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“PROFITS of NATURE”: the POLITICAL ECOLOGY of AGRARIAN EXPANSION in a NINETEENTH-CENTURY CHINESE BORDERLAND a Dissertation

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“PROFITS of NATURE”: the POLITICAL ECOLOGY of AGRARIAN EXPANSION in a NINETEENTH-CENTURY CHINESE BORDERLAND a Dissertation “PROFITS OF NATURE”: THE POLITICAL ECOLOGY OF AGRARIAN EXPANSION IN A NINETEENTH-CENTURY CHINESE BORDERLAND A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Peter Bernard Lavelle May 2012 © 2012 Peter Bernard Lavelle “PROFITS OF NATURE”: THE POLITICAL ECOLOGY OF AGRARIAN EXPANSION IN A NINETEENTH-CENTURY CHINESE BORDERLAND Peter Bernard Lavelle, Ph.D. Cornell University 2012 This dissertation reinterprets the history of the relationship between late Qing China and its Central Asian frontiers by examining the politics of the environment in the nineteenth century. Following the Muslim uprisings of the 1860s and 1870s in northwest China, officials of the Qing empire promoted the recovery and expansion of agricultural production. Their policies were framed by notions of natural profit, by their knowledge of agrarian technology, and by their concerns over the demographic and ecological crises of China proper. Scholar-officials sought to reap what they called the “profits of nature”—profits they believed to be intrinsic to specific arrangements of land, organisms, and labor—by deploying their knowledge of agriculture and by implementing policies of agrarian development. In arid landscapes inhabited largely by Turkic and Chinese Muslims, they replicated patterns of agricultural production from southern provinces of China, promoted the cultivation of crops imported from beyond local ecological boundaries, and facilitated Han colonization. These efforts were attempts to forge new, if sometimes subtle, environmental and demographic connections between China proper and the northwest frontiers. Based upon a wide range of published sources and archival documents from Beijing and Urumqi, this dissertation examines the intellectual background and agrarian practices of Zuo Zongtang (1812-1885), the leading agent of Qing agrarian expansion in the northwest in the late nineteenth century. It shows how ideologies of nature were at the heart of schemes to transform arid lands in Gansu and Xinjiang into highly productive landscapes. Zuo's considerations for the “profits of nature” arose from his intellectual engagement with Qing-era scholarship about topics like geography and agricultural technology, as well as from the exigencies of motivating farmers to reclaim land and grow crops. Although sometimes stymied by environmental conditions or uncooperative farmers, the efforts of Zuo and other Qing officials nonetheless sought to render the northwest into a region where Han migrants could settle and farm the land, and thereby ease the ecological and social contradictions of population growth in China proper. Biographical Sketch Born and raised in Seattle, Washington, Peter Bernard Lavelle began his collegiate-level study of history at Grinnell College, where he earned a B.A. in history in 2002. After spending one year as a non-matriculated student at the University of Washington, where he completed coursework in modern languages and graduate coursework in Chinese history, he commenced full-time graduate studies at Cornell University in 2004. From 2006 to 2007, he served as a teaching assistant in Cornell's Department of History. With his major field in modern Chinese history and his minor fields in modern Japanese history and environmental history, he earned an M.A. in history in the summer of 2007. From 2007 to 2009, he continued language studies and conducted research in the People's Republic of China, where he had affiliations with two universities in Beijing, Tsinghua University and Renmin University. Upon completing his fieldwork in the spring of 2009, he returned to Cornell, where, as an instructor in the Department of History, he taught two first-year writing seminars in modern Chinese environmental history. He defended this dissertation in December 2011 and completed the doctoral degree in the spring of 2012. iii Acknowledgments Dissertations do not spring up overnight. Like the produce of any garden, they come to fruition only with the proper combination of favorable conditions and nourishment. In writing this dissertation, I have been extremely fortunate to have had the encouragement, advice, and camaraderie of so many people, at Cornell and beyond, both named and unnamed here. They have helped me to create this dissertation from the seed of an idea. When Andrew Hsieh showed me the vegetable garden out behind his house many years ago in Grinnell, Iowa, I had little inkling that I would follow his example to become a historian of China —let alone one who studies the histories of practices like horticulture. Andrew introduced me to East Asian and Chinese history, and he enabled my first trip to China. He has taught me a great many lessons, from the value of rigorous textual research to the pleasures of good food and drink, and I have benefited from the many insights he has shared with me. Whether in classrooms at Grinnell, restaurants in Beijing, dining rooms near Taipei, sushi parlors in Berkeley, or his own home, Andrew is a dedicated teacher, host, and friend. I sincerely thank him for all of the help he has given me. My advisor at Cornell, Sherman Cochran, enthusiastically supported the research for this dissertation every step of the way. He helped me transform what began as a mere seminar paper into a full-fledged doctoral project. Whether over lunches at Moosewood or during late afternoon chats in McGraw Hall, Sherm has been exceedingly generous with his time and has always made himself available to think through research questions. I have greatly benefited from his innumerable comments on drafts of this dissertation, and I have learned a great deal from him about framing historical problems, presenting my research findings, and relating to others in the historical iv profession. I am deeply indebted to him for his constant support and for his mentoring as I make my way in the academic world. Other members of my dissertation committee have helped me in innumerable ways. Victor Koschmann has been a steadfast mentor ever since I started at Cornell, and he has shown me the great value of dealing with history and theory together. I have also benefited from his efforts to bring together students of East Asian history and literature, both in and out of the classroom. Aaron Sachs not only introduced me to environmental history and encouraged me to pursue environmental studies of Chinese history. He also inspired me to think more deeply about the creative craft of writing. His advice about dissertation writing and a great many other things has been invaluable. Bruce Rusk opened my eyes to the nexus of commerce and culture in late imperial China, taught me about using classical Chinese sources, and saved me from errors of interpretation and translation. His many helpful suggestions nudged the project in new directions. Several other scholars at Cornell deserve mention. TJ Hinrichs has been an amazing mentor. She has shared with me not only valuable research ideas, but also her practices of teaching, her unsurpassed level of concern for her students, and her great sense of humor. Ding Xiang Warner has taught me much about Chinese literature, about the joys and frustrations of reading classical Chinese, and about a great many other things in academic life. I am grateful not only for her classroom instruction, but also for engaging us students in informal reading sessions, whether around tables strewn with dictionaries or over pints at the pub. Eric Tagliacozzo has given me encouragement and sage advice ever since I started at Cornell, and he has offered me insight into the joys of studying histories of material culture. Chen Jian has supported my work and has regularly provided suggestions for thinking about modern China. Barb Donnell in the Department of History office has always helped me navigate administrative life as a graduate student at Cornell. v As I conducted field research for this dissertation, many scholars and friends in East Asia offered helpful guidance and generous hospitality. I could not have asked for a better roommate than Michael Martina as I began my study and research stint in Beijing. Zhang Shiming gave me important advice about archives and pointed me in the right direction for letters of introduction. Bao Maohong provided additional support and a warm hotpot dinner on a cold winter night. Zhao Zhen invited me into her classroom and encouraged me in my pursuit of Chinese environmental history. In Lanzhou, Wang Jin invited me over for a home-cooked meal, introduced me to Lanzhou University's Department of History, and took me on a tour of several historical sites. In Urumqi, a number of scholars at Xinjiang University kindly talked with me about my project and invited me over to their homes for meals. Zhou Yuan introduced me to new sources, became a good friend during my research stint in Beijing, and enabled me to get a few days away from research by hosting me in his hometown and taking me on a magnificent hike in his local bamboo forest. I also benefited from meetings in Taipei and Beijing with Man-houng Lin, Hsiung Ping-chen, Lawrence Yim, Litip Tohti, Mao Haijian, Xu Wanmin, Xia Mingfang, and Ren Zhiyong. Research took me to many archives and libraries, and I acknowledge the staffs at the following institutions who put up with my requests for materials and helped me obtain what I wanted to read: the First Historical Archives of China, the National Library of China, the National Qing History Project Library, Tsinghua University Library, Renmin University Library, Peking University Library, Nankai University Library, Nanjing Library, Shanghai Library, Shaanxi Provincial Archives, Gansu Provincial Archives, Gansu Provincial Library, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region Archives, Kashgar Prefectural Archives, and the Library of Congress. In Berkeley, I thank He Jianye of the C.V. Starr East Asian Library for her help in trying to track down several references.
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