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Manipur in Transition: Differentials of Development in a Polyethnic Area of India Louisiana State University LSU Digital Commons LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses Graduate School 1984 Manipur in Transition: Differentials of Development in a Polyethnic Area of India. Kiran Banga Chhokar Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_disstheses Recommended Citation Chhokar, Kiran Banga, "Manipur in Transition: Differentials of Development in a Polyethnic Area of India." (1984). LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses. 4011. https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_disstheses/4011 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at LSU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses by an authorized administrator of LSU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. INFORMATION TO USERS This reproduction was made from a copy of a document sent to us for microfilming. While the most advanced technology has been used to photograph and reproduce this document, the quality of the reproduction is heavily dependent upon the quality of the material submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help clarify markings or notations which may appear on this reproduction. 1.The sign or “target” for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is “ Missing Page(s)” . If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting through an image and duplicating adjacent pages to assure complete continuity. 2. When an image 011 the film is obliterated with a round black mark, it is an indication of either blurred copy because of movement during exposure, duplicate copy, or copyrighted materials that should not have been filmed. 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University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 8515135 Chhokar, Kiran Banga MANIPUR IN TRANSITION: DIFFERENTIALS OF DEVELOPMENT IN A POLYETHNIC AREA OF INDIA The Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical Col.Ph.D. 1984 University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 Copyright 1985 by Chhokar, Kiran Banga All Rights Reserved PLEASE NOTE: In all cases this material has been filmed in the best possible way from the available copy. Problems encountered with this document have been identified here with a check mark V 1. Glossy photographs or pages _____ 2. Colored illustrations, paper or print ______ 3. Photographs with dark background ____ 4. Illustrations are poor copy______ 5. Pages with black marks, not original copy _____ 6. Print shows through as there is text on both sides of page _______ 7. Indistinct, broken or small print on several pages \ f 8. Print exceeds margin requirements _____ 9. Tightly bound copy with print lost in spine _______ 10. Computer printout pages with indistinct print ______ 11. Page(s)___________ lacking when material received, and not available from school or author. 12. Page(s)___________ seem to be missing in numbering only as text follows. 13. Two pages numbered . Text follows. 14. Curling and wrinkled pages_____ 15. Dissertation contains pages with print at a slant, filmed as received__________ 16. Other University Microfilms International MANIPUR IN TRANSITION: DIFFERENTIALS OF DEVELOPMENT IN A POLYETHNIC AREA OF INDIA A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in The Department of Geography and Anthropology by Kiran Banga Chhokar B.A., Aligarh Muslim University, India, 1970 M.A., Aligarh Muslim University, India, 1972 December 1984 © 1985 KIRAN BANGA CHHOKAR All Rights Reserved ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank my major professor, Dr. Nigel Allan, for his guidance, support, and friendship, and the other members of my dissertation committeee, Drs. Bill Davidson, Steve Miller, Miles Richardson, and Donald Vermeer, for their criticisms and suggestions. I especially wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Richardson, my anthropology "guru," who made me realize that anthropology is even more interesting than I had thought. I acknowledge Mr. Miller's significant contribution to the design and methodology of this study, and thank him for introducing me to some of the mysteries of computer cartography. I also wish to thank Dr. Vermeer for always being willing to help and discuss the problems of studying developing subsistence societies, and Dr. Davidson for his interest in my work. I am also grateful to Dr. Milton B. Newton, Jr. , Chairman of the Department of Geography and Anthropology for his support throughout my doctoral program. I acknowledge my gratitude to Bob Sechrist for helping me learn to interact with the crafty computer. I am also grateful to Gerry Burguera for his invaluable assistance in setting up mapping programs on the computer, and I thank Michelle Meyer-Arendt for helping me with the conventional, non-computer maps. I also thank Brenda Gatlin, who is the fastest, best, and most responsible typist I have ever known, for typing this dissertation. I am also indebted to Professor Moonis Raza of the Jawaharlal Nehru University and to Dr. B. K. Roy Burman for introducing me to ii Manipur and encouraging me to work on this long neglected area of India. It is impossible for me to acknowledge individually the kindness and help of all the people I interacted with in Manipur. I am, however, grateful to all of them, especially to Professor Gangmumei Kabul, Luingam Luithui, and the Thoma family of Komlathabi. Above all, I wish to thank my husband, Jagdeep, without whose infinite patience, support, and help this dissertation would not have been possible. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................ ii LIST OF T A B L E S .................................................... vii LIST OF F I G U R E S ................................................. viii ABSTRACT ........................................................ x Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION .............................................. 1 2. DEVELOPMENT: CONCEPT AND M E T H O D ......................... 22 2.1 The Concept of Development........................... 22 2.1.1 The Diffusion P a radigm...................... 24 2.1.2 Alternative Perspectives ................... 29 2.2 Development in Manipur............................... 32 2.3 Data Base and Methodology........................... 34 2.3.1 Determination of Village Ethnicity ........... 35 2.3.2 Village Locations............................ 38 2.3.3 Sampling Method.............................. 42 2.3.4 Organization of Village D a t a ................ 43 2.3.5 Data Analysis................................ 44 3. ETHNIC GROUPS AND ETHNIC CONFLICTS ....................... 49 3.1 The Physical Setting................................. 65 3.1.1 The Manipur Hills............................ 68 3.1.2 The Manipur V a l l e y .......................... 71 3.1.3 The Barak Plain.............................. 73 3.2 Distribution of Ethnic Groups ....................... 73 3.2.1 Distribution of Tribal Groups................ 76 3.2.2 Ethnic Territories.......................... 82. 3.3 Sequent Occupation of Manipur ....................... 86 3.3.1 Establishment of British Control ............. 93 3.3.2 Arrival of Outsiders........................ 97 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Chapter Page 3.4 Interethnic Conflict................................. 99 3.4.1 Tribal versus Nontribal.........................100 3.4.2 Intertribal Conflict ........................ 103 3.4.3 Nontribals versus the "Mayang" .............. 104 3.4.4 Tribals and Nontribals versus Foreigners . 105 4. PATTERNS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION.................. 108 4.1 Agricultural Transformation......................... 109 4.2 Shifting Cultivation: A Background ................ 113 4.3 Agricultural Transformation in the Hills............... 118 4.3.1 Expansion of Cultivated L a n d .................. 130 4.3.2 Shortening of F a l l o w ........................... 131 4.3.3 Adoption of Permanent Cultivation .......... 134 4.3.4 Land Tenure among the Hill T r i b e s ............ 138 4.4 Agricultural Transformation in the Valley ........... 142 4.4.1 Land Tenure in the Manipur Valley.............. 147 4.5 Economic Diversification............................... 151 4.5.1 Index of Economic Diversification.............. 161 4.5.2 Availability
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