Comparative Politics of Southeast Asia Aurel Croissant • Philip Lorenz

Comparative Politics of Southeast Asia An Introduction to Governments and Political Regimes Aurel Croissant Philip Lorenz Institute of Political Science Institute of Political Science Heidelberg University Heidelberg University Heidelberg, Germany Heidelberg, Germany

ISBN 978-3-319-68181-8 ISBN 978-3-319-68182-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68182-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017955823

# Springer International Publishing AG 2018 Translation from the German language edition: Die politischen Systeme Südostasiens by Aurel Croissant Copyright # Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH 2016. Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH is part of Springer Science+Business Media. All Rights Reserved. This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland To our students. Acknowledgments

During our courses on different aspects of Southeast Asian politics, we often wished we could recommend a single chapter to our students to prepare for their presentations and papers on a given country. The fact that such chapters did not exist is the ultimate reason for this textbook. It is a considerably revised and updated version of a German book published by Aurel Croissant in 2015, and we hope it will now be useful to political scientists, journalists, area experts, and others everywhere. Preparing this manuscript for publication we benefitted from the help of Stephan Giersdorf, who contributed to the original draft of the Malaysia chapter; Thomas Wencker, who drew the maps; Rebecca Abu Sharkh, who served as the native English language editor; and Susanne Schneider and Janika Lohse, who helped prepare the bibliography. We are grateful for their help. While we did our best to avoid any formal and factual errors and inaccuracies, some will inevitably remain in the text. We encourage the reader, to help us find and correct them. Since this book is ultimately the result of teaching Southeast Asian politics, a part of our jobs we both thoroughly enjoy, we dedicate this book to our students.

vii Contents

1 Government and Political Regimes in Southeast Asia: An Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Countries and Cultures of Southeast Asia ...... 1 1.2 Southeast Asia in Colonial Times ...... 2 1.3 Southeast Asia Since the End of Western Colonialism ...... 6 1.4 The Structure of This Book ...... 11 References ...... 12 2 Darussalam: Malay Islamic Monarchy and Rentier State .... 15 2.1 Historical Background ...... 17 2.2 Constitutional Development ...... 20 2.3 System of Government ...... 21 2.4 Legal and Judicial System ...... 23 2.5 Political Parties and Elections ...... 24 2.6 State Administration ...... 25 2.7 Civil–Military Relations and the Security Sector ...... 26 2.8 Civil Society and Media System ...... 27 2.9 Outlook ...... 29 References ...... 31 3 Cambodia: From UN-Led Peace-Building to Post-Genocidal Authoritarianism ...... 35 3.1 Historical Background ...... 37 3.2 Constitutional Development ...... 42 3.3 System of Government ...... 43 3.4 Legal and Judicial System ...... 47 3.5 Electoral System and Elections ...... 50 3.6 Political Parties and Party System ...... 53 3.7 State Administration and Decentralization ...... 54 3.8 Civil–Military Relations and the Security Sector ...... 56 3.9 Political Culture and Civil Society ...... 58 3.10 Media System ...... 61 3.11 Outlook ...... 63 References ...... 64

ix x Contents

4 Indonesia: Challenges of Conflict and Consensus in the Era of Reformasi ...... 71 4.1 Historical Background ...... 73 4.2 Constitutional History ...... 77 4.3 System of Government ...... 79 4.3.1 Head of State and Government ...... 79 4.3.2 Parliament and Legislative Process ...... 82 4.3.3 Other Agencies of Horizontal Accountability ...... 85 4.4 Legal and Judicial System ...... 86 4.5 Electoral System and Elections ...... 89 4.6 Political Parties and Party System ...... 91 4.7 State Administration and Decentralization ...... 94 4.8 Civil–Military Relations ...... 97 4.9 Civil Society and Patterns of Political Orientations ...... 99 4.9.1 Media System ...... 101 4.10 Outlook ...... 102 References ...... 103 5 Laos: The Transformation of Periphery Socialism ...... 113 5.1 Historical Background ...... 115 5.2 Constitutional Development and Principles ...... 119 5.3 System of Government and the Socialist Party State ...... 121 5.4 Political Parties ...... 123 5.5 Legal and Judicial System ...... 125 5.6 Electoral System and Elections ...... 126 5.7 State and Decentralization ...... 128 5.8 Civil–Military Relations ...... 131 5.9 Civil Society and Media System ...... 134 5.10 Outlook ...... 135 References ...... 137 6 Malaysia: Competitive Authoritarianism in a Plural Society ..... 141 6.1 Historical Background ...... 143 6.2 Constitutional History ...... 147 6.3 System of Government ...... 148 6.3.1 Head of State ...... 148 6.3.2 The Legislature ...... 149 6.3.3 Government ...... 151 6.4 Legal and Judicial System ...... 152 6.5 Electoral System and Elections ...... 154 6.6 Political Parties and Party System ...... 158 6.7 Federalism ...... 162 6.8 Civil–Military Relations and the Security Sector ...... 164 6.9 Political Culture and Civil Society ...... 166 6.10 Media System ...... 168 Contents xi

6.11 Outlook ...... 169 References ...... 170 7 Myanmar: The Challenging Transition from Military to Democratic Government ...... 177 7.1 Historical Background and Current Political Challenges . . . . . 179 7.2 Constitutional History ...... 183 7.3 System of Government ...... 185 7.3.1 Head of State and Government ...... 186 7.3.2 Legislature ...... 188 7.4 Legal and Judicial System ...... 189 7.5 Electoral System and Elections ...... 192 7.6 Parties and Party System ...... 195 7.7 State Administration ...... 197 7.8 Civil-Military Relations ...... 200 7.9 Political Culture, Civil Society, and Media System ...... 202 7.10 Outlook ...... 205 References ...... 207 8 Philippines: People Power and Defective Elite Democracy ...... 213 8.1 Historical Background ...... 215 8.2 Constitutional Development ...... 219 8.3 System of Government ...... 220 8.3.1 Head of State and Government ...... 220 8.3.2 Congress ...... 224 8.4 Legal and Judicial System ...... 228 8.5 Electoral System and Elections ...... 231 8.6 Parties and Party System ...... 237 8.7 State Administration ...... 241 8.8 Civil–Military Relations ...... 243 8.9 Political Culture and Civil Society ...... 245 8.10 Media System ...... 246 8.11 Outlook ...... 247 References ...... 248 9 Singapore: Contradicting Conventional Wisdoms About Authoritarianism, State, and Development ...... 255 9.1 Historical Background ...... 257 9.2 Constitutional History ...... 259 9.3 System of Government ...... 261 9.3.1 President ...... 262 9.3.2 Prime Minister and Cabinet ...... 263 9.3.3 Parliament ...... 263 9.4 Legal and Judicial System ...... 265 9.5 Electoral System and Elections ...... 268 xii Contents

9.6 Political Parties and Party System ...... 272 9.7 State Administration ...... 274 9.8 Civil–Military Relations ...... 276 9.9 Political Culture and Civil Society ...... 277 9.10 Media System ...... 279 9.11 Outlook ...... 281 References ...... 284 10 Thailand: The Vicious Cycle of Civilian Government and Military Rule ...... 291 10.1 Historical Background ...... 293 10.2 Constitutional Development ...... 296 10.3 System of Government ...... 299 10.3.1 Head of State ...... 300 10.3.2 The Executive and Legislature ...... 301 10.3.3 Mechanisms of Horizontal Accountability and Watchdog Organizations ...... 304 10.4 Legal System and Judiciary ...... 305 10.5 Electoral System and Elections ...... 306 10.6 Political Parties and Party System ...... 311 10.7 State Administration ...... 315 10.8 Civil–Military Relations ...... 317 10.9 Political Culture and Civil Society ...... 319 10.10 Media System ...... 322 10.11 Outlook ...... 323 References ...... 324 11 Timor-Leste: Challenges of Creating a Democratic and Effective State ...... 331 11.1 Historical Background ...... 333 11.2 Constitutional Development ...... 338 11.3 System of Government ...... 339 11.3.1 President ...... 340 11.3.2 Prime Minister and Council of Ministers ...... 341 11.3.3 Parliament ...... 342 11.3.4 Interactions Between Presidency, Cabinet, and Legislature ...... 343 11.4 Legal and Judicial System ...... 345 11.5 Electoral System and Elections ...... 346 11.6 Political Parties and Party System ...... 349 11.7 State Administration and Stateness ...... 352 11.8 Civil–Military Relations and Security Governance ...... 355 11.9 Civil Society ...... 357 11.10 Media System ...... 360 11.11 Outlook ...... 361 References ...... 361 Contents xiii

12 Vietnam: The Socialist Party State ...... 367 12.1 Historical Background ...... 369 12.2 Constitutional Development ...... 374 12.3 System of Government and the Socialist Party State ...... 375 12.4 Parties and Party System ...... 379 12.5 Judicial and Legal System ...... 382 12.6 Electoral System and Elections ...... 384 12.7 State Administration and Decentralization ...... 387 12.8 Civil–Military Relations ...... 388 12.9 Political Culture, Media System, and Civil Society ...... 393 12.10 Outlook ...... 397 References ...... 398 13 Conclusions: Comparing Governments and Political Institutions in Southeast Asia ...... 403 13.1 Introduction ...... 403 13.2 Constitutions ...... 403 13.3 Legal Systems and Constitutional Review ...... 407 13.4 Systems of Government ...... 411 13.5 Elections and Electoral Systems ...... 416 13.6 Political Parties and Party Systems ...... 422 13.7 State and Administration ...... 425 13.8 Civil–Military Relations ...... 427 13.9 Political Legitimacy and Civil Society ...... 431 13.10 Outlook ...... 436 References ...... 438 List of Abbreviations

ABS Asian Barometer Survey AFP Armed Forces of the Philippines AFPFL Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom League (Myanmar) APM Parliamentary Majority Alliance (Timor-Leste) APODETI Timorese Popular Democratic Association ARMM Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (Philippines) ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations BERSIH Commission for Free and Fair Elections (Malaysia) BI Bank Indonesia BIA Brunei Investment Agency BJT Proud Thai Party (Thailand) BLDP Buddhist Liberal Democratic Party BMA Bangkok Metropolitan Area BN National Front (Malaysia) BNDP Brunei National Democratic Party BPK Audit Board (Indonesia) BS Socialist Front (Malaysia) BSPP Burmese Socialist Program Party BTI Bertelsmann Transformation Index CDA Constitutional Draft Assembly (Thailand) CDC Community Development Councils (Singapore) CDF Chief of Defence Force (Singapore) CEC Chief Executive Committee CGDK Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea CNE National Election Commission (Timor-Leste) CNRP Cambodian National Rescue Party CNRT National Resistance Council (Timor-Leste) COMECON Council for Mutual Economic Assistance COMELEC Election Commission (Philippines) CPA Council for Presidential Advisors (Singapore) CPF Central Provident Fund (Singapore) CPM Communist Party of Malaya

xv xvi List of Abbreviations

CPP Cambodian People’s Party Communist Party of the Philippines Chartthaipartana Party (Thailand) CPSU Communist Party of the Soviet Union CPV Communist Party of Vietnam CSO Civil Society Organizations CTP Chart Thai Party DAP Democratic Action Party (Malaysia) DDR Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration DDSI Directorate of Defence Services Intelligence (Myanmar) DIM Problem Inventory List (Indonesia) DP Democrat Party (Thailand) DPD Regional Representative Council DPR People’s Representative Council DPRD Regional People’s Representative Council DRV Democratic Republic of Vietnam ECCC Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia EDSA Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (main Metro Manila Highway) ENEP Effective Number of Electoral Parties EPU Economic Planning Unit (Malaysia) F-FDTL Falintil-Defense Forces of Timor-Leste FALINTIL Liberation Armed Forces of Timor-Leste FDI Foreign Direct Investment FNL National Liberation Front (Vietnam) FRETILIN Revolutionary Front for an Independent Timor-Leste FUNCINPEC United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful and Cooperative Cambodia GAD General Administrative Department (Myanmar) GAM Movement Free Aceh (Indonesia) GDP Gross Domestic Product GDSI General Department of Strategic Intelligence (Vietnam) GLC Government-linked Companies (Singapore) GRC Group Representation Constituencies (Singapore) GRU Reserve Unit (Brunei) HCMC Ho Chi Minh City HDB Housing and Development Board (Singapore) HDI Human Development Index HRP Human Rights Party (Cambodia) ICP Indochina Communist Party IMF International Monetary Fund INGO International Non-Governmental Organization INTERFET International Force in East Timor ISA Internal Security Act ISF International Stabilization Force ISP Internet Service Provider List of Abbreviations xvii

JBC Judicial and Bar Council (Philippines) KBL New Society Movement (Philippines) KKN Corruption, Collusion and Nepotism (Indonesia) KNP Coalition for National Unity (Philippines) KomnasHAM National Human Rights Commission (Indonesia) KOTA Association of Timorese Heroes KPI Indonesian Broadcasting Commission KPK Corruption Eradication Commission (Indonesia) KPNLF Khmer People National Liberation Front (Cambodia) KPU General Election Commission (Indonesia) KRIS Constitution or the Federal Republic of Indonesia KY Judicial Commission (Indonesia) LDP Liberal Democratic Party (Malaysia) Liberal Democratic Party (Philippines) LEDAC Legislative-Executive Development Council (Philippines) LGBT Lesbian-Gay-Bisexual-Transgender LGC Local Government Code (Philippines) LGU Local Government Units (Philippines) LP Liberal Party (Cambodia) Liberal Party (Philippines) LPAF Lao People’s Armed Forces LPRP Lao People’s Revolutionary Party LSM Self-reliant Community Institutions (Indonesia) LWU Lao Women’s Union MA Supreme Court (Indonesia) MACC Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission MAF MCA Malaysian Chinese Association MDB 1Malaysia Development Berhad (Malaysian Sovereign Wealth Fund) MIB Malay Islamic Monarchy MIC Malaysian Indian Congress MILF Moro Islamic Liberation Front MINDEF Ministry of Defence (Singapore) MK Constitutional Court (Indonesia) MMP Multi-Member Plurality MNLF Moro National Liberation Front MOD Ministry of Defense MOE Military-Owned Enterprise MOHA Ministry of Home Affairs (Myanmar) MP Member of Parliament MPLA Malayan People’s Liberation Army MPR People’s Consultative Assembly (Indonesia) MRHA Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act (Malaysia) NAP New Aspiration Party (Thailand) xviii List of Abbreviations

NASC National Assembly Standing Committee (Laos) NCCC National Counter Corruption Commission (Thailand) NCMP Non-Constituency Member of Parliament (Singapore) NCPO National Council for Peace and Order (Thailand) NDF National Democratic Force (Myanmar) NDSC National Defense and Security Council (Myanmar) NEC National Election Commission (Cambodia) NEP New Economic Policy (Malaysia) NGO Non-Governmental Organization NLD National League of Democracy (Myanmar) NMP Nominated Members of Parliament (Singapore) NP Nationalist Party (Philippines) NPA New People’s Army (Philippines) NPC National People’s Coalition (Philippines) NRP Norodom Ranariddh Party (Cambodia) NTUC National Trade Union Congress (Singapore) NU Nahdlatul Ulama (Indonesia) NUP National Unity Party (Myanmar) Nationalist Unity Party (Philippines) OB “out of bounds” ODA Official Development Assistance OECD Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development OFW Overseas Filipino Workers OIC Organisation for Islamic Cooperation OPM Organization for a Free Papua (Indonesia) Office of the Prime Minister (Malaysia) PAD People’s Alliance for Democracy (Thailand) PAKAR People’s Awareness Party (Brunei) PAN National Mandate Party (Indonesia) PAO Provincial Administrative Organization (Thailand) PAP People’s Action Party (Singapore) PAS Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party PBB Moon and Star Party (Indonesia) PBS Sabah United Party (Malaysia) PD Democratic Party (Indonesia) PDI Democratic Party of Indonesia PDI-P Democratic Party of Indonesia Struggle PDK Party of Democratic Kampuchea (Cambodia) PDP-Laban Philippine Democratic Party-Power of the Nation PDR People’s Democratic Republic PDRC People’s Democratic Reform Committee (Thailand) PKB National Awakening Party (Indonesia) PKI Communist Party of Indonesia PKP Communist Party of the Philippines (Huk) PKR People’s Justice Party (Malaysia) List of Abbreviations xix

PKS Prosperous Justice Party (Indonesia) PM Prime Minister PMBU Prime Minister Bodyguard Unit (Cambodia) PMO Prime Minister’s Office PMP Force of the Filipino Masses PNI National Party of Indonesia PNTL National Police of Timor-Leste POLRI Police of the Republic of Indonesia PPP People’s Prosperity Party (Indonesia) PPT People’s Party of Timor PR Proportional Representation PRB People’s Party of Brunei PRS Sarawak People’s Party (Malaysia) PSD Social Democratic Party (Timor-Leste) RAM Reform the Armed Forces Movement (Philippines) RBAF Royal Bruneian Armed Forces RCAF Royal Cambodian Armed Forces RI Republic of Indonesia RIS Federal Republic of Indonesia RMR Royal Malay Regiment RTAF RTM Radio Television Malaysia SA Singapore Alliance SAF SAP Social Action Party (Thailand) SCM Supreme Council of the Magistracy (Cambodia) SDA Singapore Democratic Alliance SDP Singapore Democratic Party SEA Southeast Asia SLORC State Law and Order Restoration Council (Myanmar) SMC Single-Member Constituency SMP Single-Member Plurality SNI National Intelligence Service (Timor-Leste) SNTV Single Non-Transferable Vote SOE State-Owned Enterprise SPDC State Peace and Development Council (Myanmar) SPP Singapore People’s Party SRP Sam Rainsy Party (Cambodia) SRV Socialist Republic of Vietnam STAE Secretariat for Electoral Administration (Timor-Leste) TAO Tambon Administrative Organization (Thailand) TNI Indonesian National Armed Forces TRT Thais love Thais TVRI Television of the Republic of Indonesia UDT Timorese Democratic Union xx List of Abbreviations

UEC Union Election Commission (Myanmar) UMNO United Malay National Organization UN United Nations UNA United Nationalist Alliance (Philippines) UNMISET United Nations Mission to Support East Timor UNMIT United Nations Integrated Mission in East Timor UNTAC United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia UNTAET United Nations Transitional Authority in East Timor USDA Union Solidarity and Development Association (Myanmar) USDP Union Solidarity and Development Party (Myanmar) UUD Basic Law (Indonesia) VFF Vietnamese Fatherland Front VGCL Vietnam General Confederation of Labour VOC United East India Company (Netherlands) VPA Vietnamese People’s Army WGI World Governance Indicators WVS World Value Survey