Volume 3 Number 1 June 2005 “The Bridge between Eastern and Western Cultures”

In This Issue • Xinjiang: China’s Pre- and From the Editor Post-Modern Crossroad Xinjiang, the focus of several explore the city. As Bloch tells it, • Uyghur Art Music and Chinese contributions to this issue, hardly when he asked his companion Silk Roadism needs to be introduced to where they should begin, readers of The Silk Road. While Pirenne responded, “If I were an • Polychrome Rock Paintings in the designation Xinjiang is a antiquarian, I would have eyes the Altay Mountains modern one, the territory only for old stuff, but I am a • Viticulture and Viniculture in the occupied by today’s Xinjiang- historian. Therefore, I love life.” Turfan Region Uighur Autonomous Region in Bloch then adds, “This faculty of China embraces the earliest understanding the living is, in • Annotated Bibliography of history of exchange in and across very truth, the master quality of Xinjiang and Adjoining Inner Asia. That framing of the the historian.” [The Historian’s Regions region as an administrative unit Craft, 1953 ed., p. 43] • has to be considered rather Bactrian Camels and Bactrian- It is appropriate then that the Dromedary Hybrids artificial though in view of its vast size and its geographic and first of our contributions to this • The Khataynameh of Ali Akbar ethnic diversity. Whatever the issue is Dru Gladney’s impressive modern political myths and overview of a broad span of Next Issue realities, Xinjiang was never Xinjiang’s history, bringing the really a unified territory story down to the “post-modern” • Connie Chin on Buddhist sites historically. In the longue durée present. Gladney is one of the along the Silk Road Chinese control of the region leading authorities on the ethnic • Susan Whitfield on the occupies a relatively small part of diversity of the region and is International Dunhuang its history. It was even more singularly well informed about Project the challenges of the present and • rarely the center of an Terence Clark on hunting the region’s future. Whether hounds in Eurasia indepedent state with any modernizing policies of promoting • Ralph Kauz on trade across longevity. The history is often Eurasia one of attempting to control some cultural integration will ultimately • and contributions by Jonathan portion of the region from its suppress the historic divisions Bloom, Sheila Blair and periphery — from just beyond its within the region remains to be others eastern edge at Dunhuang, or seen. It is clear that Chinese north of the mountains in Urumqi, perceptions of Xinjiang’s stra- or at its far western end at tegic and economic importance About Kashgar. Not infrequently the today will ensure a continuing political and cultural centers of focus on the region Yet it is The Silk Road is a semi-annual useful to remember that while publication of the Silkroad Founda- importance for the region were this latest phase of Chinese rule tion. The Silk Road can also be beyond the Kunlun and viewed on-line at . the passes in Ferghana. a-half centuries old, during that period large sections of the Please feel free to contact us with When studying the Silk Road region were often quite inde- any questions or contributions. (or any other history which pendent of the central Govern- Guidelines for contributors may be begins in centuries so far ment. The present lives in the found in Vol. 2, No. 1 (June 2004) removed from our own), we shadow of the experience of the on the website. need continually to ask to what Han and T’ang dynasties, which degree we should begin in the ultimately had to abandon any The Silkroad Foundation present. The famous Belgian P.O. Box 2275 pretense of control in the region. Saratoga, CA. 95070 medievalist Henri Pirenne, on arriving in Stockholm for a Our second contributor, James Editor: Daniel C. Waugh conference, set out with another Millward, has written the best [email protected] famous medievalist Marc Bloch to study of the Qing Dynasty’s

© 2005 Silkroad Foundation implementation of its rule there. basis for tantalizing hypotheses Lee, the head of the Silkroad In his essay here he turns to a about pre-historic culture. We Foundation and Wang Binghua, different topic: how music has expect to feature a recent I will have a chance to visit been used politically in interview with him in an upcoming Urumqi, see the famous Tarim constructing and interpreting issue. Xinru Liu is known to all mummies and explore in the identities. As students of the Silk students of the Silk Road for her Kazakh and Mongol areas north Road know, the popularity of books integrating the study of of the Tien Shan. musicians and other entertainers religion and material culture. from the oases of the Tarim Basin Here she explores a topic On my return I hope to finish and places further west is one of connected with the fame of work on precisely the kind of the striking proofs of the Turpan as a center of viniculture. modern topic which proves to be transnational cultural exchange Dan Potts’ essay on the Bactrian enlightening about the earlier in T’ang times. Even then camel comes from a lecture he history of the Silk Roads. The though, their foreignness raised gave at Stanford for the Silkroad focus is the writings of C. P. the hackles of those who saw a Foundation’s series. He clarifies Skrine, the British consul in threat to Chinese values. The issues regarding the evidence Kashgar in 1922-24, whose book issues today involving music are concerning Bactrian camels in on Chinese Central Asia is still a somewhat different, since there areas of the Middle East which very valuable source of infor- are political dangers in promoting were not part of the animal’s mation. Skrine’s unpublished national cultures simultaneously indigenous range. Ralph Kauz writings and his official reports with artificially denying the will be lecturing at Columbia this supplement what the book transnational nature of that autumn in a new series reveals about the transnational musical heritage. Those familiar sponsored by the Foundation. connectedness of Xinjiang and with the substantial literature on His research report on his the continuation of historic trade Soviet nationality policies are well translation of a little known patterns. In Skrine’s time the aware of how the government’s Persian source for Inner Asian camel caravans of the Silk Road “affirmative action” policies history reminds us, as does era were still the transport of backfired in creating the Wang Binghua’s piece, that just choice, even if then they might conditions for the emergence of when we thought we were be loaded with oil from Baku on independent states. beginning to gain control over the Caspian Sea. the primary sources, others are We continue here our practice being brought to our attention. of providing bibliographic Daniel Waugh History Department resources for further study. This issue of The Silk Road University of Washington Nathan Light’s magnificent comes at an important moment Seattle bibliography will help con- in my personal acquaintance [email protected] siderably those who wish to read with Xinjiang, since for the first more in the latest literature on time this summer, thanks to Xinjiang. I can also recommend arrangements made by Adela his website as one of the richest collections of materials and links on the region and in particular on the Uyghurs and their culture. Our other contri- butions cover a diversity of material. Wang Binghua is one of the most dis- tinguished contributors to the continuing archaeological investigation of Xin- jiang. His essay on the little known rock paintings in northern Xinjiang provides the adapted from:http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/china_rel96.jpg The location of Xinjiang (for details from satellite images, see pp. 16 and 27.

2 national census of China, the Xinjiang: China’s Pre- and total Muslim population is 20.3 million, including: Hui (9,816,805); Post-Modern Crossroad Uyghur (8,399,393); Kazakh (1,250,458); Dongxiang (513,805); Kyrgyz (160,823); Dru Gladney Salar (104,503); Tajik (41,028); Uzbek (14,502); Bonan (16,505); University of Hawaii, Manoa Tatar (4,890). This represents about a forty percent population increase over 1990 census In all of China, there are only contributed Arab, Persian, and figures. The Hui speak mainly three public statues left of later Turkic civilizations to the Sino-Tibetan languages; Turkic- Chairman Mao. Of the three, the region. The new “Trans-Eurasia” language speakers include the one in Xinjiang is perhaps the railroad between Europe and Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Uzbek, most incongruous. It is in China that passes through Salar and Tatar; combined Turkic- Kashgar, the farthest city in China Urumqi, completed in 1991, links Mongolian speakers include the from Beijing, and in a place never China as never before with Dongxiang and Bonan, con- visited by the Chairman. With Europe; in addition, there is an centrated in Gansu’s moun- arm upraised, gazing across the increasing number of air and road tainous Hexi corridor; and the People’s Square toward the routes to Kyrgyzstan, Kazakh- Tajik speak a variety of Indo- southern end of the city (and stan, Tajikistan, Mongolia, Persian dialects. It is important India/Pakistan), Chairman Mao’s Afghanistan, and Pakistan. to note, however, that the statue signals that though it is Bordered by some of the highest Chinese census registered one of the most remote cities mountains in the world, in the people by nationality, not from Beijing, since 1949 it has north, east, south and south- religious affiliation, so the actual been firmly under Chinese west by the great Altai, number of Muslims is still control. Bordering People’s Tianshan, Pamir, and Kunlun unknown, and all population Square and well within the mountain ranges, and hemmed in figures are clearly influenced by Chairman’s gaze is the huge new from the west by the Gobi and politics in their use and Bank of China building — the Taklamakan Deserts, the second interpretation. newest monument to Chinese largest in the world, Xinjiang is a rule. Yet, it has not always been place with a long and com- The largest Muslim group in so. plicated history, located Xinjiang are the Uyghur, somewhere between mountain numbering nearly nine million, Xinjiang remains one of the and steppe, oasis and desert, claiming a 1300-year history of pivotal crossroads of China and East and West. The faces, descent from the early Uyghur Central Asia, and has only been languages, clothing, and kingdom in Karabalghasan, intermittently under Chinese dwellings of the “Eastern located in what is now Mongolia, influence and control during Turkestanis” who inhabit the whose kingdom was conquered relatively recent times in its 3000- towns and the new “golden by Kyrgyz tribesmen in 840 CE. year history. The history of the hordes” of travelers who pass The Uyghur fled southwest and region is marked by many through are the most enduring dispersed in the oases towns influences due to its central place legacy of this multicultural and surrounding the Taklamakan between several civilizations. At diverse history. desert where they had a natural intersection of maintained trading relations pathways leading from the Today, over sixty percent of along the ancient Silk Road, ancient capitals of Rome, Persia, Xinjiang’s eighteen million establishing Turfan as their Mongolia, and China, its strategic citizens are Muslims, living across newfound capital and Kashgar as location at the eastern end of the an area one-sixth the size of all one of its most important trading ancient Silk Road, it continues of China. Under the Chinese centers. Their far-flung kingdom today as a meeting place of many Communists, Muslims were flourished until the coming of the cultures. Sir Aurel Stein, the 20th divided among ten official Mongols in the twelfth century. century’s greatest Central Asian nationalities, with the Hui the Prior to the arrival of the Mongols, explorer, characterized the region largest population throughout Islam first arrived in Kashgar by as a “special meeting ground of China, and the Uyghur the the tenth century CE, and the city Chinese civilization, introduced largest population in the Xinjiang became such a center of Islamic by trade and political pene- Uyghur Autonomous Region, learning that one of the greatest tration, and of Indian culture, established in 1956. According to Muslim scholars and lexi- propagated by Buddhism.” Islam the reasonably accurate 2000 cographers of the eleventh

3 century, Mahmud al-Kashgari, was buried just outside of the city in Upar Village (Fig. 1). Al- Kashgari compiled the first complete Turkish dictionary, which has been translated into 26 languages (Fig. 2). Here, the early Muslims encountered strong Chinese, Persian, Turkic, and Indian influences, much of which can still be seen in the art and architecture of the region.

Islam displaced a multi-

religious and multi-cultural Copyright © Daniel C. Waugh 1996 tradition that combined elements Fig. 1. Mahmud al-Kashgari’s mausoleum at Upar. of Buddhist, Manichaean, Zoroastrian, and even early basin from the second to the years in the first century, and Nestorian Christian practices (by tenth centuries CE, when the remained under nominal Chinese 650 CE, there was a Nestorian Chinese monk, Xuanzang control until the early T’ang archbishopric in Kashgar), (Hsuan-tsang), reported in 644 dynasty, but succumbed to reflecting the importance of the CE that the oasis city of Kashgar Tibetan rule between 670 and region as a meeting place of produced a “luxuriance of fruit 694. From the tenth to the many cultures and kingdoms. and flowers.” Xuanzang was twelfth centuries, the Kara- impressed khanid Khanate, an alliance of not only Karlukh Turkic tribes that had with the accepted Islam, established their widespread capital in Kashgar, and ruled the practice of surrounding trading centers from Buddhism, Bukhara to Khotan. The Sunni but also the Muslim, Satoq Bughra, who died vibrancy of around 955 CE, is credited with the bazaar introducing Islam to Xinjiang. A and multi- Turk from the clan of the ethnic Karakhanids, he was converted character of to Islam by Nasr b. Mansur of the the people, Samanid family who had been some with ruling eastern Iran and much of “blue eyes” Central Asia and Transoxiana, and “yellow and was supposedly sent to the Copyright © Daniel C. Waugh 1999 hair,” Fig. 2. Kashgar near the center of al-Kashgari’s world. Detail Kashgar region on a trade of circular world map accompanying his Dictionary (repro- perhaps of mission, where he eventually duction on display in Ulughbeg Mausoleum, Samarkand). Sogdian or became khan. He and his devout Eastsuccessors extended Islamic Early Persian records refer to the Iranian origin. That diversity is influence throughout the southern Tarim region as the evident to today, where the daily southern oases, where Buddhism home of Kushan tribes, who market attracts thousands, and had once boasted 160 monas- controlled trade with other Silk the famous Sunday bazaar (Fig. teries in Khotan alone. On the Road oases as early as 2000 3, next page) boasts over ten eastern end of the Tarim basin in years ago. The regularity of the thousand, including Han Chinese, places like Hami and perhaps caravan trade between the Uyghur, Russian, Tajik, Kyrgyz, parts of Turfan, Uyghurs con- oases of Merv, Balkh, Bukhara, Uzbek, and Kazakh patrons, as tinued to practice Buddhism until Samarkand, Kashgar, Turpan, well as the ubiquitous foreign the sixteenth century. Today, the and Khotan with the distant tourists. 162 Sunni mosques in Kashgar European and Asian capitals alone evidence the enduring placed this region in a central role As a trading region, southern presence of Islam, though as economic broker and cultural Xinjiang grew under the Han Buddhist influence can be found mediator. Hinayana Buddhism Chinese General Ban Qiao who in the extraordinarily multi-varied flourished in the southern Tarim campaigned in the region for 31 artwork, music, and dance

4 Kashgar and Yarkand from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, saw political and religious competition for influence over the strategic southern region, and their conflicts only ended with Qing rule under Emperor Qianlong in 1754. Today, many of the tombs of the Khojas can still be visited in the Apak Khoja tomb complex in the north end of Kashgar, built originally in 1640 (Fig. 5). Unlike the Chinese Ming dynasty (1368-1644) before them, the Manchu Qing (1644- 1911) were more interested in trade with Central and Inner Asia, Copyright © Daniel C. Waugh 1996 Fig. 3. The Kashgar Sunday bazaar. and the Emperor Qian Long extended Chinese rule through produced by the Uyghur people Throughout the period of (Fig. 4). Sufism also gained many Mongol rule the region prospered followers among the Sunni as an important overland trade Muslims, with mostly Central center in the midst of the peace Asian Yasawi and later insured by the Pax Mongolica. It Naqshbandi tarikats finding was after this period that Islam followers. Inter-ethnic and continued to flourish, especially religious rivalries increased until in the southern region, with the the region came under the establishment in Kashgar of the Mongol rule through Chagatai, great Idgah Masjid (the Festival the son of Genghis Khan, until Mosque), in 1444, where Muslims Tamerlane’s army was able to still gather in the main square for reclaim Kashgar for a brief period Qurban and Ramadan holidays. in the mid-fourteenth century. On these days, Uyghurs dance The Persian historian Ala-ad-Din the “sama” in the square, recite Ata-Malik Juvaini in his visit to the the great Uyghur Mukharum region during the mid-thirteenth epics, and celebrate the unity of century reported that Mongolian Islam in the region. The rise of rule was a “divine mercy,” actually the Sufi inspired Khojas (from the felt by local Eastern Turkestani’s Persian Khwaja, “master”), and to reduce intra-religious fac- their internecine struggles for 1995 Waugh C. Daniel © Copyright tionalism in the region. power that raged between Fig. 5. Interior of Apak Khoja mausoleum, Kashgar.

powerful military and economic integration of the region. Chinese rule was disrupted, however, by the rise of the Kashgar ruler, Yakub Beg, who from 1866-1877 established a Uyghur Muslim kingdom in the region. Yakub Beg took advantage of shifting power struggles in the region during the period of the so-called Great Game, when Russian, British, and

Copyright © Daniel C. Waugh 1995 Chinese empires competed for control over the strategic Fig. 4. Village mosque on road to Kashgar from the Torugart Pass.

5 overland routes that ran through through national education, Xinjiang, coming to an end in telecommunications, and political 1884 when Chinese rule was development. It is for this established and the term reason that Mao Zedong, after “Xinjiang” became widely used his troops “liberated” Xinjiang, for the first time to refer to the agreed upon the legal desig- entire region as a “new dominion” nation of special governance of of Qing imperial control. Until this the region, under the title time, the region was generally “Xinjiang Autonomous Region.” refered to as “Eastern Turkes- This makes Xinjiang one of five tan” or “Chinese Turkestan,” and Autonomous Regions in China, even “High Tatary” in Owen including Tibet, Ningxia, Inner Lattimore’s words. With the Mongolia, and Guangxi (in overthrow of the Qing dynasty in southern China). It is also 1910, the region was once again significant that Mao’s own a site of intense competition for brother died during efforts to control, particularly between the wrest Xinjiang from Nationalist expanding Soviet penetration of rule. So for many reasons Central Asia and the attempts of Xinjiang has always posed an the Chinese Nationalist Kuomin- enormous challenge to Chinese tang to retain the old Qing rule, whether Communist, boundaries of China, that Nationalist, or Imperial, providing included Tibet and Xinjiang. a legacy fraught with danger, but promising enormous wealth. As Kuomintang Chinese rule in Xinjiang eroded during the 1930s China’s integrationist and and 1940s, several Uyghur-led educational policies since 1949 rebellions broke out. Two “East have enormously expanded the Turkestan Republics” sought to ranks of the Turkic urban establish separate Muslim states, intelligentsia in Xinjiang. Turkic, both influenced strongly by the mainly Uyghur and Kazakh, threat of the neighboring USSR. intellectuals advanced in many Intensive maneuvering enabled fields but also encountered the first to survive from 1931 to impediments as well. Whether Copyright © Daniel C. Waugh 1995 1934 and the second from 1944 or not they considered them- to 1949. It is tempting to dismiss selves Uyghur prior to their Fig. 6. Official promotion of “Uyghur” these abortive states or Yakub encounters with the Han Chinese heritage at the Kashgar tomb of Yusup Khass Hajib, the 11th century Beg’s brief rule in the previous establishment in Xinjiang, many “father” of Turkic Islamic literature. century as mere adventures. But came to think of themselves as it is clear that Mao Zedong took Uyghur afterwards. By such a them seriously, detecting in them process that directly recalls what schools that teach in the local the presence of powerful took place earlier in the Soviet minority languages up through centripetal forces that could republics of Central Asia, the university. In addition, minority seriously undermine Communist ethnic and national policies of a government officials are actively rule. Civil war, inter-ethnic Communist state fostered the recruited in order to promote a conflicts between Hui Chinese development, if not the creation, sense of participation in Muslims, Uyghur and Han of new ethnic national con- governance. Nevertheless, the Chinese, despotic nationalist rule sciousnesses (Fig. 6). In Chinese Communist Party, which under Sheng Shicai, and fear of Xinjiang, as well as other has many fewer minorities and is Russian expansion, led Xinjiang minority areas of China, official generally the final authority in citizens weary of war and civil minority nationalities receive areas of governance, continues strife to welcome the “peaceful special benefits, such as to exercise the greatest power liberation” of the region by exemption from the one-child in the region. People’s Liberation Army soldiers birth program (minorities are In addition, one cannot in 1949. By 1957, Urumqi was a generally allowed two or three minimize the role of improved key city in the newly formed children, and in very poor areas, communications and transpor- Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous even more), special scholarships tation in the creation of a region- Region, and the PRC government to secondary and higher wide consciousness among sought to further integrate the educational institutions, tax Xinjiang’s Turkic peoples. The region into People’s China relief, and bi-lingual education ability to travel easily by truck,

6 bus, or railroad enables people higher elevation to the winter reports condemning China’s of modest means to form pastures along the lower- harsh treatment of those contacts with Turkic speakers elevation steppe zones. This accused of separatism. Par- hundreds of miles from home. nomadic pastoralist lifestyle was ticularly bloody confrontations Radio and television broadcasts severely curtailed during the occurred at the town of Baren in in the Uyghur language and more radical Maoist periods of 1990 and in Yining in 1997. The improved telephone connections the 1960s and 1970s, but under government was quick to blame also facilitate interaction over the Deng Xiaoping reform era, these outbreaks on separatists distances. Taken together, these began to return in a vibrant (called “splittists”), Muslim very different developments fashion. Under the market radicals, or terrorists, and have fueled an unprecedented economy, pastoral products have designed its indelicately named growth of national consciousness increased in demand to the “Strike Hard! Maximum among the Uyghur Turks of extent in many areas, herd sizes Pressure!” campaign explicitly to Xinjiang, which in turn gives rise have increased beyond the counter them. The “Strike Hard” to a nationalist force that is natural carrying capacity of the campaign officially ended in 2004, different in kind and strength grasslands. The government and there have not been any from any that had existed in the has attempted to resolve this violent clashes in the region since past. conflict through sedentarization the late 1990s. Nevertheless, the policies that have had mixed government has continued to The social base of this new results. In addition, traditional restrict public gatherings and any consciousness does not competition for scarce resources activities, religious or otherwise, correspond precisely to the (farmland versus grazing land) that might be regarded as borders of Xinjiang. The northern has led to ethnic conflict between supporting separatism. Kazakhs remain somewhat pastoralists (Kazakh and Kyrgyz) In a rather post-modern twist disengaged, perhaps because of and farmers (mainly Uyghur, Han, along the ancient Silk Road, their own rivalries with the and Hui). Uyghur and the rise of an China’s so-called “war on independent Kazakhstan, and terrorism” has been increasingly most of the other large ethnic Beijing has based its waged against a group of non- groups, such as the Hui, Kyrgyz, approach to regional governance state actors, primarily living and Xinjiang Han, see their best on principles of standardization, outside of China for at least two chances in cooperating with centralization and assimilation. to three generations, largely Chinese rule rather than Given this, it was probably organized through the Internet objecting to it. Traditional divides inevitable that this some Uyghurs (in what I have termed cyber- between traditionally agrarian who had hoped for greater separatism), for whom radical and urban Muslim populations autonomy would clash with Islam has only recently begin to (Uyghur and Hui), and the policies of the Peoples’ Republic grow in appeal. Interestingly, formerly nomadic Muslim of China in many areas. Many this diasporic ethnoreligious populations (Kazakh and Kyrgyz), Uyghurs, especially younger identity has helped land 22 of continue to this day. Not unlike urban males, have reacted to them in the interrogation/ Western American rivalries Beijing’s “top down” style of rule detention cells at Guantánamo between ranchers and farmers, with covert and overt shows of Bay, Cuba, caught up in the net the agrarian Uyghur and Hui are resistance. Some support of those accused of fighting for concentrated in the oases and ecological causes, greater the Taliban and al-Qaida in towns, whereas the Kazakh and religious freedoms, native Afghanistan. Not unlike Tibet, a Kyrgyz are based in the higher- language training, programs to place that has also seen elevation mountainous regions of prevent and treat AIDS, or even religiously-motivated terrorism the Pamir, Tianshan, and Altai anti-alcohol campaigns, and yet against the Chinese state, their ranges. Although the majority of others actively engage in illegal rationale for violence can only be the Kazakh and Kyrygz no longer activities, such as drug- understood as ethnoreligious, derive their primary incomes from smuggling and acts of violence. combining land with liberation herding, there are still nearly As a result, perhaps of China’s from a nation-state system that thirty percent of their populations more “open door” policy of Deng has wrested their religious who are registered as Xiaoping and his successors, the homeland away from them, which “pastoralists” (mu min), and level of civil unrest increased they refer to as Eastern maintain a fairly nomadic lifestyle, dramatically during the 1990s. Turkestan or even Uyghuristan, moving their entire families with Chinese government sources but which the Chinese state has their mixed herds (sheep, cattle, enumerate almost daily incidents referred to as “Xinjiang” (or “New camels, horses, and even yaks) of violence, and Amnesty Territory”) only since 1884. We from the summer pastures in the International released a series of must recall that the region has

7 always been caught between and telecommunications projects have more opportunities than in great power politics. In an effort have been initiated. President their homeland, or increasingly to prevent the further expansion Hu Jintao has continued with this seek opportunities abroad where of the Russian tsarist empire program, but the huge gaps in they feel they have a better across Central Asia, the Chinese income and social welfare chance at advancement than in emperor sent troops to finally between the west and Urumqi. This brain drain often incorporate the region into China southeast remain. Despite its divests the region from cultivating proper, delineating a border with “Freedom of Religion” policy which its own native elite. At the same Russia near Ili (today’s Yining or is enshrined in China’s con- time, developing cross-border Ghulja in Uyghur), in what the stitution and cultural pre- trade with the new Central Asian late Joseph Fletcher once called servation programs that have states and growing international China’s “First Treaty Port.” sought to preserve minority tourism has once again opened Today, most travelers to the culture, language, and material the region to an array of region report almost no evidence history through giving special multinational influences. One can of civil unrest and attest to the privileges to minorities (including only hope that Uyghur and other fact that it is one of the safest exemption from the one-child local cultures will continue to places to travel in all of Central birth-planning policy, educational flourish and develop in this new Asia, perhaps due to the strong opportunities, and tax relief), the period of globalization. presence of Chinese police in the real threat to local Muslim culture region. may come more from modern- About the Author ization than from Chinese The seventh-century Buddhist assimilation or migration (Fig. 7). Dru Gladney is Professor of Asian monk Xuanzang’s comment still Studies and Anthropology at the rings true today: the oasis cities, University of Hawaii at Manoa. including Hami, Turpan, Aksu, Among his many publications on Kashgar, and Hotan, continue to ethnic and cultural nationalism be green centers for fruit, are Muslim Chinese: Ethnic vegetable, rice, wheat, bean, and Nationalism in the People’s cotton production. Vast energy Republic (Harvard University and mineral resources have Press, 1991) and Dislocating contributed to the region’s China: Muslims, Minorities, and importance to China’s modern- Other Subaltern Subjects ization goals. As an important (University of Chicago Press, part of China’s “Great Western 2004). He is currently finishing a Development” campaign, book-length study entitled launched in 2001, the main Nomadology: Borderline Identities challenge will be to maintain a and Peripheral Perspectives. He cultural and religious continuity may be contacted at with the vibrant institutions and [email protected]. traditions that have made

Xinjiang a diverse and welcoming Copyright © Daniel C. Waugh 1996 References stopping place for the weary Fig. 7. Islam and modernity traveler on the new Silk Road. in the Kashgar bazaar. Samuel Beal, trans. Buddhist The goals of the Great Western Records of the Western World Development campaign have Yet, increasing Han Chinese (London: Trubner, 1884). been to help the poorer Western migration to the region reflects a regions “catch-up” with the more 2000-year history of cross- Owen Lattimore. High Tartary. developed eastern and coastal cultural trade and movement, and Boston: Little, Brown, 1930. regions, which received greater greater opportunities in the central government support region have attracted a growing Mahmud al-Kashgari. Divanü during Deng Xiaoping’s “get rich number of poorer Han Chinese Lugat-it-Türk. Tr. Robert Dankoff quick” campaigns. Under former from the inland regions, as well and James Kelly. 3 vols. President Jiang Zemin, the as skilled laborers and Cambridge, Mass.: 1982-1985. western regions, particularly technicians that often displace Xinjiang, Qinghai, Gansu, Tibet, the local population from gainful Aurel Stein. On Ancient Central- Inner Mongolia, Sichuan, and employment. Conversely, better- Asian Tracks. Chicago and Yunnan were targeted for skilled Uyghur from urban areas London: University of Chicago greater infrastructural and with university educations are Press, 1974. communications investment, to often attracted to the urban the extent that vast road, rail, centers of China where they

8 political projects of modern times. Uyghur Art Music and the After Russian and Qing expansion divided Central Eurasia into Ambiguities of Chinese discrete empires in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, their * Silk Roadism in Xinjiang twentieth-century successor states hardened the border James A. Millward between Chinese and Soviet Georgetown University, Central Asia and further sub- Washington, D. C. divided the heart of the Silk Road into peoples and lands organized The Silk Road is at once an The performers themselves, on national lines as “republics” object of scholarly inquiry, a as well as the audiences, learned and “autonomous” administrative romantic notion, and a potent much from the unprecedented units. As Theodore Levin has metaphor. Its metaphorical juxtaposition of related tradi- shown in his Central Asian impact was clear from the 2002 tions; musicians attended each musicological ethnography Ten- Summer Smithsonian Folklife other’s performances, and using thousand Fools of God, Soviet Festival in Washington DC, which whatever common languages nationality projects had a deep was devoted to Silk Road they could (mostly Turkic and and complex impact upon the cultures. The two-week event Russian) they shared songs, musics of the Central Asian was staged in a series of lavishly techniques and fellowship both republics (Levin 1996). Below, I decorated tents and pavilions on during the festival and after- explore a similar process at work the National Mall (the open hours at a local Holiday Inn. And under the PRC in Xinjiang. space between the Smithsonian over it all shone the smile of Yo- Popularity, Utility and Irony of the Museums) while Al Qaeda Yo Ma, whose intellectual and Silk Road Notion in China terrorism, the on-going Afghan musical contribution to the war, and the crescendoing festival was great, and whose Though the Silk Road idea has campaign for war against Iraq own Silk Road Ensemble proved popular in many places, were not far from anyone’s mind. produces disks found under perhaps no country has em- “world music” as well as in the braced it as thoroughly as China. Against this implicit back- classical bins (Ma 2002). A Google search on the ground of violent events and characters sichou zhi lu (“silk fearful prospects, the festival and Though the Silk Road remains road”) reveals one dimension of its catalog’s message was a potent symbol of trans- this: the notion is a promotional explicitly pacifistic and nationalism and interconnections bonanza, especially for the transnational, under the formal between societies, the physical tourism industry, which entices title “The Silk Road: Connecting territory through which it passes Chinese as well as foreign Cultures, Creating Trust” has been carved up by some of tourists with the promise of Silk (Smithsonian Institution 2002). the most pointedly divisive Road exotica (Fig. 1) and Look, it said, at all that connects rather than divides human cultures across Eurasia: our textiles, ceramics, stories, dances, foods, musical genres and instruments. Long-necked lutes and vertical fiddles know no national boundaries; all are variations on an ancient design, the stations of their Silk Road journey mapped by materials used in their construction. The curves in their bodies, numbers and tunings of their strings, a fret here or there, the movements of the performer’s hand, the notes in his or her scale all tell a tale of centuries of interplay across the Eurasian continent. Copyright © Daniel C. Waugh 1996 Fig. 1. Silk Road exotica at the Seaman Hotel in Kashgar.

9 historical flavor. (At least one tour consolidated his control of There is an irony inherent in company even promotes the Kashgar in 87 by getting the local these various Chinese enthu- eastern Chinese cities of ruler and his men drunk and siasms for the Silk Road Shanghai and Suzhou as Silk slaughtering them at a banquet. metaphor, however. What stirs Road “stations.”) Clothing Pantuo City, as the park is called, the greatest global interest in the companies, software retailers, has become a new station on the Silk Road is not so much military restaurants and other enter- Silk Road, at least for some exploits or even commerce along prises are also fond of the tourists. its length, but the cultural associations evoked by the term. exchanges and continuities The top panel on the website across vast tracts of inner More creditably, the Silk Road www.silkroad.com.cn is a bulletin Eurasia that it represents. This idea also resonates positively board posting classified ads for is what was celebrated on the with developments in Xinjiang apartment rentals and second- National Mall, and is how world since the beginning of the Deng hand goods. history textbooks in the US treat Xiaoping reforms in the 1980s. the Silk Road (e.g. Bentley and The Silk Road metaphor also Under these reforms, and Ziegler 2003; Bulliet et al. 1997). serves another sort of marketing especially since the collapse of Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, goal: promoting the ideological the Soviet union, the Xinjiang Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, agendas of the Chinese state. region has enjoyed renewed Islam and associated ideas and Popular histories, textbooks, and communications with Central arts all entered China via tourist sites associated with the Asia and increased autonomy Xinjiang, as did Sogdians and Silk Road emphasize the silk from Beijing in dealing with other Central Asians. Many trade, Buddhism, and the high foreign tourists, trade partners, “traditional Chinese” musical imperial periods of the Han and investors, governments and instruments are themselves T’ang Dynasties, when Chinese NGOs. The general preface to a originally Central Asian or Indian influence in what is now Xinjiang series of “Silk Road Researches” 1 imports, including the pipa lute, was at its pre-modern peak). published by Xinjiang People’s possibly the sanxian three-string Official China represents “the Silk Press makes the relevant lute, the yangqin hammer Road” as a stage on which China connection: plays the leading historical role. dulcimer, various spike fiddles Just as early Euro-American collectively known as huqin, the scholarship on southwest Asia . . . Some authors [in the dizi transverse flute, the double- and India once focused on traces series] have attempted to reed suona, and several small of lost classical civilizations and combine their [silk road] percussion instruments (Thra- ignored or denigrated the more studies with the reform and sher 2000: 36-56). recent Islamic past, archaeology the open door policy of China in in the Tarim has de-emphasized hope that the past can serve the last, Islamic millennium in the present and show what favor of Buddhist and pre- we can learn from our Buddhist antiquity and Han and ancestors. . . . There is no T’ang-period artifacts. Documen- demand that the views of the taries such as the NHK Silk Road authors should be in series and tourist itineraries conformity with that of the generally follow suit. In editors. Instead, we Xinjiang’s westernmost, and still appreciate the contention of predominantly Uyghur and different schools and ideas in Muslim city of Kashgar where old the studies, for we believe Central Asia neighborhood that it is the only way to mahallas and bazaars are giving promote the Silk Road way to urban renewal, studies. . . . It is not a developers recently built a faux coincidence that the ancient city-site commemorating [UNESCO-affiliated] Centre for the Han Dynasty general Ban Silk Road Studies, Urumchi, Qiao, complete with a mini-Great has been founded in Xinjiang: Wall, “spirit road” flanked with the most important section of life-size figures of soldiers and the Silk Road. All this proves ministers (reminiscent of those at that a new age to rediscover Copyright © Daniel C. Waugh 1995 the Ming and Qing tombs in and revitalize the great Silk Road Fig. 2. Dutars, Kashgar rawaps, and Beijing) and a statue of the has come to us [emphasis other instruments for sale in a stall conquering general himself, who added] (Zhou 1993: 12-14). in Kashgar.

10 Yet despite the silk road categories were in some cases authorities. Nevertheless, since boosterism, Chinese authorities more theoretical than real on the 1949 the national PRC and today are not terribly interested ground, cultural projects followed regional Xinjiang governments in cultural exchanges or non- to collect, isolate, edit, canonize have made collection, codification commercial linkages over the and promote the supposedly and republication of both classical revitalized Silk Road. In fact, one discrete language, dance, music and folk forms of Uyghur music a of the top priorities of Xinjiang’s and literature of each nationality priority. The explicit rationale security apparatus today lies (Roy 2000). Sheng’s government behind this project has been to precisely in preventing religious in Xinjiang followed the same preserve, order, develop, and and political influences, people, policies, also using political modernize the Uyghur musical news, and certain trade items appointments and education to tradition. In practice this has (drugs and arms, understandably give political meaning to the involved several steps: col- enough, but also video tapes fourteen nationalities into which lection, including recording, by and cassettes) from crossing its it taxonomized Xinjiang peoples. local teams; selection of the western borders. Far from The Eastern Turkestan Republic, “best” songs or, in the case of the rejoicing in transnational Silk which controlled northern muqam, ordering of the Road connections, the PRC Xinjiang from 1944-1949, did “authentic” tradition; transcrip- national project with regard to likewise, and the PRC in turn tion into western musical score Xinjiang and its non-Han peoples adopted the same categorization or the Chinese numerical music has aimed to clearly demarcate scheme, with only minor notation; rearranging to geographic and ethnic borders, modifications. After the Chinese “rationalize” rhythms, to include even attempting to erase or Communist Party consolidated its harmony or to set the music for mute historical and cultural control over Xinjiang, PRC the large ensembles (including linkages that challenge the PRC “cultural workers” from party and western instruments) and dance claim to historical priority in the government agencies at local, troupes employed in stage Xinjiang region and blur the regional and national levels concerts and song and dance discrete ethno-national cate- devoted themselves to codifying shows; promulgation of the gories that have formed the the cultural attributes and resulting product through building blocks for the bur- achievements of each minzu, or publication of songbooks and eaucratic management of non- “nationality.”2 scores and through radio, Han Chinese peoples in Xinjiang. television and concert per- Uyghur Music—the Twelve Muqam formances; and education in the By these building blocks I state music and arts schools. refer to the state identification of The official approach to Uyghur the Uyghur, Kazak, Kirghiz, music (and to that of PRC minzu The French ethnomusicologist Uzbek, Tatar, Tajik and other in general) had several purposes. Sabine Trebinjac has shown that nationalities and instillation of One goal, especially in Maoist this process of “rewriting” these categories with political years, was make it “national in Uyghur music brings it from and cultural content, a process form, socialist in content.” With Xinjiang localities through Beijing known to scholars of Soviet regard to Uyghur classical music, and back out to the localities Central Asia as korenizatsiia the muqam (defined below), this again where the music is taught (“root-ization” or “indigeniza- involved modifying lyrics to to the next generation of tion”). The korenizatsiia of remove religious content or professional musicians in its Uyghurs and other Xinjiang replace difficult Chaghatay revised, “modernized” and state- peoples actually began before ghazals by ‘Ali-Shir Nava’i and sanctioned form. While both the the PRC came to power. In the other poets with modern Uyghur process and results of this 1930s, warlord Sheng Shicai poetry (Light 1998: 57). Chinese project resemble those in the accepted Soviet military and choreographers produced Soviet Union and there are clear economic assistance to quell dances on such subjects as “the borrowings from Soviet rebellions and consolidate his Child Care Worker” in place of korenizatsiia practices, Trebinjac hold on power, and in return fell older dances that had been also argues that deep Chinese into lockstep with many Stalinist performed to the accompaniment roots underlie the PRC efforts to policies. Stalin’s overriding of muqam (Mackerras 1985: 65). put a state imprimatur on music concern in Central Asia was to of the minority nationalities. undermine “Turk” and “Islamic” Music in itself, being more Chinese compilers of folk songs as general identities by abstract than lyrics or dance, today point to the Chinese classic subdividing them into smaller, does not directly convey verbal the Book of Odes (Shijing) as mutually exclusive and com- content or story-lines and thus precedent for their own petitive niches. Because the might seem of less immediate compilation efforts. Moreover, in boundaries between these concern to government and party the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220

11 CE), the Ministry of Music lute, with a doubled melody Xinjiang, while other variant employed functionaries to gather string) (see Wan 1986). In this traditions from Tarim Basin cities songs from around the empire, way, the pupil could internalize are dismissively treated as “local” and then orchestrated them for the complex rhythms, poetic or “individual.” There remains performance on Chinese lyrics, melodies, and rules of little if any room for improvisation instruments with new court- ornamentation before performing in muqam performance, as many approved texts. Trebinjac’s point muqam on a melodic instrument of the movements are now is that Chinese governments themselves. For the most part, played by orchestras rather than have long invested music with it appears, Uyghur musicians small groups of a singer and one political and ritual importance, traditionally did not perform to four instrumentalists. Thus and for this reason have whole cycles, but rather isolated preserved, systematized and endeavored to exert central pieces or sections of muqam. frozen, the Uyghur muqams are control over diverse musical now lauded as a “treasure trove,” traditions and convert local and Both Ahmetjan Qasimi (leader “encyclopedia,” and “perfected” ethnic music into components of of the Eastern Turkestan Republic tradition raised from a “germ” a unified Chinese national music. in northern Xinjiang in the 1940s) over “two thousand years” by the The modern expression of this and Seypidin Eziz (Saifuding; Uyghurs as an “expression of urge, of course, is linked to the former member of the ETR their social and productive modernist idea that without the government who served later struggles” (Sai-fu-ding 1994: 45- intervention of musicologists and under the PRC both as regional 46, 49, 51). The corpus of “folk arrangers trained in western vice chairman and chairman of classical” music (khelq klassik music theory, Uyghur music would the Xinjiang Nationalities musikisi) has thus been remain “primitive,” and unable to Committee) sought to promote apotheosized as the the unique, develop (Trabinjac 1990: 227- the muqam, and particularly the ancient and autochthonous 238; Trabinjac 2000). (This last twelve muqams (on ikki muqam) tradition of Uyghur music now notion was once shared by tradition of Kashgar, as the reconstructed nearly in its European imperialists with prestige music of the Uyghur entirely and enshrined as one of respect to the native music of people (Light 1998: 55). In the the national musical forms of new their colonial subjects: some 1950s an orchestra director from China. British colonial officials in India Nanjing, together with scholars devoted themselves to collecting in the Muqam Research Group, Despite the success of this songs and transcribing them in were charged with collecting and program of ethnic cultural western staff notation in order to organizing the suites, which in codification and representation, rescue the tradition from fact were extant as an the Uyghur muqam still presents degeneracy and restore its purity unsystematic living tradition with certain problems for PRC [Farrell 1997: chapter 2].) more than twelve suite names overall, and with no one nationalist ideology, problems The state music project performer’s or regional tradition’s that arise from its Silk Road emerges clearly in the recent repertoire including exactly history. Muqam (variously history of the Uyghur muqam, a twelve complete suites. The spelled maqâm, mugham, and so series of suites or song cycles collection and editing project forth) as both suite form and that are considered by many thus focused on “reconstructing” music theory belongs to a Arabo- Uyghurs to be the acme of an imagined former system of Irano-Turkic tradition that spans Uyghur cultural achievement. In twelve and only twelve complete Central Asia, the Caucasus, the mid-twentieth century, the muqam suites, each consisting of Afghanistan, Iran, and the Arab muqam in Xinjiang consisted of a about thirty songs and countries (Chabrier 1960). Of the flexible tradition with many instrumentals. In the event, it twelve names applied to the individual and regional styles was the muqam tradition as twelve standardized suites in (such as those of Kashgar, Ili, known and performed by one Xinjiang today (Rak, Chebbiyat, Dolan, and Qumul), passed on master, Turdi Akhun, that became Mushavrek, Chargah, Penjigah, aurally from masters to disciples. the basis of the canon of the Özhal, Ejem, Ushshaq, Bayat, During their apprenticeship, twelve muqams that was Nava, Sigah, and Iraq), all but disciples would play percussion recorded, reordered, transcribed two are used elsewhere, and on the dap frame-drum while the and published in 1960 (Wan derive from Arabic and Persian, master sang and played the 1959). This and subsequent not Turkic language roots. Of the dutar (a two-string long-necked editions (also based solely on the two used uniquely in Uyghur lute), rewab (a mandolin-like lute repertoire of Turdi Akhun) have muqam, “Rak” may in fact be a with doubled strings and a become the foundation of most derivation of an Arabic word, or round, skin-covered body) or pedagogy and professional even of the Indic raga, and tambur (another long-necked performance of the muqams in Chebbiyat is a Turkicized

12 variation on another common Seypidin argued that muqam is Baghdad from the mid-eighth Arab maqâm suite name, Bayat. originally a Uyghur word, century. He points to five-string Even the notion of specifically corrupted by Persian and Arabic lutes in frescos at Kizil (near twelve muqam (the number influences; he urged the Kucha in Xinjiang) as evidence twelve having zodiacal signifi- cultivation of a “Uighur Mukam- that the oud, the central cance) appears earliest in the ology” that Uyghurizes relevant instrument in Arab maqâm, was thirteenth century Arabic writings vocabulary. a Kuchean export.3 Moreover, he of Safi al-Din (Light 1998: 30-31). argues that al-Farabi (870-950), In Arab and Persian envi- This Chahetai language an author of musical treatises ronments, maqâm refers to the [Chaghatay is a literary and, among other things, a musical modes of each suite, in written Turkic, with many famous commentary on Aristotle, which the pieces of a given suite Persian loan-words, that was a Turk; likewise, Zhou are composed. Arab maqâm flourished from the fifteenth suggests, Ibn Sina (Avicenna 980- maintain the modes consistently; through nineteenth century in 1037),4 should be seen as in Central Asia and Xinjiang in Central Asia] found its way “eastern” in his thinking and as particular, the modes of pieces into the terminology and a beneficiary of Turkic and within the suites vary: they may poetry of the mukam, by way Chinese influence in his musical begin and end in a particular of the verses of the Maola theory because he was educated mode, but middle pieces adhere [mullahs] [and] poets, during in Bukhara. Zhou’s logic is worth only inconsistently (Light 1998: the Middle Ages. The result quoting: 28, 28 n. 19). (A mode is a was that the Uighurs, creators particular order in which notes of of the mukam, could hardly In conclusion, the foundation a scale may be played. The understand the lyrics of Ibn Sina’s thinking derives muqams also use a wider variety themselves. It is time that this from al-Farabi, and Farabi was of scales than the major, minor mixed language of the mukam a Turk. Thus, there is no doubt and harmonic minor scales most be cleansed of its impurities that Ibn Sina’s theory enjoys familiar in Western art music.) (Sai-fu-ding 1991: 72). Turkic influence. . . . Bukhara [where Ibn Sina lived as a Muqam, then, would thus Chinese musicologists have youth] fell under the control seem to be the quintessential joined the effort to de-emphasize of the Anxi Commandery Silk Road musical form: variations the obvious transnational nature (duhufu) and historical records on a theme stretching from the of muqam and its association with illuminate the influence of Tarim Basin to the Black Sea. The Islam, while playing up evidence Chinese culture on Bukhara. muqam scales, modes, rhythms, of local origin and development, Because before he was 18 lyrics, instruments and termin- as well as links to and mutual years old Ibn Sina lived in the ology tie the Uyghurs to a system influences with Chinese music. Bukhara area, he unavoidably shared across the Islamic One approach has been to argue received the influence of heartlands of Eurasia — but do that the muqam began with the Chinese civilization (Zhou not point to any obvious pre-Islamic Uyghurs. In his 1987: 227). connections with Chinese musical historical study of the on ikki tradition. Moreover, the fact that muqam (1981), Abdushukur In fact, the primary vehicle of the the Arab versions maintain Muhemmet Imin suggests that T’ang dynasty’s influence in consistent modality, while the the word “muqam” itself is Bukhara was its largely Turkic Uyghur and other Central Asian originally Turkic and dates from army. T’ang presence in Trans- ones do so only partially or the fourth century, well before it oxiana was shortlived, and nominally, would seem to indicate is attested in Arabic and before ended 230 years before Ibn an Arab center for the tradition. the Islamicization of Central Asia. Sina’s birth. Ibn Sina’s auto- (Maqâm literally means “place or It was during the Karakhanid biography gives no suggestion of rank” in Arabic, and is one of the period in the eleventh century, Chinese influence (Gohlman standard terms used for mode in Imin argues, that the muqam 1974). Arabo-Iranian music theory.) spread westward (Imin 1981; Trebinjac 2000: 228; Light 1998: Other arguments by PRC Both Uyghur and Han politi- 58-59). Zhou Jingbao sounds authors have likewise high- cians in China have worked to both Turkic and Chinese lighted local roots and Chinese obviate these inconvenient nationalistic notes, making a case connections of the Uyghur implications. For example, in for the influence of “Chinese” muqam. Some scholars have prefaces and keynote speeches instruments and music — i.e. noted structural and rhythmical delivered over decades on the those of the Turks and of Qiuci similarities of the T’ang period subject of Uyghur muqam, (Kucha) — on Abbasid period suites known as daqu with

13 certain sub-sections of the communication among closely References muqam, and posited a common cognate languages and related origin in the music of Kucha. Yin peoples. Bentley and Ziegler 2003 Falu goes further still, claiming It is worth noting, however, Jerry H. Bentley and Herbert R. that the suite form itself was that the PRC project to define, Ziegler. Traditions and Encoun- originally introduced into the codify and develop the Uyghur ters: A Global Perspective on the Tarim Basin by Chinese during Twelve Muqams is largely Past. New York: McGraw Hill, the Han dynasty, to be supported by Uyghurs, who 2003. thenceforth adopted by the appreciate the prestige it has people of Kucha, Kashgar, Turfan afforded their national music. Bovingdon 2004 and so on as the basis of their While some Uyghurs have Gardner Bovingdon, with 5 own popular music. resented Han musicians’ contributions by Nabijan Tursun. borrowing and rewriting of “Contested Histories.” In S. * * * Uyghur folk songs (Harris 2001), Frederick Starr, ed. Xinjiang: Mukamology (to use Seypidin’s the muqam in its new redaction China’s Muslim Borderland. word) in China, then, has serves Uyghurs both within and London, Eng. and Armonk, N.Y.: celebrated the Uyghur muqam as outside of China as a proud M. E. Sharpe, 2004, pp. 353-374. a unique cultural achievement of symbol of Uyghur identity. And Bulliet et al. 1997 the Uyghur people, realized this of course has been the through a process of mutual common result of korenizatsiia Richard W. Bulliet et al., eds. The interchange with the fraternal across Central Asia: the cultural Earth and its Peoples: A Global Han people. Links to the musical productions of Chinese and History. Boston and New York: traditions of Central Asia, Iran Soviet state cultural apparati, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1997. and Arab lands which share the however ersatz they may appear name muqam were by this to western observers, have Chabrier 1960 argument merely one-way; they staying power as points of honor J.-Cl. Ch. Chabrier. “Makâm.” In arose from the westward spread among the peoples whose H. R. Gibb, ed. Encyclopaedia of of Turkic and Uyghur musical identities they helped crystallize. Islam, second edition. Leiden: culture and contributed sig- Nationalist pride, as much as Brill, 1960. nificantly to the development of trans-national interchange, is Arab music, providing, besides part of the modern reality of the Farrell 1997 the muqam, certain scales and Silk Road. Gerry Farrell. Indian Music and the even the five-string lute or oud. West. Oxford: Oxford University On the other hand, according to About the Author Press, 1997. this view the Arab and Persian James A. Millward is Associate literary and terminological Professor of History and a Gohlman 1974 influences that flowed back east member of the Edmund A. Walsh with Islam represent an School of Foreign Service at W. E. Gohlman, ed., trans. The unfortunate corruption of the Georgetown University. A Life of Ibn Sina. Albany: State original purity of the Uyghur specialist on Qing China and Inner University of New York Press, muqam. Asia, he also teaches courses on 1974. This version of muqam history “Steppe Empires and Silk Roads,” Harris 2001 thus attempts to isolate the “folk and on “The Mongol World.” His classical” musical tradition of the publications include Beyond the Rachel Harris. “Wang Luobin: Uyghurs from Central Asia and Pass: Economy, Ethnicity and ‘Folksong King of the Northwest’ Islam, even while glorifying it. Empire in Qing Xinjiang, 1759- or Song Thief? Copyright, Repre- Where the links across the 1864 (Stanford, 1998), the sentation and Chinese Folk- Pamirs are too obvious to ignore, forthcoming Chinese Turkestan: a songs.” In: Consuming China: they are dealt with by assigning History of the Xinjiang Region Approaches to Cultural Change in creative priority to the Uyghurs. (Hurst), contributions to the Contemporary China. Kevin Of course, one can easily find recent volume edited by S. Latham & Stuart Thompson, eds. examples of similar ideological Frederick Starr, Xinjiang: China’s London: Curzon, forthcoming approaches throughout official Muslim Borderland (Sharpe, 2005 (originally to appear 2001). Uyghur historiography from the 2004), and, for those who visit PRC, and the history of linguistic Kashgar, a fascinating article, “A Imin 1981 and script reforms of Xinjiang’s Uyghur Muslim in Qianlong’s Abdushukur Muhemmet Imin. Turkic languages is likewise one Court: The Meanings of the Uyghur khelq kilassik muzikisi “On of consistent erection of Fragrant Concubine.” Journal of ikki muqam” heqqide. Beijing, orthographic barriers to Asian Studies 53:2 (1994). 1981.

14 Levin 1996 Washington DC, June 26-30, July Notes 3-7, 2002. Theodore Levin. The Hundred * I presented an earlier version of Thousand Fools of God: Musical this paper at the Annual Meeting of Travels in Central Asia (and Thrasher 2000 the Association for Asian Studies in Queens, New York). Bloomington: Alan R. Thrasher. Chinese Musical New York City, 29 March 2003. My Indiana University Press, 1996. Instruments. Images of Asia thanks to Rachel Harris for furnishing series. Oxford: Oxford University me with bibliography and letting me Light 1998 Press, 2000. read some of her not yet published work. Nathan Light. “Slippery Paths:

The Performance and Canoni- Trebinjac 1990 1. On the politics of Xinjiang historiography, see Bovingdon 2004. zation of Turkic Literature and Sabine Trebinjac. “Musique Uyghur Muqam Song in Islam and ouigoure de Chine: de l’authen- 2. Recently, official Chinese sources Modernity.” Ph.D. dissertation, ticité à la folklorisation.” In: l’Asie have started translating minzu as Indiana University, 1998. centrale et ses voisins: influences “ethnic group.” réciproques. Paris: Institut 3. Zhou 1987: 217-18, 224-227. A Ma 2002 nationale des langues et five-string lute is depicted in the cave frescos at Kizil (near Kucha) and Yo-Yo Ma and the Silk Road civilisations orientales, 1990, pp. listed in Tang sources as one of the 227-238. Ensemble, Silk Road Journeys: Kuchean (Qiuci) instruments. When Strangers Meet (Sony audio However, such lutes with vaulted CD #89782, April 2002). Trebinjac 2000 backs are common across Eurasia, Sabine Trebinjac. Le pouvoir en and there are similar instruments Mackerras 1985 chantant, Tome I , L’art de depicted in Mediterranean sites dating from the second century BCE. Colin Mackerras. “Uyghur Per- fabriquer une musique chinoise. forming Arts in Contemporary Nanterre: Société d’ethnologie, 4. Avicenna’s Canon became the China.” The China Quarterly, 101 2000. foundational work of Renaissance (Mar. 1985): 58-77. medicine in Europe. Wan 1959 5. Yin Falu, “Woguo lishi shang de Roy 2000 Wan Tongshu. On ikki muqam / minzu qianxi yu wudao wenhua shier mukamu. [The Twelve jiaoliu” [Ethnic migrations and Olivier Roy. The New Central Asia: exchange of dance culture in the the Creation of Nations. London: Muqam.] 2 vols. (Beijing: Yinyue history of my country], Wudao I.B. Tauris, 2000. chubanshe and minzu chuban- luncong 3: 48-57, cited in Trebinjac she), 1959. [Bilingual Chinese- 2000: 222-223. Sai-fu-ding 1991 Uyghur edition.] Seypidin Azizi, “On the Uighur Mukam” [a speech delivered at Wan 1986 the Xinjiang Forum on Literature Wan Tongshu. Weiwuerzu yueqi. and Art, 1991]. In Sai-fu-ding, [Uyghur instruments.] Urumchi: Lun Weiwuer mukamu. Beijing: Xinjiang renmin chubanshe, Waiyu jiaoxue yu yanjiu chuban- 1986. she, 1994. Zhou 1987 Sai-fu-ding 1994 Zhou Jingbao. Sichou zhilu de Sai-fu-ding (Seypidin Äzizi). Lun yinyue wenhua. [Musical culture of Weiwuer Mukam. [On the Uighur the Silk Road.] Urumchi: Xinjiang Mukam.] Beijing: Waiyu jiaoxue renmin chubanshe, 1987. Copyright © Daniel C. Waugh 1995 yu yanjiu chubanshe, 1994. [In Chinese and English.] Zhou 1993 Zhou Jingbao. “The General Smithsonian Institution 2002 Preface to the Series of Silk Road The Smithsonian Institution Studies” [in English]. In: Wang Center for Folklife and Cultural Binghua, ed., Sichou zhi lu kaogu Heritage and the Silk Road yanjiu [Archaeological Research Project, Inc. The Silk Road: on the Silk Road], Sichou zhi lu Connecting Cultures, Creating yanjiu congshu series no. 1. Trust. Catalog of the 36th Urumchi: Xinjiang renmin chuban- annual Smithsonian Folklife she, 1993. Festival on the National Mall,

Fig. 3. Playing a spike fiddle in Kashgar.

15 place for development as well as The Polychrome Rock a continental bridge between the Paintings in the Altay West and the East Evidence concerning ancient Mountains nomadic culture may be seen in abundant petroglyphs, often Wang Binghua found in mountain pastures, along important routes of travel, Xinjiang Institute of Archaeology, in defiles and so on. Unlike the Urumqi, China relatively well-known petro- glyphs, which share the same The Altay Mountains, lying across with good vegetation where spirit but have different repre- the northern part of Xinjiang, there is plenty of rainfall and thus sentations and ages, the rock played an important role in an ideal summer pasture. The low paintings are as yet little known connecting Asia and Europe in mountain belt, 1,500 m down to and little studied. ancient times. The cultural 1,000 m high, is a good grazing exchange passing through the land in spring and autumn, where It was in the summer of 1965 Altay is but poorly known and hills and gorges alternate and that I spotted the polychrome thus merits scholarly inves- grass flourishes. Below 1,000 m, rock paintings in the caves of the tigation. Of particular interest is there are hills and sparse grazing Altay Mountains for the first time. archaeological evidence, in- ground. Winter grazing is found As a member of the archae- cluding polychrome rock paintings in the river valleys up against the ological group of the History found in the caves of the Altay mountain slopes and facing the Research Institute of the Xinjiang that have been reported in sun. The mountain geography Academy of Sciences, I was then various channels in recent where water supply, vegetation doing archaeological research in decades. These paintings, which and temperature vary with the Altay area with the late provide valuable historical altitude makes possible a Professor Yi Manbai and Mr. Wang information, are the subject of seasonal shift of grazing to Mingzhe. This trip lasted 5 months this article. provide better survival condi- and covered thousands of tions and has made the Altay a kilometers. The cairns, stone Any kind of primitive culture base for the activity of the ancient coffins, deer-shaped steles, must be closely associated with pastoral nomads. Ever since the stone figures and rock carvings the natural environment in which Neolithic Period it has provided in both mountain and non- it was created and developed. the ancient nomads an ideal mountain areas were all very Before analyzing the rock paintings in the Altay Mountains, it is necessary to know a bit more about the mountains them- selves. The Altay is a vast mountain system in Asia, straddling the administrative borders of four countries: Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and Russia (Fig. 1). In the territory of China is the south slope of its middle part, which runs through the northern border of Xinjiang from northwest to southeast, some 800 km in length and 80-150 km in width and with an average altitude of

3,000 m. Above 3,200 m is the detail from: http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/images/6666/ Kazakhstan2.A2003251.0525.500m.jpg glaciated area covered with heavy snow. From 3,200 m to 2,400 m is the high mountain belt of high-altitude pasture, supporting cattle in summer time. From altitude 2,400 m to 1,500 Fig. 1. Northern Xinjiang and neighboring countries, with the Altay m is the middle mountain belt Mountains across the top center and right of picture.

16 impressive. Yet of these rich 1) Near the entrance is an were once chiseled and the cultural remains, the rock image of vulvae in reddish brown grooves filled with reddish brown paintings made the strongest pigment, oval shaped, 16 cm in pigment. impression. According to this length and 7 cm in width, with a incomplete personal research small hole in the center. Fifty 5) In addition to these and some reports by colleagues, short paralleled lines can be seen images, on the huge rock walls there are at least three sites in above the vulvae; below is a at the entrance, there is one the Altay Mountains that have curved line like the contour of a goat with big horns in reddish substantial numbers of poly- buttock. brown. The goat stands with high raised head and horns. chrome rock paintings. In the 2) Further down are four area between the Haba River in geometric images of human In addition to the better- the west and Altay City in the beings, with 40 short parallel preserved rock paintings in the east, there are at least ten lines beside them. The images cave at Arktas, the Altay City locations where such rock are 13-17 cm high, all with raised region has other remains of rock paintings may be seen seen. And hands and separated legs. paintings at Giashihalahai and this is only a preliminary Kirlmuqiyuitas. However, the estimate. The three sites with 3) At the very end of the cave is a long belt of many short images are too faint for substantial numbers of the identification; infrared photo- paintings are at Arktas in Altay parallel lines, below which is a human image, 16 cm high, with graphy may be needed to City, Tangbaletas in Fuyun decipher them. County, and Dugat in Haba River raised hands and separated legs. County. Rock paintings in the caves at 4) On the huge rock walls at Tangbaletas. Rock paintings in the caves at the entrance are images of five Arktas cattle and one horse. The cattle “Tangbaletas,” which means are very stocky and all are in a “painted rocks” in Turkish, is “Arktas,” which in Turkish means running posture. The horns of located in Tangbaletas Village, “white rocks,” is about 23 km three stretch ahead and the Kelabulegen Town, 60 km north northwest of Altay City in the horns of the other two bend in Fuyun County (in Kazakh it is township of Balibagai. Geo- backward. The largest of the called “Keketuhai,” meaning graphically, it lies in a long gap in cattle (86 cm long, 55 cm high) is green forest). Two painted caves granite rocks at an altitude of at the end, the smallest (31 cm were found there. 1000m. The cave with rock long, 23 cm high) at the front. It • paintings is a natural shallow seems that the painter had good Cave 1, at the mid- groove in the middle part of the sense of distance and per- mountainside, 25 m higher than granite, 13 m long, 1-4 m deep spective. Below the cattle is a the inhabited village. The cave is and 1.3-1.5 m high. The cave quite skillful depiction of a horse high and spacious (20 m wide, faces south onto open grassland, (66 cm long, 40 cm high) with a 11.5 m high and 11.8 m deep, where there is a slowly-flowing raised head and running legs. width gradually contracts down brook. In this long narrow The images were created in a kind toward the end) and can easily granite cave, five groups of of “mixed technique,” since the contain dozens of people and not paintings may be made out. contours of the cattle and horse seem crowded. The cave faces southeast, receiving plenty of light, with a view down along a slope covered with thick, verdant grass. The higher location of the cave and the grass-covered slope in front of the cave make it an ideal gathering place for the ancient inhabitants of the area to engage in religious rituals. (Fig. 2) Rock paintings can be seen at the cave’s top and side walls. On the top, at a distinctive position is a geometric symbol (Fig. 3, next page). The images on the right side look like two human Fig. 2. View toward Cave 1 at Tangbaletas. faces with peaked caps. For one

17 painted in heavy colors, in these hills. they were probably the • Cave 1, a shallow cave with main subject of the overall a 1.6 m. wide entrance and 1m composition. The painting is high, contains images of three weird and unique, like humans and four cattle outlined sketches lacking any in reddish brown color on the concrete image, the effect side wall. The human figures are being to create a mystical about 30cm high and the length atmosphere. Of religious of the cattle about the same. Two and shamanic significance, cattle are in moving posture, the such paintings may help us other two are standing head to further understand pre- head. historic religions. This • Cave 2, a bigger cave, Fig. 3. Painting on roof of Cave 1 impression is reinforced by at Tangbaletas. a palm image, with 3 oval contains a few human images images below on the left created by reddish brown dots face, there are dense parallel side of the short lines, and below the lines cave. This are three diamond-shaped image shares graphics like the Chinese the cultural character ping, resembling the spirit of the eyes and nose. For the other one, other paintings there are dense parallel short in the cave lines at the position of its chin. which may be (Figs. 4, 5, 6) These two human associated with faces with caps are quite big, one worship for being 72 cm high, the other 170 birthing ability. • Cave 2, located only 60m away from Cave 1 in the same granite cluster, is rela- Fig. 5. Painting on roof of Cave 1 at Tangbaletas. tively small. Its paintings are simpler than those and lines spread across an area in Cave 1 — just some drawings 126 cm high and 130 cm wide. of foxes, boars and deer in The upper part shows eight reddish brown. people in two rows with something like weapons; on one end is a graphic consisting of two Rock paintings in the caves at rows of parallel vertical lines. The Dugat. lower part shows three groups Dugat is in Salbulak Town, Haba of triangle-like images of River County, where the Fig. 4. Painting on roof of Cave 1 protruding granite has eroded at Tangbaletas. over the millennia into unique- shaped hills containing strangely- cm high. On the façade of the shaped caves resembling cave are 4 giant ovals with honeycombs or dwellings. In smaller circles inside, which are contrast below the hills is a totally in white or dark purple in contrast different landscape of rippling to the reddish brown back- streams and flourishing grass, full ground. The long diameters of of vitality. This unusual en- the 4 ovals are respectively 70 vironment has a strong visual cm, 80 cm, 49 cm and 120 cm. (Fig. impact, which is an ideal venue 7, next page). Given the fact that for prehistoric religious rituals. these vulvae-like ovals are big, Seven groups of polychrome Fig.6. Painting on roof of Cave 1 positioned at the center and are paintings were found in the caves at Tangbaletas.

18 • Cave 7, the most spacious and its total area 48m2. The cave in Dugat, is 20 m above the paintings in the cave include bottom of its cliff. The entrance is some horses, sheep, vulvae 8m wide and the interior 2.8 m images, and round graphics high and 4.5 m deep. Paintings painted in reddish brown. On the were found at the façade, north side of the Kunlun covering an area of 2.5 x 4.5 m2. Mountains, in Pishan County, This grand painting is a rather there is a cave at Arihiwonkul complicated one of what appears which is 4-5 m high and 4 m deep. to be a hunting scene. The upper, Because of its large dimensions, lower and left side of the painting the cave is inhabited by modern Fig.6. Painting on roof of Cave 1 at Tangbaletas. are full of hand and foot prints, nomads. The original reddish fences and traps composed of brown paintings mostly have mountains, below which are short paralleled vertical lines. On been covered by soot; only some three men in peaked caps. In the right side of the painting graphics and hand prints are between the two parts is a group some people were driving cattle dimly visible. On the east side of of unknown graphics composed and horses forward in this the Pamirs, painted hand prints of short red lines. entrapment. Some animals have have been found at Arzi- • Cave 3, with a 1.7 m-wide already been killed by spears; gangsaler Village, Qipan Town, entrance and measuring 1.5 m four or five cattle and horses Yecheng County. Therefore, we high and 1.3 m deep, has on its were lying on the ground. The know that rock paintings once left lower wall a cow painted in size of the people is much smaller spread widely in ancient Xinjiang, reddish brown, below which is a than that of the big animals. In but now the better-preserved stout man with a peaked cap, two addition to the people driving paintings are found only in the arms hanging down. On the right animals from the back, there is Altay area. upper wall is a claval [keylike?— another man holding a shield and How might we interpret the ed.] object. In between are many a spear, facing the animals in the Altay paintings? As we can see geometrical graphics, the middle front. On the far right side of the from the attached photographs, group of which, composed of painting, there are also some apart from the clearly identifiable short lines, can be identified as people standing spread out as if images of animals, human a mouth. The rest of the graphics they are waiting for the prey to beings, and hand and foot prints, are all in thick dots and vertical come. (Fig. 7) most images are symbolic lines, which seem quite unusual geometric graphics consisting of and mystic. parallel lines, ovals, triangles and • Cave 4, a rather small cave figures composed of short lines. with a 1m high entrance, height Those graphics must have meant of 1 m and depth of 0.9 m, has a something to the painters row of stick-like lines painted in thousands of years ago, dark reddish brown filling an area although for us the graphics of 3-4 cm high and 65 cm long seem to represent myths we and resembling a fence. need to decode. There seem to • Cave 5, with a 1 m-high be several themes. entrance, height of 0.8 m, depth 1. Worship for birthing ability of less than 1 m, contains two Fig. 7. Painting on façade of Cave 7 at Dugat. dancing people painted in On this theme, the typical reddish brown. The above describes the rock example is the Arktas rock • Cave 6, another small cave, paintings in the caves of Altay painting which is simple and with entrance width 1 m, height area. Apart from those in the almost realistically drawn, 0.5 m and depth 1 m, contains Altay Mountains, similar rock enabling us to figure out the paintings of a man and two paintings have also been found painter’s purpose. The curve cattle. The man is about 26 cm in the Tianshan Mountains and under the centered vulvae image high, with a two-horned head Kunlun Mountains. One case outlines the buttocks, and the ornament, his arms stretching worth mentioning is the Aktas short lines above resembles ahead and standing splay- cave located north of Wulezek pubic hair, which also symbolizes footed. Limited by the cave size Village, Terks County, north of the pasture land and earth. This can in the front part, there are two western Tianshan Mountains. be regarded as an abstract half-bodied animals’ contours The entrance of the cave is 5 m depiction of vulvae, but one not outlined in reddish brown. wide, its interior 2.5-3 m high, too far from reality. Phallism was

19 common at the primitive stage of funnel-shaped caps in the rock we are not able to explain, the human society. And worship for paintings must have been theme of the painting is quite birthing ability was an early form images of shamans. The belief in clear: it was a record of or a of phallism which represents the shamans appeared very early prayer for a successful hunt. primitive people’s religious belief among the ancient nomads of in women’s mystic power of northern Eurasia. For the ancient It reflects the same theme as reproduction during the period of nomads, they mediated between in the hunting scenes of the rock matriarchal society. At this early the visible and spirit worlds. The paintings of the Paleolithic Period stage of human society when nomads believed that through found in western Europe. The interactive magic was believed in the shamans’ magic, they could only difference is that the as a means to get divine be blessed by gods and obtain Paleolithic paintings of hunting blessings, primitive people their wishes such as repro- found in France and Spain are believed that everything had a duction of people and cattle, more vivid and objective, while spirit, and that the reproduction escaping diseases and disasters, the Altay rock paintings are of population was associated maintaining peace and safety, generally clumsy, their images with the fertility of earth and the etc. As a result, the images of are mainly line-drawn and in flourishing of pasture. This can be shamans and vulvae of this particular the images of animals proven by much anthropologic cave’s painting show the are quite simple. Moreover, the evidence worldwide which shows aboriginal people’s prayers for abstract marks could be regarded that childbirth, mothering, earth their women to have stronger as a regional feature of the Altay and life are connected with each birthing ability. Shamans had rock paintings. other. Therefore, the vulvae powers different from those of 3. Social conflicts. image and the curve below it and normal people. They were the the short lines above it painted medium where gods made their The painting in Dugat Cave at Arktas actually expressed presence. The mysterious caves No. 2 may reflect the social people’s wish for population were then naturally regarded as conflict at that time and the reproduction and prayers for the residence of gods, and painter’s celebration for the abundant harvest and flourishing therefore the ideal place for winning party. The two groups of pastures. magic rituals. people separated by many parallel lines are totally different Using the vulvae and 2. Encircled Hunting. in mood and posture. One group grassland image of the Arktas has eight people, holding rock paintings helps us to In the life of the ancient weapons and looking to be in interpret the Tangbaletas nomads, large-scale encircled high spirits. The three people of paintings located not far away hunting was an important way of the other group, two of them from Arktas. The complicated production. In the early days, the wearing peaked caps, have their images in this huge cave are target of hunting was normally arms hanging down and are composed of the following 3 those big yet clumsy vegetarians obviously in the inferior position. components: like cattle and horses rather than We can feel the painter’s fierce beasts. The painting in • emotions expressed in the A geometric mark on the top Dugat cave is a picture of exactly center. painting regarding whom he this kind of hunting: At least 3 supported and for whom he • Four distinctive oval images bloody cattle lay on the ground, celebrated. Blocked off by three on the façade wall. These ovals shot by spears; another five high mountains and grassland, that occupied the most important cattle and horses remained the two parties could hardly ever position on the wall obviously standing but had been struck by meet. represent vulvae too. spears and were under attack. Some of the people in this picture 4. Abstract symbols. • Human faces with peaked hold triangular shields, some hold caps on the top right wall. clubs, some are even disguised There are a lot of abstract According to the many folklore as beasts. One should note that geometric symbols, primarily documents, we can infer that there are no bows and arrows in triangles, parallel lines, fence-like those human face images the painting. Around the hunting patterns, oval-shaped curves represent shamans. “Longsha Ji scene are patterns composed of composed of red dashes or semi- Lue” by Fan Shiji (Qing period) parallel red lines, arcs and circular curves. The curves are says that “Wizards who connect triangles; and many hand and not completely closed; all have a with gods are called shamans. foot prints, which means the gap, which makes them look like They wear caps like funnels.” In victory would belong to the traps. Other symbols including the mind of the ancient Altay hunters. Except for the small claval shapes, dense dots, hand- nomads, the human faces with number of geometric figures that and footprints, etc. Most of the

20 symbols were drawn with great spacious grassland platform rituals must be in red, the color care and were obviously that is suitable for crowds to of blood and a carrier of life and arranged with some purpose. So gather. Practicing magic at soul. Painting in the blood color far it is it is impossible to decode these caves could be more of red could empower the their meaning and cultural compelling and overwhelming, pictures with inductive magic significance, but undoubtedly for the caves were positioned and thus make people’s wishes those symbols were once blessed high up and the people had to come true. by magic and in the painter’s look up to them with awe. view therefore possessed Given the content of the rock • supernatural force. The practitioners of magic paintings, it seems reasonable to had to rely on shamans to date them to the late Paleolithic The Altay paintings are also a reach the gods. Shamans were Age, as long as 10,000 years precious resource for us to study half-human, half-god. Under ago. This estimate derives from primitive magic rituals. For normal circumstances, they the cultural features reflected in primitive peoples, all the were humans, but on some the paintings which picture a important events related to the specific occasions, they became social life that belonged only to clan’s survival and development the avatar of the gods and the that specific historic period. The needed to be blessed, and magic protectors of the clan. The life of the primitive people in the was the very way to reach the paintings at Tangbaletas Paleolithic Age was very hard. gods. As a result of extensive portray shamans in early times Collecting and hunting were their scientific observation, the British with human faces and a main means of survival. And anthropologist Malinowski peaked cap. Qing scholar Fang encircled hunting was a main form concluded that magic is practiced Shiji’s description of northern of hunting. As shown in the in situations where it causes peoples’ shamans suggests a Dugat painting, the encircled emotions to oscillate between continuity of culture going back hunting scene was magnificent, hope and fear. Primitive people the earlier primitive beliefs. The and the activities like trap-setting faced challenges which they felt presence of shamans in the and throwing spears must rely on were beyond human control and paintings seems to suggest the group’s collaboration. thus could only be addressed by that those caves were also Surrounded by hand prints and magic: such things as repro- where shamans lived. For mystic geometric symbols, a herd duction of the clan’s population, shamans to participate, ritual of cattle and horses has already ensuring a favorable result of praying had to be carried out been trapped. All the hunters are hunting, and winning battles there. on foot. The large animals are against other clans. The Altay being killed by spears, not rock paintings provide some • The most common magical arrows. The object of the hunt clues to this kind of logic, even if practice of primitive people was was those vegetarian animals there is otherwise no written Induction Sorcery. It was with huge bodies and a lot of record of it. believed that to poke the meat, like cattle and horses. Such enemies’ eyes on a picture or animals are relatively harmless, Studying the environment of on a mud figure would blind unable to eat man, moving those caves and the content of them and to stab the heart clumsily, and thus easier to hunt. the rock paintings, we may would injure them. The painted Once such an animal was caught, conclude the following: horses and cattle which were it could feed a number of people the objects of hunting were for several days. Compared with • The place where magic was believed to interconnect with the hunting scenes of the practised was also the place the real animals. When animals Paleolithic Age rock paintings where magicians came into were struck in the paintings, found in France and Spain, there contact with the gods. Those this would ensure that the were quite a few similarities. But unusual places must be eerie actual hunt would be age-wise, the Altay rock paintings in appearance and different successful. Subjects like giving were a bit later, which explains from normal residences. The birth and defeating enemies the appearance of some abstact painted caves in Altay which we depicted in the rock paintings graphics. have found so far are all located in the caves of the Altay in pathless, high and steep Mountains are not only a vivid The second important basis positions, deep and serene, record of the primitive people’s for the proposed dating is that and have odd shapes. For the magic rituals, but also a the hunters do not use arrows primitive people, those caves valuable part of the cultural and bows. The invention and use were no doubt the most history of their society. of arrows and bows was a great mysterious places. And below achievement of the period of those caves there usually is a • Paintings for use in magic primitive society and a vital

21 indication of the end of the area. We note as well that in the activities of the early humans and Paleolithic Age and the beginning territory of the Mongolian to understand the creation and of the Neolithic Age. In the Altay Republic, east of Xinjiang, similar feature of primitive art work. The Mountain area, there are rock reddish brown rock paintings paintings demonstrate that even carvings at more than 80 sites, have been found in the caves in primitive art creation was driven and at each site there are the Hoytsaikel River Valley, which by substantial need and served anywhere from a dozen to more is part of the Altay Mountain a practical purpose connected than one hundred pictures. system. The reports indicate that with gaining material benefit. Hunting activities are a very “The rock paintings were drawn common subject, and the in reddish-brown tone and Since the nineteenth century weapons most used were consisted of 13 groups, dis- in countries of Western Europe arrows and bows. Art originated tributed on the roof and walls in such as France and Spain, more from life. The very different the cave. The animals’ contours than 100 rock-painting sites have hunting way of the Altay rock were drawn with pigments; the been discovered, most of them paintings reveals that the depictions included oxen, goats, hidden in the deep end of creator of those paintings still animals with tusks, and birds pathless caves. They depict in had no idea about arrows and very much like an ostrich.” reddish-brown or black drawing bows: what they knew was to Though not all the images are the animals like buffaloes and horses surround the prey by several same as those in the Altay rock being killed by spears and date people and use spears as their paintings in Xinjiang, part of the from 15,000 - 40,000 years ago. weapons. That means they had description (for example “The We can see a lot of similarities not yet entered the new Neolithic animals’ contours were drawn with the paintings in the Xinjiang age. with pigments; the depictions Altay. Both there and in the included oxen”) is quite similar, European caves, we see big Just as with the depiction of suggesting that the Mongolian animals drawn in reddish-brown encircled hunting and the discoveries would be useful pigments or outlined by colored absence of arrows and bows, reference material for us to lines, and being hunted with the evidence of the paintings further analyze the rock painting spears. Beyond the mere fact of regarding worship for birthing remains at Haba River and Fuyun these similarities, we might have ability was also a dominant County in the Altay area. here evidence to suggest some thought of the Paleolithic Age. connections and communications Therefore, we are quite long ago across Eurasia. Going There is some additional certain that the polychrome rock west from the Altay through the evidence to support a date in the paintings in the Xinjiang Altay are Kazakh hills and Turan lowlands, Paleolithic. The existence of remains of the late Paleolithic one can easily reach the Paleolithic Age human remains in Age. They are a valuable art European plain. Going east, one this area is a precondition to the legacy that could be traced as far can reach the Kobdo area of the discovery of rock paintings dated back as 10,000 years ago. This Mongolian Republic. The 10,000 years ago. Although no conclusion is significant for the continuous mountains which are Paleolithic remains have yet been archaeology of Xinjiang where to trans-portation barriers today discovered in the Altay Mountains date we have very limited used to be linking bridges for the within China’s territory due to Paleolithic findings and still lack ancient nomads in ancient times. limited archaeological work in knowledge of the early The Sogdians, Xiongnu, Xianbei, Xinjiang, such remains do exist if civilization of Xinjiang in the Turks, and Mongolians who once we extend to the whole primitive period. The paintings dominated the great prairie had mountain system. A few themselves are very helpful in moved around through the Paleolithic remains have been studying that Paleolithic culture. inland gateway of Altay. As a found in the Altay Mountains of What’s more, it’s very likely other result, the Altay Mountains with Russian Siberia, for example the remains from the Paleolithic Age their rich resources,which stretch Wulalinka River Paleolithic Age will be found nearby. If we follow all the way from east to west, habitation in Alnor-Altest city the clues to carry out focused had long ago become an ideal dating 15,000 years ago, and surveys, we may make a route for the ancient nomads in Stelanaya Paleolithic dwelling breakthrough in the archae- the northern Eurasia. This is cave remains in the Altay ological research on the convincing evidence of the Geekiliek Mountain area, etc. Paleolithic Age. ancient “Silk Road in the Prairie” These Paleolithic remains provide which had no documented proof a basis for us to analyze the rock Furthermore, those paintings but did exist in ancient times. The paintings with the Paleolithic- provide valuable specimens for evidence discussed here is part style culture which we have us to study the thinking patterns, of the first chapter in the history discovered so far in the Altay phallic beliefs, magic and hunting of the prairie civilization in

22 Eurasia which still lacks in-depth research and thus deserves Viticulture and Viniculture more attention and efforts by fellow archaeologists. in the Turfan Region

About the Author Xinru Liu The College of New Jersey Wang Binghua is one of China’s Ewing, N. J. most distinguished archae- ologists, Director of the Xinjiang Institute of Archaeology, and In early July 2004 I made a short making of wine and its associated Director of the new Silkroad trip to Turfan. The people there culture and rituals, may not be Museum in Urumqi. He is an were warm, friendly, extremely an ancient tradition in Turfan. authority on the early history of hospitable and love dancing and the peoples of Xinjiang. Among drinking. Although they are good However, current conditions his many publications are: Muslims, drinking is a part of their and common sense cannot way of life.1 Our guide, Dr. Julaiti, answer historical questions, (with Wang Minzhe) Wusun yan a Uyghur ophthalmologist, especially for the oases along the jiu. Urumqi: Xinjiang renmin repeatedly advised us to enjoy Central Asian Silk Road. Turfan chubanshe; Xinjiang xinhua shu wine with our hosts for and Dunhuang, the gate to the dian faxing, 1983. otherwise, he said, “they would Chinese interior, have preserved be angry!” He further informed many historical documents, some The Ancient Corpses of Xinjiang: me that Muslims in Turfan not of which indicate that viticulture The Peoples of Ancient Xinjiang and only drank, but also performed began there in Han times and Their Culture, tr. Victor Mair. religious rituals somewhat developed into a mature vini- Urumqi: Xinjiang People’s differently than Muslims of other culture by the T’ang. Moreover, Publishing House: 2002 (in regions. There is, he continued, this development was linked to Chinese and English). a slight Buddhist flavor in their the spread of Buddhism into this ritual performances and music. region. (with Corinne Debaine-Francfort As Dr. Julaiti is a scholar and Viticulture is as ancient as and Henri Francfort) “Agriculture seasoned traveler of many agriculture. Recent research irrigué et art bouddhique ancien Islamic countries, I trust his traces wine back to the Neolithic au coeur du Taklamakan judgment. In fact, it is not at all period. Egypt, Mesopotamia and (Karadong, Xinjiang, IIe-IVe surprising that there are some the Holy Land all had their wine siècles): premiers resultats de Buddhist survivals in Turfan since drinking traditions. Viticulture l’Expedition franco-chinoise de la this was the predominant religion reached its apex in the ancient Keriya.” Arts Asiatiques, 49 of the country in earlier world in the Greco-Roman era (1994): 34-52. centuries. This raises the inter- esting question of whether where grape cultivation, wine making, and special drinking (with Mu Shunying and Christine Buddhists in ancient Turfan drank paraphernalia were encased in a Kontler-Barbier) “Introduction alcoholic beverages? complex set of rituals, and where aux études de Turfan, The obvious answer, of the Dionysus-Bacchus cult made présentation générale des course, is no; Buddhists are not drinking an essential component travaux des spécialistes chinois.” supposed to drink. The Turfan of public festivals [McGovern In: Contributions aux Études de region is well known for its 2003; Unwin 1991: 94-133]. In Touen-houang, vol.III. Paris: viticulture, but not necessarily for the Mediterranean world, wine École Française d’Extrême- its wine. Dotting the landscape was an important sector of the Orient, 1984, pp. 1-21. are numerous shelters used for economy and was extensively drying grapes to make raisins; and widely traded. But this is not “New Finds in Turfan Archae- the current winery of the region the case of East Asia or even the ology.” Orientations, 30/4 (1999): is a recent phenomenon fol- eastern part of Central Asia. 58-64. lowing French techniques and Ancient Chinese did drink alcohol, tastes. However, the people of but this was produced from “Recherches historiques pré- Turfan often prefer distilled grain fermented food grains. As for liminaires sur les Saka du Xinjiang alcohol to grape wine. In short, Turfan and the Central Asian ancien.” Arts Asiatiques, 42 even though there is a long oases, they had to wait for the (1987): 31-44 tradition of viticulture, or grape introduction of advanced irri- cultivation, viniculture, the gation technology that made the ______

23 cultivation of the vine feasible in mented the tuntian system which 240 in Schmidt-Colinet 2000, Tafel this arid environment. Therefore, placed garrisons around the 96, 97]. This unique piece has viticulture and eventually watch towers and in well- attracted the notice of scholars, viniculture came with the irrigated agricultural colonies. and Elfriede Regina Knauer, elaboration of the Silk Road. Thus, the soldiers in the frontier among others, believes it was could cultivate the land during made in Turfan [Knauer 1998: Zhang Qian probably brought the periods of peace. The Han 111n92]. I agree with Knauer’s knowledge of viticulture to China. government soon extended the judgment, not only because But only after General Li Guangli tuntian system beyond the Jade viticulture was established in made his expeditions to Dawan Gate, with Turfan as one of its Turfan during the Later Han, but (Ferghana) and obtained the major headquarters. As Turfan also because of the presence “heavenly horses” did Han Wudi controlled the lines of there of sericulture. If this is the sent missions back to Dawan to communications between the case, it is not only viticulture that procure seeds of alfalfa and the Western Region and the Chinese reached Turfan but also a new grape for China. According to interior, this garrison, called Wuji industry and element of material Hanshu, the Han History, Wudi Jiaowei, was the center of all culture worthily expressed in this made this decision because there military-agricultural colonies exquisite silk textile. were many heavenly horses to beyond the Jade Gate. Though feed and many foreign envoys to Han government did not always The next question is whether be entertained [Ban Gu 1964: control the Western Region, viniculture accompanied grape 96a/3895]. In this he was agriculture developed rapidly in cultivation to Turfan and other following the practice of ancient all the oases, thanks to the profit Central Asian oases. As men- Iran and neighboring regions of the passing trade and the tioned above, when Han China such as western Central Asia introduction of irrigation tech- brought in grape cultivation, where alfalfa was important in nology. After a couple of viticulture and viniculture were breeding and feeding high quality hundreds year, the region from already well established in the horses. At the same time Wudi Dunhuang to Turfan became a western part of Central Asia, that obtained the alfalfa from Dawan, fertile land growing food grains, is, in the regions of modern day he became aware of the mulberries for silk, hemp, and northern Afghanistan and viticulture of that region [Laufer grape. Because of its strategic Uzbekistan. Moreover, because

1967: 208-245]. In this period, location and agricultural riches, yeast for fermentation naturally around 100 BCE, Dawan and the Han government stationed occurs in grape skins, the Afghanistan, then under the garrisons and tuntian head- transition to wine making in the control of the Yuezhi-Kushans, quarters wherever possible and oases of eastern Central Asian already had a mature viniculture. strenuously fought the Xiongnu seems an easy and obvious step. Elites stored large quantities of for control of the region [Fan Ye This, however, did not happen in wine which could last for several 1965: 88/2914]. In consequence, the Han period. decades before it soured [Ban viticulture along with sericulture Viniculture in northern Afghan- Gu 1964: 96a/3894]. However, reached Turfan by the first or the there is no indication that the istan and Uzbekistan developed second centuries, the time of the under Hellenistic influence. Han Chinese made wine out the Later Han. grapes. Starting in the later fourth century It is during this period that BCE, Greek colonists brought in Meanwhile, the Han govern- the volume of trade along the Silk vineyards, wine making, drinking ment took measures to protect Road accelerated. In Palmyra, vessels and other aspects of the the trade routes extending from the caravan city in Syria desert Dionysian festivals. After nomadic the oases of Central Asia through and a principal trading depot of peoples took over Hellenistic the Hexi Corridor between the the eastern Roman frontier, many Bactria, viniculture persisted and Qilian Mountains and the Gobi pieces of Han silk textiles have flourished under the Kushan Desert. Wudi had a line of been recovered from tombs, Empire. During the first couple garrison towns built in Hexi striking testimony to the fact that centuries CE when the Kushan Corridor, and the Great Wall Han China and the Mediter- Empire also flourished, thanks to extended to the Jade Gate and ranean world were commercially the expansion of the Silk Road to the western most of these linked by the Silk Road. However, trade passing through its garrison towns, Dunhuang. To not all these silks were territory, the center of Buddhist establish a military presence in necessarily produced in the Han activity migrated from the lower the frontier and to ease the territory inside the Great Wall. A Ganges to northwest region of problem of transporting food polychrome silk of compound South Asia and Afghanistan, the grains to these remote areas, weave from Palmyra depicts core territory of the Kushans. the Han government imple- camels under a vineyard [Kat. Greco-Roman influence, including

24 viniculture, is well expressed in wine for centuries. For example, monasteries had to provide food Gandharan Buddhist art. while Manichaean doctrine and wine, sometimes only for Amphorae, craters, goblets and banned alcohol, their monas- monks, sometimes for visitors all kinds of vessels used in teries in Qocho nonetheless and the artisans working there. Dionysus-Bacchus festivals produced wine.2 It is likely that It seems that the monasteries of appear in the many drinking Buddhists behaved similarly. Dunhuang stored oil and food scenes in stone sculptures There is no direct evidence of grains, but paid for wine with associated with Buddhist wine-drinking among Buddhists their food grains. Two different monuments and shrines. The in Turfan, but there is abundant verbs are used to express motifs of grapes and grape vines evidence that wine-drinking was “buying wine”: gujiu, and wojiu. in these bacchanalian scenes a common practice of Buddhists The former is a straightforward indicate that the beverage living on the Tang frontier, phrase “to buy wine,” but the depicted was grape wine. particularly in Dunhuang. A large meaning of the latter is unclear. number of manuscripts from Probably due to this ambiguity, The Buddhist institutions and Dunhuang generated by lay some scholars insist that the practices developed in the Buddhist societies (sheyi) wines used in Buddhist festivals Kushan era then spread to document their establishment, were made from grain. If the term Central Asia and China. Unfor- regulations, etc. A special kind wojiu meant to make wine with tunately, there is a dearth of of document, called a Shesi the allotted wheat or millet, then Chinese information concerning Zhuantie, announcing Buddhist the wine was fermented from the Western Region after the festivals, social events and food grain like traditional Chinese collapse of the Han central power. business meetings, was cir- wine. However, as the food grain Archaeological finds indicate the culated among members of lay was allotted for immediate use, Silk Road trade continued, and so Buddhist organizations. Almost festival banquets or meals for did the development of all of these notices include a workers, this seems most viticulture, probably also vini- statement concerning the unlikely. For instance, an account culture. When the Western punishment for tardiness and of expenditure of Jingtu Region finally emerged from the absence: “Each of those who are Monastery in Dunhuang, dated in darkness, Turfan, now called late should pay the fine of one the period 936-947, notes that Gaochang in the Chinese records, horn of wine, and of those who some millet was spent for both is a country famous for grape do not come at all should pay the gujiu and wojiu, for the purpose wine, in addition to its millets, fine of half a jar of wine, to the of a forthcoming festival [ibid.: wheat, sericulture and many group. The wine will be divided 774; Pelliot 2032 back]. An varieties of fruit. People there among all the members.” Fines account dated in 991 for the worshipped a number of local of the same type also appear in same monastery list millets paid gods but also adhered to regulations for lay societies [Ning for the principal of wine Buddhism [Wei Zheng et al. 1973: Ke and Hao Chunwen 1997]. No (jiubensu) [Ibid.: 777; Pelliot 83/1847]. The Gaochang state doubt wine played an indispen- 4907]. Here the character ben survived the Sui Dynasty, but was sable role in both social and could either be the capital for conquered by the T’ang. The religious activities of Buddhism. investment in trading wine, or the history of the T’ang, written in But these announcements never millet used for making wine. the Song Dynasty, repeats the mention the kind of wine However, millet is a better source enumeration of the local involved; they simply use the for vinegar than for wine. In products, but adds a new item, character jiu, the generic term for China, since ancient times, the cotton [Liu Xu 1975: 198/5294]. alcoholic beverage. most common materials for Native to India, cotton reached Jiu also appears frequently as fermenting wine have been rice Turfan as a cultivated crop in the and sorghum. In Dunhuang, post-Han and pre-T’ang period, an item in accounts of monastic expenditures, some of which during the T’ang and post-T’ang along with viniculture and period, millet, sometimes wheat, Buddhism. have survived in the famous caves of the Mogao Grottos, in was currency for payment of The final question is did the Dunhuang. Buddhist monasteries goods. On the same account, Buddhist population of Turfan provided oil, food grains and wine millet was used to pay for drink wine? At various times, (jiu) for the Spring festivals, activities of lay societies such as Central Asia people have been Autumn festivals, and parades of printing Buddha images. Millet followers of Buddhism, Mani- Buddha images. All the and wheat were local agricultural chaeism, and Islam, all of which participants, members of lay products, but rice and sorghum formally ban the consumption of societies and monks, enjoyed the were not. Thus in this case, the alcohol. However, despite such food and wine. There were also millet is most likely the payment prohibitions, they regularly drank many other occasions when the for grape wine. In short, one

25 cannot exclude the possibility Khocho was a town of Uyghurs Eastern Turki Text. Stockholm: that the Buddhists in Dunhuang, and produced good wine [Rashid Almqvist and Wiksell, 1993. lay persons and monks, drank al-Din 1971: 286]. The wine of grape wine. There was no Turfan was so well known that Knauer 1998 reason why the residents of the official history of the Mongol Elfriede Regina Knauer, The Dunhuang could not have Yuan Dynasty records the tribute Camel’s Load in Life and Death. obtained the well known grape of grape wine (putao jiu) from Akanthvs, 1998. wine of Turfan a short distance there [Yuanshi 1978: Ch. 34, p. to their west. 755, line 2]. This means that the Laufer 1967 high quality of Turfan wine was B. Laufer, Sino-Iranica, repr. Evidently, Buddhists in known across the continent and Taibei: Ch’eng-wen, 1967. Dunhuang drank wine during the thus, at the time, it was probably T’ang time, and Turfan was the best known vintage in the Lieu 1985 famous for producing grape wine. world. The peoples of Turfan, Samuel N. C. Lieu, Manichaeism. Based on these two facts, one whether Buddhists or Muslims, Manchester: Manchester Uni- may speculate that during the always seem to enjoy wine. The versity Press, 1985. T’ang times Buddhists, lay current viniculture of there, persons and monks, enjoyed though now integrated with the Liu Xu et al. 1975 grape wine at many festivals and global market, has deep roots in Liu Xu, et al. Jiu Tangshu. social occasions. This reminds us history. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1975. of one of the famous lines on frontier military life by the T’ang McGovern 1991 poet Li Bo: About the Author Patrick E. McGovern. Ancient Wine, the Search for the Origins of Holding a glowing goblet A specialist on Ancient India and Viniculture. Princeton: Princeton filled with grape wine, cross-cultural trade in ancient University Press, 2003. Following the melody of a and medieval Asia, Professor lute, I am about to drink, Xinru Liu teaches in the Depart- Ning Ke, Hao Chunwen 1997 The neighing horse urges me ment of History at the College of Ning Ke and Hao Chunwen, eds. to ride on him. New Jersey, Ewing, N.J. She is Dunhuang Sheyi Wenshu Ji Jiao. well known for her two major Nanjing: Jiangsu guji chubanshe, Do not laugh if you see me books, Ancient India and Ancient 1997 lying drunk on the battle field, China: Trade and Religious Ex- Few soldiers ever came back changes, AD 1-600 (Oxford Uni- Polo 1938 from the military expeditions, versity Press, 1988; reprinted Marco Polo. Description of the anyway. 1994) and Silk and Religion: an Ex- World, Vol. 1. A. C. Moule and P. Li Bo did not actually serve on ploration of Material Life and the Pelliot, tr. London: Routledge, the western frontier region of the Thought of People, AD 600-1200 1938. T’ang Empire. His poem simply (Oxford University Press, 1999) Rashid al-Din 1971 evokes romanticized picture of and has written a short introduc- the frontier life: music played on tion to the Silk Road for the Rashid Al-Din, Successors of lute, neighing horses ready to American Historical Association Genghis Khan. John A. Boyle, Tr. depart, and soldiers dinking (The Silk Road: Overland Trade and New York: Columbia University grape wine to pluck up their Cultural Interactions in Eurasia, Press, 1971. courage for coming battle and 1998). She may be contacted at Schmidt-Colinet et al. 2000 death. [email protected]. Andreas Schmidt-Colinet, et al. The wines of Turfan retained References Die Textilien aus Palmyra, Neue their fame well into the Mongolian und Alte Funde. Mainz-am-Rhein: era. The Mongols were used to Ban Gu 1964 Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 2000. wine made from mare’s milk, but Hanshu. Beijing: Zhonghua quickly acquired a taste for grape Unwin 1991 Shuju, 1964. wine after their conquest of Tim Unwin. Wine and the Vine: An Central Asia. Marco Polo Fan Ye 1965 Historical Geography of Viniculture mentioned that Carachoco, the Fan Ye. Hou Hanshu. Beijing: and the Wine Trade. London and name of Turfan of his time, Zhonghua Shuju, 1965. New York: Routledge, 1991. produced good wine and corn (millet) [Polo 1938: 156]. The Jarring 1993 Wei Zheng et al. 1973 famous scholar of the Il-Khans, Gunnar Jarring. Stimulants among Wei Zheng et al, Suishu. Beijing: Rashid al-Din, notes that Qara- the Turks of Eastern Turkestan: An Zhonghua Shuju, 1973.

26 Yuanshi 1978 155. As for eastern Turkistan, Chinese Characters Yuanshi. Beijing: Zhonghua namely today’s Xinjiang Autonomous Region of China, Shuju, 1978. gujiu grape wine was produced, but drinking was held in contempt as jiu Notes immoral behavior in the early twentieth century. See Jarring jiubensu 1. The Koran bans wine drinking 1993: 1, 13. as a great sin, but promised Shesi Zhuantie Muslims wine in Paradise. Under 2. For a Manichaean monastery Islamic rule, viticulture suffered at with wine, see Lieu 1985: 200- sheyi the early stage of conquest, but 201. recovered by the eleventh wojiu century. See Unwin 1991: 150- Adapted from: http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/images/2658/Taklimakan.A2002088.0525.1km.jpg

Southern Xinjiang as seen from a NASA satellite.

27 Annotated Bibliography of the History and Culture of Eastern Turkistan, Jungharia/Zungaria/Dzungaria, Chinese Central Asia, and Sinkiang/Xinjiang (for the 16th-20th centuries CE, excluding most travel narratives)

Nathan Light Miami University Oxford, Ohio

Introduction and steppe continue to sustain remaining difficult to access: its role as a region through which items such as publications by The study of Eastern Turkistan or travelers and traders link East, Pantusov from 1880-1910 are Xinjiang has long been Central and South Asian spiritual, only slightly more available in hampered by geographic, cultural literary and material cultures. research library collections than and linguistic complexity and Before the name Xinjiang was more recent publications from difficult access to publications, applied in 1884, the Chinese Xinjiang. Useful material exists in but over the past 500 years, an described it as Xiyu (“Western dissertations, obscure serial enormous range of documentary Regions”) or Huijiang (“Muslim publications or unpublished materials have accumulated. territories”) while Central Asians conference papers. Not very Many Europeans have explored called it Kashgaria, Altishahr or different from the latter are the and studied the region since Yettishahr (6 or 7 cities) or many rare manuscripts held in 1850 but their publications are Eastern Turkistan. All of these collections around the world, often appear only in major names have acquired political which fortunately are now slowly research libraries and special meanings in the present, with the being edited and published, collections, and even the travel Chinese government strongly although with less fanfare than accounts rarely reach a wider attacking the term Eastern the Dunhuang and Tarim region audience. Eastern Turkistan’s Turkistan as a sign of separatist texts from earlier periods. As scholarly and strategic and even terrorist leanings. The these become more accessible importance has resulted in widespread Chinese concern these materials will considerably extensive publications in about this term can be seen from deepen our understanding of the European and East Asian a search at Google.com: using history and culture of Eastern languages, particularly Russian, Chinese characters for Dongtu Turkistan: similar results can be German, French, English, (“Eastern Turkistan”) gives over seen arising from recent use of Chinese and Japanese. In one million hits, more than for Manchu language sources for the addition, authors from the region either of the Chinese terms used study of Qing China and Turkic and from other parts of the for the Silk Road (Sizhouzhilu or and Persian sources for Central Islamic world have written Silu) and not far behind the 1.7 Asia. This bibliography should literary, historiographic and million hits for the name Xinjiang improve access and help guide religious works in Arabic, Persian itself. future library cataloging of items and Turki, while Chinese travelers My goal in this bibliography is in Central Asian languages. and colonial officials have also to introduce the study of the left extensive descriptions, region through a classified list of particularly since the Manchu- the basic materials for study of Outline of Contents Qing conquest in 1758 CE. culture and history over the past As a part of the “Silk Road,” 500 years. The “Silk Road” is I) Online Databases and this region has been the conduit often described as in decline Information Sources (all for people, culture and commerce during this period, but in fact periods) since before recorded history. more recent Islamic and Mongol II) Selected Historical Back- Much of the region’s fame has history is every bit as culturally ground to 1500 CE and arisen from the extensive rich and diverse as the preceding Regional Reference Works archeological and documentary period, although the sources III) Collected Works finds in the arid southern and have not been as widely eastern Xinjiang regions as well accessible to Western scholars. IV) Serial publications as nearby Dunhuang in Gansu, In compiling the present V) Bibliographies and Manu- but Xinjiang’s populated oases bibliography I found works script Descriptions

28 VI) Historical and Hagio- and Turkic languages. Most of these Bartold, V. V. Turkestan Down to the graphical Primary Sources entries have also been entered into Mongol Invasion. 3rd ed. H.A.R. Gibb and Tatiana Minorsky, trans. C.E. VII) Studies of History the ODIAS database.) . 1968. [Online at the ACLS history tional Relations and Manchu- e-book project: ] IX) Western Explorers, Books (35 books, 9062 pages from art historical and research Beckwith, Christopher. The Tibetan Missionaries, and Consuls publications from the past 150 Empire in Central Asia: A history of (excluding travel accounts not years; high quality photos) . Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese X) Basic Sources for during the Early Middle Ages. Linguistics and Language Study IDP: International Dunhuang Project Princeton: Princeton University Database (Search from collections Press, 1987. XI) Studies of Literature of texts and artifacts from sites and Literary History throughout Chinese Central Asia by Bregel, Yuri. An Historical Atlas of XII) Performing Arts, Ethno- Manuscript, Photograph, Artifact, Central Asia. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 2003. musicology, Folklore, Folk Art, Catalogue, Painting, and geo- Architecture and Material graphically by Map.) . Les Tou-Kiue (Turcs) occidentaux, recueillis et commentés, suivi de XIII) Anthropology, Cultural ODIAS (Online Databases for Inner notes additionnelles. Paris: Librarie Analysis, Ethnography, Ethnicity, Asia Studies, with citations for d’Amerique et d’Orient, 1903. Ethnogenesis articles, books and manuscripts) XIV) Religion: Islam, Khwâja . Rule, Sufism, Shamanism Uyghur Civil Documents of East Turkestan (13th-14th Centuries).” XV) Ecology, Economics, ORIAS Digitized books (Kashgar Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Geography, Pastoralism imprints from the Swedish Mission Indiana University, 1975. XVI) Analyses of Social Press and Publications of China Policies, Politics, Strategic Inland Mission) . Issues and Current Events Inner Asian History: 500-1800. Leiden: Brill, 2002. RIFIAS: Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies Online Library Catalog —. Ancient China and its Enemies: I) Online Databases and (A searchable library catalog of The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Information Sources (all roughly 10,000 items available in the Asian History. New York: Cambridge periods) RIFIAS collection at Indiana University Press, 2002. University, Bloomington, along with The following are the most a catalog of 400 RIFIAS pub- Eberhard, Wolfram. China und seine comprehensive online sources for lications.). mittelalterlichen und neueren bibliography is simply a list of the Geschichte Zentralasiens. Darm- Silk Road Seattle (research contents of the first 12 years of stadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesell- resources maintained under schaft, 1978. two important scholarly series in direction of Daniel C. Waugh) Xinjiang. The ODIAS and RIFIAS . literature. Turnhout: Brepols, 1997. sources. The Tôyô Bunko archive, The Silk Road and Central Asia On IDP, ORIAS and Silk Road Seattle Golden, Peter. An Introduction to the the World Wide Web (links sites provide a wide ranger of History of the Turkic Peoples. maintained by Daniel C. Waugh) important and hard-to-find Wiesbaden: Otto Harrasowitz, 1992. . Güzel, Hasan Celal, et al, eds. The Bibliography of Uyghur language Turks. 6 vols. Ankara: Yeni Türkiye, articles on history and literature by 2002. [Chronological collection of II) Selected Historical Back- articles of varying scholarly depth Nathan Light (lists contents of the ground and Reference for series Shinjang Tarikh Materiyalliri and accuracy. First 3 volumes include (volumes 1-33, 1980-1992) and the Central Eurasia and Prior to articles on Central Asian Turkic journal Bulaq; Uyghur kilassik 1500 CE peoples.] ädibiyati mäjmua’äsi (issues 1-41, 1980-1992). Bulaq consists of These are the most important Hamilton, James Russell. Les editions and analyses of works of works for an overview under- Ouïghours à l’époque des Cinq Eastern Turki (Uyghur) literature and standing the region and for Dynasties d’après les documents translations of works from Persian guiding further research. chinois. Paris, 1955.

29 History of Civilizations of Central n. Chr., 2 vols. Asiatische For- Paul, 1985-. [Also online at: .] including over 100 articles on culture, history, religions, society and Liu Weixin, ed. Xibei minzu cidian. Zieme, Peter. Die Stabreimtexte der technology of the region. Some of Ürümchi: Xinjiang renmin chuban- Uiguren von Turfan und Dunhuang. this material is online at .] Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1991. Mackerras, Colin P. The Uighur Empire according to the T’ang Han, Xiang. Qiuci shi ku. Ürümchi: Dynastic Histories: A Study in Sino- Xinjiang Daxue chubanshe, 1990. Uighur Relations 744-840. Can- III) Collected Works [Extensive discussion of the Qiuci berra: Australian National University caves near Kucha, with many color Press, 1972. [Online publication of The collections below represent plates.] one of the two primary source texts significant research compilations. in this book, at: .] Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, accessible. The Starr and CEMOTI 41/2 (1981): 597-628. [Critical Mair, Victor, ed. The Bronze Age and volumes are both primarily review of Luc Kwanten’s history Early Iron Age Peoples of Eastern oriented towards analysis of Imperial Nomads.] Central Asia. 2 vols. Philadelphia: international relations, develop- Institute for the Study of Man, 1998. ment, politics and statistics rather Ji Dachun, ed. Xinjiang lishi cidian. than ethnographic study. The Ürümchi: Xinjiang renmin chuban- Mallory, J. P. and Victor H. Mair. The she, 1993. [Dictionary of Xinjiang Tarim Mummies, Ancient China and Benson and Svanberg volume is history.] the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples somewhat more concerned with from the West. London: Thames & cultural analysis. Kamberi, Dolkun. “A survey of Hudson, 2000. Uyghur documents from Turpan and Benson, Linda, and Ingvar their importance for Asian and Mei Jianjun. Copper and Bronze Svanberg, eds. The Kazaks of China: central Eurasian history.” Central Metallurgy in Late Prehistoric essays on an ethnic minority. Asian Survey, 18/3 (1999): 281-301. Xinjiang: Its Cultural Context and Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, Relationship with Neighboring 1988. Contents: Komaroff, Linda and Stefano Regions. BAR International Series L. Benson and I. Svanberg. Carboni. The legacy of Genghis 865. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2000. “The Kazakhs in Xinjiang.” Khan: courtly art and culture in Ingvar Svanberg. “The western Asia, 1256-1353. New York: Rhie, Marylin M. Early Buddhist Art Nomadism of Orta •üz Kazaks in Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2002. of China and Central Asia. 2 vols. in Xinjiang, 1911-1949.” [Online selections in nicely-designed 3. Handbuch der Orientalistik. L. Benson. “Osman Batur: exhibit at: .] Rossabi, Morris, ed. China among Mark Kirchner. “The Language Laut, Jens Peter. Der frühe türkische Equals: The Middle Kingdom and its of the Kazaks from Xinjiang: A Buddhismus und seine literarischen Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries. Text Sample.” Denkmäler. (Veröffentlichungen der Berkeley: University of California Thomas Hoppe. “Kazak Societas Uralo-Altaica, vol. 21). Press, 1983. Pastoralism in the Bogda Range.” Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1986. Roxburgh, David J. Turks: A Journey Cahiers d’études sur la Méditerranée of a Thousand Years, 600-1600. orientale et le monde turco-iranien Lieu, Samuel N. C. Manichaeism in London: Royal Academy Books, (CEMOTI) 25: Les Ouïgours au Central Asia and China. Leiden: Brill, 2005. vingtième siècle (1998). 1998. Françoise Aubin. “L’arrière- Thomas, Frederick William. Tibetan plan historique du nationalisme Lin Enxian. Tujue yanjiu. [Turk literary texts and documents ouïgour. Le Turkestan oriental des studies.] Taibei: Taiwan shangwu concerning Chinese Turkestan. 4 origines au XXème siècle.” yingshuguan, 77 [1988]. vols. London: The Royal Asiatic Dru C. Gladney. “Internal Society, 1935-1965 Colonialism and the Uyghur Liu, Mau-Ts’ai. Die chinesischen Nationality: Chinese Nationalism Nachrichten zur Geschichte der Ost- Whitfield, Susan and Ursula Sims- and Its Subaltern Subjects.” Türken (T’u-Küe). 2 vols. Asiatische Williams, eds. The Silk Road: trade, Forschungen, 10. Wiesbaden: Otto travel, war and faith. London: British Michel Jan. “L’intégration du Harrassowitz, 1958. Library, 2004. Xinjiang dans l’ensemble chinois: vulnérabilité et sécurité.” —. Kutscha und seine Beziehungen Yarshater, Ehsan, ed. Encyclopædia Artoush Kumul. “Témoignage zu China von 2. Jh. v. bis zum 6. Jh. Iranica. London: Routledge & Kegan - Le “séparatisme” ouïgour au

30 XXème siècle: histoire et Graham E. Fuller, Jonathan N. of which also appear in Chinese actualité.” Lipman. “Islam in Xinjiang.” versions in the series Xinjiang Ildiko Beller-Hann. “Work and Gardner Bovingdon, Nabijan wenshi ziliao xuanji.] Gender among Uighur Villagers Tursun. “Contested Histories.” Shinjang täzkirisi [Xinjiang annals]. in Southern Xinjiang.” Dru C. Gladney. “Responses 1983-. [Local histories are now also Gülzade Tanridagli. “Le roman to Chinese Rule: Patterns of published in the multi-volume historique, véhicule du Cooperation and Opposition.” Shinjang omumii täzkirisi, beginning nationalisme ouïgour.” 16-page “Bibliographic Guide in 1996.] Cheripjan Nadirov. “La to Xinjiang.” structure économique de la Shinjang Tibbii Instituti ilmii zhurnili = Xinjiang yixueyuan xuebao = Acta région autonome du Xinjiang IV) Serial publications ouïgour et sa place dans le Academiae Medicinae Xinjiang. Ürümchi, 1985-. système des relations sino- The following are the more kazakhes.” important serials and periodicals Tängritagh; qosh ayliq ädibiy Hamide Khamraev. “La devoted to the history and zhurnal [Tangritagh; bi-monthly géopolitique du pétrole.” culture of Xinjiang published in literary journal.] 1980s-. [Popular Hegel Ishakov et Khadia literary magazine published in China and suggest the immense Akhmedova. “Les migrations des Ürümchi.] Ouïgours vers l’Asie centrale ex- range of new publishing that Tarim; ayliq ädäbiy zhurnal. [Tarim; soviétique.” began in the 1980s. I have not listed most popularly-oriented monthly literary journal.] 1950-. Frédérique-Jeanne Besson. [Contemporary literary composi- “Les Ouïgours hors du Turkestan publications, nor those that tions, translations and commentary.] oriental: de l’exil à la formation primarily express Chinese d’une diaspora.” government or local and émigré Uyghur khälq chöchäkliri. Ürümchi, dissident political perspectives. 1979-. [At least 11 irregular volumes of folk tales.]

Starr, S. Frederick, ed. Xinjiang: Bulaq; Uyghur kilassik ädibiyati Uyghur khälq dastanliri. Ürümchi, China’s Muslim Borderland. Armonk, mäjmu’äsi. [Bulaq: Journal of 1981-. [At least 4 volumes of dastan N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2004. Uyghur classical literature.] Ürümchi, prose and poetry narratives.] James A. Millward, Peter C. 1980-. [Has published around 20,000 Uyghur khälq nakhshiliri. Ürümchi, Perdue. “Political and Cultural pages of articles and literary editions 1980-. At least 6 volumes of folk History of the Xinjiang Region since inception.] songs with musical transcriptions.] through the Late Nineteenth Miras; päsillik zhornal. [Heritage; Uyghur khälq qoshaqliri. Ürümchi, Century.” quarterly journal. Published by the James A. Millward, Nabijan 1979-. [Folk quatrains with musical Junggo khälq eghiz ädibiyat-sän’ät transcriptions.] Tursun. “Political History and tätqiqat jämiyiti Shinjang Uyghur Strategies of Control, 1884- aptonom rayonluq shöbisi; Uyghur Xibei minzu yanjiu = Research in 1978.” tätqiqat ishkhanisi.] Ürümchi, 1983- N.W. national minorities. [Academic Dru C. Gladney. “The Chinese . [Popularly-oriented journal about journal published in Lanzhou.] Program of Development and Uyghur literature, folklore, and folk Xiyu yanjiu = The Western Regions Control, 1978-2001.” art.] Studies. Ürümchi, 1991-. Yitzhak Shichor. “The Great Shinjang Dashösi ilmiy zhurnili. Wall of Steel: Military and Zhongguo bianjiang shidi yanjiu; Pälsäpä-ijtima’i pän qismi. [Xinjiang Strategy in Xinjiang.” China’s borderland history and University Scientific Journal. Calla Wiemer. “The Economy geography studies. Beijing, 1991-. Philosophy and Social Science [Another recently established of Xinjiang.” Section.] Ürümchi, 1980-. Linda Benson. “Education and journal.] Social Mobility among Minority Shinjang ijtima’i panlar tatqiqati. Populations in Xinjiang.” Xinjiang shehui kexueyuan xuebao. V) Bibliographies and Manu- [Journal of the Xinjiang Academy of Sean R. Roberts. “A ‘Land of script Descriptions Social Sciences.] Ürümchi, 1981-. Borderlands’: Implications of Xinjiang’s Trans-border Inter- Shinjang mädäniyät; qosh ayliq The most important primary actions.” universal ädäbiy zhurnal. [Xinjiang sources for study of the past 500 Stanley W. Toops. “The civilization; bi-monthly journal of years are Persian, Turkic, Manchu Demography of Xinjiang” and universal literature. Popular journal and Chinese manuscript and “The Ecology of Xinjiang: A Focus with articles and literature by archival documents. The on Water.” Uyghurs, apparently began extensive Chinese sources have Jay Dautcher. “Public Health publishing in Ürümchi in 1951.] appeared in a number of facsimile and Social Pathologies in Shinjang Qirghiz adabiyati = Xinjiang editions and I list only a few of Xinjiang.” Kirghiz literature. Ürümchi, 1981-. the research guides to them Justin Rudelson, William Shinjang tarikh materiyalliri. here. The other sources are only Jankowiak. “Acculturation and beginning to be systematically Resistance: Xinjiang Identities in [Xinjiang historical materials.] 1980- Flux.” . [Irregular volumes of articles most studied and published and

31 access remains a problem. Gebiet Xinjiang der Uiguren, China Toplash, Rätläsh, Näshir Qilishni Although most have some (Naturbedingungen, Geschichte, Pilanlash Rähbärlik Guruppa deficiencies, the sources below Ethnien, Landnutzung); Xinjiang Ishkhanisi. Uyghur, Özbek, Tatar are the best descriptions of the provisional bibliography II: Xinjiang Qädimki äsärlär tizimliki. Qäshqär: Uigur Autonomous Region, China Qäshqär Uyghur Näshriyati, 1988. available primary and secondary (natural conditions, history, ethnic [A catalogue of approximately 1500 source materials. groups, land use). Wiesbaden: O. Turkic, Persian and Arabic Harrassowitz, 1987. [Roughly 2000 manuscripts and lithographs held in Abdurahman, Amina and Jin Yu-Ping. items primarily in English, German, the Xinjiang libraries. All from the “Une vue d’ensemble des manuscrits Russian, Chinese and Uyghur.] Islamic period and in Arabic script.] tchagatay du Xinjiang.” In: La Stary, Giovanni. Manchu Studies. An Mémoire et ses supports en Asie Kaidarov, A. Uigurskii iazyk i International Bibliography. 3 vols. Centrale. Les Cahiers d’Asie centrale literatura. Annotirovannyi biblio- Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1990. N°8. Vincent Fourniau, ed. Aix-en- graficheskii ukazatel’. [Uyghur Provence: Institut Français d’Etude Language and Literature. Biblio- Umemura Hiroshi. Japanese studies sur l’Asie Centrale, 2000, pp. 35-62. graphic Index.] Tom 1. Alma-Ata: AN on Inner Asian history, 1973-1983. Kazakhskoi SSR, 1962. Tokyo: Centre for East Asian Bregel, Yuri. Bibliography of Islamic Cultural Studies, 1987. [Bibliography Central Asia. 3 vols. Bloomington, Lin Enxian. Jindai Zhongguo in Japanese and English; Indiana: Research Institute for Inner bianjiang yanjiu lunzhu mulu. Taibei: introductory article in English.] Asian Studies, Indiana University, National Chengchi University, 1995. [Classified bibliography of Institute of China Border Area Yuan Tongli. Shinkyô kenkyû bunken 30,500 books and articles on the Studies, 75 [1986]. mokuroku, 1886-1962: Nichibunbon history and culture of Central Asia = Classified bibliography of Liu Ge and Huang Xianyang. Xiyu (including Chinese Central Asia) Japanese books and articles shidi lunwen cailiao suoyin. Ürümchi: published from the 17th century concerning Sinkiang, 1886-1962. Xinjiang renmin chubanshe, 1988. through 1988. All languages except Tokyo: Shoei-Insatsu Co., 1962. [Classified bibliography of 8032 East Asian.] articles in Chinese about history, Zhongguo weiwuer lishi wenhua minorities, economy, culture, Chen Yanqi and Sasha. Xiyu yanjiu yanjiuhui. Weiwuer lishi wenhua literature, language, geography and shumu. Ürümchi: Xinjiang renmin yanjiu wenxian tilu. Beijing: Minzu archeology of the “Western chubanshe, 1990. [Classified chubanshe, 2000. [Geng Shimin Regions.”] bibliography of 6734 Chinese, () cites this as (known in Chinese as Xiyu or the languages.” Memoirs of the Research a bibliography of 6980 entries on Western Regions).] Department of the Tôyô Bunko 38 Uyghur history and culture but I find (1980), p. 95-179. [Sibo or Xibe is no other citation for this item.] Hamada Masami. “Research Trends the only form of Manchu that in Xinjiang Studies.” In Research continues to be spoken and written VI) Historical and Hagio- Trends in Modern Central Eurasian in China.] graphical Primary Sources Studies (18th-20th Centuries ): A Selective and Critical Bibliography of Muginov, Abdulladzhan Muginovich. The following are the few editions Works Published between 1985 and Opisanie uigurskikh rukopisei and translations that have made 2000. Part 1. Stéphane A. Dudoignon Instituta Narodov Azii. [Description and Komatsu Hisao, eds. Tokyo: The of Uyghur Manuscripts in the Institute local primary source documents Toyo Bunko, 2003. of the Peoples of Asia.] Moscow: and compositions available. 1962. [Classifies a group of These editions are of widely Hartmann, Martin. “Die osttürk- traditional manuscripts as “Uyghur” varying quality. I again avoid ischen Handschriften der Sammlung based on linguistic features, and time most of the Chinese local Hartmann.” Mitteilungen des and place of composition, while histories and gazeteers although Seminars für Orientalische ignoring other popular Turkic and these have been heavily used by Sprachen, 7 (1904): 1-21. Persian works found in Eastern Enoki, Fletcher, Hamada, Kim, Turkistan.] Hofman, H. F. Turkish literature. A Millward, and Saguchi. Kim’s bio-bibliographical survey. Section Sawut, Torsunmuhämmät. Uyghur endnotes are a comprehensive III. Moslim Central Asian Turkish ädäbiyati tarikhi materiyallar discussion on the different literature. 6 volumes bound as 2. katalogi. Ürümchi: Shinjang Dashö sources for 19th century history. Utrecht: Royal Asiatic Society of Därslik Bölümi, 1991. [A typescript Alptekin, Isa Yusuf and M. Ali Tasçi. Great Britain and Ireland, 1969. volume listing 3541 books and Esir Dogu Türkistan için: Isa Yusuf [Erudite, chatty and often obscure articles about Uyghur literary history, Alptekin’in mücadele hatiralari. annotations on the authors and organized by period and subject, Istanbul: Dogu Türkistan Nesriyat works of Central Asian Turkic and 665 manuscript titles held in Merkezi, 1985. [Edited memoirs of manuscript literature.] eight collections in Ürümchi.] an important East Turkistani leader.] Hoppe, Thomas. Xinjiang- Shinjang Uyghur Aptonom Rayonluq Baldick, Julian. Imaginary Muslims. Arbeitsbibliographie II: Autonomes Az Sanliq Millät Qädimki Äsärlirini London: Routledge, 1993. [A

32 translation and epitome of a key Haidar, Dughlat. Edited, with Ross, E. Denison, ed. and tr. Three hagiographic source for Eastern commentary, notes, and map by N. Turki manuscripts from Kashghar. Turkistan. For details about the work Elias, translated by E. Denison Ross. Lahore: Mufid-i-am Press, 1908. and problems with this translation, London: Curzon, 1898. [Excerpts [Contents: “Detailed contents of the see DeWeese, “The Tadhkira-i are available online at: .] (1857 CE) with English translation; Chinggiznamä. Haji Nurhaji, ed. Ghazat-i-Muslimin on the rebellion of Kashgar: Qäshqär Uyghur Näsh- —. Mirza Haydar Dughlat’s Tarikh- Ya‘qûb Beg.] riyati, 1985. [Edited from a i-Rashidi: a history of the khans of manuscript now held at the Xinjiang Moghulistan. English translation & Sayrami, Mulla Musa. Tarikhiy Academy of Social Sciences, annotation by W.M. Thackston äminiyä. Muhämmät Zunun, ed. #00679. Matches the anonymous Cambridge: Harvard University, Ürümchi: Shinjang Khälq Näshriyati, Târîkh-i Kâshgar (see below) but Dept. of Near Eastern Languages and 1991. [Early twentieth-century here ascribed to Molla Mersalih Civilizations, 1996. historian whose manuscript work Kashqäri.] was first published as a lithograph —. Târîkh-i Rashîdî: târîkh-i by Pantusov in 1905 in Tashkent.] Churâs, Shâh Mahmûd ibn Mirza khavânîn-i Mughûlistân; matn-i Fazil. Khronika. Text, translation, Fârsî. Cambridge: Dânishgâh-i —. Tarikhi Hämidi. Änvär Baytur, notes, indices by O. F. Akimushkin. Hârvârd, 1996. [Text of the original ed. Beijing: Millätlär Näshriyati, Moscow: Nauka, 1976. [Churâs Persian version of the Târîkh-i 1986. [Edited from a 1911 autograph wrote this Persian history, simply Rashîdî.] manuscript of this work which called Târîkh, in Kashgar in the extends and elaborates Sayrami’s seventeenth century, describing the Molla Haji. Boghrakhanlar täzkirisi. Tarikhiy äminiyä. Lund collection of cultural life and history of the court Abdurehim Sabit, ed. Qäshqär: Gunnar Jarring contains another and its military encounters. It is Qäshqär Uyghur Näshriyati, 1988. copy.] composed as a continuation of the [Prepared from a 19th century work of Mîrzâ Haydar.] manuscript in the complex body of Târîkh-i Kâshgar: anonimnaia hagiographical histories around tiurkskaia khronika vladetelei DeWeese, Devin. “The Tadhkira-i Satuq Boghra Khan. See Baldick Vostochnogo Turkestana po konets Bughra-khan and the ‘Uvaysi’ Sufis Imaginary Muslims and DeWeese, XVII veka. [Târîkh-i Kâshgar: An of Central Asia: Notes in Review of “The Tadhkira-i Bughra-khan…” for Anonymous Turkic Chronicle of the Imaginary Muslims.” Central Asiatic more information.] Rulers of East Turkistan through the th Journal 40:1 (1996): 87-127. End of the 17 Century.] Facsimile, Molla Ismätulla binni Molla Nemätulla translation and notes by O.F. Di Cosmo, Nicola and Dalizhabu Mojiz. Tävarikhi musiqiyyun. Änvär Akimushkin. Sankt-Peterburg: Bao. Manchu-Mongol relations on the Baytur, Khämit Tomur, eds. Beijing: Tsentr “Peterburgskoe vostoko- eve of the Qing conquest: a Millätlär Näshriyati, 1982. [Facsimile, vedenie,” 2001. documentary history. Leiden: Brill, transcription, translation into modern 2003. Uyghur, and commentary of a 20 VII) Studies of History folio manuscript history of Gürsoy-Naskali, Emine, transl. and musicians, poets and singers, The more important historical ed. Ashâbu’l-Kahf; A treatise in composed in 1854.] studies, using Chinese, Turkic, Eastern Turki. Helsinki: Suomalais- and Persian sources as well as ugrilainen seura, 1985. [Valuable Muhammad A’lam. Tadhkira-i Hajji the archival documents of the study of a tomb and pilgrimage site Padishah Habib Allah va Rashidin near Turfan where the story of the Khan va Ya’qub Beg. Translation in British, Ottoman, Russian and Seven Sleepers of Ephesus has “L’histoire de Hotan de Muhammad Qing Empires. Some Soviet-era become locally attached. Qurbân‘ali A’lam,” parts I-III. Hamada Masami, studies exhibit anti-Chinese Khâlidî (see below) describes ed. Zinbun: memoirs of the Research biases, although B.A. Akhmedov traveling to this site in his Târîkh-i Institute for Humanistic Studies, and Iu. G. Baranova are free of jarîda-yi jadîda.] Kyoto University, 15(1979), these. The works of Benson, 16(1980), 18 (1982). Forbes, Kim, Saguchi, and Wang Imbault-Huart, Camille. Recueil de are generally excellent, although documents sur l’Asie centrale. Paris: Qurbân‘ali Khâlidî. An Islamic Leroux, 1881. [Translations from Biographical Dictionary of the Baranova already put forth Kim’s Chinese sources on 19th century Eastern Kazakh Steppe, 1770-1912. argument about Ya‘qûb Beg’s rebellions in Eastern Turkistan.] Text, translation and notes by Allen international balancing act. The J. Frank and Mirkasyim A. Usmanov. works of Bughra, Kurban, Saray, —. Le pays de Hami ou Khamil; Leiden: Brill, 2005. Turfani, Aitchen Wu and Sheng description, histoire d’apres les Shi-tsai (with Whiting) exhibit the auteurs chinois, Paris, E. Leroux, —. Târîkh-i jarîda-yi jadîda. Qazan, biases of political participants 1892. 1889. [Author lived in the Tarbaghatay town known as and their allies. Mîrzâ Haydar. A history of the Chöchäk, Chuguchak or Tacheng and Moghuls of central Asia; being the has important connections to Eastern Akhmedov, B.A. ed. Iz istorii Srednei Tarikh-i-Rashidi of Mirza Muhammad Turkistan and its Islamic history.] Azii i Vostochnogo Turkestana XV-XIX

33 vv. [From the History of Central Asia —, and Ingvar Svanberg. China’s —. “British Consuls in Kashgar.” and Eastern Turkistan 15th-19th Last Nomads: the History and Asian Affairs, 22/1 (1991): 20-34. Centuries.] Tashkent: Fan, 1987. Culture of China’s Kazaks. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1998. Forbes, Andrew. Warlords and Almas, Turghun. Uyghurlar. Ürümchi: Muslims in Chinese Central Asia. Shinjang Yashlar-ösmürlär näsh- —, Justin Rudelson and Stanley W. Cambridge: Cambridge University riyati, 1989. [Comprehensive but Toops. Xinjiang in the Twentieth Press, 1986. speculative history of the medieval Century: historical, anthropological, Uyghurs was banned and destroyed —. “Role of the Hui Muslims and geographical perspectives. because it suggests that Uyghurs (Tungans) in Republican Sinkiang.” Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson have conquered China at various In: Cultural Change and Continuity International Center for Scholars, times during period from Huns to in Central Asia. London: Kegan Paul, 1994. Mongol Empire.] 1991, pp. 361-372. Baranova, Iu. G. “Svedeniia Uigurskoi Borei, Dorothy V. “Ethnic conflict and Galiev, V. V. Kazakhstan v sisteme khroniki Ta’rikh-i Amniya o Qing land policy in southern Xinjiang, rossiisko-kitaiskikh torgovo- vosstanovlenii Tsinskogo gospodstva 1760-1840.” In Dragons, tigers, and ekonomicheskikh otnoshenii v v Sin’tsziane v 1875-1878 gg.” dogs: Qing crisis management and Sin’tsziane (konets XIX-nachalo XX [Information in the Uyghur Chronicle the boundaries of state power in late vv.). [Kazakhstan in the System of Ta’rikh-i Amniya Concerning the imperial China. Robert J. Antony and Russo-Chinese Commercial and Restoration of Qing Rule in Xinjiang Jane K. Leonard, eds. Ithaca, N.Y.: Economic Relations in Xinjiang (End th th in 1875-1878.] In Materialy po istorii East Asia Program, Cornell of the 19 -Beginning of the 20 i kul’ture Uigurskogo Naroda, G. S. University, 2002. Centuries).] Almaty: Institut istorii i Sadvakasov et al., eds. Alma-Ata: etnologii im. Ch. Ch. Valikhanova, 1978, pp. 73-133. Boulger, Demetrius Charles de 2003. [Valuable study based Kavanagh. The life of Yakoob Beg; extensively on Russian consular reports and some Russian archival Baytur, Änvär and Khäyrinisa Sidiq. Athalik ghazi, and Badaulet; Ameer material.] Shinjangdiki millätlärning tarikhi. of Kashgar. London, W.H. Allen, Beijing: Millätlär Näshriyati, 1991. 1878. Hamada, Masami. “La transmission du mouvement nationaliste au Benson, Linda. “Chinese Style, Bughra, Mehmet Emin. Sharqi Turkestan oriental (Xinjiang).” Turkic Content: A Discussion of Turkistan tarikhi. Srinagar: Bruka Central Asian Survey, 9/1 (1990): Chinese Transliteration of Turkic Parlis Basmakhanesi, 1946. 29-48. Names.” Central Asian Survey, 7/1 —. Jihad, hijra et ‘devoir du sel’ (1988): 85-96. Chou, Nailene Josephine. “Frontier studies and changing frontier dans l’histoire du Turkestan oriental. —. The Ili Rebellion: The Moslem administration in late Ch’ing China: Turcica [Belgium], 33 (2001): 35-61. Challenge to Chinese Authority in the case of Sinkiang, 1759-1911.” [Sharia and the concept of jihad Xinjiang, 1944-1949. New York: M.E. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. played a continuing role under Sharpe, 1990. University of Washington, 1976. Muslim elites, but the imperial salt tax was seen as a legitimate duty to —. “Uygur Politicians of the 1940s: Duman. L. I. Agrarnaia politika the Manchu emperors. Originally Mehmet Emin Bugra, Isa Yusuf tsinskogo (manchzhurskogo) published as “‘Shio no gimu’ to Alptekin And Mesut Sabri.” Central pravitel’stva v Sin’tsziane v kontse ‘Seisen’ tono aida de.” Tôyôshi Asian Survey, 10/4 (1991): 87-113. XVIII veka. [The Agricultural Policy Kenkyû 52(2): 122-148.] —. “Ahmetjan Kasimi: A Chinese of the Qing (Manchu) Administration th Hartmann, Martin. 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36 1878-1881. Oxford: Clarendon World-Historical Time. Lynn A. —. “Boundaries, maps, and Press, 1965. Struve, ed. Cambridge: Harvard movement: Chinese, Russian, and University Press, 2004, pp. 92-120. Mongolian empires in early modern Khodzhaev, Ablat. Tsinskaia central Eurasia.” International imperiia, Dzhungariia i Vostochnyi Mitirov, A. G. Oiraty-kalmyki: veka History Review, 20/2 (1998): 263- Turkestan. [The Qing Empire, i pokoleniia. [The Oirat-Kalmyks: 286. Jungharia and East Turkistan.] Centuries and Generations.] Elista: Moscow: “Nauka,” 1979. [On Qing Kalmytskoe knizhnoe izd-vo, 1998. —. “The Qing Empire in Eurasian China’s colonial policies.] Time and Space: Lessons from the Miyawaki, Junko. “The Qalqa Galdan Campaigns.” In: The Qing —, and B. A. Akhmedov. Tsinskaia Mongols and the Oyirad in the Formation in World-Historical Time. imperiia i Vostochnyi Turkestan v Seventeenth Century.” Journal of Lynn A. Struve, ed. 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Rossiia i Dzhungarskoe Schorkowitz, Dittmar. Die soziale und in Qianlong’s Court: The Meanings khanstvo v XVIII veke: ocherk politische Organisation bei den of the Fragrant Concubine.” Journal vneshnepoliticheskikh Kalmücken (Oiraten) und Prozesse of Asian Studies, 53/2 (1994): 427- otnoshenii.[Russia and the Junghar th der Akkulturation vom 17. 458. Khanate in the 18 Century: An Outline of Foreign Relations.] Jahrhundert bis zur Mitte des 19. —. “New Perspectives on the Qing Barnaul: Altaiskii gos. universitet, Jahrhunderts. Frankfurt am Main: P. Frontier.” In: Remapping China. Gail 1998. Lang, 1992. Hershatter et al, eds. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996, pp. —. Rossiia i Kitai v Tsentral’noi Azii Syroezhkin, Konstantin L’vovich. 113-129. (vtoraia polovina XIX v.-1917 g.) Sovremennyi Sin’tszian i ego mesto [Russia and China in Central Asia v kazakhstansko-kitaiskikh otno- —. Beyond the pass: economy, (Second Half of the 19th Century- sheniiakh. 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Eighteenth-Century China, Russia, Khanate, 1635-1758.] Moscow: and Mongolia.” Modern Asian Nauka, 1964; rev. ed., Moscow, —. “The Qing Formation, the Studies, 30/4 (1996): 757-793. 1983. Mongol Legacy, and the ‘End of [Important discussion of Inner Asian History’ in Early Modern Central interactions in world-historical Zotov, O. Kitai i Vostochnyi Turkestan Eurasia.” In: The Qing Formation in terms.] v XV-XVIII vekakh; mezhgosu-

37 darstvennye otnosheniia. [China and 146 for Kuldja and 89 for Kulja; traditions was completed by Grenard East Turkistan in the 15th-18th 49 for Korla; 52 for Chuguchak, 53 after the death of Dutreuil de Rhins.] Centuries: Interstate Relations.] for Tarbagatai and 23 for Tacheng; Moscow: Nauka, 1991. etc. Hedin, Sven. Through Asia. J. T. Bealby, trans. 2 vols. London: Methuen, 1899. [Account of IX) Western Explorers, Mission- Ambolt, Nils. Karavan: Travels in expedition 1893-97.] aries, and Consuls (excluding Eastern Turkestan. Foreword by travel accounts not related to Sven Hedin. Translated from the —. Central Asia and Tibet. J. T. formal expeditions) Swedish by Joan Bulman. London & Bealby, trans. 2 vols. London: Hurst Glasgow: Blackie and Son Limited, and Blackett, 1903. [1899-1902 The works listed below are the 1939. expedition to Chinese Turkistan and more important accounts of Tibet.] ethnographic and archaeological Baud, A., Ph. Forêt and S. Gorshenina. La Haute-Asie telle —, et al. Scientific Results of a expeditions in Eastern Turkistan qu’ils l’ont vue. Explorateurs et Journey in Central Asia 1899-1902. since the mid-1800s. Most of scientifiques de 1820-1940. Geneva: 6 vols. Stockholm: Lithographic these expeditions also result in Editions Olizane, 2003. Institute of the General staff of the extensive publications about Swedish army, 1904-1907. Cable, Mildred and Francesca French. archaeological and manuscript —. Riddles of the Gobi desert. George Hunter, Apostle of Turk- materials. I have left out many Elizabeth Sprigge and Claude Napier, estan. London: China Inland Mission, publications by Japanese and trans. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1933. Russian explorers because these 1948. are readily found through the —. The Flight of “Big Horse”; the Clark, Milton J. “How the Kazakhs Fled secondary sources listed here. trail of war in Central Asia. F. H. Lyon, to Freedom.” National Geographic trans. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1936. There are also at least 400 travel Magazine, 106/5 (1954): 621-644. narratives in Western languages —. The Silk Road. F. H. Lyon, trans. and many more in Chinese and —. “Leadership and Political New York: E. P. Dutton, 1938. Japanese. Daniel Waugh and Allocation in Sinkiang Kazak Society.” —. The Wandering Lake. F. H. Lyon, Adela Lee’s compilation of Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. Harvard University, 1955. [Unfor- trans. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1940. bibliographies on early travelers tunately Harvard libraries make the [Hedin’s discovery of why the on the Silk Road has made an unique copy of this work based on location of Lake Lop-Nor changed excellent beginning for the first-hand experience impossible to over the centuries.] ancient and medieval periods borrow.] () and will be C. Waugh’s “A Sven Hedin supplemented soon. Discovery and Exploration of Chinese Turkestan. The Hague, Mouton, Bibliography” .] travelers and explorers appear in journals. Most of the English- de Filippi, Filippo, Giotto Dainelli and Hopkirk, Peter. Foreign devils on the language journals are available John Alfred Spranger. The Italian silk road: the search for the lost expedition to the Himalaya, in the JSTOR database of journal cities and treasures of Chinese Karakoram and Eastern Turkestan page images beginning in the late Central Asia. Amherst: University of (1913-1914). London: E. Arnold & Massachusetts Press, 1980. 1800s. The breadth of coverage Co., 1932. (and variety of spellings and Jarring, Gunnar. Return to Kashgar: names) in the journals at Forsyth, Thomas Douglas, et al. Central Asian memoirs in the JSTOR.org can be seen from the Report of a mission to Yarkund in present. Durham: Duke University following statistics on searches 1873. Calcutta: Foreign Dept. Press, Press, 1986. using geographic terms: 1583 for 1875. Kliashtornyi, S. G, et al. Vostochnyi Sinkiang, 873 for Xinjiang and 51 Gorshenina, Svetlana. Explorateurs Turkestan glazami Russkikh for Hsin-chiang; 942 for Chinese en Asie Centrale: Voyageurs et puteshestvennikov. [East Turkistan Turkestan and 366 for Eastern aventuriers de Marco Polo à Ella through the Eyes of Russian Turkestan (using Turkistan in Maillart. Genève: Éditions Olizane, Travelers.] Alma-Ata: “Nauka” each phrase gives 400 more); 2003. [Annotated bibliography of Kazakhskoi SSR, 1988. 736 for Khotan and 38 for Hotan; travel accounts.] 612 for Yarkand; 852 for Kashgar Lattimore, Owen. High Tartary. and 72 for Kashghar; 862 for Grenard, Fernand. J.-L. Dutreuil de Boston: Little, Brown, 1930. [Travels Rhins; Mission scientifique dans la through Northern Xinjiang in 1927.] Turfan and 18 for Turpan; 425 for haute Asie, 1890-1895. 2 vols. Paris: Hami and 23 for Qomul; 174 for E. Leroux, 1897-1898. [This Le Coq, Albert von. Buried treasures Dzungaria and 28 for Zungaria; important description of exploration, of Chinese Turkestan: an account of 258 for Urumchi and 33 for Tihwa; history, folklore and religious the activities and adventures of the

38 second and third German Turfan valuable descriptive account based Yaqub, et al, provides examples expeditions. Anna Barwell, trans. on his travels in Western Xinjiang of usage. Schwarz and Jarring London: G. Allen & Unwin, 1928. while British Consul in Kashgar, both include information about 1922-1924.] —. Von Land und Leuten in etymology and Schwarz provides Ostturkistan: Berichte und Abenteuer classified word lists and Stein, M. Aurel. Sand-buried ruins of der 4. deutschen Turfanexpedition. illustrations. A comprehensive Khotan; personal narrative of a Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs, 1928. dialect dictionary has yet to be journey of archaeological & geographical exploration in Chinese produced, but Ghopuri, Jarring, Mannerheim, Carl Gustaf Emil. Across Turkestan. London: T.F. Unwin, 1903. Malov, Osmanov, Sadvaqasov, Asia from West to East in 1906-1908. and Tenishev have gathered 2 vols. Helsinki, 1940. —. Ancient Khotan, detailed report important materials. Many of the of archaeological explorations in collections of oral texts listed Michell, John. The Russians in Central Chinese Turkestan. 2 vols. Oxford: below consist are folklore Asia ... descriptions of Chinese Clarendon Press, 1907. [Online at Turkestan and Dzungaria by Capt. .] London: E. Stanford, 1865. Abikänuli, Nurbäk. Qazaqsha- —. Ruins of desert Cathay; khanzusha sözdik [Qazaq-Chinese Mirsky, Jeannette. Sir Aurel Stein, personal narrative of explorations in Dictionary.] Beijing: Minzu archaeological explorer. Chicago: Central Asia and westernmost China. chubanshe, 1989. [Extensive and University of Chicago Press, 1977. London: Macmillan and Co., 1912. accurate bilingual dictionary.] [Largely a summary/precis of his Duval, Jean-R. “Modern Uyghur, A writings.] —. Serindia: detailed report of explorations in Central Asia and Historical Perspective.” In: Culture Contact, History and Ethnicity in Obzor russkikh puteshestvii i westernmost China. 5 vols. Oxford: Inner Asia. Michael Gervers and ekspeditsii v Sredniuiu Aziiu. Clarendon Press, 1921. Wayne Schlepp, eds. Toronto: Joint Materialy k istorii izucheniia Srednei Walker, Annabel, Aurel Stein: Center for Asia Pacific Studies, 1996, Azii, 4 pts. O. V. Maslova, comp. Pioneer of the Silk Road. London: pp. 132-67. Tashkent: Izd-vo “FAN” Uzbekskoi John Muray, 1995. [Serious SSR, 1955-1971. [Valuable biography based on Stein archive.] Dwyer, Arienne. “Language Contact annotated bibliography of Russian in Qumul.” Journal of Central Asian travelers and expeditions in Central Waugh, Daniel C. “The ‘mysterious Studies, 3/1 (Fall-Winter 1998): 30- Asia from 1715-1886.] and terrible Karatash gorges’: notes 41. and documents on the explorations Paxton, John Hall. Papers. Yale by Stein and Skrine.” Geographical Ghopuri, Ghulam. Uyghur shiviliri University Library, Manuscripts and Journal, 165/3 (1999): 306-20. sözlügi. Beijing: Millätlär Näshriyati, Archives, Manuscript Group Number 1986. 629. [U.S. consul in Xinjiang 1945- Whitfield, Susan. Aurel Stein on the 1949. Author of “Escape over the Silk Road. Serindia Publications, —, Muhämmät Tursun Ibrahimi, Roof of the World” in the Saturday 2004. [Excellent, illustrated Khoja Äkhmät Yünüs, compilers. Evening Post and U.S. Camera photo introduction to Stein for the general Uyghur kilassik ädäbiyatidin qisqichä essay on the escape (June 1951).] reader.] sözlük. Beijing: Millätlär Näshriyati, 1986. Pevtsov, M. V. Puteshestvie po Vostochnomu Turkestanu, Kun- X) Basic Sources for Linguistics Hahn, Reinhard and Ablahat Ibrahim. Luniu, severnoi okraine tibetskago Spoken Uyghur. Seattle: University and Language Study nagor’ia i Chzhungarii v 1889-m i of Washington Press, 1991. [An 1890-m godakh. [Journey through introductory text book.] East Turkestan, the Kun-Lun and the Turkic, Manchu, and Mongol Northern Fringes of the Tibetan linguistics are vast fields and Iliev, A., et al. Russko-uigurskii Plateau and Jungharia in 1889 and many works have been published slovar’. Moscow: Gos. Izd-vo 1890.] St. Petersburg: M. on these and other historical and inostrannykh slovarei, 1956. Stasiulevich, 1895. [Partial translation modern languages of Eastern [30,000 word Russian-Uyghur as “An Ethnographic Sketch of Turkistan. The list below primarily dictionary.] Kashgaria.” Journal of Steward references works useful for Anthropological Society, 12 (1982).] Jarring, Gunnar. An Eastern Turki- studying modern Uyghur since it English Dialect Dictionary. Lunds is the dominant language of the universitets årsskrift. N.F. Avd. 1, bd. Przheval’skii, Nikolai Mikhailovich. region and has only a limited 56, nr. 4. Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup, From Kulja, across the Tian Shan to 1964. [Roughly 15,000 entries.] Lob-Nor. E. Delmar Morgan, tr.; T. number of speakers elsewhere. The most comprehensive D. Forsyth, intro. London: S. Low, —. “The Toponym Takla-Makan.” Marston, Searle, & Rivington, 1879. bilingual dictionaries are those Turkic Studies, 1/2 (1997): 227-41. produced by Nadzhip, Iliev and Skrine, C. P. Chinese Central Asia. Schwarz, while the multivolume Qawuz, Qadir. Han-Ying-Wei London,: Methuen, 1926. [Still dictionary produced by Abliz chengyu cidian= A Chinese-English-

39 Uighur dictionary of idioms = Ürümchi: Shinjang Khälq Näshriyati, collections and dastans have Khänzuchä-Inglizchä-Uyghurchä 1992. been published in Alma-Ata, turaqliq ibarilär lughiti. Ürümchi: Song, Zhengchun. “Multilingual Tashkent, Kashgar, Ürümchi and Shinjang Khälq Näshriyati, 1990. Beijing, as well as in the journal [Provides translations and families of the Tuvinian people in explanations for roughly 10,600 Xinjiang (Mongolia).” International Bulaq. proverbs and sayings.] Journal of the Sociology of Language, 97 (1992): 23-35. Ärshidinov, Batur. Uyghur klassikliri Malov, S. E. Lobnorskii iazyk. [The ijadiyitigä dastan zhanri (XIX Lobnor Language.] Frunze: Izd-vo Tenishev, Edgem R. Uigurskie teksty. äsirning birinchi yerimi). Alma-Ata: AN Kirgizskoi SSR, 1956. [Uyghur Texts.] Moscow: Nauka, Nauka, 1988. [A study of the written 1984. dastan genre of Uyghur poetry —. Uigurskie narechiia Sin’tsziana: —. Uigurskii dialektnyi slovar. during the first half of the nineteenth teksty, perevody, slovar’. [The [Uyghur Dialect Dictionary.] century, when popular rebellions Uyghur Dialects of Xinjiang: Texts, Moscow: “Nauka”, 1990. became an important sources for Translations, Dictionary.] Moscow: dastan narratives.] Izd-vo vostochnoi lit-ry, 1961. Yaqub, Abliz, et al. Shinjang Uighur Aptonom Rayonluq Millatlar Til-Yeziq —. Uigurskii iazyk: khamiiskoe Friederich, Michael. Die ujghurische Khizmiti Komiteti Lughat Bölümi. narechie: teksty, perevody i slovar’. Literatur in Xinjiang 1956-1966. Uighur tilining izahliq lughiti. 6 vols. [The Uyghur Language: The Hami Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1997. Beijing: Millätlär Näshriyati, 1990- Dialect. Texts, Translations and 1999. Dictionary.] Moscow: Izd-vo AN Ghochur, Vahtijan and Äsqär SSSR, 1954. Husäyin. Uyghur klassik ädibiyati Zhao Xiangru and Reinhard F. Hahn. tezisiliri. Beijing, 1987. [A wide- —. “Materialy po uigurskim “The Ili Turk people and their ranging history of the authors and narechiiam Sin’tsziana.” [Materials language.” Central Asiatic Journal, works that are now considered part on the Uyghur Dialects of Xinjiang.] 33/3-4 (1989): 260-289. of the Uyghur literary tradition, from In: Sergeiu Fedorovichu Ol’den- the Uyghur Qaghanate through the burgu: k piatidesiatiletiiu nauchno- Idiqut kingdom and the Qara- obshchestvennoi deiatel’nosti, 1882- XI) Studies of Literature and khanids, including Abu Nasr 1932. Leningrad, 1934, pp. 307-322. Literary History Muhammad Farabi and many Chaghatay authors, but excluding Mawkanuli, Talant. “The Jungar The study of medieval Turkic popular poets such as Mashrab and Tuvas: Language and National literary history and Turkic Huwaydâ who have been assigned Identity in the PRC.” Central Asian to the Uzbeks.] Survey, 20/4 (2001): 497-517. linguistics are fairly advanced but authors from the last 500 years Nadzhip, Emir N. Uigursko-russkii Jarring, Gunnar. Some notes on have attracted less international eastern Turki (New Uighur) munazara slovar. Moscow: “Sov. entsiklo- interest and are assigned to one pediia,” 1968. [Uyghur-Russian literature. Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup, or another national literature. dictionary, with very detailed entries 1981. for roughly 33,000 words.] This results in tendentious literary histories that attempt to —. ‘The Thiefless City’ and ‘The Osmanov, Mirsultan, Ansardin Musa, strengthen or at least adjudicate Contest between Food and Throat.’ and Osman Nadir. Hazirqi zaman Scripta Minora 1989-1990:1. Lund: the validity of, for example, C. W. K. Gleerup, 1989. uyghur tili dialektliri. Ürümchi: Uyghur or Uzbek claims to Shinjang Yashlar-ösmürlär näsh- particular authors. Only a few —. Prints from Kashghar; the riyati, 1990. studies such as those of printing-office of the Swedish mission Päyzulla, Änwär. Inglizchä- Ärshidinov and Friederich have in eastern Turkestan. Stockholm: Uyghurchä lughät; English-Uighur begun to move beyond the Almqvist & Wiksell, 1991. Dictionary. Ürümchi: Shinjang Khälq cataloging, categorizing and Kaidarov, A. T. Razvitie sovre- Näshriyati, 1988. historicizing modes of literary mennogo Uigurskogo literaturnogo analysis to understand literature Sadvaqasov [Sadvakasov], G. Iazyk iazyka. [The Development of the uigurov Ferganskoi doliny. [The in its social contexts, and local Contemporary Uyghur Literary Language of the Ferghana Valley scholars have also been reluctant Language.] Alma-Ata: 1969. [Soviet Uyghurs.] 2 vols. Alma-Ata: “Nauka” to accept religious materials such Uyghur version of the development Kazakhskoi SSR, 1970-1976. as hagiographies within the of Uyghur literary poetry and prose.] nationalized literary traditions. Schwarz, Henry G. An Uyghur- The simple model of an evolving Khamraev, M. K. Osnovy tiurskogo English dictionary. Bellingham, “national” literature has over- stikhoslozheniia; na materiale Wash.: Western Washington uigurskoi klassicheskoi i sovremennoi whelmed the possibility of University Press, 1992. poezii. [The Foundations of Turkic describing literature in use. But Versification; Based on the Materials Sinjon, Danyel [St. John, Daniel]. A the materials for more detailed of Uyghur Classical and Contem- Uighur-English Dictionary; study are rich: many relevant porary Poetry.] Alma-Ata: Izd-vo AN Uyghurchä-Inglizchä lughät. editions of manuscript ghazal Kazakhskoi SSR, 1963.

40 Light, Nathan. “Kazakhs of the XII) Performing Arts, epic traditions, such as the famous Tarbaghatai: Ethno-History Through Ethnomusicology, Folklore, Folk Manas epic of Jusup Mamay which a Novel.” The Turkish Studies Art, Architecture and Material may be as long as 500,000 lines Association Bulletin, 17/2 ( 1993): Culture in its full extent. Other performing 91-102. [Analysis of a novel about arts and material culture are being nomadic life from an ethnographic The study of Turkic, Mongol and perspective.] studied in some detail, with the Manchu folk traditions in Eastern best ethnographic work done by Mollaudov, Savut. Bilal Nazimning Turkistan has a long history, and Dautcher and Harris. haiati va ijadi. Alma-Ata: Qazaqstan oral literature and music in SSR “Nauka” nashriiati, 1976. [The particular have remained pro- Alakhunov, A. Uighur Khaliq Qoshaqliri. life and works of the author Bilal ductive topics for research and Alma-Ata: Nauka, 1977. Nazim who worked with N. publishing while religion has been Pantusov.] more sensitive in China and the Alibakieva, Tamara. Uigurskie istoricheskie pesni. [Uyghur —, and Gh. Sadvaqasov. Uighur Soviet Union. Folk qoshaq and Historical Songs.] Moscow: Sovetskii adabiiatining qisqicha tarikhi. Alma- dastan songs have been published kompozitor, 1986. [Songs and Ata: Qazaqstan SSR “Nauka” and analyzed in Russian and musical transcriptions.] nashriiati, 1983. Uyghur, but there has been little comparative investigation of the Alieva, Makhinur M. Uighur khaliq —. XVIII äsir uighur poeziiasi widely circulated materials such as chöchäkliri. Alma-Ata: Zhazushy (tätqiqat va tekstlar). Alma-Ata: nashriiati, 1969. “Nauka” nashriiati, 1990. the romantic dastans and Nasirdin Äpändi (Hoca Nasreddin) tales. M. —. Uigurskaia skazka. [The Uyghur Naby, Eden. “Uighur literature: the Alieva has written on the Tale.] Alma-Ata: Nauka, 1975. antecedents.” In: Cultural Change characteristics of oral folklore and Continuity in Central Asia. Shirin genres: nakhsha, bäyt and qoshaq —. Zhanry uigurskogo fol’klora. Akiner, ed. London: Kegan Paul, (songs), läpär (humorous song and [Genres of Uyghur Folklore.] Alma- Ata: Nauka, 1989. 1991, pp. 14-28. dance performances), tepishmaq (riddles), maqal-tämsil (proverbs, Narynbaev, Aziz I. Progressivnaya Aratan, Ekrem Ural. Kâshgar obshchestvenno-filosofskaya mysl’ sayings), chöchäk (tale), rivayät agzindan derlemeler. Ankara: Uigurov vtoroi poloviny XIX v. Frunze: (legend), äpsanä (myth), lätipä Ankara Üniversitesi Basïmevi, 1965. Ilim, 1988. [Social philosophies of late (humorous anecdotes), but [Oral materials from Kashgar.] 19th-century Uyghur authors in order despite the excellent work of to reclaim ancestors as progressive Radlov, Pantusov, Katanov, Malov Baqi, Tokhti. Uyghur tamaqliri. thinkers.] (see under linguistics), Jarring, Le Shinjang Khälq Näshriyati, 1984. Coq, and Reichl there has been [Traditional Uyghur foods.] Shahrani, M. Nazif. “Local Knowledge little comparative or ethnographic of Islam and Social Discourse in work on narrative and song forms. Chao Gejin. Qiannian juechang Afghanistan and Turkistan in the yingxiongge: Weilate Menggu Modern Period.” In: Turko-Persia in In addition to items listed here many others Uyghur song and tale shishichuan tongtian yesanji = The Historical-Perspective, Robert L. heroic songs of the past: fieldnotes Canfield, ed. Cambridge: Cambridge collections have been published in on the Oirat Mongolian epic University Press, pp. 161-188. [Good Xinjiang and Kazakstan, making tradition. Nanning: Guangxi renmin description of literature in use by the available material very rich. chubanshe, 2004. nomads from Eastern Turkistan.] International interest over the Çubukçu, Bayhan and Söhret A. Sherip, Islamjan and Abdukerim past 20 years has focused on the Oghuzoghlu. “Geleneksel Uygur Rakhman, eds. Uyghur pälsäpä Uyghur muqam song tradition Tibbinda Kullanilan Bitkisel Ilac tarikhighä a’it mäsililär. Kashgar: because of its importance as a Hammaddeleri.” Türk halk kültürü Qäshqär Uyghur Näshriyati, 1981. symbol of Uyghur cultural identity arastirmalari 1994. Ankara: Kültür [Articles about the philosophical Bakanligi, 1996, p. 43-60. [Methods tradition expressed by Uyghur and history and its relationship to of Uyghur healing.] authors.] maqamat traditions in other parts of Eurasia, with the work of Light, Thwaites, Dilber. “Zunun Kadir’s Trebinjac, Tsai and Zhou being the Dautcher, Jay. “Folklore and Identity ambiguity; the dilemma of a Uyghur most important. Since the 1950s in a Uighur Community in Xinjiang, writer under Chinese rule.” expanding and standardizing the China.” Unpublished Ph.D. dis- sertation. University of California, Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. muqam repertoire has been Berkeley, 1999. Australian National University, 2001. heavily supported in Xinjiang and Kazakstan in order to present Wei Cuiyi. “An Historical Survey of Du Yaxiong and Zhou Ji. Sichou zhi Modern Uighur Writing since the muqams as the centerpieces of lu de yinyue wenhua. Beijing: Minzu 1950s in Xinjiang, China.” Central Uyghur traditional culture. Similarly, chubanshe, 1997. [A study of Silk Asiatic Journal, 37/3-4 (1993): 249- interest in Qirghiz, Mongol and Road musical culture by two 322. Manchu/Sibe has focused on the excellent ethnomusicologists.]

41 During, Jean and Sabine Trebinjac. aus Jarkend.” Mitteilungen des uigurskom i russkom iazykakh i s Introduction au Muqam Ouïgour. Seminars für Orientalische russkimi paralleliami. [Uyghur Bloomington, Indiana: RIFIAS, Sprachen, 8 (1905): 25-38. Aphorisms and Sayings in Uyghur and 1991. Russian and with Russian Parallels.] Haªim, Ehet. Uygur halk masallarï. Moscow: Glav. red. vostochnoi lit-ry, Hali, Awelkhan, Zengxiang Li, and Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi, 1989. 1981. Karl W. Luckert. Kazakh traditions of China. Lanham, Md.: University Hu Djen-Hua and Rémy Dor. “Manas Katanov, N. F. and Karl Menges. Press of America, 1998. [A collection chez les Kirghiz du Xinjiang.” Turcica, Volkskundliche Texte aus Ost- of cultural material presented 14/4 (1984): 29-50. Türkistan. 3 vol. Berlin and Mainz: according to Luckert’s evolutionary Verlag der Akademie der Wis- scheme.] Jamaldinov, Oktyabr’. Uyghur khälq senschaften, 1933-1954. qoshaqliri. Alma-Ata: Zhazushy, Harris, Rachel. “Music, Identity and 1988. Le Coq, Albert von. Sprichwörter Persuasion: ethnic minority music in und Lieder aus der Gegend von Xinjiang, China.” Unublished Ph.D. Jarring, Gunnar. Materials to the Turfan. Baessler-Archiv, beiheft 1. dissertation. University of London, knowledge of Eastern Turki; tales, Berlin: B.G. Teubner, 1911. 1998. poetry, proverbs, riddles, ethnological and historical texts from the southern —, and Otto von Falke. —. “Cassettes, Bazaars and parts of Eastern Turkestan, with Volkskundliches aus Ost-Turkistan. Saving the Nation: the Uyghur Music translation and notes. 4 vols. Lunds Berlin: D. Reimer, 1916. Industry in Xinjiang, China.” In: universitets årsskrift, N.F, 43/4, 44/ —. “Ost-Türkisshe gedichte und Global Goes Local: Popular Culture 7, and 47/3-4. Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup, erzählungen.” Keleti Szemle (Revue in Asia. T. Craig & R. King, eds. 1946-1951. [1. Texts from Khotan and orientale), 18 (1918-19): 50-118. Vancouver: University of British Yarkand. 2. Texts from Kashghar, Columbia Press, 2001, pp. 265-83. Tashmalig und Kucha. 3. Folk-lore from Lebedeva, E.P. and L.M. Gorelova, Guma. 4. Ethnological and historical —. “Wang Luobin: ‘Folksong King eds. Sidi kur: sibinskaia versiia texts from Guma.] of the Northwest’ or Song Thief? “Volshebnogo mertvetsa.” [Sidi Kur: Copyright, representation and —. Matters of Ethnological Interest A Sibe-Manchu Version of Chinese ‘folksongs’.” In: Consuming in Swedish Missionary Reports from the”Bewitched Corpse” Cycle.] China: approaches to cultural Southern Sinkiang. Lund: C. W. K. Transcribed by V.V. Radlov. change in contemporary China. Gleerup, 1979. Transliterated and introduced by Kevin Latham and Stuart Thompson, Giovanni Stary. Wiesbaden: —. The Moen Collection of Eastern eds. Curzon Press, forthcoming. Harrassowitz, 1994. [Appears to be planned for late Turki (New Uighur) Proverbs and Popular Sayings. Scripta Minora 2005.] Mackerras, Colin. “Uygur performing 1984-1985:1, Lund 1984. art in contemporary China.” China —, and Rahile Dawut. “Mazar —. Garments from Top to Toe; Quarterly, 101 (March 1985): 58-77. Festivals of the Uyghurs: Music, Eastern Turki texts relating to articles Islam and the Chinese State.” of clothing. Stockholm: Almqvist & —. “Traditional Uygur Performing Ethnomusicology Forum, 11/1 Wiksell, 1992. Arts.” Asian Music, 16/1 (Fall-Winter (2002): 101-18. 1985): 29-58. —. Stimulants among the Turks of —. “Snapshot: Uighur Popular Eastern Turkestan: an Eastern Turki Mamay, Jüsüp. Manas; Qirghiz elinin Music,” in The Garland encyclopedia text edited with translation, notes tarikhiy eposu. Ürümchi: Shinjang of world music. Vol 7: East Asia: and glossary. Stockholm: Almqvist Khälq Näshriyati, 1989-. [Extensive China, Japan and Korea. Robert & Wiksell, 1993. version of the Manas epic planned Provine, Yosihiko Tokumaru, and J. to include at least 8 volumes.] Lawrence Witzleben, eds. New York: —, and Sigfrid Moen. The Moen Routledge, 2002, pp. 467-71. collection of eastern Turki (New Mehrulla, Himit and Lätipä Qorban. Uighur) popular poetry. Scripta Uyghur ussul sän’iti toghirisida. —. Singing the village: music, Minora 1996-1997:1. Stockholm: Ürümchi: Shinjang Khälq Näshriyati, memory and ritual among the Sibe Almqvist & Wiksell, 1996. 1991. of Xinjiang. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Kabirov, M.N. Uigurskie skazki. Omär, Uchqunjan, ed. Uyghur khälq [Uyghur Tales.] Alma-Ata, 1963. Hartmann, Martin. “Ein Türkischer tarikhiy qoshaqliri. Qäshqär: text aus Kašgar.” Keleti Szemle —, and V.F. Shakhmatov. Uigurskie Qäshqär Uyghur Näshriyati, 1981. (Revue orientale), 5 (1904): 21-35, narodnye skazki. [Uyghur Folk 161-84, 330-43; 6 (1905): 25-65. Tales.] Moscow: Gos. izd-vo Öztopçu, Kurtuluš. Uygur atasözleri [“Shingiltak and 7 dongiltak” a folktale khudozh. lit-ry, 1951. ve deyimleri. Istanbul: Doghu similar to Andersen’s “Der kleine Türkistan Vakfï, 1992. [Collection of Clause und der grosse Claus” and to Kadyrov, A. N. Uigurskii sovetskii Uyghur proverbs.] a tale in Radlov’s collection. Text and teatr. [Uyghur Soviet Theater.] Alma- analysis.] Ata : Oner, 1984. Pantusov, N. N. Materialy k izucheniiu nariechiia Taranchei —. “Die Geschichte von den Vierzig Khamraev, M. K. and Iu. I. Levin. Iliiskago okruga. [Materials for the Leibern (Èilten). I. Ein türkischer Text Uigurskie poslovitsy i pogovorki: na Study of the Taranchi Dialect of the

42 Ili District.] 9 issues [vyp.]. Kazan: Sadvakasov, G. Uighur fol’klorining Zhang Hengde. Xinjiang Weiwuer Tip. Imperatorskago universiteta, antologiiasi. [Anthology of Uyghur minjian huamao tu’anji; A Collection 1897-1907. Folklore.] Alma-Ata: “Nauka,” 1988. of the Xinjiang Uighur Folk Cap Designs. Ürümchi: Xinjiang renmin —. Obraztsy taranchinskoi —, and Sh. Kibirov. Uighur maqal chubanshe, 1983. narodnoi literatury: teksty i va tamsilliri = Uigurskie poslovitsy i perevody. [Examples of Taranchi pogovorki. [Uyghur Aphorisms and Zhongguo jianzhu jishu fazhan Popular Literature: Texts and Sayings.] Alma-Ata: “Nauka” zhongxin. Xinjiang Weiwuer jianzhu Translations.] Kazan: Tip. Impera- Kazakhskoi SSR, 1978. zhuangshi. [Xinjiang Uyghur torskago universiteta, 1909. Svanberg, Ingvar. “A Collection of Architectural Decoration.] Ürümchi: —. Taranchinskiia pesni. [Taranchi Kazak Riddles from Chinese Xinjiang renmin chubanshe, 1985. Songs.] St. Petersburg: Tip. Impera- Turkistan and Mongolia.” Arv: [Brief text of 12 pages followed by torskoi akademii nauk, 1890. Scandinavian Yearbook of Folklore, 342 black and white photos of 38 (1982): 163–73. architectural elements.] —, and Bilal Nazym. Voina musul’man protiv Kitaitsev: tekst Tömür, Khewir. Molla Zäydin häqqidä Zhou Ji. Zhongguo Xinjiang Weiwuer nariechiia Taranchi. [The Muslim War qissä. 2 vols. Ürümchi: Shinjang zu Yisilanjiao liyi yinyue. Taibei: against the Chinese: A Text in the Khälq Näshriyati, 1981-91. [Stories Xinwenfeng chuban gongsi, 1999. Taranchi Dialect.] 2 vols. Kazan: v about a famous trickster figure who univ. tip., 1880-1881. [v. 1. Kitabi- lived in the Turfan region during the XIII) Anthropology, Cultural gazat der mul’ki Chin (Religioznaia 19th century.] voina v Kitaiskom gosudarstve) Analysis, Ethnography, Ethnicity, (Kitabi-gazat der mul’ki Chin Trebinjac, Sabine. “Musique Ethnogenesis [Religious War in the Chinese Ouïgoure et collectes musicales en State]); v. 2. Pesni Taranchei. O Chine.” Unpublished dissertation. Ethnic identity and ethnogenesis vspomogatel’nykh glagolakh. Université Paris X, Nanterre, 1994. in Xinjiang have been a central Primechaniia (Taranchi Songs. On focus of study for many scholars. —. Le Pouvoir en Chantant: l’art the Auxiliary Verbs. Notes).] Cesaro, Clark, Gladney, Hoppe, de fabriquer une musique chinoise. Nanterre: Société d’ethnologie, Roberts, Rudelson, Smith, and Radlov, V. V. Obraztsy narodnoi 2000. Svanberg offer nuanced insights literatury severnykh Tiurkskikh into the complexities of ethnicity, —. “Quand les Ouïgours jouent et plemen’. [Examples of Popular but Gladney’s point that ethnic s’amusent.” Etudes mongoles et Literature of the Northern Turkic sibériennes, 30-31 (1999-2000): distinctions are not very im- Tribes.] Vol. 6. Narechie Taranchei. 125-135. [also in English in Garland portant when Uyghurs move to [The Taranchi Dialect.] St. Encyclopedia of Music, vol. 7.] Turkey should be extended to the Petersburg: Tip. Imperatorskoi akademii nauk, 1886. situation in Xinjiang as well: Tsai, Tsung-te. “The Music and ethnic identity is only contingently Tradition of Qumul Muqam in salient and much is missed by an Rakhman, Abdukerim. Folklor vä Chinese Turkistan.” Unpublished exclusive focus on it. As with yazma ädäbiyat. Qäshqär: Qäshqär Ph.D. dissertation. University of Uyghur Näshriyati, 1989. Maryland-Baltimore County, 1998. many of the literary studies above, ethnographers tend —. Uyghur folklori häqqidä bayan. Tursun, Abduväli. Khotän towards too much attention to Ürümchi: Xinjiang University Press, gilämchiliki. Ürümchi: Shinjang ethnic differences. Ethnic Khälq Näshriyati, 1986. [Detailed 1990. [Describes traditional daily life. identities are important modes of rituals, farming, trade, food, healing, discussion of carpet making in negotiating political and social and material culture.] Khotan.] organization and activities both Wei, Cuiyi and Karl W. Luckert. Raquette, Gustaf Richard and on the interpersonal and on the Uighur stories from along the Silk Gunnar Jarring. Gustaf Raquette and level of state bureaucracy and Road. Lanham, Md.: University Press Qasim Akhun’s letters to Kamil public performances, but they of America, 1998. [A collection of efendi: ethnological and folkloristic offer only a partial perspective on literary and oral stories arranged materials from southern Sinkiang. social life. Life in Xinjiang involves and annotated according to a theory Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup, 1975. of survivals and cultural evolution: more than deciphering the each story is supposed to reflect a changing ways politics, culture, Reichl, Karl. Märchen aus Sinkiang: particular stage of socio-economic history, and rights are linked to Überlieferungen der Turkvölker development.] ethnicity. Practices more strongly Chinas. Köln: E. Diederichs Verlag, associated with gender, class, 1986. Zakharova, I. V. “Material’naia and religion—although these are kultura uigurov Sovetskogo soiuza.” also changing—are equally Rincindorji. “Uber den ‘Jangyar’ in [Material Culture of the Uyghurs of important, and here the works of Sinkiang und die Jangyarsanger.” the Soviet Union.] Sredneaziatskii Joerg Becker, trans. Fragen der etnograficheskii sbornik. Trudy Bellér-Hann and Hann are mongolischen Heldendichtung, III. instituta etnografii imeni Miklukho- particularly valuable. Historical Walther Heissig, ed. Wiesbaden: Maklaia. Moscow, 1959, pp. 215- accounts of cultural practices can Harrassowitz, 1985, pp. 273-300. 298. be found in the works on Chvyr,

43 Iskhakov, Le Coq, Pelliot and —. “Locked in Conflict. Parameters Chvyr, Liudmilla Anatol’evna. Pevtsov. of Uyghur Identity, in China and in “European reports about the Uighurs the Diaspora.” In: Cultural in the late 19th and early 20th century Abramzon, S. M. “Kirgizskoe Persistence and Globalisation. [sic].” Information Bulletin, naselenie Sin’tszian-uigurskoi Orientwissenschaftliche Hefte 2. International Association for the avtonomnoi oblasti Kitaiskoi Orientwissenschaftliches Zentrum: Study of the Cultures of Central Asia narodnoi respubliki.” In: Trudy Halle, 2001, pp. 53-66. [Moscow], 15 (1989): 103-123. Kirgizskoi arkheologo-etnografi- —. Uigury Vostochnogo Turkestana cheskoi ekspeditsii, Vol. 2. Moscow: —. “Solidarity and contest among i sosednie narody v kontse XIX- Izd-vo AN SSSR, 1959, pp. 332-369. Uyghur healers in Kazakhstan.” nachale XX v.: ocherki istoriko- [Translated as: “Ethnographical Inner Asia, 3 (2001): 73-98. kul’turnykh sviazei. [The Uyghurs of Information on the Kirgiz Population —. “‘Making the oil fragrant.’ East Turkistan and Neighboring in the Sinkiang-Uighur Autonomous Dealings with the supernatural Peoples at the End of the 19th- Oblast of the Chinese People’s among the Uighur in Xinjiang.” Asian Beginning of the 20th Centuries: Republic, JPRS 24,572/1964: 1-54. Ethnicity, 2/1 (2001): 9-23. Essays on Historical-Cultural Ties.] One of the few studies of the Kyrgyz Moscow: “Nauka,” 1990. in Xinjiang; based mainly on emigré —. “The hairbraiding ritual.” In: interviews.] Aktual’nye problemy sovremennogo —. “Notes on the ethnic self- Uigurovedeniia. Ablet Kamalov, ed. awareness of the Uighur.” Anthro- Bellér-Hann, Ildikó. “Script changes Almaty: Gylym Press, 2002, pp. 180- pology and Archeology of Eurasia, 34/ in Xinjiang”. In: Cultural change and 192. 3 (1995/6): 48-67. [Originally in continuity in Central Asia. Shirin Russian as “Zametki ob etnicheskom Akiner, ed. London: Kegan Paul, —. “Temperamental Neighbours: samosoznanii uigurov,” Etno- 1991, pp. 71-83. Constructing Boundaries in Xinjiang, graficheskoe obozrenie, 3 (1994): Northwest China.” In: Imagined 31-40.] —. “Narratives and values: source Difference: hatred and the materials for the study of popular construction of identity. Günther Clark, William. “Convergence or culture in Xinjiang.” Inner Asia, 1/1 Schlee, ed. Münster-Hamburg- divergence: Uighur family change in (1996): 89-100. London: LIT Verlag, 2002, pp. 57- Urumqi.” Unpublished Ph.D. 81. dissertation. University of Wash- —. “The peasant condition in ington, 1999. Xinjiang.” Journal of Peasant Studies, —. “Geschlechtsspezifische 25/1 (1997): 87-112 Arbeitsteilung bei den Uiguren im —. “Childbearing Strategies Nordwesten Chinas.” In: Die among the Uighur Urban Educated —. “Crafts, Entrepreneurship and geschlechtsspezifische Einbettung Elite in Urumqi.” Asian Ethnicity, 2/2 Gendered Economic Relations in der Ökonomie. Empirische Unter- (2001): 225-237. Southern Xinjiang in the Era of suchungen über Entwicklungs- und —, and Kamalov, Ablet. “Uighur Socialist Commodity Economy.” Transformationsprozesse (Market, migration across Central Asian Central Asian Survey, 17/4 (1998): Culture and Society 12). Gudrun frontiers.” Central Asian Survey, 23/ 701-718. Lachenmann and Petra Danecker, 2 (2004): 167-183. eds. Münster: LIT, 2002, pp. 321-346. —. “Work and gender among Geng Shimin, “On the Fusion of Uighur villagers in southern —. “Law and custom among the Nationalities in the Tarim Basin and Xinjiang.” In: Les Ouïgours au Uyghur in Xinjiang.” In: Central the Formation of the Modern Uighur XXème siècle. Cahiers d’Études sur Asian Law: An Historical Overview. Nationality.” Central Asian Survey, 3/ la Méditerranée Orientale et le A Festschrift for the Ninetieth 4 (1984): 1-14 Monde Turco-Iranien, F. Aubin and Birthday of Herbert Franke. Wallace J.-F. Besson, eds. 25 (1998) pp. 93- Johnson and Irina F. 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44 es.” In: Cultural Change and and ed. Journal of the Steward —. “Xinjiang Kazak Adoption Continuity in Central Asia. Shirin Anthropological Society, 12/2 (1981): Practices.” Central Asiatic Journal, Akiner, ed. London: Kegan Paul 365-440. 38/2 (1994): 235-243. International, pp. 218-36. Roberts, Sean R. “Negotiating —. “Ethnic Categorizations and —. “Peasants in an era of freedom: locality, Islam, and national culture Cultural Diversity in Xinjiang: The property and market economy in in a changing borderlands: the Dolans along the Yarkand River.” southern Xinjiang.” Inner Asia, 1/2 revival of the Mäshräp ritual among Central Asiatic Journal, 40/2 (1996): (1999): 195-219. young Uighur men in the Ili valley.” 260-282. Central Asian survey, 17/4 (1998): Häbibulla, Abdurähim. Uyghur 673-99. Etnografiyisi. Ürümchi, 1993. XIV) Religion: Islam, Khwâja —. “The Uighurs of the Kazakstan Rule, Sufism, Shamanism Hoppe, Thomas. Die ethnischen Borderlands: Migration and the Gruppen Xinjiangs: Kulturunter- Religious practices and the Nation.” Nationalities Papers, 26/3 schiede und interethnische Bezieh- (1998): 511-530. history and politics of religion in ungen. Hamburg, Institut für the region now called Xinjiang Asienkunde, 1995. —. “Uyghur neighborhoods and offer many aspects and sources —. “An Essay on Reproduction: nationalisms in the former Sino- for study. Studies of religious The Example of Xinjiang Uighur Soviet borderland: an historical practices were limited by PRC Autonomous Region.” In: Learning ethnography of a stateless nation on government policies until from China?: Environment and the margins of modernity.” Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. recently, but many earlier officials, Development in Third World ethnographers and explorers Countries. Bernhard Glaeser, ed. University of Southern California, London: Allen and Unwin, 1987, pp. 2003. made detailed reports about 56-84. religion. Most of the historical —. “Toasting Uyghurstan: and ethnographic items included Iskhakov, Gegel’ M. [Wedding Negotiating Stateless Nationalism in above mention religion, and the ceremonies of the Uyghurs of east Transnational Ritual Space.” In: Contesting rituals: Islam and Islamic primary sources are Turkestan ….]. Trudy Instituta istorii, particularly important for these arkheologii i etnografii (Alma-Ata), 18 practices of identity-making. (1963): 87-102. Pamela J. Stewart and Andrew topics as Islam became in- Strathern, eds. Durham, N.C.: creasingly important in the social —. Ethnograficheskoe izuchenie Carolina Academic Press, 2005. and political lives of Turkic uigurov Vostochnogo Turkestana speakers over the past 500 russkimi puteshestvennikami vtoroi Rudelson, Justin Jon. Oasis years. In addition to items listed poloviny XIX veka. [The Ethnographic Identities: Uyghur Nationalism along Study of the Uyghurs of East Turkistan below, the works of Bellér-Hann China’s Silk Road. New York: by Russian Travelers in the Second on healing practices, the Columbia University Press, 1997. Half of the 19th Century.] Alma-Ata: historical studies by Fletcher and Nauka, 1975. —. “Uighur Historiography and Hartmann, and the collections of Uighur Ethnic Nationalism.” In: folklore by Katanov, Pantusov, Le Coq, Albert von. “Die Abdal.” Ethnicity, Minorities and Cultural and Radlov are particularly rich Bässler-Archiv, 2/5-6 (1912): 221- Encounters. Ingvar Svanberg, ed. sources for religious ideas and 234. Uppsala Multiethnic Papers 25. Uppsala: Centre for Multiethnic practices. Li, Sheng and Anwar Ablimit. Research, 1991, pp. 63-82. Arik, Kagan. “A native taxonomy of “Summary of Research on the Racial healing among the Xinjiang Kazaks.” and Ethnic Origins of China’s Xinjiang Smith, Joanne. “Changing Uyghur Anthropology of Consciousness, 10/4 Uighur Ethnic Group.” In: Racial identities in Xinjiang in the 1990s.” (1999): 8-23. identities in East Asia, Barry Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Sautman, ed. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University of Leeds, 1999. —. “Shamanism, culture and the University of Science and —. “Four generations of Uyghurs: Xinjiang Kazak: a native narrative Technology, 1995, pp. 601-636. the shift towards ethno-political of identity.” Unpublished Ph.D. ideologies among Xinjiang’s youth.” dissertation. University of Wash- Light, Nathan. “Slippery Paths: The Inner Asia, 2/2 (2000): 195-224. ington, 1999. Performance and Canonization of Turkic Literature and Uyghur Muqam —. “Making Culture Matter: Basilov, Vladimir N. Shamanstvo u Song in Islam and Modernity.” Symbolic, Spatial, and Social narodov Srednei Azii i Kazakhstana. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Boundaries Between Uyghurs and [Shamanism among the Peoples of Indiana University, 1998. Han Chinese.” Asian Ethnicity, 3/2 Central Asia and Kazakhstan.] (2002): 153-74. Moscow: “Nauka,” 1992. Pelliot, Paul. “Les Âbdâl de Païnâp.” Journal Asiatique, 9 (1907): 115- Svanberg, Ingvar. “The Loplyks: A Dawut, Rahilä. Uyghur Mazarläri. 139. Vanishing Fishing and Gathering Ürümchi: Shinjang Khälq Näshriyati, Culture in Xinjiang.” Svenska 2001. [A study of mazar tombs and Pevtsov, M. V. “An ethnographic sketch Forskningsinstitutet i Istanbul. religious practices linked to them. of Kashgariya.” E. M. Shimkin, trans. Meddelanden, 12 (1987): 57–81. Also published in Chinese as: Reyila

45 Dawuti. Weiwuerzu mazha wenhua —. Culture Clash in Central Asia: [Important Turkic collection of yanjiu. Xinjiang daxue chubanshe, Islamic views on Chinese theatre: legends tales by 14th century CE 2001.] Eastern Turki texts edited with author. Based on a lithographed translations, notes and vocabulary. edition published in Tashkent in DeWeese, Devin. “Islam and the Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1895.] Legacy of Sovietology: A Review 1991. Essay on Yaacov Ro’i’s Islam in the Schwarz, Henry G. “The Khwâjas of Soviet Union.” Journal of Islamic Kim, Hodong. “The Cult of Saints in Eastern Turkestan.” Central Asiatic Studies, 13/3 (2002): 298-330. Eastern Turkestan — The Case of Alp Journal, 20 (1976): 266-96. [Good review of the political and Ata in Turfan.” Proceedings of the ethnocentric biases introduced into 35th Permanent International Shaw, Robert Barkley. “The History Islamic studies.] Altaistic Conference. Taipei: 1992, of the Khôjas of Eastern Turkestan, pp. 199-226. summarized from the Tazkira-i Khwâjagân of Muhammad Sadiq Du Shaoyuan. “Pratiques cham- Lovadina, Michela. Manchu Shamanic Kashgari.” Ed. N. Elias. Journal of the aniques des Ouïgours du Xinjiang.” Material Rediscovered; A Photo- Asiatic Society of Bengal; Etudes mongoles et sibériennes, 26 graphic Documentation from the Supplement, LXVI/1 (1897). (1995): 41-62. 1932 Sven Hedin Expedition. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998. Shinmen, Yasushi. “Shinkyo Grenard, F. “Spécimens de la musulimu hanran (1931-34) to littérature moderne du Turkestan Malov, Sergei Efimovich. “Shamanskii himitsu soshiki” [The Xinjiang chinois.” Journal Asiatique, 9/13 kamen’ i ad u tiurkov Zapadnogo Muslim rebellion (1931-34) and (1899): 304-46. [Works on Ya‘qûb Kitaia.” [The Shaman’s Stone and Hell secret societies]. Shigaku Zasshi, Beg.] among the Turks of Western China.] Sovetskaia etnografiia, 1947, No. 1: 99/12 (1990): 1-42. —. “La légende de Satok Boghra 151-160. Khan et l’histoire.” Journal Asiatique, Stary, Giovanni. Das „Schaman- —. “Shamanstvo u sartov 9/15 (1900): 5-79. enbuch” der Sibe-Mandschuren. Vostochnago Turkestana.” [Shaman- Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1992. ism among the Sarts of East Hamada Masami. “Islamic Saints and Turkistan.] Sbornik Muzeia antro- their Mausoleums.” Acta Asiatica, 34 Togan, Isenbike. “Islam in a pologii i etnografii (Leningrad), 5/1 (1978): 79-105. Changing Society: The Khojas of (1917-25): 1-16. Eastern Turkistan.” In: Muslims in —. “De l’autorité religieuse au Central Asia: Expressions of Identity pouvoir politique: la révolte de Kûca Pang, Tatjana A. „Der Scham- and Change. Jo-Ann Gross, ed. et Khwâja Râshidîn.” In: anenhof:” Die sibemandschurische Durham, NC: Duke University Press, Naqshbandis: cheminements et Handschrift ‘Saman kuwaran-i bithe’ 1992, pp. 134-148. situation actuelle d’un ordre mystique aus der Sammlung N. Krotkov. musulman. Marc Gaborieau, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1992. —. “The Khafi, Jahri Controversy Alexandre Popovic and Thierry in Central Asia Revisited.” In Zarcone, eds. Istanbul-Paris: Pantusov, N. N. “Taranchinskie bakshi; Naqshbandis in western and central Editions Isis, 1990, pp. 455-490. peri uinatmak [oynatmaq].” [The Asia: change and continuity. Taranchi bakshi; peri uinatmak Elisabeth Özdalga, ed. Istanbul: Hartmann, Martin. Der Islamische (oynatmaq).] Izvestiia Turke- Svenska forskningsinstitutet Orient. Vols. VI-X: Ein Heiligenstaat stanskago Otdela Imperatorskago Istanbul, 1999, pp. 17-46. im Islam: Das Ende der Caghataiden russkago geograficheskago ob- und die Herrschaft der Chojas in shchestva, 6 (1907): 37-91. Saguchi Tôru. “The Revival of the Kašgarien. Berlin: Wolf Peiser White Mountain Khojas, 1760-1820 Verlag, 1905, pp. 195-374. Penkala-Gawecka, Danuta. [Chosen (from Sarimsaq to Jihangir).” Acta by spirits or how to become a Asiatica, 14 (1968): 7-20. shaman: the example of a Uighur Jarring, Gunnar. “The Ordam- shaman woman from Kazakhstan.] Wang, Jianxin. Uyghur education padishah-system of Eastern Lud; organ Polskiego Towarzystwa and social order: the role of Islamic Turkistan Shrines.” Geografiska Ludoznawczego, 85 (2001): 153-91. leadership in the Turpan basin. Annaler. Vol. 17, Supplement: [In Polish with English summary. This Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Hyllningsskrift Tillagnad Sven Hedin reference from RLG’s Eureka Languages and Cultures of Asia and (1935), pp. 348-354. Anthropology Plus did not give Africa, 2004. [Extensive and detaild —. Literary texts from Kashghar. original title.] fieldwork account of religious Acta Regiae Societatis Humaniorum practices.] Litterarum Lundensis 74. Lund: C. W. Qi Cheshan. “Contemporary K. Gleerup, 1980. [Contents: Qisas Shamans and the ‘Shaman’s Wei Liangtao. “An illusion in the ul-anbiya; Rahat ul-qulub; The Handbook’ of the Sibe.” Shaman. history of the Western Region. The Tazkirah of Abu Nasr Samani; Gharip Journal of the International Society ‘Holy State of Islam’ or the ‘Khoja Sannam Shah.] for Shamanistic Research, 5/1 period.’” Social Sciences in China, 14/ (1997). [Rachel Harris, trans.] 3 (1993): 126-140. [Carelessly —. Dervish and Qalandar: Texts edited translation of a useful from Kashgar. Stockholm: Almqvist Rabghuzi. Qissäsul änbiya. Kashgar: discussion of the sources and issues & Wiksell, 1987. Qäshqär Uyghur Näshriyati, 1988. of Khwâja history.]

46 Zarcone, Thierry. “Quand le saint fascinated scholars of Eurasia, Inner Asia, 2/2 (2000): 137-154. légitime le politique: le mausolée de and motivated analysis of the Kazak, Fuad. Osttürkistan zwischen Afaq Khwaja à Kashgar.” Central ecological basis of political and Asian Survey, 18/2 (1999), 225-241. den grossmächten; ein Beitrag zur military expansion, as in Owen Wirtschaftskunde Ostturkistans. —, A. Buehler and E. Isin, eds. Sufi Lattimore’s Inner Asian Frontiers Königsberg (Pr.); Berlin: Ost-Europa Saints and Heroes on the Silk Road. of China (N.Y., 1940). Many of the Verlag, 1937. Special issue of Journal of the historical works listed above History of Sufism, 3 (2001-2002). follow up these issues in more Mei Zhang. “Effect of privatisation Paris: Jean Maisonneuve, Librairie policies on rural women’s labour and detail, as well as the studies on property rights in Inner Mongolia and d’Amérique et d’Orient, 2003. Qazaqs [Kazakhs] by Benson, Contents: Xinjiang.” In: Society and Culture. Svanberg, Hoppe and Light. Hamada Masami. “Introduc- Culture and Environment in Inner tion. Les Mausolées du bassin du Eastern Turkistan’s trade ties Asia, Vol. 2. Cambridge: White Horse Tarim: deux millénaires with nearby regions and its Press, 1996, pp. 61-96. d’histoire.” participation in “Silk Road” trade Millward, James A. “The Qing Silk- Karl Reichl. “Hero and Saint: more generally have been Horse Trade with the Qazaqs in Yili Islamic Elements in Uighur Oral another focus of scholarly and Tarbaghatai, 1758-1853.” Epics.” attention. Millward’s article on Central and Inner Asian Studies, 7 Isenbike Togan. “Differences the silk-horse trade and Beyond (1993): 1-41. in Ideology and Practice: the the Pass (listed in “world history” Saguchi Tôru. “The Eastern Trade of Case of the Black and White above) and Saguchi’s article on Mountains Faction.” the Khoqand Khanate.” Memoirs of Kokand trade provide excellent Sawada Minoru. “Fieldworks the Research Department of the at Muslim Mausoleum in the introductions. Fletcher’s article in Tôyô Bunko, 24 (1965): 47-114. Tarim Basin.” Cambridge History of China also discusses trade ties. The Toops, Stanley. “Tourism and Hamada Masami. “Le Turpan: the power of place in Inner Mausolée de Satuq Bughra Khan expedition reports and articles by Asia/Outer China.” Central Asian à Artush.” Roberts, Toops and Wiemer in the Survey, 18/3 (1999): 303-318. Sawada Minoru. “The System volume edited by Starr listed of Ordam-Padishâh (Oase of above are also important —. “Tourism in Xinjiang, China,” Yangi Hisar).” discussions of trade and Journal of Cultural Geography, 12/2 (1992): 19-34. Jean-Paul Loubes. “The economics. ‘Rectification’ of Documents of —. “Xinjiang’s Handicraft Industry,” Architecture: The Case of the Banks, Tony J. “Pastoral land tenure Annals of Tourism Research, 20 Aba Khoja Sufi Complex in reform and resource management (1993): 88-106. Kashghar.” in northern Xinjiang: a new Thierry Zarcone. “Le Culte institutional economics perspective.” —. “The population landscape of des saints au Xinjiang (de 1911 Nomadic Peoples, 1/2 (1997): 55- Xinjiang/East Turkestan.” Inner Asia, à nos jours).” 76. 2/2 (2000): 155-170. N. Pantusov. “Le Mazâr de —. “State, Community and Mavlânâ Yusuf Sakakî (ou Common Property in Xinjiang: Tsui Yenhu. “Development of social Shakakî).” Synergy or Strife?” Development organisations in the pastoral areas N. Pantusov. “Les Mausolées Policy Review, 17/3 (1999): 293- of north Xinjiang and their musulmans de la ville de Uch- 313. relationship with the environment.” In Society and Culture. Culture and Turfan et de ses environs en —. “Property Rights And The Environment in Inner Asia. Vol. 2. territoire chinois.” Environment In Pastoral China: Cambridge: White Horse Press, Evidence From The Field.” 1996, pp. 205-230. Development and Change [Great XV) Ecology, Economics, Geo- Britain], 32/4 (2001): 717-740. Warikoo, K. B. “Chinese Turkestan graphy, Pastoralism [Describes and explains pastoral During the Nineteenth Century: A tenure arrangements and notes Socio-Economic Study.” Central Economics and geography have continuing collective action and yet Asian Survey, 4/3 (1985): 75-114. been topics of interest to imperial finds no clear “tragedy of the commons.” Rather institutional powers involved Eastern Weggel, Oskar. Xinjiang, Sinkiang: arrangements appear suited to Turkistan since the Manchu das zentralasiatische China; eine cultural ecology.] conquest in 1758, or even before Landeskunde. Hamburg: Institut für if Miyawaki Junko is correct in Chaudhuri, Debasish. “A Survey of Asienkunde, 1987. seeing Junghar history as driven the Economic Situation in Xinjiang in part by a quest for economic and its Role in the Twenty-first Wiens, Herold J. “The Historical and control over the Tarim Century.” China Report, 41/1 (2005): Geographical Role of Urumchi, 1-28. Capital of Chinese Central Asia.” agricultural regions. The study of Annals of the Association of the cultural and ecological bases Dreyer, June Teufel. “Ethnicity and American Geographers, 53/4 (1963): of pastoral nomadism has long economic development in Xinjiang.” 441-464.

47 —. “Change in the Ethnography spectives (Hong Kong), 15 (Jan.-Feb. Christoffersen, Gaye. “Xinjiang and and Land Use of the Ili Valley and 1998): 10-21. the Great Islamic Circle: The Impact Region, Chinese Turkestan.” Annals of Transnational Forces on Chinese of the Association of American —. “Xinjiang In The Nineties.” Regional Economic Planning.” China Geographers, 59/4 (1969): 753-775. China Journal [Australia], 44 (2000): Quarterly, 133 (Mar. 1993): 130- 65-91. [Discusses causes of local 151. —. “Cultivation Development and political protests.] Expansion in China’s Colonial Realm —. “Staged development in Dillon, Michael. Xinjiang: ethnicity, in Central Asia.” The Journal of Asian separatism and control in Chinese Studies, 26/1 (1966): 67-88. Xinjiang.” China Quarterly, 178 (June 2004): 358-378. [Analyzes the Central Asia. Durham: East Asian Studies, University of Durham, 1995. Yung, Peter [Weng Weiquan]. changes in government efforts to integrate Xinjiang into the heartland, Bazaars of Chinese Turkestan: life —. Xinjiang — China’s Muslim Far and the strategies for placating and trade along the old Silk Road. Northwest. London: Routledge- ethno-nationalism.] Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, Curzon, 2004. [Analysis of supposed 1997. [Photographs of bazaar life.] Islamicist movements relying on Bovingdon, Gardner. “From Chinese sources by Xu Yuqi, Yang Qumulluq to Uyghur: The Role of Faren et al, and Zhang Yuxi.] XVI) Analyses of Social Policies, Education in the Development of a Pan-Uyghur Identity.” Journal of Politics, Strategic Issues and Dreyer, June Teufel. “The Xinjiang Current Events Central Asian Studies, 3/1 (Fall- Winter 1998): 19-29. Uygur Autonomous Region at Thirty: A Report Card.” Asian Survey, 26/7 Recent political analyses have —. “Strangers in their own land: (1986): 721-744. moved somewhat beyond the the politics of Uyghur identity in collation and analysis of press Chinese Central Asia.” Unpublished Dwyer, Arienne. The Xinjiang reports that was the dominant Ph.D. dissertation. Cornell Univer- Conflict: Uyghur Identity, Language mode for the study of Communist sity, 2002. Policy and Political Discourse. Policy China from the 1950s through Studies 15. Washington: East-West —. Autonomy in Xinjiang: Han the 1980s. Now that fieldwork Center, 2005. Nationalist Imperatives and Uyghur and archival research are more Discontent. Washington, D.C.: East- feasible, more sophisticated West Center, 2004. Fu Jen-kun. Sin’tszian-Uigurskii studies are being published, vopros i ego razvitie. [The Xinjiang- although analysis of news and —. “Heteronomy and Its Uyghur Question and Its Development.] Almaty: Tsentr propaganda reports continues. Discontents: ‘Minzu Regional Autonomy’ in Xinjiang.” In: sravnitel’nogo izucheniia regionov g. Becquelin, Bovingdon, Dwyer and Governing China’s Multiethnic Almaty, 2001. Millward offer the best insights Frontiers. Morris Rossabi, ed. into present conditions. Most of Seattle: University of Washington Harris, Lillian Craig. “Xinjiang, the articles in the 1998 CEMOTI Press, 2004. Central Asia and the Implications for issue and in Xinjiang: China’s China’s Policy in the Islamic World.” Muslim Borderland (Starr, ed.) are —. “The Not-So-Silent Majority: China Quarterly, 133 (Mar., 1993): Uyghur Resistance to Han Rule in also relevant here. Dillon’s 111-129. Xinjiang”. Modern China, 28/1 volume is a useful but uncritical (2002): 39-78 analysis of Chinese studies on Helly, Denise. “Le Parti communiste Islamic political movements. Chang Wei-penn, trans. “L’économie chinois et la question ethnique: le domaniale du canton de Xiaheleke, cas du Xinjiang, 1920-1959.” zone d’habitat uygur au Xinjiang, Récherches sur l’Asie de l’est. 2 Bachman, David. “Making Xinjiang avant les reformes démocratiques.” (April 1981). La Chine: la question Safe for the Han? Contradictions and Récherches sur l’Asie de l’est. 2 des minorités en Chine: orientations Ironies of Chinese Governance in (April 1981). La Chine: la question générales. Charles Le Blanc and China’s Northwest.” In: Governing des minorités en Chine: orientations Denise Helly, eds. Montreal: Centre China’s Multiethnic Frontiers. Morris générales. Charles Le Blanc and d’études de l’Asie de l’Est, pp. 129- Rossabi, ed. Seattle: University of Denise Helly, eds. Montreal: Centre 235. Washington Press, 2004. d’études de l’Asie de l’Est, pp. 30- 61. [Translation of a study of —. “Le Parti communiste chinois et Baranovitch, Nimrod. “From the “feudalism” in Xiahekele: Zhongguo la question ethnique: le cas des Margins to the Centre: The Uyghur ke xue yuan. Xinjiang Weiwuer Uygurs du Xinjiang, 1949-1960.” Challenge in Beijing.” China Zizhiqu Moyu xian Xiaheleke xiang Études chinoises (Paris), 2 (1983): Quarterly, 175 (Sept. 2003): 726- de fengjian zhuangyuan. Beijing, 3-35. 751. 1964.] Mackerras, Colin. “Han-Muslim and Becquelin, Nicolas. “China’s —, and Lucien Drivod. “L’économie Intra-Muslim Social Relations in domestic and foreign policy in the domaniale chez les Uygurs avant Northwestern China.” In: Nation- region since the break-up of the 1949 et la transformation socialiste alism and Ethnoregional Identities in Soviet Union: a new Xinjiang for a des années 1950.” Loc. cit., pp. 62- China. William Safran, ed. London: new Central Asia”. China Per- 75. [Analysis of the study.] Frank Cass, 1998: 28-46.

48 —. “Xinjiang at the turn of the century: the causes of separatism.” Central Asian Survey, 20/3 (2001): Bactrian Camels and Bactrian- 289-303. Dromedary Hybrids McMillen, Donald H. Chinese policy and power in Xinjiang, 1949-1977. Daniel Potts1 Boulder: Westview Press, 1979. University of Sydney Millward, James A. Violent Separatism in Xinjiang: A Critical Assessment. Policy Studies, No. 6. Washington, DC: East-West Center If the Silk Road may be described mental adaptations of C. Washington, 2004. as “the bridge between Eastern bactrianus (see below). and Western culures,” then the Sautman, Barry. “Is Xinjiang an Bactrian camel should rightfully The survival of C. ferus in Inner internal colony?” Inner Asia, 2/2 be considered the principal Asia was long suspected but no (2000): 239-71. means of locomotion across that firm evidence was available until N.M. Przewalski killed and Seymour, James D. “Xinjiang’s bridge. Yet there is a great deal of misinformation concerning the described several specimens in production and construction corps, 1873 (Camelus ferus Przewalski and the sinification of Eastern Bactrian camel and its relatives, Turkestan.” Inner Asia, 2/2 (2000): particularly in the ancient Near 1878 [?]). C. ferus has been 171-193. Eastern literature. This paper described as “relatively small, explores some of the problems lithe, and slender-legged, with Toops, Stanley. “Recent Uygur surrounding Camelus bactrianus very narrow feet and a body that Leaders In Xinjiang.” Central Asian and the little-known hybrids of looks laterally compressed” Survey, 11/2 (1992): 77-99. 2 the Bactrian with the Arabian (Schaller 1998: 152). C. ferus dromedary (Camelus drome- has “low, pointed, cone-shaped White, Lynn T., III. “The Road to humps - usually about half the Urumchi: Approved Institutions in darius). Search of Attainable Goals during size of those of the domestic Zoologists nowadays tends to camel in fair condition” (Bannikov Pre-1968 Rustication from favor the idea that Camelus Shanghai.” China Quarterly, 79 1976: 398). Representations of bactrianus and dromedarius are (1979): 481-511. camels in the rock art of descendants of two different sub- Palaeolithic caves in eastern Zhao, Yueyao. “Pivot or Periphery? species of Camelus ferus (Peters Mongolia, such as Chojt-Zenker Xinjiang’s Regional Development.” and von den Driesch 1997: 652), Cave, show what are believed to Asian Ethnicity, 2/2 (2001): 197- and modern research suggests be C. ferus (Peters and von den 224. that the original habitat of the Driesch 1997: 653, 661).3 (Fig. 1) wild, two-humped camel ex- About the Author C. ferus were still hunted in the tended from the great bend of medieval era in the Khotan, From 2003-2005 Nathan Light the Yellow River in northwestern Turfan, Tarim, Lob and Katak was Visting Assistant Professor China through Mongolia to regions of Inner Asia, and in in the Department of Sociology central Kazakhstan (Schaller Mongolia (Roux 1959-60: 50-51), and Anthropology at the 1998: 154; Nowak 1999: 1078; while 18th-century Chinese University of Toledo (Ohio, USA). Bannikov 1976: 399) generally at His Indiana University Ph.D. elevations of 1500-2000 m. dissertation, “Slippery Paths: The above sea-level. Although some Performance and Canonization of scholars have suggested the Turkic Literature and Uyghur original habitat of C. ferus may Muqam Song in Islam and have extended as far west as the Modernity,” is available online at Caspian Sea, this is unlikely. If his extensive website focussing this were true, we should expect on Uyghurs and Kazakhs . He is around the Caspian, but this is currently working on a book, not the case. Moreover, to tentatively titled From Stone suggest that the natural distribution areas of the wild

Inscriptions to Sufi Classicism: An Copyright © Daniel C. Waugh 2004 Interpretive History of Eastern two-humped camel extended so Turkic Literature. He may be far to the west flies in the face of Fig. 1. Pre-historic cave image of contacted at nlight@UTNet. everything that is known about camel. Display in National Museum UToledo.Edu. the physiology and environ- of Mongolian History, Ulaan Baatar.

49 records attest to the presence of camel, but he seems to have we are dealing with a “sloping wild camels on the northern and been responsible for introducing chronology,” i.e. a progression western edges of the Chinese a term into the literature which from earlier finds in the east empire (Lehmann 1891: 99). should never have been applied towards later finds in the west. Small numbers are present in the to a mammal that was almost The principal difficulty that arises region to this day (Heptner, certainly domesticated outside of in verifying this hypothesis is the Nasimovic and Bannikov 1966: the region with which it is relative paucity of well-studied 85-94; Bannikov 1976; Schaller popularly associated. and dated faunal assemblages 1998: 151-162). from sites within the range of C. Pure-bred Bactrians stand ferus. Camelid faunal remains are The wild range of C. ferus, in 1.5-2.4 m high to the top of the said to have been found (Olsen all likelihood, extended only as humps and are normally 1.68- 1988: 21)5 at Neolithic sites near far west as central Kazakhstan. 1.63 m long, with a mean weight Baotou (Inner Mongolia) and This is significant for a number of of 460 kgs (Epstein 1969: 118). Lake Barkhol (northeast reasons but first and foremost They have been known to carry Xinjiang), and although it is not because this means that the loads of 220-270 kgs some 30- certain that these are C. natural distribution of the wild, 40 kms daily, or 80-100 kms if bactrianus as opposed to C. ferus, two-humped progenitor of what pulling a loaded cart (Walz 1954: they were certainly two-humped. we know as the domesticated 4 56). Bactrian camels, which can The likelihood that these were Bactrian camel would not have live to be 35-40 years old, are domestic Bactrians is considered included Bactria (northern generally put to work at the age strong given that the locales Afghanistan/southern of four and can expect to have would have been difficult to reach Uzbekistan) at all. How, then, to 20-25 years of productive work without the use of the camel explain the name “Bactrian” (Epstein 1969: 120). They are at (Peters and von den Driesch given to the domesticated two- their best in the dry cold of the 1997: 661). As Lehmann wrote humped camel? winter and spring months in in 1891 (p. 141; my translation): Inner Asia, when their thick coats The term “Bactrian” was first “Without the camel neither the provided them with ample applied to two-humped camels icy steppes of Western Siberia warmth. Able to withstand by Aristotle, who wrote of “the nor the inner Asian plains were extremes of heat and cold, two species of camel, Bactrian inhabitable; they would have Bactrians prefer temperatures and Arabian” (Historia Animalium remained until today an below 21° C but are capable of 2.1 [498b9]) and noted that “The insurmountable obstacle to tolerating a 70°-broad range Bactrian camel differs from the communication and would have between winter lows and Arabian in having two humps as made a nomadic existence summer highs (Manefield and against the latter’s one” (Historia impossible.” Tinson 2000: 38). Consistent Animalium 2.1 [499a15-17]). heat, however, is intolerable for By the middle of the fourth Some scholars have suggested Bactrians and the caravans which millennium BCE C. bactrianus was that the name “Bactrian” became once set out from China probably present in southern associated with the two-humped westwards across the Gobi Turkmenistan. This being the camel because camel-breeding desert always travelled in winter case, and assuming a more or developed in Bactria after initial (Walz 1954: 55-56). Bactrians less continuous distribution of C. domestication in eastern Iran have been known to function at bactrianus from central and/or southern Turkmenistan altitudes of up to 4000 m. above Kazakhstan to the west, the (Schuegraf and Terbuyken 2001: sea level, e.g. in the Pamirs animal was probably already 1225), but, as indicated above, (Gauthier-Pilters and Dagg 1981: present in Bactria by this time as this is not supported by the 6 6). After a long journey they were well. Other sites on the faunal evidence and it seems typically rested for 1-2 weeks and southern (Iranian) side of the more likely that the Bactrian were pastured for the summer Kopet Dagh, however, do not camel was introduced into Bactria months on the steppe, where show evidence of C. bactrianus at proper from further east, not the 7 they built up their fat reserves this early date. More Turkmenian south (eastern Iran/Seistan) or again in anticipation of further evidence of C. bactrianus dates to the west (Turkmenistan). Thus, caravan crossings the following the first half of the third like many commodities one can winter (Walz 1954: 56). millennium BCE. This includes think of — Brussels sprouts or terracotta models of wheeled India ink — C. bactrianus would The precise chronology of the carts drawn by Bactrian camels seem to be a misnomer. We have gradual westward spread of the found at Altyn-depe in contexts no idea where Aristotle got the Bactrian camel is difficult to dating to the Namazga IV period designation “Bactrian” for the determine, but the available (Kohl 1992: 186) as well as domesticated, two-humped evidence nonetheless suggests faunal remains from Shor-depe,

50 Chong-depe and Hapuz-depe bringing Bactrian camels to the bactrianus is attested archae- (Compagnoni and Tosi 1978: imperial capital, and a Bactrian ologically outside the presumed Table 3).8 By the late third and camel appears on one of the native habitat of C. ferus. early second millennium BCE the small gold plaques from the Oxus Although the data are not as Bactrian camel is attested in the Treasure (Curtis and Searight plentiful as one would like, there iconography of copper stamp 2003: Fig. 6.50). Thereafter, is a general sense in which we seals and figurines thought to be depictions of Bactrian camels move from the earliest evidence from Bactria.9 become increasingly common, in the east (Neolithic Inner e.g. the Sarmatian gold plaques Mongolia) towards the west, Looking much further west, at Filippovka near the Ural River with evidence beginning to an unprovenanced cylinder seal on the Eurasian steppes north of appear in Turkmenistan (mid- in Old Syrian style in the Walters the Caspian (Aruz et al. 2000: fourth millennium BCE), Margiana Art Gallery on which a Bactrian Figs. 68, 96, 98) of fifth/fourth and Bactria (mid-third millennium camel is depicted has been dated century BCE date. A particularly BCE) and surrounding areas to stylistically to c. 1750-1700 BCE clear depiction from the late fifth the north (Andronovo, Tripolye (Gordon 1939: Pl. 7.55; Collon century BCE occurs on a red- contexts) and south (Pirak, in 2000: Fig. 8), but whether the figured squat lekythos (E 695) in Pakistani Baluchistan) as we fact that it bears a rider should the British Museum (Curtius move into the later second and be read as an indication that 1928: Abb. 6). Some scholars early first millennium BCE. Above Bactrians were being ridden (e.g. suggest that the Greeks first all, the available evidence flatly Pohl 1950: 252) is unclear. came into contact with Bactrian contradicts the idea that the two- Gordon noted that the camels in Asia Minor, to which humped camel was first domes- awkwardness of the camel’s form region they had been brought as ticated in Bactria, and then on the Walters seal indicated a result of Achaemenid expan- spread eastward to China. In that the seal-cutter was sion (Schauenburg 1962: 99). fact, it was precisely the unfamiliar with Bactrian camels. Indeed Herodotus says that opposite. We cannot say whether this seal camels carried provisions for the reflects the presence of Bactrian advancing Persians, marvelling It is against the background camels in the Syro-Anatolian area that Xerxes’ camel train was of the archaeological evidence in the early second millennium attacked by lions while marching just reviewed that we turn now BCE, direct contacts between between Acanthus and Therma, to some important epigraphic Syro-Anatolia and a region in even though the lions “had never evidence attesting to the which Bactrians were present seen that beast before, nor had presence of C. bactrianus in (whether native or introduced), any experience of it” (7.125). We Assyria from the end of the and/or indirect contacts between do not know whether these were second through the middle of the such regions via intermediaries dromedaries, like those used by first millennium BCE. like Elam or Assyria.. Cyrus against Croesus of Lydia In a badly preserved fragment (Herodotus 1.80).13 A possible indication of the of the annals of Assur-bel-kala northwestward spread of the According to Soviet research (1074-1057 BCE) on a tablet from Bactrian camel by or during the (cited in Peters and von den Assur, the Assyrian king says that third millennium BCE may be Driesch 1997: 662), Bactrian he sent merchants to acquire provided by faunal remains in camels were present and female Bactrian camels, udrate today’s Tatarstan and Ukraine,10 probably eaten during the (Heimpel 1980: 331). On the and there is evidence of the Hellenistic period in Choresmia, Kurkh stele, Shalmaneser III southward and eastward spread between the Aral Sea and the (858-824 BCE) says that he of C. bactrianus into Pakistani Amu Darya (Oxus) River. Finally, brought back seven Bactrian Baluchistan beginning in the early T’ang period (seventh/eighth camels as part of the booty from second millennium BCE.11 As we century) tomb figures of Bactrian a campaign against Gilzanu move ahead into the Iron Age, camels from China, some of which (Mitchell 2000: 188, n. 7 with there is little persuasive evidence stand more than half a meter tall, refs.), now thought to have been to demonstrate the presence of are shown heavily laden with in the area south of Lake Urmia Bactrian camels in western Iran.12 cargo (Vollmer, Keall and Nagai- in northwestern Iran (Zadok Berthrong 1983: 47, 66) con- 2002: 142-143). These are This brings us, chronologically firming their use as pack animals indeed illustrated twice, on the speaking, to the Achaemenid at this time. Black Obelisk, excavated by period when the Bactrian Layard at Nimrud, where they delegation, illustrated on the In summary, the evidence just occur in Band 1 (Bulliet 1975: Fig. Apadana reliefs at Persepolis reviewed attests to an ever- 70), and on the bronze gate (Fig. 2, p. 58, below), is shown expanding zone in which C. decoration (Band 7) from

51 Balawat, ancient Imgur-Enlil, Adad-dan. [I]f they do not pay From the seventeenth century several kilometers northeast of the silver, it will increase by 2 onward, a series of European Nimrud (Bulliet 1975: Fig. 71). shekels per mina. travellers, anthropologists and Interestingly, Bactrian camels are veterinary scientists have also shown in Band 3 on the Black These sources raise a number amassed an important record of Obelisk as tribute from Musri of questions. First, what of the observations of the intentional (Egypt). lands from which Bactrian camels cross-breeding of Bactrian and were acquired? With the possible dromedary camels (Kolpakow Roughly a century later the exception of Patusharra, which 1935; Menges 1935; Tapper Iranian stele of Tiglath-Pileser III may have been located as far east 1985). As with most hybrid- (744-727 BCE), the exact as the Pamirs (thus Vallat 1993), ization, the aim in crossing camels provenance of which is unfor- all of the regions mentioned as has been to produce a “better” tunately unknown, itemizes a sources of Bactrian camels were camel, in this case a more robust long list of rulers from whom situated in western Iran, from individual, stronger as a pack tribute was exacted, including modern day Iranian Azerbaijan animal. In general, the best first several in the Zagros region of southwards to western Luristan. generation hybrids are the northwestern Iran. There we Yet as our review of the available products of male Bactrians read, “And as for Iranzu of faunal and other archaeological crossed with female drome- Mannaea, Dalta of Ellipi, the city evidence of C. bactrianus has daries, although female Bactrians rulers of Namri, of Singibutu (and) shown, nothing suggests that crossed with male dromedaries of all the eastern mountains - these areas were even remotely are also attested. In cultures horses, mules, Bactrian camels, close to the most westerly which practised camel hybrid- cattle (and) sheep I imposed regions where Bactrian camels ization, the stud function of upon them (as tribute) to be are known in iconography and Bactrian males was paramount, received annually in Assyria” the faunal record. Indeed, while small numbers of Bactrian (Tadmor 1994: 109). (15) In his judging by the faunal inventory females were kept in order to first Babylonian campaign, the at sites on the Iranian Plateau, maintain a supply of pure army of Sennacherib (704-681 Turkmenistan seems to be the Bactrian males. Tapper provides BCE) seized both Bactrian and most westerly of those areas evidence on this practice over a dromedary camels in Merodach- where Bactrian camel use could region extending from Af- Baladan’s abandoned camp near be said to have become ghanistan to Anatolia. For Kish (Luckenbill 1924: 56, l. 7). common. On the contrary, the example, amongst the Shah- Esarhaddon (680-669 BCE) presence of C. dromedarius sevan of Azerbaijan, he campaigned against Patusharra remains at Chalcolithic Tepe observed, “Only the wealthiest of to the east of Assyria, seizing Ghabristan (period 4, c. 3700- Shahsevan keep Bactrians, both Bactrian camels as booty.16 3000 BCE) and early Iron Age male and female, and solely for Tepe Sagzabad (late second breeding purposes. Female A debt-note from the reign of millennium BCE) shows that the Bactrians are rarely if ever bought Esarhaddon, dating to 674 BC dromedary was known on the or sold, though they may change (Postgate 1976: 149, no. 38), Iranian Plateau from an early hands as gifts or be demanded shows us an Assyrian official date. In view of this evidence, it as part of a bride-wealth.” named Dannaya putting two could be suggested that the (Tapper 1985: 59-60). In Central Bactrian camels at the disposal Bactrian camels demanded of Asia, Kolpakow (1935: 619) of three individuals. The text Mannaea, Ellipi, Namri, Singibutu found that 6-7 year old Bactrians reads (Kwasman and Parpola or Gilzanu would not have been were optimal for use as studs. 1991: no. 241): native to those districts, but themselves imported from further Although larger and stronger, Two double-humped camels east. Presumably, however, the hybrids look like dromedaries in belonging to Dannaya, at the Assyrians would not have that they have one hump, though disposal of Yahutu, Ilu-kenu- demanded Bactrian camels of this is normally not very [usur], and Adad-aplu- these regions if they had not symmetrical and often has a [ddina]. They shall give the seen them there. The question small indentation between 4 and camels back on the first of arises, therefore, why were west 12 cm deep which divides the [Marchesvan] (VIII). If they do Iranian communities keeping rear portion of the hump — often not give them, they shall pay Bactrian camels, and might this 2-3 times as large as the front — 6 minas of silver. Month Tishri have something to do with their from the front part. Alternatively, (VII), 14th day, eponym year of eventual use by the Assyrians? the hump may end up looking Sarru-nuri. Witness Siqi-Issar. The answer, I suggest, lies in quite flat, and has been Witness Sulmu-sarri. Witness camel hybridization. compared to a flattened pyramid.

52 Hybridization produces a large and carrying capacity, its tification of these individuals as animal, which can stand 2.32 m aesthetically pleasing appear- hybrids was based on the high at the hump or 2.15 m high ance, and its correspondingly morphometric analysis of at the shoulder (Kolpakow 1935: greater value, in both financial selected bones (axis, astragalus, 618, n. 5). The legs are long, the and ceremonial terms.” In view first phalanx) as compared with height of the camel often greater of the evidence just reviewed, dromedary and Bactrian material. than its length, and the weight which extends from Anatolia and In addition to this material, sometimes in the 900-950 kg Syria in the west to Afghanistan Uerpmann (1999: 111-113) has range, though more often in the east, we can safely say identified the phalanx of a approaching an average of c. 650 that small numbers of Bactrian probable hybrid from a Roman kg (Kolpakow 1935: 620). camels have been kept, over the context at Troy. Finally, I. Köhler- past 300-400 years, by groups Rollefson (1989: 149) has All of the sources confirm the which, in the main, raised identified possible hybrids greater strength and load- dromedaries, for the purpose of amongst the faunal remains from bearing abilities of the hybrids producing hybrids of outstanding early Islamic Pella, in Jordan. and indeed references to hybrids strength. Further, these hybrids These are presumed to have able to carry 400-500 kgs, were used specifically as caravan been killed by an earthquake in roughly double that of a and draught animals. It can at 747. dromedary and more than double least be suggested, therefore, Additional archaeological that of an ordinary Bactrian, are that the reason why Assyrian evidence includes camel figurines not uncommon. It should not be kings seized Bactrian camels and from Parthian contexts at a surprise then that the sources demanded them as tribute from Seleucia-on-the-Tigris which, as are also consistent in recording Iranian lands to the east of Bulliet (1975: Fig. 80) noted the substantially higher price of Assyria was to acquire studs and nearly 30 years ago, exhibit the hybrids vs dromedaries (Tapper breeding females in order to small indentation in the hump 1985: 57, 59). practice the same sort of characteristic of the hybrid. There is a considerable body hybridization as just outlined, of evidence concerning subse- with a view to developing Conclusion quent generations of hybrids stronger pack animals for a crossed with pure-bred or other variety of purposes (military, The ethnographic and historic hybrid individuals, all of which commercial, agricultural). While observations reviewed above points to their bad temper, we have as yet no archae- leave one in no doubt about the inadequate size and generally ological evidence of camel benefits and geographically poor quality. For this reason, hybridization from the Assyrian widespread evidence of hybrid males were usually period, we do have some from hybridization, while the archae- castrated (Tapper 1985: 61). As later periods in the Near East, ological evidence from Mleiha and Tapper (1985: 63) notes, “The which demonstrates that Troy confirms the existence of hybrids were not allowed to hybridization was practiced in hybrids by the Roman or Parthian breed, as their offspring would be antiquity. period. But this evidence alone vicious and dangerous.” does not sustain Bulliet’s (1990: Statements to the effect that the In recent years, archaeo- 731; cf. 1975: 168; Peters and dromedary-Bactrian crosses zoologists have identified faunal von den Driesch 1997: 654) were infertile (Gray 1972: 161) evidence of camel hybrids at assertion that Diodorus “contains are incorrect, and ample evidence Mleiha in the United Arab the first recorded reference to demonstrates the contrary Emirates, Troy in western Turkey, cross breeding of the dromedary (Peters and von den Driesch and Pella in Jordan. Chrono- and the Bactrian camel.” I would 1997: 654). Already in the early logically, the earliest evidence suggest that the Neo-Assyrian nineteenth century Eduard dates to the Roman or Parthian sources cited above — the Friedrich Eversmann reported period. In 1994, Dr. S.A. Jasim inclusion of Bactrian camels in the seeing fertile offspring in excavated an important ceme- list of livestock demanded as Turkestan (Hartmann 1869: 70).17 tery near Mleiha, in the interior tribute by Tiglath-Pileser III and of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates, Esarhaddon, the receipt of To sum up, Tapper (1985: 67) which contained the graves of at Bactrian camels from Musri and notes, “in my experience, the least 12 camels, most of which, Gilzanu as shown on the Balawat main advantage of the hybrid judging from associated finds, gates and the Black Obelisk, the over the purer species, to both date to the first two centuries CE loan of Bactrian camels by nomadic and commercial users, is (Jasim 1999). The faunal remains, Dannaya, Sennacherib’s capture less its supposed versatility than studied by H.-P. Uerpmann, of Bactrian camels in Merodach- its vastly greater size, strength included three hybrids. Iden- Baladan’s camp, and Assur-bel-

53 kala’s damaged reference to 1991) and the Univ. of Sydney Report of Fourth Season of Work, udrate — all point to the presence (1991- present). He is a specialist October 1930 - March 1931. New of Bactrian camels in Babylonia in the archaeology of Iran, Haven: Yale University Press, and Assyria some 500-1000 Mesopotamia and the Persian 1933. years before Diodorus observed Gulf, and has published widely on them. Furthermore, given what these areas. He is the founding Boardman and Vollenweider we know of the distribution of C. editor of Arabian Archaeology & 1978 ferus and C. bactrianus, and of the Epigraphy, and is a Fellow of the J. Boardman and M.-L. Vollen- presence of C. dromedarius on the Australian Academy of the weider. Catalogue of the engraved Iranian Plateau at an early date, Humanities. He may be contacted gems and finger rings (Ashmolean I would suggest that the Iranian at: [email protected]. Museum, Oxford) I. Greek and groups, mainly Median, from Etruscan. Oxford: Clarendon whom the Assyrians sought References Press, 1978. Bactrian camels were already Brentjes 1960 engaged in camel hybridization Amiet 1986 B. Brentjes, B. “Das Kamel im by the time the Assyrians P. Amiet. L’âge des échanges inter- Alten Orient.” Klio, 38 (1960): 23- became conscious of the practice. iraniens, 3500-1700 avant J.-C. 52. Whether the Syrian cylinder seal Paris, 1986. Notes et documents from the eighteenth century BCE des Musées de France 11. Bulliet 1975 allows us to push that date even R. W. Bulliet. The Camel and the further back in time is difficult to Amschler 1939 Wheel. Cambridge: Harvard answer, but in view of the ever- J. W. Amschler. Tierreste der University Press, 1975. increasing body of evidence for Ausgrabungen von der “grossen ties beween Central Asia and Königshügel” Shah Tepé, in Nord- Bulliet 1980 Elam (Amiet 1986: 146-207), and Iran. Stockholm, 1939. Reports R. W. Bulliet. “Camel ii. In Persian between Elam and Assyria and from the Scientific Expedition to history and economy.” Ency- Mari in the early second the North-West Provinces of clopaedia Iranica, 4 (1980): 730- millennium BCE (Potts 1999: China under the Leadership of Dr. 733. 166ff), it is entirely possible that Sven Hedin —The Sino-Swedish this was the period in which the Expedition — Publication 9. Collon 2000 peoples of the Near East first D. Collon. “L’animal dans les became aware of C. bactrianus. Aruz et al. 2000 échanges et les relations Whatever the case may be, it is J. Aruz, A. Farkas, A. Alekseev, diplomatiques.” In: Les animaux now clear that the Bactrian camel and E. Korolkova, eds. The Golden et les hommes dans le monde has little beyond its name in Deer of Eurasia. New York and syro-mésopotamien aux époques common with the region of New Haven: Metropolitan Mus- historiques. Lyon: Topoi Supple- Bactria, and that its origins lie eum of Art and Yale University ment 2 (2000): 125-140. much further east, on the high Press, 2000. steppes of Inner Asia. That it Compagnoni and Tosi 1978 came to play an important role Badam 1984 B. Compagnoni and M. Tosi. “The further west, already by the G. L. Badam. “Holocene faunal camel: Its distribution and state Assyrian period if not earlier, material from India with special of domestication in the Middle seems clear. The raison d’être reference to domesticated East during the third millennium behind the Assyrian interest in animals.” In: Animals and B.C. in light of finds from Shahr-i the Bactrian camel, and behind archaeology: 3. Early herders and Sokhta.” In: Meadow, R.H. and its later occurrence as far west their flocks. J. Clutton-Brock and Zeder, M.A., eds. Approaches to as Anatolia, lies in the breeding C. Grigson, eds. British Achae- faunal analysis in the Middle East. of Bactrian-dromedary hybrids, ological Reports Int. Ser. 202. Peabody Museum Bulletin 2. the strength of which was un- Oxford, 1984, pp. 339-353. Cambridge, 1978, pp. 91-103. surpassed by any other domestic animal, apart from the elephant, Bannikov 1976 Curtius 1928 in the ancient Near East. A. G. Bannikov. “Wild camels of L. Curtius. “Sardanapal.” Jahr- About the Author the Gobi.” Wildlife, 18 (1976): 398- buch des Deutschen Archä- 403. ologischen Instituts, 43 (1928): Daniel Potts was educated at 281-297. Harvard (AB ’75, PhD ’80) and has Baur et al. 1933 taught at the Freie Universität P. V. C. Baur, M. I. Rostovtzeff, and Curtis and Searight 2003 Berlin (1981-1986), the Univ. of A. R. Bellinger, The Excavations J. Curtis and A. Searight. “The Copenhagen (1980-1981, 1986- at Dura-Europus...Preliminary gold plaques of the Oxus

54 Treasure.” In: Culture through Gray 1972 Pella of the Decapolis, Vol. 2. objects: Ancient Near Eastern A. P. Gray. Mammalian hybrids, 2nd Wooster: College of Wooster, studies in honour of P.R.S. Moorey. ed. Slough: Commonwealth 1989, pp. 142-164. T. Potts, M. Roaf and D. Stein, Agricultural Bureaux, 1972. eds. Oxford: Griffith Institute, Kolpakow 1935 2003, pp. 219-240. Hancar 1956 V. N. Kolpakow. “Über Kamel- F. Hancar. Das Pferd in kreuzungen.” Berliner Tierärztliche Douglas van Buren 1939 prähistorischer und früher Wochenschrift, 51 (1935): 617- E. Douglas van Buren. The fauna historischer Zeit. Vienna, 1956. 622. of ancient Mesopotamia. Rome, Wiener Beiträge zur Kultur- 1939. Analecta Orientalia 18. geschichte und Linguistik 11. Kuhrt 1999 A. Kuhrt. “The exploitation of the Duerst 1908 Hartmann 1869 camel in the Neo-Assyrian J. U. Duerst. “Animal remains R. Hartmann. “Studien zur empire.” In: Studies in ancient from the excavation at Anau and Geschichte der Hausthiere I. Das Egypt in honour of H.S. Smith. A. the horse of Anau in its relation Kameel.” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, Leahy and J. Tait, eds. London: to the history and to the races of 1 (1869): 66-79. Occasional Publications of the domesticated horses.” In: R. Egypt Exploration Society, 1999, Pumpelly, ed. Explorations in Heimpel 1980 pp. 179-184. Turkestan, Expedition of 1904. W. Heimpel. “Kamel.” Reallexikon Washington: Carnegie Institu- der Assyriologie 5 (1980): 330- Kwasman and Parpola 1991 tion, 1908, pp. 341-442. 332. T. Kwasman and S. Parpola. Legal transactions of the royal During Caspers 1972 Heptner et al. 1966 court of Nineveh, Part 1. Tiglath- E. C. L. During Caspers. “La V. G. Heptner, A. A. Nasimovic, Pileser III through Esarhaddon. hachette trouée de la sépulture and A. G. Bannikov. Die Säugetiere Helsinki, 1991. State Archives of E de Khurab, dans le Balou- der Sowjetunion 1. Paarhufer und Assyria 6. chistan persan, examen retro- Unpaarhufer. Jena: Gustav spectif.” Iranica Antiqua, 9 Fischer Verlag, 1966. Lamberg-Karlovsky 1969 (1972): 60-64. C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky. “Fur- van Ingen 1939 ther notes on the shaft-hole pick- Epstein 1969 W. van Ingen. Figurines from axe from Khurab, Makran.” Iran, H. Epstein. Domestic animals of Seleucia on the Tigris. Ann Arbor 7 (1969): 163-168. China. Farnham Royal: Com- and London: Univ. of Michigan monwealth Agricultural Bureaux, and Oxford Univ. Press, 1939. Lattimore 1929 1969. O. Lattimore. The Desert Road to Jettmar 1967 Turkestan. Boston: Little, Brown, Gauthier-Pilters and Dagg 1981 K. Jettmar. Art of the Steppes. New 1929. H. Gauthier-Pilters and A. I. Dagg, York: Crown Publishers, 1967. The Camel: Its Evolution, Ecology, Lehmann 1891 Behavior, and Relationship to Man. Kohl 1984 O. Lehmann. “Das Kamel, seine Chicago and London: Univ. of P. L. Kohl. Central Asia: Palaeolithic geographische Verbreitung und Chicago Press, 1981 Beginnings to the Iron Age. Paris: die Bedingungen seines Éditions Recherche sur les Vorkommens.” Zeitschrift für Geiger 1979 Civilisations, 1984. wissenschaftliche Geographie 8 W. Geiger. Ostiranische Kultur im (1891): 93-141. Altertum. Aalen: Scientia, 1979 Kohl 1992 (repr. 1882 ed.). P. L. Kohl. “Central Asia (Western Luckenbill 1924 Turkestan): Neolithic to the Early D. D. Luckenbill. The Annals of Ghirshman 1938 Iron Age.” In: R. W. Ehrich, ed. Sennacherib. Chicago, 1924. R. Ghirshman. Fouilles de Sialk, Chronologies in Old World Oriental Institute Publication 2. près de Kashan, 1933, 1934, Archaeology, 3rd ed. Chicago and 1937. Paris: Geuthner, 1938. London: Univ. of Chicago Press, Manefield and Tinson 2000 1992, pp. 179-195. G. W. Manefield and A. H. Tinson. Gordon 1939 Camels: A compendium. Sydney, C. H. Gordon. Western Asiatic Köhler-Rollefson 1989 2000. T.G. Hungerford Vade seals in the Walters Art Gallery. I. Köhler-Rollefson. “Zoological Mecum Series for Domestic Iraq, 6 (1939): 3-34. analysis of camel skeletons.” In: Animals Series C 22.

55 Mashkour 2002 camel.” Proceedings of the Schauenberg 1962 M. Mashkour. “Chasse et élevage Academy of Natural Sciences of K. Schauenberg. “Neue antike au nord du Plateau central Philadelphia, 140 (1988): 18-58. Cameliden.” Bonner Jahrbücher, iranien entre le Néolithique et 162 (1962): 98-106. l’Âge du Fer.” Paléorient, 28 Peters and von den Driesch (2002): 27-42. 1997 Schuegraf and Terbuyken 2001 J. Peters and A. von den Driesch. Mashkour et al. 1999 O. Schuegraf and P. Terbuyken. “The two-humped camel “Kamel.” Reallexikon für Antike M. Mashkour, M. Fontugne, and (Camelus bactrianus): New light und Christentum, 19 (2001): C. Hatte. “Investigations on the on its distribution, management 1224-1241. evolution of subsistence and medical treatment in the economy in the Qazvin Plain past.” Journal of Zoology, 242 Shafer 1950 (Iran) from the Neolithic to the (1997): 651-679. E. H. Shafer. “The camel in China Iron Age.” Antiquity, 73 (1999): down to the Mongol dynasty.” 65-76. Pohl 1950 Sinologica, 2 (1950): 165-194, Mashkour and Yaghmayi 1996 A. Pohl. “Das Kamel in Meso- 263-290. M. Mashkour and E. Yaghmayi. potamien.” Orientalia, 19 (1950): Tadmor 1995 “Faunal remains from Tappeh 252. Hessar (Iran), results of the 1995 H. Tadmor. The inscriptions of excavation.” In: Atti del XIII Postgate 1976 Tiglath-Pileser III, king of Assyria. Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Congresso, Vol. 1. Forli: Unione J. N. Postgate. Fifty Neo-Assyrian Sciences and Humanities, 1994. Internazionale delle scienze legal documents. Warminster: Aris preistoriche e protostoriche, & Phillips, 1976. 1996, pp. 543-551. Tapper 1985 R. Tapper. “One hump or two? Potts 1999 Meadow 1993 Hybrid camels and pastoral R. H. Meadow. “Continuity and D. T. Potts. The archaeology of cultures.” Production pastorale et change in the agriculture of the Elam: Formation and trans- société, 16 (1985): 55-69. Greater Indus Valley.” Interna- formation of an ancient Iranian tional Association for the Study of state. Cambridge: Cambridge Uerpmann 1999 Univ. Press, 1999. the Cultures of Central Asia H.-P. Uerpmann. “Camel and Information Bulletin, 19 (1993): horse skeletons from proto- Roux 1959-60 63-77. historic graves at Mleiha in the J.-P. Roux. “Le chameau en Asie Emirate of Sharjah (U.A.E.).” Menges 1935 centrale.” Central Asiatic Journal, Arabian Archaeology & Epigraphy K. Menges. “Die Wörter für 5 (1959-1960): 35-76. 10 (1999): 102-118. ‘Kamel’ und einige seiner Kreuzungsformen im Türkischen.” Santoni 1979 Vallat 1993 Ungarische Jahrbücher, 15 (1935): M. Santoni. “Les objets.” In: J.-F. F. Vallat. Les noms géographiques 517-528. Jarrige and M. Santoni. Fouilles des sources suso-élamites. de Pirak, vol. 1. Paris: Boccard, Mitchell 2000 Wiesbaden, 1993. TAVO Beiheft 1979, pp. 167-232. T. C. Mitchell. “Camels in the B 7/11 [= Répertoire Géo- graphique des Textes Cunéi- Assyrian bas-reliefs.” Iraq, 62 Sarianidi 1998a (2000): 187-194. formes 11]. V. Sarianidi. Myths of ancient Nikylina 1994 Bactria and Margiana on its (sic) Voigt and Dyson 1992 N. M. Nikylina. Iskusstvo Ionii i seals and amulets. Moscow: M. M. Voigt and R. H. Dyson, Jr. Achemenidskogo Irana. [Art of Pentagraphic, 1988. “The chronology of Iran, ca. 8000- Ionia and Achaemenid Iran.] 2000 B.C.” In: R. W. Ehrich, ed. Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1994. Sarianidi 1998b Chronologies in Old World Archae- V. Sarianidi. Margiana and ology, 3rd ed. Chicago and Nowak 1999 Protozoroastrism. Athens: Kapon London: Univ. of Chicago Press, R. M. Nowak. Walker’s mammals Editions, 1988. 1992, pp. 122-178. of the world, 6th ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1999. Schaller 1998 Vollmer et al. 1983 G. B. Schaller. Wildlife of the J. E. Vollmer, E. J. Keall, and E. Olsen 1988 Tibetan Steppe. Chicago and Nagai-Berthrong. Silk Roads, S. J. Olsen. “The camel in ancient London: University of Chicago China Ships. Toronto: Royal China and an osteology of the Press, 1998. Ontario Museum, 1983.

56 Walz 1954 2. This thinness has given rise depiction of a Bactrian camel on to the Mongolian name for C. R. Walz. “Neue Untersuchungen a sherd from period III4 at Tepe zum Domestikationsproblem der ferus, havtagai, from havtag, Sialk (Ghirshman 1938: Pl. 79, altweltlichen Cameliden.” Zeit- meaning ‘flatness’ (Bannikov A2) near Kashan has been schrift der Deutschen Morgen- 1976: 398). interpreted as evidence of C. ländischen Gesellschaft, 104 3. C. ferus are also well- bactrianus on the Iranian Plateau (1954): 45-87. represented in the rock art of the in the late fourth millennium BCE Altai, Tul-Kun, Tamurasche, (Compagnoni and Tosi 1978: Wapnish 1984 Uryankhai, Turgai and Minusinsk Table 3). P. Wapnish. “The dromedary and (Suljek) regions between Inner 8. Further south and east, Bactrian camel in Levantine Asia and Siberia but these are skeletal remains of Camel sp. — historical settings: The evidence difficult to date (Heptner, possibly but not definitely from Tell Jemmeh.” In: Animals Nasimovic and Bannikov 1966: Bactrian — have been found in and archaeology: 3. Early herders 87-88, Abb. 26; Peters and Von strata assigned to Period II and their flocks. J. Clutton-Brock den Driesch 1997: 653). (phases 5-7) at Shahr-i Sokhta and C. Grigson, eds. British Arch. 4. Epstein 1969: 120, puts in Iranian Seistan (Compagnoni Reports Int. Ser. 202. Oxford, the average load at 120-150 kgs. and Tosi 1978: 92), datable to c. 1984, pp. 171-200. 5. Olsen did not give a written 2700-2200 BCE (Voigt and Dyson 1992: 152), most probably to the Winkelmann 1999 reference for this information, but referred to the fact that the earlier part of this period. That S. Winkelmann. “Von Formen und camelid remains had been Seistan, noted for its aridity, is Stilen — ein Versuch der Glied- “excavated by archaeologists certainly well outside the natural erung baktrischer Stempel- und from the Museum of Inner habitat of the C. ferus is Rollsiegel.” Hallesche Beiträge zur Mongolia in Huhhot” (Olsen 1988: suggested by the absence of Orientwissenschaft, 28 (1999): 21), which he visited in the early camel remains in earlier, period I 112-209. 1980’s. Dr. Jianjun Mei (Needham levels at the site, and the Research Institute, Cambridge) absence of camels among the Zadok 2002 kindly looked for written nearly 1300 zoomorphic figurines R. Zadok. The ethno-linguistic confirmation of this information found there (Peters and von den character of northwestern Iran and but was unable to find any. Driesch 1997: 656). Kurdistan in the Neo-Assyrian Faunal remains of probable period. Jaffa: Archaeological 6. Camelid remains found at Bactrian camel dating to the Center Publications, 2002. Anau-depe in period II contexts were identified as Bactrian on the second half of the third millennium BCE (Namazga V Zeuner 1955 basis of comparisons with modern Bactrian camels (Duerst period) have been found at Ulug- F. E. Zeuner. “The identity of the 1908; cf. Compagnoni and Tosi depe, Altyn-depe and Namazga- camel on the Khurab pick.” Iraq, 1978: 96 and Table 3), an depe in southern Turkmenistan 17 (1955): 162-163. identification that has recently (Peters and von den Driesch Notes been reconfirmed (Peters and 1997: 659), where E.E. Kuzmina von den Driesch 1997: 658). thinks “the use of Bactrian camels 1. This is a modified version for draft purposes was a local 7. Tepe Hissar has no camelid of a lecture delivered for the development...peculiar to fauna at all (Mashkour and Inner Asia/Silkroad Study Group southern Central Asia” (Kohl Yaghmayi 1996) while at Zagheh (IASSG) and co-sponsored by the 1984: 114), and at Shah Tepe in and Tepe Ghabristan (Qabrestan) Silkroad Foundation and the northeastern Iran (Compagnoni on the Qazvin plain (west of Stanford University Center for and Tosi 1978: Table 3; Amschler Tehran), only C. dromedarius East Asian Studies, 21 October 1939: 77-80; but queried by seems to have been present in 2004. The paper was based on Peters and von den Driesch the fourth millennium BCE the author’s “Camel hybridization 1997: 660). and the role of Camelus (Mashkour, Fontugne and Hatte bactrianus in the Ancient Near 1999: 71 and Table 2; Mashkour 9. Their exact provenance is East,” Journal of the Economic and 2002: Table 2). (Dr. Marjan not known, since they were Social History of the Orient, 47 Mashkour [CNRS, Paris] kindly purchased on the antiquities (2004): 143-165. Readers advised me that the quantity of market (e.g. Amiet 1986: Fig. interested in finding out more camelid remains at these sites 189c; Sarianidi 1998a: 71-73, about the topic are advised to was very small and therefore nos. 108-111; Winkelmann 1999: consult the 2004 article which somewhat surprising. She Abb. 4). Bactrian camel images has an extensive bibliography as agreed that caution is required are found on soft-stone stamp well. in interpreting this data.) The seals from controlled excavations

57 at Togolok 1 (burial 10), Togolok 12. In Iran only C. dromedarius 14. Lattimore (1929: 133) 21 (southern court) and Gonur is present in the late second observed, “the Mongols prefer a South (room 592) in Margiana millennium BCE levels at Tepe fast camel to a pony for a long (Sarianidi 1998a: 297, nos. Sagzabad (Mashkour 2002: Table journey in haste, if they cannot 1634-1635). Gonur North has 2). We cannot be sure that the get relays on the road,” favoring also yielded a theriomorphic so-called “Luristan bronze” young camels which “are much ceramic vessel in the shape of a buckle (4.7 cm. high, 8.7 cm. the best for riding, as they are Bactrian camel and a grafitto of wide) in the former Foroughi not only faster but softer-gaited” a Bactrian camel incised on a Collection in Tehran, dated (cf. Geiger 1979 [1882]: 456, on ceramic drain pipe (Sarianidi stylistically to the 8th/7th centuries the use of Bactrians by couriers 1998b: Figs. 14-15). Unfor- BCE, on which a Bactrian camel in the Turkmenian deserts during tunately, the camelid faunal is depicted (Jettmar 1967: Pl. 45) the 19th century). remains from Gonur cannot be is in fact a true reflection of the 15. According to Zadok’s identified to the species level presence of Bactrian camels in (2002: 18ff, 42-3, 70, 77) recent (Meadow 1993: 72, n. 2). A clay western Iran at that time. The study of western Iran in the Neo- bulla with a cylinder seal provenance of the piece, even if Assyrian period, Mannaea was impression from the temenos at it is authentic, is simply too vague located to the south of Lake Togolok 1 shows a human and a to attribute any geographical Urmia, Ellipi and Namri in western caprid between two Bactrian significance to it. Luristan, and Singibutu around camels (Sarianidi 1998b: Fig. 13. Bactrian camels appear on Khoy in Iranian Azerbaijan. 28.1 = Winkelmann 1999: 151 so-called “Greco-Persian” seals and Abb. 19.3). 16. He describes his campaign of late fifth/fourth century BCE against Patusharra (Vallat 1993: date (Nikylina 1994: nos. 207, 10. Specifically, at the 214-215), ‘a land that borders on 216, 493) and on Greek gems, Andronovo site of Alekseevskoe the Salt Desert, in the midst of probably of east Greek origin in Tatarstan (Hancar 1956: 235; the land of the distant Medes, (Boardman and Vollenweider Heptner, Nasimovic and Bannikov near Bikni, the lapis lazuli- 1978: 114, no. 117). About this 1966: 89 says C. ferus bones mountain, where none of my time, as well, the earliest have been found at Andronovo forefathers had set foot’. references to Bactrian camels sites as well), in Karasuk culture Patusharra’s location is occur in late fourth century BCE graves at Il’inskaia gora in the uncertain, and depends on that Chou documents in China, southwestern Ural foothills of Mt. Bikni, a mountain which has becoming much more prevalent (Hancar 1956: Tab. 48 and 255; been variously sought at Mt. in the Han period (Shafer 1950: Brentjes 1960: 27), and possibly Alvand in Luristan, Mt. Demevend 174; cf. Walz 1954: 60; Epstein at the Tripol’e culture site of near Tehran, or in the Pamirs (for 1969: 117). Brentjes has Gorodsk north of Kiev in Ukraine refs. see Zadok 2002: 55). surveyed the terracottas and wall (Walz 1954: 79-80, n. 3; Hancar paintings from the first millennium 17. The original source here 1956: 69, Tab. 22). BCE and first millennium CE is Eversmann’s Reisen von (Brentjes 1960: 28). At least Orenburg nach Buchara...nebst 11. Camelid faunal remains einem naturhistorischen Anhange from Harappan sites of late third three fragments of Bactrian camel figurines were discovered by the und einer Vorrede von H. and early second millennium BCE Lichtenstein, Berlin, 1823: 91. have been identified in all cases American excavators at Seleucia- as dromedary, not Bactrian (e.g. on-the-Tigris in Badam 1984: 349). However, a the 1930’s shaft-hole axe excavated by Sir (van Ingen Aurel Stein in a grave at Khurab, 1939: 320, no. in Iranian Baluchistan, is widely 1465a-c and thought to show a Bactrian Pl. 76.557). camel in repose (Zeuner 1955; Further Lamberg-Karlovsky 1969; During Bactrian camel Caspers 1972). At Pirak in figurines of Pakistani Baluchistan the period Seleucid and/ IB-III levels, dating to c. 1800- or Parthian 700 BCE, have yielded numerous date are clay figurines of Bactrian camels known from (Santoni 1979: 177-179, Figs. 94- Nippur 95, Pls. 42B and 43) as well as (Douglas van faunal remains (Meadow 1993: Buren 1939: 36 with refs.). Fig. 2. Bactrian delegate leading a Bactrian camel on 67, 70). the Apadana reliefs at Persepolis (photograph by the author).

58 Research Note previous change of Chinese probably in the year 1582, Hoseyn foreign policy. The Portuguese Efendi translated the Persian text Estado da Índia supplanted the into Ottoman Turkish with some One of the Last Docu- network of the Arabic and omissions and amendments, with the ments of the Silk Road: Persian traders, although it could title “Qanunnameh-ye Chin va temporarily recover in the middle Khata” (Book of Canons of China The Khataynameh of Ali of the sixteenth century, as did and Khatay). Before I turn to a Akbar the traditional “Levant route.” At sketch of the modern research on first glance, these European the “Khataynameh”, a brief outline colonial enterprises (first Vasco of its content and some considera- Ralph Kauz da Gama and Portugal, then the tions on the author may be given. Institut für Iranistik der Dutch Verenigde Oost-Indische The work is not a traditional Österreichischen Akademie der Compagnie) seem also to have travelogue like, for example, Ghiyas Wissenschaften, Vienna been responsible for the decline ad-Din’s description of his journey of the Silk Road as a main artery to China as a Timurid ambassador The patterns of trans-Asiatic of trans-Asian communication. in the beginning of the fifteenth communication and trade changed However, inner Asian develop- century, but rather a description of dramatically in the course of the ments were rather to blame for China proper. It is divided into fifteenth century. These changes can the parallel deterioration of the twenty chapters, where roads, cities, be divided into three major periods: overland route, i. e. the collapse military, stores, prostitutes, of the Timurid Empire and the eunuchs, administration, jails, law, 1) In the aftermath of Mongol subsequent rivalry between the agriculture and other matters are rule in China and in Iran, the first Sunnite Shaybanids in Central discussed.1 Thus ‘Ali Akbar’s book emperors of the Ming dynasty Asia and the Shi’ite Safavids in gave a reader of the sixteenth (1368-1644) and the Timurids Iran which prevented smooth century a fair impression of China, (1370-1506) as well promoted interrelations and interactions as and it could well have served as a commercial and political in the centuries before. companion for merchants travelling exchange on a large scale. there. However, the book was issued Though it would be erroneous to Especially the leading Chinese in Istanbul, and merchants on the assume a complete breakdown of economy of this period showed Silk Road probably gathered there trans-Asian overland traffic, its attraction to other Asian knowledge from themselves and did embassies from Central and kingdoms. Chinese overtures not necessarily need a guide book. under the early Ming had thus a Western Asia arrived still in Beijing. huge impact, and Chinese We can even find embassies from a For whom was it then written? The envoys who arrived in kingdom called “Lumi,” registered in question seems to be rather Samarqand, Herat and other the Veritable Records (Ming shilu), uncomplicated, because it was cities of Central and Western offering their tribute since the 1520s dedicated to Sultan Süleyman and Asia by land and others who for several times at the Chinese ‘Ali Akbar might have wished to called at ports of the Western court. “Lumi” could well be a make an impression on the Ottoman Indian Ocean were well received transcription of “Rum”, i. e. the court. Lin Yih-Min describes ‘Ali Akbar by the local rulers. Envoys and Ottoman Empire. These embassies as a “Turkish businessman” (1983, merchants from these places might have been faked — there is p. 58) who probably travelled only repaid these visits in the Chinese no final proof that they really came to Central Asia, where he gathered capital. from the far-away Ottoman Empire, the information for his book and but the interest in “Lumi” evidenced returned then to Turkey. However, 2) However, China abandoned its in many contemporary Chinese the name of the author indicates a sea expeditions in 1433 and texts may indicate the genuineness Shi’ite background. Mazahéry (p. refrained from sending more of their origin. The interest of Asian 95) gives justly a vivid sketch of the embassies to Central and merchants in trade with China did anti-Shi’ite movements and Western Asia at around the same certainly not diminish, though the sentiments at the time of the battle time. Consequently, the pattern political situation did not support of Chaldiran when the Safavid ruler of mutual communication their eagerness. Isma’el I was defeated by the changed, and henceforth the Ottomans and when ‘Ali Akbar wrote traffic flowed only in the direction One of the most important his book. The situation of a Shi’ite in of China. The Ming showed less testimonies of this continuous Istanbul in that period was certainly and less interest in trade with the interest in China is the not an easy one, and he might have outside world and regarded the “Khataynameh” (Book of China), had good reason to win the sultan’s foreign merchants and envoys written by ‘Ali Akbar Khata’i in 1516 favour by producing a book on China rather as a nuisance, one mostly and issued in Istanbul in 1520. There to spur the geographical interest of tolerated due to the Ming’s own are but a few manuscripts of this the Ottomans. In accordance with policy of superiority but kindness Khataynameh extant (one in the Schefer’s assumption (p. 34), a towards foreigners. National Library of Egypt in Cairo, Central Asian origin of ‘Ali Akbar 3) Islamic maritime trade three in the Süleymaniye Library seems rather likely, and ‘Ali Akbar sustained much more difficulty at and one in the Aya Sofia Library of could even have been captured by the end of the fifteenth century Istanbul, and another one in the the Ottomans in Chaldiran and saved on account of European expan- University Library of Leiden). Already his life by writing a book about his sion, rather than from the under the reign of Sultan Murad, former experiences as a merchant.

59 The question of whether he had Austrian Academy of Sciences in Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1956, pp. 312-324 actually been in China2 will not be Vienna. He wrote his Habilita- [From: Proceedings of the Iran discussed here, but it might be tionsschrift (in American terms, the Society, vol. 2, London 1940). stressed that he reported at least the second doctorate) on Die Ming- —. “Eine islamische Quelle über knowledge of China circulating Dynastie und die Timuriden: China um 1500: Das Khitâynâme des among contemporary merchants Chancen ihrer politischen und ‘Alî Ekber.” Acta Orientalia, 12 dealing with China. This knowledge wirtschaftlichen Interaktion. Among (1933): 91-110. was by no means meager, as the his publications is “Zheng He und der “Khataynameh” proves, and one Islam in Fujian: Das Bild Zheng Hes Lin Yih-Min. “Ali Ekber’in Hitayname: may wonder if it was not an incentive als gläubiger Muslim in der neueren adli eserinin Çin kaynaklarï ile for the aforementioned embassies chinesischen Geschichtsschreibung,” mukayese ve tenkidi,” Dissertation, from “Lumi” to China. in: Claudine Salmon and Roderich Taipei 1967. Ptak, eds., Zheng He: Images & —. “A comparative and critical The “Khataynameh” aroused Perceptions / Bilder & Wahrnehm- study of Ali Akbar’s Khitây-nâma considerable interest not only in the ungen, South China and Maritime with reference to Chinese sources Ottoman Empire but also in Europe Asia 15 (Wiesbaden: Harrasowitz, [English summary].” Central Asiatic in the early nineteenth century. 2005), pp. 75 -89, and a forthcoming Journal, 27 (1983): 58-78. Matthaeus Norberg used the Turkish article on “The Maritime Trade of “Qanunnameh” for his Latin Qish during the Mongol Period.” Aly Mazahéri. La route de la soie. commentaries on China in the Paris: Papyrus, 1983 course of his translation of and research on Marco Polo’s narrative. References Ming shilu, 133 vols. Taipei: This “Qanunnameh” was also the Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan basis of the studies of Zenker and yanjiusuo, 1966. ‘‘Alî Akbar Khatâ’î. Khatâynâma: Fleischer. It was Charles Schefer who Matthaeus Norberg. Selecta opuscula sharh-e mushâhdât-i Sayyid ‘Alî discovered the Persian original in the academica. Johannes Norrmann, Akbar Khatâ’î dar sarzamîn-e Chîn. Süleymaniye Library and translated ed. Londini Gothorum: Litteris [Book of China: Account of the three chapters of it. Paul Kahle Berlingianis, 1817-1819. started to make a complete Observations of Sayyid ‘Alî Akbar translation with the assistance of Khatâ’î in the Territoy of China.] Juten Oda. “A Note on the Historical Muhammad Hamidullah. This was in Îraj Afshâr, ed. 2nd ed., Tehran: Materials of the Khitay-name by Ali fact finished in manuscript but never Markaz-e asnâd-e farhangî-ye Ekber.” Shirin, 52 (1969): 858-879, published. Kahle even exchanged Âsîyâ, 1993/4. 908-909. letters with the famous Chinese ‘Alî Akbar Khitâ’î. The Book on China: Charles Schefer. “Trois chapitres du scholar Zhang Xinglang in order to Khitâynâma. Fuat Sezgin and Khitay Namèh: texte Persane et invite him to Germany for work on Eckhard Neubauer, eds. Publications traduction Française.” In: Ecole des the “Khataynameh”, but due to the of the Institute for the history of langues orientales vivantes (ed.), situation of Germany in the 1930s Arabic-Islamic Science, Series C, Mélanges Orientaux, Paris: E. the journey of Zhang Xinglang vol. 56. Frankfurt am Main: Institute Leroux, 1883, pp. 31-84. proved to be impossible. A late fruit for the History of Arabic-Islamic Z. V. Togan. “Ali Ekber’in.” Islam of this communication was the Science at the Johann Wolfgang Ansiklopedisi, 1 (1962): 318-319. Chinese translation of Hamidullah’s Goethe University, 1994. and Kahle’s translation by the son Christine Beckmann. “China in der Franz Taeschner. “Geographische of Zhang Xinglang, Zhang Zhishan. islamischen Historiographie: Aus Literatur der Osmanen.” Zeitschrift Only a few scholars worked later on dem Hitâynâme des ‘Alî Ekber unter der Deutschen Morgenländischen ‘Ali Akbar’s book: Iraj Afshar, who Berücksichtigung chinesischer und Gesellschaft, 77 (1923): 31-80, 144. produced a critical edition of the text westlicher Quellen.” Unpublished J. Zenker. “Das chinesische Reich and the Taiwanese Lin Yih-Min who diploma thesis, Wien, 2001. nach dem türkischen Khatainame.” translated the text into modern Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgen- Turkish and wrote an English article H. L. Fleischer. “Über das türkische ländischen Gesellschaft, 15 (1851): about it. Aly Mazahéri then Chatâï-nâme.” Kleinere Schriften, 785-805. translated the text into French Vol. 3. Leipzig, 1888, (reprint together with other Persian texts Osnabrück: Biblio Verlag, 1968), pp. Zhang Zhishan (tr.), Ali Akeba’er, dealing with the Silk Road. Lastly, a 214-225, from: Berichte über die Zhongguo jixing. [The Book on student of Chinese Studies in Verhandlungen der königlichen China, Chinese translation of Vienna, Christine Beckmann, wrote Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Hamidullah’s English translation.] a diploma thesis on the basis of Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Philol.- Beijing: Shenghuo, Dushu, Xinzhi Hamisullah’s and Kahle’s text in histor. Cl., 1851: 317-327. sanlian shudian chubanfaxing, 1988. comparison with Chinese material. Geng Sheng, tr. Aly Mazahéri, The author of this note is currently Sichou zhi lu — Zhonguo-Bosi Notes working on a critical English wenhua jiaoliu shi. [Silkroad: the 1. For more detailled descriptions translation of the “Khataynameh” history of the cultural exchange see Kahle (1933), Lin Yih-Min (1983), which will be also compared with between China and Persia.] Beijing: or the translation of Mazahéry. relevant Chinese texts. Zhonghua shuju, 1993. 2. For conflicting views see Kahle Paul E. Kahle. “China as described (1933) and Lin Yih-Min (1983). About the Author by Turkish Geographers from Dr. Ralph Kauz is a research scholar Iranian Sources.” Opera Minora: at the Institut für Iranistik of the Festgabe zum 21. Januar 1956,

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