UNITY JOURNAL

Assessing ’s military diplomacy: Neighborhood and beyond

Gaurav Bhattarai

Abstract every externally-oriented military activity can be considered military diplomacy, as it would People often speculate that small countries constitute an extension of international policy hardly ever exercise military diplomacy since (Jaishankar, 2017). Precisely, military force the latter presume that hard power instruments, is a true political instrument, a continuation including security forces and coercion are the of political intercourse, carried on with apparatus of powerful countries. Because of other means (Clausewitz, 1976, p. 87).Still, its geopolitical location between two bigger military diplomacy can be defined as a set of countries, Nepal has been successfully activities in operation by the representatives exercising military diplomacy in the course of the defense department, as well as other of history. Owing to the same fact, this paper state institutions, aimed at pursuing the aims at assessing Nepal’s military diplomacy foreign policy interests of the state in the field towards its immediate neighbors— and of security and defense policy, and whose , and even beyond its neighborhood. actions are based on the use of negotiations In this paper, beyond neighborhood refers and other diplomatic instruments. Military to the Nepali ’s role in diplomacy differs from gunboat diplomacy missions in different conflict- or coercive diplomacy (Pajtinka, 2016, p. 1). afflicted countries. Thus, the article concludes with a note that as Military diplomacy as such performs an established institution of the country several basic functions. First, gathering and has reposed its exceptional capability of analyzing information on the armed forces exercising the modern-day diplomacy at both and the security situation in the receiving levels—neighborhood and beyond. state. Secondly, promotion of cooperation, communication and mutual relations Keywords: military diplomacy, India, China, between the armed forces of the sending UN Peacekeeping, neighbourhood and the receiving state. Thirdly, organization Introduction of working visits of representatives of the defense authorities and of peaceful stay of Diplomacy is all about managing relations the military units of the sending state in the among states. It is the communication receiving state. Fourthly, support of business systems of the international society, as an contracts with arms and military equipment attempt to promote international negotiations, between the sending and the receiving state. whether concerning inter- or intra-state Lastly, representation of the sending state and conflicts (Berridge, 2000, pp.1-3). But, there its armed forces at official ceremonies and is no universally accepted definition of what other events in the receiving state (Pajtinka, constitutes military diplomacy or defense 2016, p. 1). diplomacy. By its broadest definition, almost

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Military diplomacy is a specific field of months ago, and now the government has diplomacy, which focuses primarily on the accepted his offer” (Adhikari, 2015). pursuit of foreign policy interests of the state. Still, in the theory of international Later, Nepal aided the Young husband relations, and specifically within diplomatic expedition to Tibet in 1903-1904. Chandra science, military diplomacy has received Shumsher, who had recognized British much inadequate attention in comparison supremacy in much the way Jung Bahadur to public diplomacy, economic diplomacy, had, understood Nepal’s relationship with Mega-diplomacy, among others. Equally, in Tibet no longer had the same importance as it the domain of security studies, the military did earlier. Thus, he offered Lord Curzon, the diplomacy is not a widely studied subject. Nepali troops for the 1904 Young husband In practice, the field of military diplomacy expedition. A year before the Young husband often tends to be closely linked with the expedition, Chandra Shumsher had met intelligence activities of military intelligence. Curzon at the Coronation Durbar. A few days In many cases, there are a limited scholarship after the meeting, Curzon reveals that: in military diplomacy, because the concerned We believe that the policy of frank authorities would maintain restricted to the discussion and co-operation with classified materials in the field (Pajtinka, the Nepalese Durbar would find 2016, p. 1). them prepared most cordially to Military diplomacy of Nepal: Retrospect assist our plans [in Tibet]. Not the and prospect slightest anxiety has been evinced at our recent forward operations on For centuries, Nepal, has been diligently the Sikkim frontier; and we think involved in military diplomacy. The Rana that, with judicious management, regime, which lasted in Nepal from 1846- useful assistance may confidently be 1951, had strong bonds with the British. expected from the side of Nepal…the During the Indian Mutiny of 1857–58, Maharaja is prepared to co-operate Nepal’s Prime Minister Jung Bahadur Rana with the Government of India in himself commanded a contingent of Nepali whatever way may be thought most soldiers to assist the British, eventually desirable. (Mulmi, 2017) commencing a tradition of Nepali military assistance to the British Empire. During the Unforgettably, Nepal assisted the British Rana regime, the Nepali Army (NA) remained government during the World Wars. This strategically vital to the British Empire. It long history established military diplomacy was very hard for forces as a technique for Nepal’s diplomatic to tackle the rebellion in the beginning. A relations. Also, Nepalis have a long history Nepalese soldier at the front has been quoted of engaging in foreign battles. In particular, as saying: "This war will soon be over. Jung the Nepali Army is renowned for their martial Bahadur is going to march down to Lucknow culture around the world (Amatya, 2018). with his army….He is our prime minister and More than 200,000 Nepali men participated commander-in-chief in Nepal. He offered to in the Second World War on various fronts, bring an army down to help you English two at a time when the call for total independence

49 UNITY JOURNAL in the subcontinent had reached far and wide Nepal signed an agreement with the US, (Mulmi, 2017). under which the Americans agreed to provide logistic support to the then Royal Nepali Historically, Nepal’s relations with its Army. Subsequently, the UK also started neighbors were determined by war and providing some military assistance to Nepal. military affairs (Amatya, 2018). Now, there India was already a major defense supplier is a shift in Nepal’s military diplomacy. At to Nepal. Since 1950, Nepal and India have present, Nepal is increasing its military also been awarding the Army chiefs of outreach to China. Even in 1989, when each other the honorary rank of General in India had imposed a blockade on Nepal, recognition of the harmonious relationship the real reason for the blockade was that the between the two . Three countries— had purchased weapons India, the US and the UK—have long been from China. Within a few years the Panchayat Nepal’s major defense partners, in terms of regime fell apart and multiparty democracy grant and sale, and have helped meet the was installed in Nepal. In 2005, Nepal’s King requirements of the Nepali Army. But in the Gyanendra had also purchased weapons from last three decades, there have been many China — a few years later he was deposed changes in Nepal’s defense cooperation. and Nepal was turned into a republic. Clearly, China has emerged as another major defense Nepal’s efforts to enhance military relations partner. Recent engagements between the with China have always sparked India’s two countries suggest China is all set to concerns, as New Delhi resents to the 1962 overtake Nepal’s traditional defense partners Sino-Indian War (Amatya, 2018). Nepal still (Bhattarai, 2019). Since the establishment continues to conduct joint military drills of diplomatic relations between Nepal and with India, with the latest being Surya Kiran China in 1955, the armies of the two countries XIII, which was held in June 2018. However, have had cordial ties. Although Nepal and Nepal has also started military drills with China signed an understanding on military China, with gives an entirely new image to cooperation in 1988, bilateral defense Nepal’s military diplomacy. In fact, Nepal cooperation gained momentum mainly after recently backed out from a new joint military King Gyanendra’s royal takeover in 2005, exercise in India planned for BIMSTEC states and particularly after the abolition of the but continued its military drill with China, in monarchy in 2008. For instance, on 24 Oct Sichuan province (Amatya, 2018). 2005, China pledged military assistance Military diplomacy: Neighborhood and worth $989,000 to Nepal, primarily to curb beyond the Maoist insurgency. Between 2001 and 2005, the Nepal government also purchased Initiating Nepal’s entry into different military hardware from India, the US, the UK multilateral forums, King Mahendra, and to fight the rebels. But after the particularly after the 1962 India-China War, 2005 royal takeover, India, the US and the started reaching out to western countries UK suspended their military aid to Nepal, for military assistance (Bhattarai, 2019). demanding the restoration of democracy. The Western countries, mainly the US and the NA faced a shortage of military hardware UK, responded positively to Mahendra’s to be sent to its peace missions abroad. In request for military assistance, and in 1964, order to address its security interest in Nepal

50 UNITY JOURNAL after the abolition of the monarchy, China Ram Bahadur Thapa signed an agreement adopted a policy of accelerating collaboration with China on military assistance worth $ 2.6 with Nepal’s security forces. Officials from million for the modernization of the NA in China’s People’s Liberation Army (PLA) December 2008. After that, Chinese military started cultivating relations with Nepal’s officials, including the PLA chief, have defense minister and army chief—something continued to visit . A close analysis which continues to date. In June 2017, China of trends shows that soon after the formation handed over the National Armed Police of a new government in Nepal, either China Force Academy, which it built, to the Nepal invites our defense minister for a visit or high government. In the handover ceremony, then level Chinese officials come to Kathmandu. Chinese Ambassador to Nepal Yu Hong said, In the case of the NA chief, there is a “China is always willing to conduct pragmatic tradition of visiting India first after assuming cooperation with Nepal in the field of talents, office. Another turning point, according to development and national security.” Even observers, is the Indian blockade in 2015- before 1990, both Nepal and China had made 16. General Rajendra Chettri reportedly was efforts to enhance military collaboration, in a great quandary prior to his maiden visit but those moves were opposed by India. In as Chief of the Army Staff (COAS) to India. 1989, Nepal bought various military weapons In line with a long tradition, he was invited from China—much to the chagrin of India, to receive the title of the Honorary General which argued that the purchase goes against of the . But, since India had laid the spirit of the 1950 Peace and Friendship a siege on Nepal by imposing an economic Treaty. After the restoration of democracy blockade at that time, visiting India then in 1990, during the visit of interim Prime was excruciatingly difficult to justify back Minister Krishna Prasad Bhattarai to New home. General however, saw it Delhi, Indian officials asked him why the as a rare opportunity to hold direct talks Nepal government purchased weapons from with various constituencies in India to end China. “Because we got them cheap and Nepal’s predicament. He consulted the then India did not meet all our requirements” Nepali Prime Minister, who gave him a (Bhattarai, 2019). Bhattarai reportedly told nod to proceed. It was, of course, a genuine the Indian officials. After 1990, the defense undertaking from the part of COAS but collaboration between Nepal and China did that was ultimately paid off. The economic not gain much momentum. However, Nepal sanctions were still in effect for which he had continued to convince. India that it has the embarked on a national mission but it was right to purchase military hardware from eventually lifted just a day before his arrival third countries. Along with regular military back in Kathmandu. According to some of assistance from China, it would be worthwhile the reports, prior to his visit, General Chettri to discuss some vital developments that had already quietly dispatched his military contributed to increased military cooperation emissary to Delhi. A team comprising of between the two countries in the past decade two of his most trusted aides, including NA’s (Bhattarai, 2019). Director General of Military Operations accompanied by one of the , in After the first Constituent Assembly (CA) efforts to persuade their Indian counterparts elections in 2008, then Defense Minister towards a propitious resolution, reportedly

51 UNITY JOURNAL set up a camp in the Indian capital for ten operation in military training, hardware in days and met with civilians and military humanitarian and disaster management, brass and apprised them of dire consequences and medical equipment and peace-keeping of the Indian economic embargo. Reportedly, operations, and requested for Chinese support the Indian Army was very receptive to NA’s in establishing Defense University in Nepal,” reasoning and rendered unequivocal support reads a press release issued by the Nepali to the two senior Nepali officers in their Embassy in Beijing after the visit (Bhattarai, mission. The Indian Army facilitated all the 2019). In respect to the agreement, China dialogues with other civilian counterparts in increased its military support to Nepal by 50 the Indian establishment and buttressed the percent to strengthen Nepali Army’s capability NA’s position. When the political realms of in disaster management and to better equip both countries collided, it was the militaries Nepal’s UN Peacekeeping missions. China that were conciliatory and played a uniting also announced an assistance worth RMB role (Thapa, 2016). In the same way, 150 million (Rs 2.53 billion) for the NA for relationship with the government of China, is the next five years (Bhattarai, 2019). But the another significant endeavor that the Nepali Chinese military influence should be taken Army has made in recent years. for larger context of the Science of Military Strategy unveiled by China in 2013, which is Two vital developments in 2017 deepened directed to developing a modern and capable the military cooperation between Nepal military. China has since been assertive in and China. After a long hiatus, Chinese all areas of foreign policy, including military Defense Minister and State Councilor Chang diplomacy. Wanquan paid a three-day visit to Kathmandu in March. He announced a grant assistance Between Nepal and China, bilateral military of $ 32.3 million to Nepal, to be spent on cooperation started in 1988. Nepal purchased building Nepal’s capacity to deal with natural military hardware, such as anti-aircraft guns, calamities and purchasing equipment for medium range SSM, among others in 1989. Nepali Army peacekeepers deployed in Soon after the royal takeover in 2005, China conflict-affected areas. In the same year, the pledged military assistance of $989,000 armies of the two countries conducted the to Nepal to fight the Maoist insurgency. In first-ever joint military drill, paving the way December 2008, Nepal and China signed for further collaboration. After the formation an agreement on military assistance­ worth of the new government led by Nepal $ 2.6 million for the modern­ization of the Communist Party (NCP) Chair KP Sharma Nepali Army. In 2009, China agreed to Oli, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for provide military aids worth 20.8 million Foreign Affairs Ishwor Pokhrel visited China Yuan (approximately Rs 220 million). In in October 2018. During the visit, Pokhrel 2011, during his visit to Nepal, then Chinese and Chinese State Councilor and Defense Army Chief Chen Bingde announced military Minister Wei Fenghe signed a Memorandum aid of $7.7 million for the Nepali Army. of Understanding (MoU) to consolidate In June 2013, Nepal and China agreed to relationships between two countries through construct the National Armed Police Force their military institutions. “Minister Pokhrel Academy during Chinese State Councilor mentioned the importance of military co- Yang Jiechi’s visit to Kathmandu. In 2017,

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China pledged an assistance of $32.3 million General Chen Bingde made his visit to Nepal to the Nepali Army Also, in 2017, Nepal and in 2011. Besides financial assistance, the PLA China began the first ever joint military drill, has also increased the number of war college which was a major turning point in bilateral seats and National Defence Course (NDC) defense cooperation. In October 2018, quotas for the NA officers. The current ratio China announced to provide an assistance of Chinese to the NA personnel in China’s worth RMB 150 million (Rs 2.53 billion) War College short term training programmes to the Nepali Army for the next five years is around 4:1 (Khatri, 2017). The military (Bhattarai, 2019). assistance has become a strategic step of military/defense diplomacy between any Acceptance of military assistance from two countries. Recently, during the official friendly neighboring countries to the Nepali visit of China by Chief of Army Staff Purna Army has played a significant role in keeping Chandra Thapa, a protocol of signing was bilateral and military-to-military relations held on June 19 to receive an assistance of intact and active (Khatri, 2017). The level and RMB 150 million over a period of next five volume of military assistance from neighbors years for humanitarian and disaster relief along with the UK and the, especially after equipment. The protocol signing was held the post-Monarchy period in 2008 and post- as per the agreement reached on October earthquake of 2015 in Nepal. The level 27, 2018 during Deputy Prime Minister and of military assistances from the People’s Defense Minister Ishwor Pokharel’s official Liberation Army (PLA) of China has gone up visit to China. The agreement was inked after the Chinese Defence Minister and Sate between Chinese State Councilor Wei Fenghe Councilor General Chang Wanquan paid a and DPM Pokharel. The PLA had provided three-day official visit to Kathmandu during a total of 118 million RMB assistance to 23-25 March, 2017. General Chang’s was the Nepal during the time of earthquake in first defense ministerial visit since the two 2015. The Chinese supports to Nepal and countries established diplomatic relations the earthquake victims include medical in 1955 (Khatri, 2017). Chang’s visit to equipment, mobile field hospitals, and tents. Kathmandu saw PLA extending a grant There was no any military assistance from assistance of USD 32.3 million to the NA China in the year 2016. In the year 2017, for strengthening NA’s capacity to deal with China had agreed to provide 230 million natural calamities and providing equipment RMB, which the NA would have received by for the United Nations peacekeeping missions. the end of 2019 (Khatri, 2017). Similarly, in The grant assistance was 10 times higher than the year 2018, China had provided materials the China’s previous military assistance to and equipment worth 150 million RMB that the NA before the post-Monarchy period. The include mechanic bridges, vehicles, rescue visit of Chang had taken place on the eve of kits and explosive ordnance disposal (EOD). the first ever joint military exercise entitled, Nepal has also been receiving supports from ‘Sagarmatha Friendship’ which was held friendly countries beyond the immediate on 16 April 2017 in Kathmandu. In 2011, neighbors. China had signed an agreement for providing military aid to the tune of USD 7.7 million The U.S had provided mainly four Acrow to the NA when the Chinese Army Chief bridges in the year 2014 that continues to date

53 UNITY JOURNAL in Jitpur of Bara, Jure of Sindhupalchowk, around Rs. 10 million to NA for sending its Thankot bordering Kathmandu and Dhading one to attend and complete the NDC districts (Khatri, 2017). Subsequently, in course abroad (Khatri, 2017). the year of earthquake in 2015, the U.S. government had provided mainly heavy Most importantly, the Nepali Army is one of vehicles, generators worth USD 3.67 million, the vital contributors to the UN peacekeeping radio sets worth USD 1.6 million, disaster missions. Apart from serving in Britain, related rafts and motorboats worth USD India and in the UN missions, the 245,000 and USD 1 million assistance for of Nepal till this day serve in the Singapore constructing one hospital for Birendra Peace Police as the Contingent and in Operation Training Centre of Dhulikhel in as the Gurkha Reserve Unit. Today, 2016 and explosive ordnance disposal worth Nepal’s military diplomacy with China may USD 82,845 in 2018. Similarly, India’s strain Indo-Nepal relations. If China supports military assistance to Nepal is based on both Nepal in increasing its presence in UN loans and grants in a ratio of 60-40. If India peacekeeping missions and continues to assist provides any arm logistics, the NA has to bear Nepal in upgrading its security forces while 40 per cent of its total cost. NA had to pay Rs. providing training to the military as well 3.21 billion of loans to the Indian government as police officials, this may indeed deepen or Indian Army as per the record of 2010 the relationship between the two countries (Khatri, 2017). But usually, such due amount (Amatya, 2018). As of 13 January 2020, the has a trend of receiving waivers from India Nepali Army has deployed across 12 missions based upon two nation’s bilateral talks and around the world. As one of the imperative agreements (Khatri, 2017). India’s military troop contributors, Nepal ranks fifth in assistance level and its mode of assistance are the world. Currently, the Nepali Army has different from that of China and the U.S. As around 5095 soldiers, including 170 female mentioned in the 1950 India-Nepal Treaty of armed forces serving in 12 different missions Peace and Friendship, the Nepal government around the globe. Nepal has a commitment to has been purchasing arms and ammunition provide up to 5000 peacekeepers should the only from India till date. In 2015, Nepal UN so request (NA Peacekeeping Mission, had purchased and received some military 2020). weapons, including binoculars from India. Nepal became a member of the United Nations Nepal purchased and received grants in in 1955 and since then, has been an active the forms of weapons and ammunition and participant of most UN peace operations. military vehicles in 2017 and 2018. In 2019, The participation of the Nepali Army in NA got over 50 light vehicles from the Indian the UN peace support operations spans a government (Khatri, 2017). Annually, the period of over a half century covering some level of Chinese military assistance to NA is 43 UN missions, in which over 1, 29, 890 on rise by over 50 per cent. China is the only personnel have participated. The army’s country which has been providing the highest long association with the UN peace support number of quota (five) to NA for conducting operations began with a modest deployment National Defense Course (NDC) every year, of five military observers in Lebanon (United whereas the India provides only one quota Nations Observer Group in Lebanon) in every year to NA for the same course. It costs 1958. The first Nepali contingent, Purano

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Gorakh Battalion was deployed in Egypt devotion to duty and excellent performance in 1974. The Nepali Army has contributed have been widely acclaimed. The to senior appointments at UNDPKO and Nepali Army has always accepted challenges Force Headquarters while deploying military and participated in most difficult operations. contingents, military observers and staff This has had a heavy toll on its personnel, and officers. The Nepali Army has also rendered to date, 65 personnel have made the ultimate tremendous services to the provision of niche sacrifice at the altar of world peace and another capabilities, such as engineers, medical 66 have been disabled (NA Peacekeeping teams and Special Forces contingents. Their Mission, 2020).

Source: https://www.nepalarmy.mil.np/

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Conclusion Bhattarai, K. D. (May 19, 2019). A brief -China defense ties. Annapurna Different states use diverse channels of Express. https://theannapurnaexpress.com/ diplomacy. Quintessential and valued to news/ a-brief-history-of-nepal-china-defense- enhance country’s image and security, ties-1560 however, is the military diplomacy. Clausewitz, C. V. (1976). On War., trans. Michael Besides safeguarding the national border Howard and Peter Paret. Princeton: Princeton and shielding the national sovereignty, University Press, p. 87. the modern-day military institutions are exercising diplomacy as well. Thus, when it Jaishankar, D. (January 12, 2017). India's military comes to Nepal’s military diplomacy towards diplomacy. https://www.brookings.edu/ the neighborhood and beyond, it’s better to opinions/-military-diplomacy-taking- acknowledge the fact that Nepali Army has the-leap/ been conducting joint military drills with Khatri, P. (July 7, 2017). Aid keeps relation different countries, most importantly with between NA, foreign army afloat. The Rising the , India, and China for many Nepal. http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/ years. Essentially, Nepal’s vibrant role in 32769 exercising the military diplomacy with the Mulmi, A. R. M. (October 1, 2017). Why did the great and emerging powers, is immensely British not colonize Nepal? Record Nepal. triggered by neutrality and non-alignment, https://www.recordnepal.com/wire/features/ which are also the foreign policy objectives why-did-the-british-not-colonize-nepal of Nepal. Unforgettably, having almost six decades of experience in peacekeeping NA Peacekeeping Mission. (2020). The Nepal operations around the world, Nepali Army Army in UN Peace Support Operation. https:// www.nepalarmy.mil.np/ has effectively enhanced the image of Nepal through the UN Peacekeepers.Thus, it Pajtinka, E. (2016). Military diplomacy and its indicates that as one of theoldest institution of present functions. Security Dimensions. the country, Nepali Army has demonstrated Issue 20 (20), p. 1. ISSN: 2353-7000 | ICV: 100,00 its competence to exercise the modern-day | MNiSW: 20. https://securitydimensions. diplomacy at the global stage, of course, not publisherspanel.com/resources/html/article/ being limited to immediate neighborhood. details?id=177139&language=en

References Thapa, C. (November 11, 2016). Nepal-India relations in the military realm. SouthAsia.com. Adhikari, B. (April 9, 2015). Gurkhas in the au. http://www.southasia.com.au/2016/11/11/ Indian mutiny. Spotlight Nepal https://www. nepal-india-relations-military-realm/ spotlightnepal.com/

Amatya, K. (September 25, 2018). Nepal's military diplomacy. The Diplomat. https:// thediplomat.com/2018/09/nepals-military- diplomacy/

Berridge, G. R. (2002). Diplomacy, theory and practice. New York: Palgrave Macmillan: New York, pp. 2 – 3.

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