Chapter -1 URBAN TRANSPORT AND ITS IMPACT

Introduction: This chapter gives a brief background to the study. In the twenty-first century a large number of rural people migrated to the cities. These ever expanding cities generated a huge demand for transportation and it is necessary to study the availability, requirement and quality of transportation services in their totality. This chapter discusses the rising urban population and its travel demands in and in developing countries. Transport characteristics of different Asian cities and of Indian cities have been discussed. The implications of increased vehicles are significant. This chapter deals with the problems of urban transport viz. road accidents, air pollution, energy consumption and congestion in general. As public transport plays a key role in satisfying transport needs, state public is also discussed. This chapter also deals with existing traffic .scenario, travel patterns and the state of public transport of city. The last part of the chapter explains the significance of the study and approach to the study.

1.1 Urbanization and Travel Demand: Overall population growth and increasing urbanization have led to a rapid growth of cities. Cities are the focal points for the activities of a society. They are centers of education, employment, commerce, culture and social and political interaction and they have generated a growth in travel demand. The human population is migrating to cities creating primary challenges for sustainable global development which affect the economy, transportation environment, social equity and governance. There are more than 400 cities in the world with over one million inhabitants. Of these, 27 are mega cities and roughly two thirds of these mega cities are in developing world (Moavenzadeh F., 2007). The management of these cities and the provision of shelter, services mobility and livelihood in an environmentally and socially sustainable

1 manner will be major challenges in coming years. Transportation is a key issue; it is an important feature of economic growth, welfare of the public, accessibility to employment and the amenities of life. In the absence of a good, convenient and efficient public transport system, the use of personal vehicles is increasing which is more energy intensive and polluting. It increases congestion, noise and traffic danger and at the same time reduces mobility and accessibility. Rush hour traffic is very slow and it emits poisonous gases.

Urban Population and Increased Travel Demand in India: The total urban population in India has increased 4.6 times from 62 million to 285 million between 1951 and 2001 and is estimated to be around 540 million by the year 2021; whereas, the number of vehicles has increased 158 times during the same period. In terms of percentage, the total population has gone up from 17 percent in 1951 to 29 percent in 2001 and is expected to increase up to around 37 percent by the year 2021 (Padam S., 2001). There is a great variation in the concentration of urbanization in India which ranges from 8 percent in Himachal Pradesh to 35 percent in but one specific feature of Indian urbanization is the increasing population of metropolitan cities. The trend indicates that urbanization will continue in the years to come. According to the Planning Commission transport demand in the country has grown 1.2 times of the gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate. Metropolitan cities, with just about 11 percent of the total population have 32 percent of the country's vehicles (Sen, 2003). During the last two decades vehicle population in India has increased tremendously. The total number of vehicles has increased seven times from 1986 to 2004. The number has risen from 213.74 lakhs in 1991-92 to 727.81 lakhs in 2003-2004 and it is esdmated that numbers will reach 1471.05 lakhs in the year 2010 (Ray, 2001). Much of the growth is in personalized modes like two-wheelers, cars and jeeps. The trend in vehicle population growth of different types of vehicles in India (Table 1.1) has shown a higher growth in two-wheelers with a steep rise during 1986 to 2004; that is approximately eight times and the number of cars, jeeps have increased about five times whereas, buses have increased only three times (Transport Research Wing, Ministry of Surface Transport, , 2006). Along with motor vehicles, the number of trips and the distance travelled per trip has also increased. Mobility and accessibility have increased tremendously in urban areas. Motor vehicle population in India since 1951 is shown in the Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Total Number of Motor Vehicles Registered in India (1951- 2004) (In Thousands) Cars, Two- Goods Year jeeps and Buses Others Total wheelers vehicles taxis 1951 27 159 34 82 4 306 1956 41 203 47 119 16 426 1961 88 310 57 168 42 665 1966 226 456 73 259 85 1099 1971 576 682 94 343 170 1865 1976 1057 779 115 351 398 2700 1981 2618 1160 162 554 897 5391 1986 6245 1780 227 863 1462 10577 1991 14200 2954 331 1356 2533 21374 1996 23252 4204 449 2031 3850 33786 1997 25729 4672 484 2343 4104 37332 1998 28642 5138 538 3536 4514 42368 1999 31328 5556 540 2554 4897 44875 2000 34118 6143 562 2715 5319 48857 2001 38556 7058 634 2948 5795 54991 2002 41581 7613 635 2974 6121 58924 2003 47519 8599 721 3492 6676 67007 2004 51922 9451 768 3748 6829 72718 Source: Transport Research Wing, Ministry of Surface Transport, Government of India, 2006

1.2 Indian Urban Transport: Asian cities vary tremendously in their urban transport characteristics. In Japanese cities, urban rail and cars are the dominating vehicles, while in the Vietnamese cities motorcycles are an important mode of transport. Similarly in Malaysian cities cars and motor cycles are used. In Chinese cities bicycles dominate and in Hongkong public transport gets the first priority. Tokyo is famous for its rail use, whereas Dhaka and Manila are dominated by Pedi cabs and jitneys respectively. Chinese cities still have the highest levels of bicycle usage in the world (Paul Barter, 2000). Indian cities have a wide range of motorized and non-motorized vehicles. In Mumbai, most people use public transport. Ownership of motor vehicles has become a symbol of class and wealth. Walking, cycling and public transport is considered to be inferior. For instance, in Dhaka in Bangladesh middle class people are embarrassed to be seen on a bicycle because of its association with poverty (Paul Barter, 2000). Many rich cities in Asia such as Singapore, Tokyo, Hongkong, and Seoul have been successful in nurturing cycling and public transport. Japanese cities have created an environment for cycling. Some of Europe's richest countries such as Denmark, Switzerland and Netherlands have also promoted and protected cycling and public transport (Paul Barter, 2000). Strasbourg (France) has provided its citizens with a 300 km. network of bicycle routes. Bogota (Columbia) is famous for its public transport (BRT). In Germany, the bicycle remains a feasible travel option due to public policies (Kaur R., 2003). In Shanghai (the world's greatest cycling city with a population of 14 million in 1995) 42 percent that is 26.7 million person trips are by bicycles (Paul Barter, 2000).

Indian Cities and Travel Patterns: Table 1.2 gives population statistics of Indian cities. There are 6 cities with population of more than 50 lakhs and three of them with more than 1 crore.

Table 1.2 Indian Cities and their Population Less than 1-5 5-10 10-20 20-50 50-100 More than Population llakh lakhs lakhs lakhs lakhs lakhs Icrore Number of 147 177 28 20 6 3 3 cities Source: Govt, of India, 2001 Many cities in India have grown at a tremendous rate in the current decade. In 1951 only 5 cities had a population of more than one million. However, in 2001 there were around 35 cities which had a population of more than 1 million and by the end of the year 2021 these are expected to be at least 50 (Padam S., 2001). Along with urbanization vehicle population in India is increasing at an alarming rate. Table 1.3 shows vehicle population in the major cities of India in 2004.

Table 1.3 Vehicle Population in Major Cities of India (2004) Two- Four- Total City Autos Buses Trucks Wheelers VVheelers Vehicles Ahmedabad 8,40,285 1,48,605 44,290 15,291 8,870 10,75,213 Bangalore 14,16,317 2,65,149 75,360 12,890 30,720 18,90,692 Chennai 13,53,177 3,53,539 53,804 27,457 76,820 20,14,776 Delhi 26,65,750 13,14,672 20,893 36,059 75,601 42,36,675 Hyderabad 10,10,536 1,96,976 73,733 2,703 5,049 13,55,700 Source Govt, of India, Road Transport Yearbook 2004-2005

India's major cities are now increasingly dominated by two-wheelers and cars. Though car ownership is low compared to rich countries, it is growing at the rate of 8 to 9 percent. Urban middle class families are opting for cars and their number is increasing. This shows the Indian economic success but such a rapid growth threatens the sustainability of a city by creating local, national and global problems: rising congestion, increased air pollution, increa,sed oil consumption and high rates of road accidents are some of the challenges associated with motorization. Congestion and delays in traffic are common in all cities affecting city's efficiency and productivity. Transport demand in most of the Indian cities has increased substantially due to increased population, availability of motorized transport, increased income and increased commercial and industrial activides. There is a large variation in travel patterns. Traffic composition in India is of a mixed nature. Public transport, inter mediate public transport, or private modes are mainly used. The share of buses is negligible in most Indian cities compared to two-wheelers and cars. There has been a decline in the share of bus transport from II. I percent in 1951 to 1.3 percent in 1997 for the whole country. However, the demand for public transport has increased considerably due to the growth of cities which in turn has increased both the number and length of public transport trips. Nationwide aggregate statistics on the size of the bus fleet indicates substantial growth with 313 percent increase from 1981 to 2002 (Government of India, 2003). For individual cities there was an 86 percent increase in the size of Mumbai's bus fleet and 54 percent increase in Chennai's bus fleet. The size of Delhi's public bus fleet fell during 1990 but the number of private buses rose almost twice. Along with public transport a large number of private and para transit modes are operating in the market and are satisfying travel demands resulting in high energy consumption, severe pollution, and intense congestion. Auto rickshaws, minibuses, taxis, six-seaters and jeeps are popularly used in cities. Walking and cycling is less in Mumbai than Delhi. Kanpur and Lucknow have much higher proportions of walking and cycling than Pune which has a very high level of motor cycle use (Pucher, 2005). India's poor have been disadvantaged by this motorization as they cannot even afford public transport fares and therefore walk or cycle long distances. Roughly, one fourth of urban residents cannot afford the basic necessities of life, even a bicycle. They live mostly in the outskirt areas of the city and travel long, time consuming job trips, with rare or non existent public services. Those who live in inner areas of the city live in congested slums and suffer from over crowded housing, high levels of air pollution, noise, congestion and traffic danger.

1.3 Urban Transport Problems: Road Accidents and Fatalities: An early study in cooperation with the World Health Organization carried out in selected developing countries shows that for all age groups combined, road accidents were the lO"' most important cause of death and for the age groups 5-64 and 5-44 years they were the sixth and the second important cause respectively (Jacobes, 1998). In Mexico accidents as a cause of death rose from 4% in 1955 to 11 % in 1980 with traffic accidents playing the leading role {Jacobes, 1998). In Thailand, more yeiu-s of potential life were lost through road accidents than from T.B. and malaria combined. This shows that even 10 years ago road accidents were a growing social problem in developing countries. According to a report by the WHO, road accidents kill more than 1.2 million people annually, and around fifty million people get injured or disabled. These numbers are increasing with the passage of years (WHO, 2004). More than 750 million vehicles are running or stmggling in a traffic jam all over the world (Manufacturing Digitals, 2007). The situation is worse in India, where nearly 85,000 get killed and 4,65,000 get injured every year in more than 4,00,000 accidents on a road network of just 2 million km. India's share of road traffic accidents is nearly 6 % of the world's road accidents ( Transport Research Wing, Ministry of Surface Transport. Government of India, 2006). The following table shows number of accidents and number of persons involved in road accidents from 2001 to 2006 in India. Total number of accidents reported in the year 2006 was 4,60,920 of which 93,917 (that is 207r of total accidents) were fatal. The number of persons killed in accidents was 1,05,749 and number of persons injured was 4,96,481. Table 1.4 Accident Statistics of India (2001 -2006) Number of accidents Number of persons *Accident Year Total Fatal Killed Injured Severity 2001 4,05,637 71,219 80888 4,05,216 19.9 2002 4,07,497 73,650 84674 4,08,711 20.8 2003 4,06,726 73,589 85998 4,35,122 21.1 2004 4,29,910 79,357 92618 4,64,521 21.5 2005 4,39,255 83,491 94968 4,65,282 21.6 2006 4,60,920 93,917 105749 4,96,481 22.9 i*Accident Severity : Road accident deaths per 100 accidents) Source: Transport Research Wing, Ministry of Surface Transport, Government of India, 2006. In India urban areas are more accident prone. 27 % of the population of the country lives in cities resulting in 75 % accidents. The big cities alone account for more than 50 % road accidents in the country. In some states of India the capital city accounted for more than 50 % of accidents registered in that state e.g. Kolkata registered 61.16 % of accidents registered in and similarly Mumbai accounted for 50.89 % of accidents registered in Maharashtra. In 2006, 23 selected cities in India accounted for a share of 9.9 % in India's total population but accounted for a share of 18.9% in total road accidents in the country, 11.3% in total persons injured in road accidents in the country and 9.6 7c in total persons killed in road accidents (Tran.sport Research Wing, Ministry of Surface Transport, Government of India, 2006). The following table gives road accident details for major cities of India.

Table 1.5 Accident Statistics of Selected Cities of India (2006) Number of accidents Number of persons ^Accident Cities Total Fatal Killed Injured Severity Alimedabad 2601 238 246 2642 9.5 Chennai 7400 1112 1136 6722 15.4 Delhi 9189 2129 2169 8279 23.6 Hyderabad 3477 415 427 3874 12.3 Kolkata 2276 467 476 1752 20.9 Mumbai 30484 646 669 7471 2.2 (*Accident Severity: Road accident deaths per 100 accidents) Source: Transport Research Wing, Ministry of Surface Transport, Government of India, 2006.

Table 1.5 shows that in Delhi total fatalities were 2169, that means 6 deaths per day. Mumbai recorded maximum total accidents, but severity of the accidents was low whereas in Kolkata number of total accidents was the lowest, but severity of the accidents was high. Emissions and Air Pollution: Due to an increase in the number of vehicles and less emission control measures, motor vehicles have become the largest source of urban air pollution. Air pollution levels in mega cities such as Bangkok, Cairo, Delhi and Mexico City exceed those in any city in the industrialized countries and contribute to public health problems (Gandhi K., 1998). Pollution in Indian cities is worsening. Acute asthma, acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive airway disease and acute coronary events are some of the serious diseases related to the daily level of pollutants. The major pollutants emitted by vehicles are Carbon Monoxide (CO), Hydrocarbons (He), Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx), Particulate Matter (Pm), Lead (Pb), Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), and Total Suspended Particulates (TSP). Emission rate, that is quantity of pollutants emitted per vehicle kilometer for CO, NOx, and Pb is very high for two-wheelers, cars and three-wheelers in comparison with buses, trucks, and LCVs. Decreasing use of the public transport system and increased use of personal vehicles is a major cause for air pollution in Indian cities. Table 1.6 shows that 89 percent of the contribution to automobile pollution is due to personalized vehicles.

Table 1.6 Automobile Pollution by Vehicle Categories Two- Three Vehicle Type Cars Buses Truck wheelers wheelers % contribution 77.7 11.5 5.4 2.0 3.4 to pollution Source: Satyanarayan, 2001

For India's three largest cities Mumbai, Delhi, and Calcutta, SPM and RSPM levels are 3 to 4 times higher than the WHO's (World Health Organization) maximum acceptable levels and among the highest in the world, indicating a very severe health hazard (Kandiikar, 2000). Levels of CO, NOx, and SO2 are considered moderate to low in most Indian cities. Ozone levels have been increasing in all Indian cities causing respiratory illness or irritation (Puchar, 2005). Table 1.7 shows daily vehicle emission load in a few cities in India during 2000. Table 1.7 Daily Vehicle Emission Load in Metropolitan Cities of India (tonns/day) City SPM S02 NOX HC CO Total Chennai 2.34 2.02 28.21 50.46 143.22 226.25 Delhi 10.3 8.96 126.46 249.57 651.01 1046.30 Kolkata 3.25 3.65 54.69 43.88 188.24 293.71 Mumbai 5.59 4.03 70.82 108.71 469.92 659.57 Source: Government of India, 2002, Urban Statistics, Central Pollution Control Board. Town and Country Planning Orf^anizatioii, Ministry of Urban Affairs and Employment

Environmentalists agree that the level of vehicular pollution in mega-cities is beyond a tolerable limit. Vehicular emission depends on vehicle speed, age of vehicle, type of vehicle, vehicle kilometers travelled, fuel quality, fuel type, fuel efficiency, road conditions, abatement technology and maintenance of vehicles. Diesel buses, trucks, and some taxis are the biggest transport source of particulate pollution so the government is shifting to CNG fuel buses. In Delhi, buses have been shifted to CNG fuel from January 2001. Many drivers illegally adulterate their gasoline fuel with upto 30 percent kerosene and 10 percent lubricating oil. The pollution they generate is further increased.

Noise: According to the World Health Organization draft charted on transport environment and health (Paul Barter, 2000), the findings are: 1. Transport and in particular road traffic is the main cause of human exposure to ambient noise. 2. About 65 percent of the European population is estimated to be exposed to noise levels leading to serious annoyance, speech interference and sleep disturbance. 3. Children chronically exposed to loud noise show impaired acquisition of reading skills, attention and problem solving ability.

10 4. Adaptation strategies (tune out/ignore noise) and effort needed to maintain performance have been associated with high levels of stress hormones and blood pressure. 5. There is emerging evidence of an association between hypertension, heart disease and a high level of noise.

Energy Consumption: According to Union Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, India's transport sector consumes the maximum oil and oil products, approximately 30 percent of the total consumption. Power generation and industry together use 30 percent which is the same as the transport sector's oil consumption. Almost all the petrol is used for transport while 19 percent of the diesel is consumed by farms and transport uses 62 percent of the total diesel. India is importing more and more crude oil which is being used to drive vehicles. Crude oil prices are increasing which affects India badly. Hence, energy efficiency of vehicles and a high use of public transport is a must for sustainability. Cars consume six times more energy than an average bus whereas a two- wheeler and a three-wheeler consume 2.5 times and 4.7 times more energy than that of a bus. The consumption of commercial energy in 94-95 was 65.49 million tonnes and the demand is expected to go up to 120 million tonnes by 2005. Domestic product would meet only 27 percent by the year 2010-11 (Joglekar, A., 2006). It is interesting to note that: of a total of 12 lakh liters of petrol supplied to Bangalore, the 13,22,758 two-wheelers in the city alone consume half the amount everyday. Almost all Indian cities have a similar situation. It was the vision of President Dr. Kalam of becoming energy self sufficient in 30 years and thereby becoming a superpower but with the present state of transport it is very difficult. India is the sixth largest consumer of oil in the world. The Country imports more than 70% of its crude oil requirement. Imports of crude have risen from 14.6 million tonnes in 1985-86 to 30.8 million tonnes in 1993-94 to 99.4 million tonnes in 2005-2006 (Ray, 2001 and PTI, 2007 ). Domestic production would meet 44 percent of the demand by the end of the 9' Plan, 33 percent at the end of the 10* Plan and only 27 percent by the year 2010-11 (Ray, 2001).

11 Congestion: Congestion is a worldwide problem in developing countries as well as in developed countries. With a rapid growth in personal vehicles and an increased population of cities, congestion has become a critical issue. In India congestion is a daily affair due to continuous growth in travel demand and slow growth in transport infrastructure. An average roadway speed for motor vehicles in Mumbai has decreased by 50 percent from 1962 to 1993 from 38 Km/hr to only 15-20 Km/hr. In Delhi the average vehicular speed came down to 15 Km/hr in 2002 from 20-23 km/hr in 1997. In Chennai the average speed is 13 km/hr and in Kolkata it ranges from 10 to 15 km/hr (Puchar, 2005). Bangalore has an average road traffic speed of 13 to 15 Km/hr, which comes down to 7 Km/hr during peak hours , but this will go down to 3 to 8 Km/hr. in the next 15 years (Padam S., 2001 ). Moreover peak hours which were a few hours in the morning and evening are now extending throughout the day causing traffic jams. As most Indian cities are widening into an out-skirt city, a trip length has increased with slower travel speed. Average travelling hours for a work trip have increased. According to Padam S. (2001) congestion on India's roads means a loss of 3000-4000 crores every year. Indian roads are forced to share motorized as well as non-motorized modes such as bicycles, bullock-carts, and hand-pulled rickshaws. Pedestrians and animals also walk on the roads as sidewalks are usually missing. Most of the roads are narrow and their width is further reduced with personal vehicles parked on both sides of the road. Many roads are in a bad condition with pot holes and uneven pavements. There is lack of traffic signals at many places and where they are present, they are often ignored by travellers. This further increases congestion. Congestion is frustrating and time consuming. It increases air pollution and the likelihood of crashes and results in wastage of energy. As traffic congestion slows down the movement of goods and people in urban centers, it decreases economic activity. It is estimated that the United States loses over $43 billion yearly due to delays resulting from traffic congestion and in the UK it is 20 to 25 billion dollars per annum. In developing cities the effect can be more; Bangkok loses one third of its annual GDP, nearly $4 million dollars every year (Flora, 1999)

12 1,4 Public Transport in India: The developed world is emphasizing public transport as the main mode of travel whereas the developing world is losing its focus on it. In India buses still meet a very high proportion of the travel demand. Table 1.8 shows fleet strength and utilization rate for Indian cities. Table 1.8 Fleet Strength and Utilization Rate for Indian Cities City Fleet strength Fleet utilization Occupancy rate Mumbai (BEST) 3410 90.2 54.5 Pune 808 80.9 47.7 217 88.9 73.2 Kolhapur 155 85.2 62.7 Solapur 146 66.4 54.7 - 232 53.0 50.8 Kolkata (CSTC) 1265 67.7 95.7 Chennai (MSC) 2810 78.7 84.3 Delhi (DTC) 2665 62.0 82.0 Source: Sen, 2003

Some of the metropolitan cities are served by well organized bus services. Most of the bus services are run by the government. Private bus services also operate in Delhi and Kolkata. Mumbai's BEST services are an efficient and effective transport mode. 85% of Mumbai commuters use public transport. BEST carries about 50 percent of Mumbai's total road users and occupies only four percent of the city's roads. Reliability, comfort and affordability are some of the important parameters that influence the usage patterns of bus services. But during the last two decades the use of public transport has declined among the middle and upper middle class who prefer to travel by two- wheelers and cars. Deteriorating quality of public transport service is also responsible for an increa.sed use of personalized mode in the cities. Most buses are old and poorly designed, inadequately maintained, non-realizable, overcrowded and slow.

13 Due to outdated technology, incompetent management, overstaffing and corruption the efficiency of public transport is declining. The present urban rail services in India are limited to only 4 cities, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Delhi. The rail services in these main cities together cover more than seven million passengers' trips per day. Mumbai's rail system alone is responsible for about 5.5 million passenger-trips per day (Padma S., 2001). Light rail and metro rail are a powerful transport system but they are very costly options. At 5 to 10 percent of its cost, an affordable efficient bus system can be built. Even a subsidized metro system is much too expensive for a low income population hence the demand for a metro system in Indian cities is low. Today Kolkata, Chennai and Delhi metro systems are carrying less than 20 percent of their available capacity.

1.5 Pune Caught In a Vicious Cycle: Pune city is an important urban center in Maharashtra. It is one of the rapidly growing metropolises of the country. Over the past 3 decades the urbanization of the city has taken place due to various reasons like the establishment of educational institutes, I.T. Parks and the development of industry. The Census of 2001 reveals that the city population has reached 26,18,438, indicating a record rise of 47.6 percent from the 1991 census (Government of Maharashtra, 2004). This large population combined with an increase in per capita income plus the easy availability of loans has resulted in a dramatic increase in the number of personal vehicles. The number of registered vehicles increased from 593 thousand in 2000 to 930 thousand in 2007 (Government of India, 2008). Over a period of time the city has started experiencing problems in the safe and easy movement of people and goods. The problem of urban congestion has increa.sed due to a growth in motorized vehicles, especially two-wheelers, six-seaters and auto- rickshaws. The stimulation has been further aggravated by the interstate truck movement which passes through Pune city. With the growth of the city, increases in the trip length are expected to aggravate the manifold traffic and transportation problems in future.

14 Existing Traffic Scenario of Pune City: The total length of the roads in the city is 1800 km including about 50 kms of national highways and state highways. The study indicates that only 4.46 percent or about 10.49 square km of the city's land is utilized for the provision of roads and only about 25 percent of the entire road length in the city, the majority of which is the highways, possesses a road width greater than 24 meters (Pune Municipal Corporation, 2006). Narrow roads, absence of road hierarchy and by passes, low average speed, a lack of pedestrian facilities and mixed traffic conditions are some of the characteristics of the current traffic infrastructure. Once known for its calm and pleasant environment Pune has become a place where commuters spend hours in horrible traffic, where it is impossible to take a walk or ride a bicycle and people need to wear a scarf to save themselves from the polluting air. Death in a road accident is a daily headline in the newspapers of Pune city. Pune city on an average registers about 8 accidents every day. In 2007 a total of 2347 accidents were registered, out of which 403 were fatal accidents and 406 serious accidents (Traffic Police Department, Pune, 2008). With an increased number of two- wheelers, and a rising number of cars, it is not surprising that traffic accidents and fatalities are increasing, with pedestrians and cyclists often being the victims. The following table 1.9 gives details of safety indicators of Pune city in 2001.

Table 1.9 Safety Indicators of Pune City (2001) Traffic fatalities per year 282 Traffic fatalities per million persons 76 Traffic fatalities per 1000 vehicles 21 Traffic fatalities per million passenger kms. 6.3 Source -PSUTA Studies

Deteriorating mobility is another traffic problem that the city is facing. Almost every visitor to Pune expresses concern over the city's rapidly deteriorating traffic situation. Increased commuting time due to severe congestion at all terminals, chaotic traffic conditions and reduced driving speed are the characteristics of Pane's traffic. Air Pollution and Noise Pollution: The city's air quality is extremely debilitating, threatening the health of citizens due to increased number of two-wheelers, use of old vehicles, two stroke rickshaws and reduced speed . 210 tonnes per day of total pollution is produced in the city out of which 65 percent of the pollution is due to vehicles. PMIO, that is, Respiratory Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM) is significant in causing medical problems (asthma and lung cancers). Apart from air pollution, noise pollution is also increasing due to vehicular traffic. The average noise level at Karve Nagar is around 95 decibels which is much higher than the permitted level of 65 decibels. At rush hours, levels have gone up to 125 decibels. Sustained noise at this level can lead to deafness. Heavy vehicles use the city as a transit point they usually slow down and congest the traffic. The other reasons for congestion are; inadequate parking infrastructure, encroachments on footpaths and poor pedestrian discipline. Parking infrastructure has been neglected entirely. People are allowed to park along most of roads. Roads are also in a very poor .shape with pot holes, dug up roads and unending ongoing construction on the road making the situation worse. But along with poor infrastructure, increased vehicles and disrespect for traffic rules on the part of citizens is a major factor contributing to congestion.

Public Transport in Pune City: Pune's public transport is one of the most important and essential modes of transport. Table 1.10 Statistics about Pune's Public Transport Annual budget Around Rs. 1520 million Number of buses held 1050 (including 368 on rent)* Total daily trips 19000 Average number of buses on road 900 Routes operated by PMT 288 Average daily revenue Rs. 85 to 90 lakhs Total manpower 3000 conductors and 3000 drivers Maintenance per month about 1 crore Source:PMPML Department, Pune(2008) (*200 buses are 10 years old, 50 are more than 10 years old, 500 are less than 5 \ears old and 66 are school buses.)

16 In 2004, Pune's traffic and transportation forum had suggested that PMPML should be buying about 1000 buses over the next 2-3 years. (PMPML has purchased about 500 new buses, in which 200 were purchased a year back, 200 were purchased 6 months back and 112 were purchased in October 2008; out of which 50 are CNG buses. PMPML also needs additional depots. Currently buses are parked on streets and they cannot be washed or maintained properly due to inadequate infrastructure As reported by India Together in a round table conference organized in 2004. PMT general manager Radheshyam Mopalwar said, "The fleet is only half the number of buses needed for a city of 30 lakh residents; it is old and aging rapidly; the buses themselves are in a pathetic state as there are not enough trained people or enough bus depots or washing facilities and the bus stops and bus stands are simply bad." The presentation was well illustrated with images: no window panes in some buses; no seats in others; 200 buses had to be left running even at terminating destinations because they had no starters, and evidence of the use, rather misuse, of bus stops themselves. One had cows and goats taking shelter; another was blocked off by a garbage bin that was placed right 'there' and another that was being used by hawkers to park their hand carts (Joglekar A., 2004). According to Padma S. (2001), "bus bodies are mounted on a truck chassis which is built for heavier loads. Their powerful engines and other as.semblies are more fuel consuming. Clearance from the ground level is high, thus inconveniencing passenger entry and exit and they are not designed for comfort." With such a state of public transport it is no wonder that the use of a personalized mode is increasing. To address this issue a comprehensive study and integrated approach is required. (Photographs are shown in Annexure XI) The aim of this study was to find out trends in vehicular population in depth and predict future vehicular growth in Pune city for the period 2008-2020. The road accident scenario was also studied in detail. The other aim of the study was to find out problems associated with public transport and the expectations of the people from public transport, as it would help planners to plan for efficient transportation. It was aimed to conduct a survey of two-wheeler and four-wheeler users to find out the problems they face and their expectations from Pune's public transport for availing the same.

17 1.6 Significance of the study: The urban transport system and city patterns have a natural interdependency. Land use patterns, population densities and socioeconomic characteristics influence the choice of the transport system. Access provided by a specific transport system changes land value and influences land use distribution. The basic purpose of transportadon is moving people and goods from one place to another, but its effect on economic development is much more than this. An efficient transport system can improve the economy, shape development patterns, and influence the quality of life. But surprisingly, a large proportion of the urban population in Asia and other low income cities, remains outside the formal planning process .These people struggle to meet their accessibility and mobility needs. Transport adopted by them is called informal transport. They use informal housing and informal employment as they are not part of the official plan. A large proportion of the urban population living in an informal settlement uses low cost travel mode (walking, bicycles) as they cannot afford to pay even low, subsidized fares for buses. Performance of this system affects air quality, environmental resources, social equity, smart growth, economic development, safety and security. Hence policymakers and experts involved in the city planning have a crucial role in developing the future health of our cities.

Quality of life: Community Spaces: An overemphasis on private motor vehicles is a major factor in the decline of an urban quality of life and sense of community. The poor who control little private space in the city are also dependent on "common places", including public spaces such as streets, parks, paths etc. Traffic and cars use a large amount of urban public spaces adding to the highly inequitable distribution of space in most cities. It has been esdmated that in car oriented cities 30% to 50% of all urban land is devoted to cars and car related land uses (Paul Barter, 2000). Space saving is one of the biggest benefits of balanced transport priorities. Air pollution and health problems: The quality of life of the urban citizen is being threatened by increased air pollution resulting from increased vehicle pollution. Particulate matter emitted by vehicles can be carcinogenic and lead to acute and chronic respiratory problems. Carbon monoxide damages both cardiovascular and respiratory functions. Lead is a leading agent responsible for the underdevelopment of a higher cognitive ability in children and is the leading cause of hypertension, accumulating ground level ozone resulting from NOx, hydrocarbons and sunlight induced reaction is a major contribution to respiratory problems. Long term exposure to lead hampers development of children's brains. It causes learning and behavioral disabilities, hearing problems, reduced concentration and attention span and a drop in LQ. levels. There is a positive significant relationship between particulate pollution and daily non-traumatic deaths. Exposure to vehicular pollution has a significant effect on diastolic blood pressure (Chhabra, 2001).

Socio-economic Cost of Road Accidents: Road accidents increase with increa.sed vehicle population. These road accidents carry a high social and economic cost besides an untimely death. It may result in permanent disability and survivors who often live a poor quality of life and have to live with pain and suffering. It adversely impacts the welfare of the dependents of accident victims.

Transport and Sedentary Lifestyle: Due to increased use of personalized vehicles many people have a lifestyle with very little physical activity - little walking, no cycling or any other exertion. Children walking or cycling to school are threatened by traffic danger. Increased traffic and conversion of empty places and grounds into parking places (including in societies) results in children having little place to play. All this increases the risk of obesity and dependency in children. Failure to get enough exercise is linked to coronary heart diseases, stroke, obesity and diabetes (Paul Barter, 2000). Pedestrian-friendly and bicycle-friendly cities make it easier for people to remain physically active. A study done by British Medical Association found that the benefits of bicycle riding in terms of

19 reduced danger of disease and being more physically active far out-weighed the added risk from accidents.

Risk of Crime: There are different linkages between transport policy and crime. Heavy traffic on streets increases the risk and fear of crime. Inappropriate pedestrian facilities such as pedestrian tunnels or overhead bridges are frequently used by attackers. Actually, people who use bicycles or public transport vehicles are subjected to crime more when their bicycles are stolen or when they face harassment on buses and at bus stops Traffic planners and policymakers today face a major challenge of handling a profusion of private automobiles, public transport vehicles and non-motorized transport so as to reduce congestion and improve mobility. Almost all city-based transport plans focus on supply side management. They provide roads, flyovers and freeways. But how effective is this method? New roads and flyovers get filled up within a few years as they invite more traffic. Experts state that drivers use a new facility hoping to save time, even if they have to travel a great distance ahead, resulting in a redistribution of traffic from surrounding lu-eas and an overall increase in the total amount of driving in the region. Cities investing heavily in road capacity expansion fare no better in reducing traffic congestion than those that invest much less. In fact, flyovers affect public transport users adversely as bus stops get shifted away from intersections to the foot of the flyover, increasing the walking by at least 400 m. (Tiwari G., 2000). Most plans only promise a modal shift from private to public, but none encourage the commuter to leave the car and move to public transport. A reorientation in thinking is required, as it is essential to switch over to an integrated approach to achieve environmentally sustainable transport. In Pune, two-wheelers and cars are increasing at a tremendous rate and with proposed IT Parks and Tata's Nano car, the problem of vehicular traffic will worsen. This situation is compounded by a lack of reliable public transport and pothole-ridden roads. Existing footpaths are shared by hawkers, animals as well as by parked vehicles. Pedestrians are forced to walk through motorized roads. Even existing cycle tracks are being used by two-wheelers. To address these issues and concerns and to efficiently cater to the increased travel demand, it is very essendal to formulate a comprehensive

20 traffic and transportation plan because the city with a population over 25 lakhs and area of 243.90 square kilometers (Pune Municipal Corporation, 2007) requires a massive transportation system. This study will be helpful to design a transportation plan that focuses on safety and social needs as in-depth trends in vehicle population, road accidents and air pollution have been studied. Also the relationship between vehicle population and road accident has been found out. Efficient public transport is a key to sustainable transport. A high quality public transport system exists in many European cities, where the bus system has separate lanes and priorities at junctions. It helps to reduce congestion and encourages environmental preservation. Sadly, in Pune city only 20 percent of the people use public transport and its use is showing a declining trend. To reverse the trend i.e. shift from private mode to public mode it was necessary to find out the improvements required in the current system and people's expectations from public transport for change to take place. The study should be useful for this purpose as it provides the necessary changes expected in the public transport system. An in-depth study is required to understand the problems of unplanned transport and how they can be solved. Chapter -II is a literature review which attempts to find out the problems of increased vehicle population with respect to road accidents and air pollution. A strategic approach to sustainable transport and the practices used in different countries to achieve this goal are also discussed. Chapter-Ill gives the research methodology adopted and chapter-IV is data analysis and interpretation followed by findings and suggestion for sustainable transport in I\jne city, in Chapter-V

Approach to the Study:

To study future implications, it is necessary to study the current scenario, and to provide solutions it is necessary to understand the current problems. Hence current trends in vehicle population, road accidents and air pollution are first studied. Problems faced while travelling by bus as well as by personal vehicle were found out through primary survey and the expectations of people to shift from personal vehicle to public transport was carried out, based on which, suggestions for improvement are given .

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a O C3 c rv O TS X) (U o 'a o < • -a O o C/J c« a •4^ Pi VJ -4.^ C C Kj -a (U c •o Q H Ui I-. o 4^ o cod Ta3 c C 2i C3 O 3 O o U( C u 00 o References:

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23 16. Moavenzadeh, F., Markov, M., J., (2007) Moving Millions, Transport strategies for sustainable development in mega cities, Published by Springer, pp. 17. Padam, S., Singh, S., K., (2001), Urbanization and Urban transport in India. The search for a policy. Proceedings of research papers presented at workshop on transportation. Land use and Environment, CIRT, Pune.pp 185-207. 18. Paul Barter, Tamim Raad, (2000), "Taking Steps: A community action guide to people-centered, equitable and sustainable urban transport." Published by the Sustainable Transport Action Network for Asia and the Pacific (the SUSTRAN Network), pp 15-35. 19. PSUTA Studies, (2005), Partnership for Sustainable Urban Transport in Asia. Sustainable Urban Transport in Asia-Making the Vision a Reality A CAI- Asia Program, sustainabie_urban transport_asia.pdf. 20. PTI- The Press Trust of India Ltd, (2007), India's crude oil import, see 14 pc jump at over 90 mn tones, http://www.highbeam.com/doc/lGl-160l91768.html. 21. Pucher, J., et al, (2005), Urban transport crisis in India, Transport Policy 12, Elsevier Publication, pp 185-198. 22. Pune Municipal Corporation, (2006), Environment Status Report 2005-2006. 23. Pune Municipal Corporation, (2007), Environment Status Report 2006-2007. 24. Ray, Amit, (2001), Control of vehicular pollution through regulation and Technology IJTM, Vol.25, No 2, pp 131-147. 25. Satyanarayan, N., (2001), Convention on environmental sustainability of road transport held at Hyderabad. 26. Sen, S., (2003), Jammed! The state of our nation, Down To Earth, Vol.11, No.24. pp.32-33. 27. Tiwari, G., (2000), Planning for bicycles and other non-motorized modes. The critical elements in city transport system, TRIPP, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, http// web.iitd.ac.in/utripp/ publications. 28. Traffic Police Department, Pune, (2008), Road Accident Statistics. 29. Transport Research Wing, Ministry of Surface Transport, Government of India, (2006), Motor Transport Statistics of India, New Delhi. 30. WHO, (2004), Road safety: a public health issue, Http: // www. who. int /features/ 2004/ road _safety/en/

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