Behind Closed Doors: Domestic Violence, Citizenship and State-Making in Divided Berlin, 1969-1990 By Jane Freeland, BA (Hons), MA A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario © 2015, Jane Freeland Abstract This dissertation investigates the approaches taken to address domestic violence in East and West Berlin between 1969 and 1990. Both Germanys created a language to define domestic violence, which not only reflected and reinforced their self-definition as liberal or socialist states, but did so in a way that had important consequences for women and marginalized communities. Indeed, the contested interactions between the state, activists and citizens in responding to gender violence often centred on competing ideas on the role of gender and gender equality in society. Through an analysis of official state and grassroots responses to domestic violence, this dissertation argues that in addressing these forms of violence, competing visions of citizenship were negotiated by politicians, everyday Germans and activists alike. Although official efforts often only solidified normative heteropatriarchal visions of gender relationships, activists from either side of the Berlin Wall used citizenship as a standpoint to critique the state for failing to protect women from violence. Despite different levels of support available to women living with abusive partners in East and West, women across Germany were primarily responsible for tackling domestic violence and fomenting everyday gender equality. Placing the stories of East and West together then, makes these historically constituted processes of women’s marginalization visible, highlighting the similarities that existed across the Berlin Wall, despite very different political systems. This research, one of the first in depth historical examinations of domestic violence in Germany, sheds light on the role of gender in the postwar processes of state- ii making in East and West by examining how domestic abuse was addressed and discussed at the state level, by feminist activists and by citizens, critically looking at how this impacted women’s lives and their ability to leave a violent partner. This not only provides insight into how women’s voices are heard within and by the state, but it also draws our attention to the way violence works to create and reinforce gendered forms of citizenship. iii Acknowledgements Throughout this journey I was fortunate enough to have the support of some amazing people and organizations. Their contributions – whether financial, academic or emotional – have helped me in innumerable ways over these past six years. Firstly, I must acknowledge the support of the History Department at Carleton University, and most especially my supervisor Dr. Jennifer Evans. Carleton has been my academic home since 2008 when I first began my graduate studies and the support I have received during this time has been overwhelming. Not only has the financial assistance of the University and the Department been critical to my studies, but the academic environment cultivated within History has fostered my passion for learning. I have always appreciated the Department’s focus on the contemporary echoes of the past and the importance of ethically-informed and politically-driven historical work, something I hope to reflect in this dissertation. Soon after arriving at Carleton, I met Jen, who I hoped would act as my Master’s thesis supervisor. Despite nixing my initial topic, she nurtured my interest in the history of gender in postwar Germany, something she would continue to do as my doctoral advisor. Not only has her critical eye made me a better historian, but her professional guidance has been invaluable as I have attempted to navigate the academy. I am never surprised to hear people sing Jen’s praises, as she is a most giving and loyal mentor and one I have been fortunate to have the guidance of over the course of my graduate studies. Thanks must also go the organizations that have provided financial support for my research, enabling me to spend considerable time in German and American archives. I iv would like to thank the Government of Ontario, the Council for European Studies, the German Historical Institute in Washington DC, the German Academic Exchange Service, the Centre for Contemporary History in Potsdam, the Central European History Society and the Canadian Research Institute for the Advancement of Women. This funding enabled me to read over 400 files at 14 different archives, including 1577 divorce cases and 904 criminal cases. I could not have completed my research without this generous support. Of course none of this research would have been possible without the hard work of the staff of the various archives I visited. I would especially like to thank the staff of the Berlin Landesarchiv and the Bundesarchiv in Berlin-Lichterfelde. Frau Schmidt and Frau Bötticher at the Landesarchiv were particularly helpful, as they gave me access to criminal and divorce files, even putting me in touch with fellow legal researcher Graziella Apitz, who proved to be a wonderful contact. Similarly, I must thank Dr. Monika Schröttle for her assistance with my research, and the various interview subjects who shared their incredible work with me. In your different ways you are all helping to make the world a safer place for women, for which no amount of thanks will suffice. My scholarship has also benefitted from participating in various workshops and research groups. In particular, I would like to thank the participants of the Trans-Atlantic Summer Institute at the University of Minnesota, the Violence in Late Socialism Workshop held at Vytautas Magnus University in Lithuania, the German Historical Institute’s Trans-Atlantic Doctoral Seminar held at Humboldt University and the New Emotions and Politics Workshop organized by the European History Research Centre at the University of Warwick and the Centre for Interdisciplinary Polish Studies at Europe v University Viadrina. Whether it was presenting early drafts of my proposal or completed chapters, being able to listen and engage with other scholars at these workshops has been invaluable. In particular, I must thank Dr. Jan Behrends of the Centre for Contemporary History for encouraging my interest in citizenship and gender. One of the greatest parts of this whole process has been the amazing people I have met, and who have helped me grow as an historian and human being. The Archival Summer Seminar organized by the German Historical Institute in Washington DC was a particularly pivotal experience as it opened my world to other young German historians, who have remained important contacts. Carla Heelan and Lauren Stokes, in particular, must be thanked. You have been so supportive over this journey, whether as editors, welcome distractions or travelling companions, I am lucky to have friends like you. As many historians will know, spending long periods of time in archives, especially ones in foreign countries, can be an isolating experience. A supportive group of fellow researchers, however, can make the archive day much more bearable. Over my time in Berlin I came to know Dr. Jennifer Rodgers. Jennifer – thank you! You generously shared your living space, passion for German history and editing skills with me. Your encouraging text messages over the writing process helped to keep me sane. Similarly, I would like to thank Christine Whitehouse, who I lived with for a time in Berlin. You have always provided a critical eye for my work, and when I arrived at our apartment for a two-month research trip with a broken arm, you helped me with the groceries. Closer to home, I would like to thank Joan White, the Graduate Adminstrator in the History Department at Carleton. She is so hardworking, and everything she does vi helps to support graduate students. Similarly, I must thank several other Carleton graduate students, in particular Sara Spike and the members of the ‘German History Salon’, Erica Fagen, Emmanuel Hogg, Meghan Lundrigan and Alex Wilkinson. You are all part of the reason Carleton has been such an engaging academic environment and I have enjoyed sharing work, emails, and maybe a few bottles of wine with you over the years. In the same way, I would like to thank Scott Harrison, who has been a wonderful email contact and an even better editor. On a more personal note, I must thank those closest to me, who have vicariously lived through this dissertation. To my parents, Lesley Cooper and Richard Freeland, the strong sense of social justice and equality you instilled in your two children has stayed with me, guiding my work and my politics. You have filled my life with love and laughter, making me both incredibly fortunate and eternally grateful. To my partner, Brendan Harrison, you know better than anyone else what this journey has been like. You have stood by me through over two years of travelling back and forth between Canada and Germany, and have been a constant source of encouragement and support. I know it hasn’t always been easy, but the end is in sight! Finally, I would like to dedicate this dissertation to the lives of the women whose stories it tells. You have shown immeasurable courage in standing up to abuse. vii Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgements