus in the Ancient Near 1999: 71 and Table 2; Mashkour 9. Their exact provenance is East,” Journal of the Economic and 2002: Table 2). (Dr. Marjan not known, since they were Social History of the Orient, 47 Mashkour [CNRS, Paris] kindly purchased on the antiquities (2004): 143-165. Readers advised me that the quantity of market (e.g. Amiet 1986: Fig. interested in finding out more camelid remains at these sites 189c; Sarianidi 1998a: 71-73, about the topic are advised to was very small and therefore nos. 108-111; Winkelmann 1999: consult the 2004 article which somewhat surprising. She Abb. 4). Bactrian camel images has an extensive bibliography as agreed that caution is required are found on soft-stone stamp well. in interpreting this data.) The seals from controlled excavations

57 at Togolok 1 (burial 10), Togolok 12. In Iran only C. dromedarius 14. Lattimore (1929: 133) 21 (southern court) and Gonur is present in the late second observed, “the Mongols prefer a South (room 592) in Margiana millennium BCE levels at Tepe fast camel to a pony for a long (Sarianidi 1998a: 297, nos. Sagzabad (Mashkour 2002: Table journey in haste, if they cannot 1634-1635). Gonur North has 2). We cannot be sure that the get relays on the road,” favoring also yielded a theriomorphic so-called “Luristan bronze” young camels which “are much ceramic vessel in the shape of a buckle (4.7 cm. high, 8.7 cm. the best for riding, as they are Bactrian camel and a grafitto of wide) in the former Foroughi not only faster but softer-gaited” a Bactrian camel incised on a Collection in Tehran, dated (cf. Geiger 1979 [1882]: 456, on ceramic drain pipe (Sarianidi stylistically to the 8th/7th centuries the use of Bactrians by couriers 1998b: Figs. 14-15). Unfor- BCE, on which a Bactrian camel in the Turkmenian during tunately, the camelid faunal is depicted (Jettmar 1967: Pl. 45) the 19th century). remains from Gonur cannot be is in fact a true reflection of the 15. According to Zadok’s identified to the species level presence of Bactrian camels in (2002: 18ff, 42-3, 70, 77) recent (Meadow 1993: 72, n. 2). A clay western Iran at that time. The study of western Iran in the Neo- bulla with a cylinder seal provenance of the piece, even if Assyrian period, Mannaea was impression from the temenos at it is authentic, is simply too vague located to the south of Lake Togolok 1 shows a human and a to attribute any geographical Urmia, Ellipi and Namri in western caprid between two Bactrian significance to it. Luristan, and Singibutu around camels (Sarianidi 1998b: Fig. 13. Bactrian camels appear on Khoy in Iranian Azerbaijan. 28.1 = Winkelmann 1999: 151 so-called “Greco-Persian” seals and Abb. 19.3). 16. He describes his campaign of late fifth/fourth century BCE against Patusharra (Vallat 1993: date (Nikylina 1994: nos. 207, 10. Specifically, at the 214-215), ‘a land that borders on 216, 493) and on Greek gems, Andronovo site of Alekseevskoe the Salt Desert, in the midst of probably of east Greek origin in Tatarstan (Hancar 1956: 235; the land of the distant Medes, (Boardman and Vollenweider Heptner, Nasimovic and Bannikov near Bikni, the lapis lazuli- 1978: 114, no. 117). About this 1966: 89 says C. ferus bones mountain, where none of my time, as well, the earliest have been found at Andronovo forefathers had set foot’. references to Bactrian camels sites as well), in Karasuk culture Patusharra’s location is occur in late fourth century BCE graves at Il’inskaia gora in the uncertain, and depends on that Chou documents in China, southwestern Ural foothills of Mt. Bikni, a mountain which has becoming much more prevalent (Hancar 1956: Tab. 48 and 255; been variously sought at Mt. in the Han period (Shafer 1950: Brentjes 1960: 27), and possibly Alvand in Luristan, Mt. Demevend 174; cf. Walz 1954: 60; Epstein at the Tripol’e culture site of near Tehran, or in the Pamirs (for 1969: 117). Brentjes has Gorodsk north of Kiev in Ukraine refs. see Zadok 2002: 55). surveyed the terracottas and wall (Walz 1954: 79-80, n. 3; Hancar paintings from the first millennium 17. The original source here 1956: 69, Tab. 22). BCE and first millennium CE is Eversmann’s Reisen von (Brentjes 1960: 28). At least Orenburg nach Buchara...nebst 11. Camelid faunal remains einem naturhistorischen Anhange from Harappan sites of late third three fragments of Bactrian camel figurines were discovered by the und einer Vorrede von H. and early second millennium BCE Lichtenstein, Berlin, 1823: 91. have been identified in all cases American excavators at Seleucia- as dromedary, not Bactrian (e.g. on-the-Tigris in Badam 1984: 349). However, a the 1930’s shaft-hole axe excavated by Sir (van Ingen Aurel Stein in a grave at Khurab, 1939: 320, no. in Iranian Baluchistan, is widely 1465a-c and thought to show a Bactrian Pl. 76.557). camel in repose (Zeuner 1955; Further Lamberg-Karlovsky 1969; During Bactrian camel Caspers 1972). At Pirak in figurines of Pakistani Baluchistan the period Seleucid and/ IB-III levels, dating to c. 1800- or Parthian 700 BCE, have yielded numerous date are clay figurines of Bactrian camels known from (Santoni 1979: 177-179, Figs. 94- Nippur 95, Pls. 42B and 43) as well as (Douglas van faunal remains (Meadow 1993: Buren 1939: 36 with refs.). Fig. 2. Bactrian delegate leading a Bactrian camel on 67, 70). the Apadana reliefs at Persepolis (photograph by the author).

58