Special Edition: Disaster Risk Reduction: a Road of Opportunities

Youth Science-Policy Interface Publication Special Edition Source: Nasa Earth Observation

isk DISASTEDISASTEReduction a road of opportunities

isk DISASTEReduction a road of opportunities

Launched at the UNISDR Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction Conference, Cancun, Mexico.

May, 2017

Suggested Citation

UNMGCY Youth Science Policy Interface Publication – Special Edition: Disaster Risk Reduction: A Road of Opportunities. May, 2017.

Content

Disclaimer 4 Executive Summary 5

Disaster reduction & disaster preparedness >Anthropocentric principles for effective early warning systems 8 >Communicating risk information and early warnings: bridging the gap between science and practice 13 >Community preparedness on undetonated explosive remnants of war Kenya 24 >Developing and implementing effective (multi-hazard) early warning systems: the vital role of young professionals 32 >Disaster risk during flood situations in the dry zone of Sri Lanka 37 >Redefining disaster (excerpts from a thesis at Kanagawa University in Japan) 42 >Reducing disaster risks by better prediction of the impacts of El Niño and La Niña 48 > Role of Nepali nurses in disaster risk reduction: a need for capacity building 52

> Staying safe: disaster risk reduction 56

Science, technology & innovation >Digital government for better disaster risk governance? added value and challenges 57 >Two-dimensional Mudflood Simulation in Arequipa, Peru 64

>Synthetic biology and its effects on environment and human health 68

Disaster resilience >Incremental Shelters for Refugees and Host Communities (Case Study:

Turkana County – Kalobeyei New Settlement, East Africa) 73 >Children in disaster risk reduction: building resilience among migrant families 81 >Ecosystem-based adaptation as a means to strengthen the role of women in flood risk management and climate change adaptation 86 >Empowering Local Actors to Build Disaster Resilience 91 >The influence of religion on disaster risk reduction and resilience: a case study of Typhoon Haiyan-affected areas in the Philippines 96 >Understanding and improving Critical Infrastructure Resilience: Essential to achieving global agreements 102

Disaster response, relief & recovery >Assessment of Coordination Mechanism in 2015 Nepal Earthquake, Kathmandu Distric 109 >Brazil legal framework for post-disasters displacements 115 >Does creative destruction exist? 119 >Mapping (self-) recovery: reflections on people’s trajectories, perceptions and aspirations of recovery in the Philippines 124 >Training disaster medicine trainers 130 >Youth in disaster response in Bangladesh: exploring the experience, opportunity and challenge 134

DRR and cross-cutting issues

>Business recovery after Gorkha earthquake 2015 in Nepal 138 >The role of microfinance sector in disaster risk reduction in India 140

>Using ‘Swiss Cheese’ to understand slow DRR progress 148

Disclaimer

The United Nations Major Group for Children & Youth (UN MGCY) is the formal, General Assembly mandated space for the meaningful participation of children and youth in intergovernmental and allied sustainable development processes at the UN. It is meant to facilitate the participation of youth in policy design, implementation, follow-up, and review.

*Important note: All content in the publication is solely the responsibility of the author and does not necessarily represent the official views of the UN Major Group for Children and Youth. Furthermore, the special “Disaster Risk Reduction Edition” and articles within it are open source and welcome for all to access.

Executive Summary

The Disaster Risk Reduction Edition of the Youth Science-Policy Interface Publication captures and promotes the role of young people in sharing knowledge of evidence- informed best practices, science and technology, emerging trends, challenges, and solutions in the implementation, monitoring, follow-up, and review of intergovernmentally agreed and allied frameworks on sustainable development – specifically in disaster-related contexts. This initiative is part of the UN MGCY Youth Science-Policy Interface Platform and coordinated by the UN MGCY. Launched in May 2017, it is meant to feed into the discussions of the Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction, specifically around the SPI mandate, in order to showcase the contributions of young scientists, engineers, practitioners, and students in strengthening the science-policy interface, further linking policy and practice for a sustainable society. It seeks to build coherence between the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030) and the DRR-dimensions of other intergovernmentally agreed upon sustainable development agendas (e.g. 2030 Agenda, New Urban Agenda, etc.).

The Science-Policy Interface (SPI) has become an increasingly important component of sustainable development within the United Nations system. It provides the foundation for empirically-derived policies, facilitates the use of science as an enabler in policy implementation and review, and applies a unique and integral scientific lens to the monitoring of impact. The Rio+20 outcome document, The Future We Want, solidified the role of the SPI and sought to operationalize its place within all sustainable development processes. Additionally, resolution 67/290 that established the High-Level Political Forum seeks to strengthen the SPI.

The SPI has further been utilized as an integral tool for identifying emerging priorities, drawing links between the interconnected nature of thematic issues, and devising solutions to address challenges and barriers to progress. In order to mobilize young scientists, engineers, and practitioners in this discussion, the UN MGCY Youth SPI Platform on Sustainable Development strengthens youth policy priorities and practices in sustainable development by equipping youth with tools to drive empirically-informed, context-specific, and purposeful change through science, technology, innovation, and data.

The Disaster Risk Reduction Edition will take the form of a magazine, containing a series of youth-led, peer-reviewed articles highlighting important topics and trends, stemming from both the social and the natural sciences. This reflects only one of the initiatives meant to provide an outlet for young people to contribute to

strengthening the science-policy-practice nexus. It is also an example of the work done within the UN MGCY Young Scientist Platform on DRR, as well as a core element of the Young Scientist Roadmap, each of which serve to contribute to fulfilling the objectives of the UNISDR S&T Roadmap and Partnership, promoting more fit-for-purpose and effective implementation, follow-up, and review of the SFDRR.

Objectives of the Publication:

Share knowledge generated by multi-sector young and early career scientists, engineers, practitioners, and policy makers relevant to the science-policy-practice nexus for promoting resilience and disaster risk reduction at all levels;

Contribute formally to the ongoing cycle of Policy Design, Implementa- tion, Monitoring, Follow-up, & Review, through evidence-informed analysis, especially regarding cross-cutting issues within DRR (e.g. infrastructure, health services, etc.);

Highlight inter-linkages between different thematic issues and identifying emerging challenges/opportunities through case studies;

Exchange best practices in evidence-informed and data-informed sustainable development;

Promote cross-disciplinary and collaborative research, as well as qualitative and quantitative analysis;

Collect submissions from young people on relevant thematic issues, bringing to light emerging trends, implementation challenges, and best practices of follow-up & review for different sustainable development agendas in disaster contexts.

We would like to thank the authors, editors, and contributors, as well as acknowledge others that helped with the preparations of the articles and DRR Edition itself, allowing for more innovative spaces for Major Groups and Other Stakeholders to contribute to sustainable development processes. This is the product of collaborative efforts within the Youth Science-Policy Interface Platform of the UN MGCY, in an effort to enhance the space through which young people are able to strengthen the science-policy interface. As young scientists, engineers, and innovators, we are at the forefront of the implementation, follow-up, and review of recently adopted sustainable development frameworks and are eager to contribute. For any questions regarding the publication, please contact [email protected].

United Nations Major Group for Children & Youth Youth Science-Policy Interface Platform

isk DISASTEReduction Disaster Reduction & Disaster Preparedness

Anthropocentric principles for effective early warning systems Spyros Schismenos1,2

Email Address: [email protected] 1Research Center for Soil and Water Resources and Natural Disaster Prevention, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology 2MSc, Analysis and Management of Manmade and Natural Disasters, Hellenic Fire Academy/Fire Officers School– Eastern Macedonia and Thrace Institute of Technology

Abstract

While the impacts of climate change and Introduction extreme weather events are continuously rising, both humanity and the In worldwide statistics, the extreme environment as we know it are in great weather-driven disasters, such as storm danger. Although international surges, extreme precipitation, floods and frameworks and normative instruments heat waves, are becoming more frequent have been strengthened globally under and intense, due to climate change, the United Nations oversight, the number causing catastrophic disasters 1 . Since of natural and geophysical disasters 1970 more than 5,000 natural hazards taking place each year is noticeably have threatened the Asia and the Pacific increasing. Over the last decades, region alone; a shocking number that is enormous amounts of funds have equal to 43 percent of the global total. supported governments to establish early These disasters affected more than 6 warning systems; yet, the society seems billion people, caused over 2 million unprepared and the lack of information fatalities and cost more than US$ 1.15 remains, regardless of the technological trillion (2005), affecting mostly the socio- improvements. This research presents economic growth of the developing major weaknesses of national or regional countries2. In the West, the impacts of early warning strategies for extreme climate change were massively disastrous hazards from an anthropocentric as well. In 2003, Europe and North perspective and it investigates their America faced floods and storms that factors and causes. Moreover, it suggests comprehensive solutions in global actions for disaster risk reduction that focus on the society and the needs of the local populations. 1CRED: EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database, available at: www.emdat.be (last access: 13 March 2013), Universit´e Catholique de Louvain, Brussels (Belgium), 2011. 2Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Overview of Natural Disasters and their Impacts in Asia and the Pacific, 1970–2014, (Bangkok, 2015).

8 caused 15 deaths and almost US$ 3 billion usually cost-effective, especially in in total damages3. regions with frequent hazards, such as In order to reduce such phenomena, East and South East Asia, where typhoons systems related to early warning and floods occur annually. They can be mechanisms are vital both for the safety predicted on time, which is critical for of the public, as well as for the efficiency protecting lives and securing properties. in disaster risk reduction (DRR). The term According to research undertaken by the ‘‘early warning’’ refers to the World Bank, the investments in hydro- identification of such events that can be meteorological EWS in developing detected prior to the causative phase and countries have a cost-benefit ratio the damages they may produce. Most between 4 and 36 which means that every early warning systems (EWS) are dollar that is invested, produces between designed for natural geophysical and 4 and 36 dollars in benefits6. biological hazards, industrial hazards, health risks, socio-related, geo-political Methods and Discussion emergencies, etc. In the current United Nations International Strategy for The EWS usually cover national or Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) terminology, regional territories and their design is early warning is defined as “an integrated based on advanced technological and system of hazard monitoring, forecasting scientific achievements. Many of them use and prediction, disaster risk assessment, numerical weather predictions (NWP) as communication and preparedness basic input data. This enables the “early” activities systems and processes that detection of extreme events; therefore, enables individuals, communities, the sufficient lead-time is usually enough governments, businesses and others to for emergency and response planning. take timely action to reduce disaster risks The key factor of these systems is that the in advance of hazardous events.”4. NWP can increase or even modify the In order for EWS to be effective and forecast horizon, based on the input data, complete, they need to comprise four leading to efficient risk reduction. As a interacting elements: (1) Risk knowledge, result, the data obtained by the EWS, may (2) Monitoring and warning service, (3) determine to what degree a disaster may Dissemination and communication, and trigger larger catastrophes, including (4) Response capability5. The EWS are human and material losses. Nevertheless,

3 Economic Research and Consulting, Swiss Reinsurance Company. Natural catastrophes and element view of effective people-centered early man-made disasters in 2003: many fatalities, warning systems is discussed at comparatively moderate insured losses. (Sigma http://www.unisdr.org/ppew/whatsew/basics- insurance research series, no. 1). Zurich, ew.htm and in ISDR-PPEW (2005b). ISDR Platform Switzerland: Swiss Reinsurance Company, 2004. for the Promotion of Early Warning (PPEW), Bonn. 4UNISDR, 2009. Terminology: Terminology on 6Stéphane Hallegatte, “A cost effective solution to DRR. reduce disaster losses in developing countries: http://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/terminology# hydro-meteorological services, early warning, and letter-e, International Strategy for Disaster evacuation”, Policy Research Working Paper, No. Reduction, Geneva. 6058 (Washington, D.C., World Bank, 2012). 5ISDR-PPEW, 2005a. Many of the points presented Available from in this paper have been discussed and illustrated https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream in the early warning web pages of the ISDR. The 4- /handle/10986/9359/WPS6058.pdf?sequence=1.

9 the potential of EWS does not always that is why every phase of DRR must be receive the attention it deserves. formulated in such a way so to serve the Although a lot of progress has been made people; to become more people-centered8. in the technical aspect, in matters of Designing, establishing and managing policy and socio-education there is still a efficient EWS is a complex procedure, full lot more to be done. Despite the reliable of obstacles, both in the technical and the evidence in DRR, the EWS cannot be social level. The different hazards are embodied in national decision-making operated by separate authorized policies, because of multiple factors. The institutions that usually act most significant is, perhaps, the impassive independently; in some cases their public awareness and support due to available personnel is not enough to deal other factors of social vulnerability, such with all the issues, especially in as abuse and social exclusion. developing countries. Due to the Nonetheless, the public awareness for dominance of experts, the research data natural hazards becomes high, and the related knowledge cannot immediately after an extreme disaster. disseminate easily to the local For instance, the magnitude 9.0 richter communities, fact that lows the scientific earthquake that hit northeastern Japan on value from a realistic point of view. Same March 11, 2011, caused a tsunami that with the design and the operations of the left 15,894 dead, 6,152 injured and 2,562 EWS; there is a narrowed involvement of people missing across twenty prefectures, those at risk, and this often causes the besides the meltdown at the Fukushima loss of interest of the local populations for Daiichi nuclear plant. This hazard the procedures. Furthermore, it leads to awakened the public awareness and misdirected strategies created by the support worldwide. experts, since they do not truly focus on To further shield the countries against the needs of the local populations, so their such phenomena, the United Nations feedback is false or limited. adopted the Hyogo Framework for Action, Additionally, warning and response a broader international political approach policies may differ among countries and to promote EWS as an important tool for communities, due to the variations in risk reduction of natural hazards. This geomorphology, socio-economy, framework emphasizes the need for capabilities and previous experience. The building the resilience of society to main purpose of the global early warning disasters and it provides guidance on how mechanisms is to protect the public; to reduce disaster risk and its impact7. therefore, it is essential to focus on the Indeed, solutions based on pure challenges that affect the people, when it technically and high quality predictions comes to disaster preparedness. Such are insufficient to reduce the levels in challenges involve the lack of human and losses and impacts on their own. The financial resources of the local human factor in EWS is very significant, governments and authorized

7 United Nations, 2005. Hyogo framework for 8Twigg, J., 2002. “The human factor in early action 2005–2015: building the resilience of warnings: risk perception and appropriate nations and communities to disasters. In: World communications”. In Early Warning Systems for Conference on Disaster Reduction in Kobe, Japan, Natural Disaster Reduction (ed. J. Zschau & A. N. 18–22 January 2005. Küppers), ch. 1.3, pp. 19-26, Springer, Berlin.

10 organizations, the lack of DRR awareness population, in matters of DRR. All kinds of of the local populations because of other education and training programs or important issues, such as poverty guidelines in DRR should be translated reduction and life quality improvement into many languages and dialects and which are always perceived as higher written in a simple and substantial way, priorities, as well as the lack of political considering the cultural characteristics, will, both at the local and central level, to lack of education, age, etc. Furthermore, improve the community-based DDR they should also involve the participation activities. These causes often lead to a of the elderly and people with disabilities; general DRR apathy, which is also actions that could reduce the casualty adopted and maintained by the younger percentage of their groups when disasters generations. The Hurricane Katrina occur. disaster in 2005 that hit the US Gulf Coast However, regardless of the preferred is an example that includes most of the methods and the desired actions, the aforementioned weaknesses of the EWS main purpose is the same; the EWS must and the response mechanisms. Although be designed by the people and for their the meteorological warnings were life needs. The EWS should not only warn accurate and were sent many hours in the earliest possible about the threats advance, the officials’ and the public’s people face, but also their living response were inadequate. conditions and the factors that can slow Approximately 1,800 people died and the or even reduce their growth. The idea of damages were over US$ 80 billion9. EWS should be evolved from its current How can EWS be best used for other state to an anthropocentric core of wide priorities and what could motivate and defense-warning principles. enable communities to participate more actively in DRR? In order to boost the Conclusion effectiveness and the sustainability of DRR, current approaches should be re- Since the beginning of this millennium, designed. Strict scientifically-driven many remarkable goals have been polices should include sufficient accomplished in the DRR and the EWS requirements and needs of their end- globally. The determination of the United users; the local societies. Successful Nations on this matter, in combination cultural and historical experiences with the rapid technological against natural hazards of the affected improvements in the related fields, populations should be largely taken into specified proper response mechanisms consideration by the experts. Socio- and activated international DRR economic strategies should be effectively frameworks. Nevertheless, it is well- strengthened by the authorities, in order known that a wide and multi-national to influence positively the response of the participation is required to direct and accomplish all the essential procedures. 9EWC II, 2004. Early Warning as a Matter of Policy: The involvement of local populations is The conclusions of the Second International vital in shaping polices along with the Conference on Early Warning, 16-18 October, experts and authorities. All the Bonn, Germany. International Strategy for participants must agree that a Disaster Reduction (ISDR) secretariat and the German Disaster Reduction Committee (DKKV), commitment focused on people and based 28pp. on a philosophy for a comprehensive

11 response that is measured by its performance, could benefit those at risk and their environment.

Acknowledgements

I thank Professor George N. Zaimes at the Department of Forestry and Natural Environment Management, Eastern Macedonia and Thrace Institute of Technology and Deputy Chair of the UNESCO CHAIR Con-E-Ect on the Conservation and Ecotourism of Riparian and Deltaic Ecosystems for his great assistance.

Communicating risk information and early warnings: bridging the gap between science and practice Mirianna Budimir1, Sarah Brown 1, Sumit Dugar 2

Email Address: [email protected] 1Practical Action UK 2Practical Action Nepal

Abstract target stakeholders at a time and in a format conducive to uptake. Effective The science of extreme event communication can reduce disaster risk, forecasting and early warning is and help save lives and livelihoods in a becoming increasingly sophisticated, changing climate and an increasingly giving rise to more complex information vulnerable world. on risk and event probability. Such enhanced risk information is both an opportunity and a challenge, particularly in terms of communication Introduction of complex risk information or early warning to diverse stakeholders. There is an urgent need to reduce loss of Bridging the gap between science and lives and livelihoods in advance of practice to enhance uptake and increasingly severe and frequent response to risk information and early climate-related natural hazards such as warning is a critical priority in the field floods, droughts, and heatwaves. Early of Disaster Risk Reduction. warning systems can deliver essential This paper explores established best advance information, providing people practices, practitioner experience and with knowledge and time to prepare. new areas of research in the These early warnings need to provide communication of complex risk the right information, to the right information. Recent practitioner and people, in the right format, at the right research experience from the INGO time. Practical Action provides empirical case Despite advances in science, there studies to complement lessons from the remains a difficulty in communicating literature. risk information to end-users1. The Key considerations for effective scientific sphere has its own set of communication include establishing technical terminology, idiosyncratic aim, audience, format and dissemination language, and communication channel, messaging, timing and scale, strategies2. Disseminating technical uptake and evaluation. Effective knowledge brokering, including co-production of risk 1 Wilkinson E., Budimir M., Ahmed A.K., and Ouma G., “Climate information and services in information or early warning BRACED countries”, Resilience Intel, (2015). communication by scientists, 2 Scienseed, “Communicating climate change and practitioners and end users can help biodiversity to policy makers: A guide by ensure tailored information reaches Scienseed”, Bern Convention (Council of Europe), Madrid, 2nd May 2016, (2016).

13 information is a skilled task, one that and/or to influence behaviour? These scientists are often untrained or objectives will frame the remaining unsuited to perform, yet there is an communication strategy, and will help increasing expectation and requirement assess whether the communication has for them to do so 3. been effective. Despite increasing research in risk information communication, there all Audience too often remains a gap in the end-mile of communication (i.e. whether the The intended audience or end-user of information reaches those in need), and risk information must be established in whether the information early on. While there may be many communicated is understood and acted common requirements, the information upon. required, the way it will be delivered, Complex issues such as risk from and what exactly is communicated will natural hazards or climate change are differ between users6, 7. difficult concepts for people to Decision-makers are diverse – scientific understand4. Individuals may have information needs to be tailored for difficulty perceiving, understanding and specific decision makers to address prioritising longer term risk, particular needs and context. 8 particularly when this competes with Understanding end-users’ concerns, the more immediate and pressing interests, core values, and capacity to challenges of daily survival, livelihood act can enable information tailoring so sustainability, and other more short- that it is useful and usable. term needs5. Policy-makers at different levels of This paper reviews key lessons from the government, business managers, literature, alongside recent practitioner religious leaders, environmentalists, and experience, and new areas of research in farmers have diverse interests, values the communication of complex risk and goals, need different information, information. A number of key and frame the issue of risk differently. 9 considerations and recommendations Understanding end-users’ pre-existing are highlighted: knowledge, gaps in knowledge, misconceptions and beliefs can enable Establish aim

Before beginning any work on 6 Stott, P.A., Christidis, N., Otto, F.E.L., Sun, Y., communicating risk information, it must Vanderlinden, J.P., van Oldenborgh, G.J., Vautard, be established what the objectives of the R., von Starch, H., Walton, P., Yiou, P., and Zwiers, communication are. For example, is the F.W., “Attribution of extreme weather and aim of the information to raise climate-related events”, WIREs Clim Change awareness, to help make decisions, 2016, 7:23–41, (2016). 7 Stott, P.A., and Walton, P., “Attribution of climate-related events: understanding 3 Scienseed, “Communicating climate change and stakeholder needs”, Weather, Vol. 68, No. 10, biodiversity to policy makers: A guide by Royal Meteorological Society, (2013). Scienseed”, Bern Convention (Council of Europe), 8 Morss, R.E., Wilhelmi, O.V., Downton, M.W., and Madrid, 2nd May 2016, (2016). Gruntfest, E., “Flood risk, uncertainty, and 4 Moser, S.C., “Communicating climate change: scientific information for decision making: history, challenges, processes and future lessons from an interdisciplinary project”, BAMS, directions”, Climate Change, Volume 1, (2010). American Meteorological Society, (2005). 5 Moser, S.C., “Communicating climate change: 9 Moser, S.C., “Communicating climate change: history, challenges, processes and future history, challenges, processes and future directions”, Climate Change, Volume 1, (2010). directions”, Climate Change, Volume 1, (2010).

14 targeted communication10. affected populations, and increasing the Evidence suggests the most effective chance that warnings are understood method of determining who the and acted upon14. stakeholders are and what information The most appropriate and trusted they need (to inform specific decisions) source of information should be is to establish a continuous dialogue researched for each end-user to between providers of information and establish how to best deliver risk users/decision-makers11, 12. information. In Kenya, the radio is In addition to establishing the intended typically used by the public for climate end-user, it should be investigated early and weather-related information; in on who needs to be involved in the India, television or newspapers are communication strategy. Knowledge more commonly used15. brokers and communication specialists In Nepal, the INGO Practical Action has have the required skills, expertise, and been working in partnership with the experience to bridge the gap between Department of Hydrology and scientists and communities, providing Meteorology to pilot dissemination of assistance in communicating risk flood alerts via SMS (first piloted during information. These communicators need the 2016 monsoon)16. This approach to have a seat at the table throughout has enabled quick dissemination at a the process of setting up risk very wide scale. The effectiveness of this communication strategies, rather than approach will be evaluated in monsoon being brought in at the end of the 2017, including a focus on how effective project to merely deliver the message. mass SMS dissemination is in reaching the most vulnerable groups. Format and dissemination channel Messaging Choosing an appropriate format and dissemination channel is important, The information communicated to the both to ensure messages reach all end-user must be carefully chosen to be relevant stakeholders, and to ensure clear, and of the required level of such messages are trusted. 13 complexity or simplicity. Language must Communication is most successful when be reviewed to ensure it is understood trust and longer-term relationships by the end user. When simplifying already exist; involving community scientific information, care must be leaders and local NGOs in the taken to ensure the message is clear and communication strategy can be highly simple, but without compromising the effective in generating buy-in from underlying message. Communicating probability or 10 Scienseed, “Communicating climate change uncertainty is a particular challenge. and biodiversity to policy makers: A guide by Although probabilities are a commonly Scienseed”, Bern Convention (Council of Europe), Madrid, 2nd May 2016, (2016). 11 Wilkinson E., Budimir M., Ahmed A.K., and 14 Moser, S.C., “Communicating climate change: Ouma G., “Climate information and services in history, challenges, processes and future BRACED countries”, Resilience Intel, (2015). directions”, Climate Change, Volume 1, (2010). 12 Stott, P.A., and Walton, P., “Attribution of 15 Budimir, M., and Brown, S., “Communicating climate-related events: understanding extreme weather event attribution: Research stakeholder needs”, Weather, Vol. 68, No. 10, from India and Kenya: Full report”, Practical Royal Meteorological Society, (2013). Action Consulting, (2017). 13 Moser, S.C., “Communicating climate change: 16 Practical Action, “Early Warning Systems”, history, challenges, processes and future https://policy.practicalaction.org/projects/ews directions”, Climate Change, Volume 1, (2010). (2017).

15 accepted means of communicating of water levels rising above uncertainty information within the predetermined warning and danger scientific sector, they are associated levels. Such visual probabilistic with particular communication information has been found useful to difficulties because they are not well technical and semi-technical understood by non-experts17. stakeholders, including NGO disaster Communication formats that use risk managers and sub-national percentages and non-numerical text are government officials. This enhanced generally more liked by non-experts (and more complex) early warning has than relative frequency and odds 18, 19. not yet been disseminated to Understanding of probabilistic and community level – where existing early uncertainty information is context- warning mechanisms are of a much dependent, and needs to be tailored to simpler ‘Don’t evacuate/Prepare to specific end-users. For example, a study evacuate/Evacuate now’ form. In 2017, in Kenya found that probabilistic Practical Action is aiming to learn from information is very poorly understood experience elsewhere on whether and by the public in Kenya, and frequency how to communicate more complex information is easier to conceptualise; warning information to at risk the same study in India found the community members. opposite preference20. Many of the Literacy or numeracy struggles in some participants in Kenya perceived end-users will mean alternative uncertainty and error information as communication approaches will be too complex, not useful, and preferred needed. For example, in Kenya, the not to receive such information21. public in rural Turkana and Kwale In Nepal, Practical Action, in partnership districts had difficulty understanding with the Department of Hydrology and quantitative statistics, such as Meteorology (with the University of percentages22. In these cases, qualitative Lancaster and Zurich Insurance), have information can assist in explaining developed probabilistic flood forecasts. statistical information using more This forecast enables probabilistic risk familiar terms to lay audiences23,24. information to be presented visually, showing the range of likely scenarios, Timing and scale along with a bar chart of the probability Risk communication needs to consider how information might be applied; 17 WMO, “Guidelines on communicating forecast uncertainty”, WMO/TD-No.1422, Geneva, (2008). engaging with stakeholders to 18 Morss, R.E., Demuth, J.L., and Lazo, J.K., understand what lead time and “Communicating uncertainty in weather geographical scale of information would forecasts: a survey of the U.S. public”, Weather prompt them to take action. and Forecasting, Volume 23, (2008). 19 Budimir, M., and Brown, S., “Communicating extreme weather event attribution: Research from India and Kenya: Full report”, Practical 22 Budimir, M., and Brown, S., “Communicating Action Consulting, (2017). extreme weather event attribution: Research 20 Budimir, M., and Brown, S., “Communicating from India and Kenya: Full report”, Practical extreme weather event attribution: Research Action Consulting, (2017). from India and Kenya: Full report”, Practical 23 WMO, “Guidelines on communicating forecast Action Consulting, (2017). uncertainty”, WMO/TD-No.1422, Geneva, (2008). 21 Budimir, M., and Brown, S., “Communicating 24 Scienseed, “Communicating climate change extreme weather event attribution: Research and biodiversity to policy makers: A guide by from India and Kenya: Full report”, Practical Scienseed”, Bern Convention (Council of Europe), Action Consulting, (2017). Madrid, 2nd May 2016, (2016).

Timing is key in early warnings. In Development funded Landslip Nepal, Community Based Flood Early consortium28) are exploring warning systems deliver 2-3 hours of regional/sub-regional landslide early early warning to at-risk communities. warning, and how such information Such limited lead times are often (that is not at slope spatial scales) might effective for saving lives, but have enable enhanced response by certain limited effectiveness for saving actors. livelihoods, livestock and assets; make evacuation challenging for high risk Uptake and Evaluation groups (elderly, disabled, pregnant women, children); and are vulnerable to Information dissemination should not system failure25. In partnership with the be the end of a communication strategy. Nepal Department for Hydrology and Often information fails to reach the end- Meteorology, and the University of mile or most vulnerable communities29. Lancaster/Zurich Insurance, Practical Challenges include whether people can Action piloted a low data, probabilistic access the information (e.g. do they own forecasting approach, which has a mobile phone, TV, or radio through extended lead time by an additional 5 which information is conveyed?); hours26. This extended lead time whether that information is understood forecasting approach has now been (e.g. is the language too complex, is it in rolled out across all major basins in the right language, is the information Nepal. misinterpreted?); and whether they Issues of geographical resolution and have an ability to take action (e.g. do scale are also critical – if forecasts are they know how to respond to the delivered at a scale that users find information, do they have the capacity inappropriate, action in response to to act upon the information, are they such information is less likely. In Kenya, willing to take action?). weather and climate forecasts are often In West Africa, Practical Action (and not used by smallholder farmers partners in the USAID CISRI consortium because the resolution of the on demand led climate services for information is low, covering large Africa30) is adapting expertise in market geographic areas, and therefore not system analysis to understand the reflecting localised patterns of rainfall.27 climate information system in West In India, Practical Action (and partners Africa. This includes reviewing how in the King's College London and BGS small-holder farmers access climate and led Natural Environment Research weather information, and what wider Council/Department For International systemic factors beyond risk information (e.g. access to alternative seeds, credit) enable or impede them 25 Zurich Insurance Group, “Risk Nexus: Urgent from taking action in response to case for recovery: what we can learn from the August 2014 Karnali River floods in Nepal”, weather and climate information. (2015). Evaluation of risk communication 26 Smith, P.J., Brown, S., and Dugar, S., should consider whether information “Community-based early warning systems for flood risk mitigation in Nepal”, Journal of Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 28 LANDSLIP, http://landslip.org/ (2017). Special Issue: Risk and uncertainty estimation in 29 Wilkinson E., Budimir M., Ahmed A.K., and natural hazards, (2017). Ouma G., “Climate information and services in 27 Wilkinson E., Budimir M., Ahmed A.K., and BRACED countries”, Resilience Intel, (2015). Ouma G., “Climate information and services in 30 ClimateLinks, “CISRI”, BRACED countries”, Resilience Intel, (2015). https://www.climatelinks.org/projects (2017).

17 has been accessed, understood, found useful, and applied. Evaluations need to carefully consider how effective risk and early warning is in reaching and enabling action by a range of different stakeholders, with explicit evaluation of how effectively communication reaches, and enables action of the most vulnerable or marginalised groups. In 2017, Practical Action is undertaking a specific gender audit of the effectiveness of current flood early warning systems for women and marginalised groups.

Conclusion

Communicating risk information and early warning in the right format and contextualising it to a particular hazard or extreme event is challenging. Bridging the gap between scientific information and practice requires effective knowledge brokering where user needs are identified and messages are tailored accordingly. Key considerations for effective communication include establishing aim, audience, format and dissemination channel, messaging, timing and scale, uptake and evaluation. Involving communities, scientists, practitioners, communicators and other relevant stakeholders in co-producing messages is a critical component that should not be missed. Through this process, the science of early warnings, and risk information can more effectively help to save lives and livelihoods in a changing climate and an increasingly vulnerable world.

Community preparedness on undetonated explosive remnants of war Kenya Ehagi H, Daniel1 and Gordon Ochieng1

Email Address: [email protected] 1 Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology

Abstract Introduction

This paper looks at the community Civilian fatalities in wartime have climbed preparedness on undetonated explosive from 5 per cent at the turn of the century remnants of war Kenya. It sheds light on to more than 90 percent in the wars of the how civilians have been affected by 1990s. New weapons and patterns of Explosive Remnants of War (ERW) and conflict that include deliberate attacks the importance of mine and unexploded against civilians are increasingly turning ordnance (UXO) risk education (MRE) children into primary targets of war. programmes to the community. The An improvised explosive device (IED) is a article utilizes observation techniques bomb constructed and deployed in ways and secondary data from online journals, other than in conventional military action. newspaper articles and reports from the It may be constructed from conventional government and non – governmental military explosives, such as an artillery organizations. The paper looked at the round, attached to a detonating impact of explosives at the global, mechanism. IEDs are commonly used as regional and local levels citing how roadside bombs. Kenyan citizens have been physically Injuries place an enormous burden on challenged by the IEDs found beneath the individuals, households, and communities ground. and they exacerbate poverty. A substantial but often under-recognized cause of injury in post-conflict environments is the presence of landmines and explosive remnants of war (ERW), such as abandoned ordnance or weapons and cluster munitions, bombs, mortars or other devices that failed to detonate on impact but remain volatile and can explode if touched or moved. This under recognition, which is partly the result of underestimates, has global implications because it affects to what extent the resources assigned to injury prevention and the rehabilitation of

19 injured people are prioritized.1 The Review Conference of the 1980 UN The main points relating to the dangers Convention on Conventional Weapons posed by Explosive Remnants of War (CCW) in December 2001 established a (ERW) (other than anti-personnel mines) Group of Governmental Experts on (ERW) and their impact on affected communities to examine the issues relating to ERW. At can be described as follows: Injuries or the Meeting of States Parties in December deaths can take place at a distance from 2002, it was agreed that the Group would the explosion: most items of ordnance continue its work in 2003 to “negotiate an contain an explosive charge and some instrument on post-conflict remedial element of fragmentation designed to kill2 measures of a generic nature which or injure people at a distance from the would reduce the risks of ERW questions explosion.1 Depending on the ordnance need to be considered regarding the involved, the danger area can vary from a provision of information to facilitate few metres to several hundred metres.3 clearance, risk education, and warnings to Warnings are the punctual provision of civilian populations.5 cautionary information to the civilian The Mine Ban Treaty, which became population, intended to minimize an international law in 1999 and today has impending or ongoing risk from ERW. 162 States Parties, bans the use of mines Warnings are often given in advance of, or that detonate due to human contact, also immediately following, the use of known as “victim-activated,” and thereby ordnance. They are sometimes provided encompasses improvised explosive by the weapon users themselves. Mine devices (IEDs) that act as anti-personnel and unexploded ordnance (UXO) risk mines, also called improvised mines.9 education (MRE) programmes seek to facilitate information exchange between Methods affected communities, government authorities and humanitarian The research article used observation organisations so that individuals and techniques and secondary data from communities are informed about the UXO online journals, newspaper articles and and mine threat and interventions can be reports from the government and non – tailored to communities’ needs. Warnings governmental organizations.6 alone are unlikely to have a positive long- term impact on behaviour, they should Discussion always be followed by community-based risk education.4 Abandoned explosive ordnance (AXO) is explosive ordnance that has not been used during armed conflict and has been 1 Peter S. & Damian H. The under reporting of landmine and explosive remnants of war injuries in Cambodia, the Lao People’s Democratic 5 ICRC A new protocol on explosive remnants of Republic and Viet Nam (2013) war: The history and negotiation of Protocol V to 2 UNICEF. Patterns in conflict: Impact of armed the 1980. conflict on children, Civilians are now the target Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (2017). (2017). 3 GICHD Explosive Remnants of War (ERW) — 6 TAF M. Street children economic empowerment: Warnings and Risk Education (2017). a case study of street children in Kigamboni ward 4 UN SOUTH SUDAN / UXO CLEARANCE POCS Temeke municipal council Dar es Salaam region (2017). (2011).

20 left behind and is no longer under control For calendar year 2015, the Monitor of the party that left it behind. It may or recorded 6,461 mine/ERW casualties, may not have been primed, fuzed, armed, marking a 75% increase from the number or otherwise prepared for use. Explosive of casualties recorded for 2014 and the remnants of war (ERW) are explosive highest recorded total since 2006 (6,573). munitions left behind after a conflict has The sharp increase is mainly attributed to ended7. They include unexploded artillery more casualties recorded in armed shells, grenades, mortars, rockets, air- conflicts in Libya, Syria, Ukraine, and dropped bombs, and cluster munitions. Yemen. The increase also reflects greater Under the international legal definition, availability of casualty data, particularly ERW consist of unexploded ordnance from unique systematic surveys of (UXO) and abandoned explosive ordnance persons injured in Libya and Syria last (AXO), but not mines. Unexploded year. The vast majority of recorded ordnance. Weapons that fail to detonate landmine/ERW casualties were civilians as intended become unexploded (78%) where their status was known—a ordnance (UXO). These unstable finding similar to the high civilian explosive devices are left behind during casualty rate in previous years.9 and after conflicts and pose dangers IEDs are generally seen in heavy terrorist similar to landmines. actions or in unconventional warfare by Mine- and ERW-awareness activities (also guerrillas or commando forces in a referred to as mine/ERW-risk education) theater of operations. In the second Iraq are an essential means of preventing War, IEDs were used extensively against mine/ERW- related deaths and injuries US-led invasion forces and by the end of among the civilian population in affected 2007 they had become responsible for countries. In engaging in mine/ERW approximately 63% of coalition deaths in awareness, the components of the Iraq. They are also used in Afghanistan by Movement seek to: work with the insurgent groups, and have caused over community to identify its needs and 66% of coalition casualties in the 2001– develop a mine-awareness strategy present Afghanistan War.10 tailored to the local situation; analyse the Within the framework of the Movement's causes of risk-taking, identify and mine-awareness activities, the focus has promote alternative solutions and gradually expanded to include other support communities in changing high- weapons-related dangers posing a risk to risk behaviour as a means of ultimately civilians after a conflict. Thus the reducing the number of casualties and the components of the Movement have built socio-economic impact of mines/ERW; on their worldwide experience in raising respond to community needs through the awareness of the dangers of mines and sharing of information with humanitarian unexploded ordnance to develop, where agencies and others involved in mine appropriate, awareness programmes for action as part of an integrated response to the mine/ERW problem.8 Aspects, and Global Initiatives (2014). 9 Landmine Monitor 2016 International Campaign to Ban Landmines, Cluster Munition Coalition 7 Sean S. Explosive Remnants of War - Landmine (2016). and Cluster Munition Monitor (2013). 8 GICHD. Mine Action and Explosive Hazard 10 Vishwagujarat Chhattisgarh IED Blast; 2 CRPF Management: Humanitarian Impact, Technical jawans injured in IED Blast (2015).

21 other remnants of war, including positive impact on the fragile living abandoned ammunition stores, and, to a conditions of those people living in more limited extent, the large quantities affected areas, particularly youth, who of military-style small arms and light could easily be exploited by Al Shabaab weapons often left in civilian hands after and other opposition armed groups.9 a conflict.4 In Kenya the citizens continue to be Decades of conflict in Somalia have affected with the issue of ERW. Residents resulted in contamination from explosive of Murang’a south district live in fear after remnants of war (ERW), landmines and an explosive device was discovered in a improvised explosive devices (IEDs). farm by a student. The device was While IEDs primarily target Government discovered by a resident when he was authorities and security forces, civilians cultivating the land. The device which is are also heavily impacted, comprising 707 believed to have been left behind by out of 1272 victims in 2016 (55%). colonialists has raised concern among the Evidence suggests that ERW, including residents who fear it might explode any abandoned ammunition, have presented time6. Also a 13 year old boy, had one Al Shabaab and other opposition armed finger on the left hand badly damaged by groups with the opportunity to harvest the explosive device he picked along the explosives or items that can be used to SGR line in Sultan Hamud area of Kajiado manufacture IEDs. Interventions alone County.12 cannot end the threat of IEDs in Somalia; Britain donation of six new remotely this can only be achieved through political operated vehicles and associated settlement, strengthened stabilization equipment to help train Kenyan soldiers efforts and enhancement of security counter explosive devices during their sector response.11 peacekeeping mission in Somalia. Is a plus UNMAS has provided support to enhance on Counter Improvised Explosive Device the protection of civilians and facilitate (CIED) wing of the Humanitarian Peace humanitarian access in areas Support School the training will help save contaminated by explosive hazards, soldiers’ lives in Somalia and contribute through supporting and coordinating to the defeat of Al-Shabaab. The vehicles humanitarian mine action activities, such allow improvised explosive devices as survey, clearance and risk education. In (IEDs) to be destroyed or disarmed 2016, UNMAS provided community based remotely at a safe distance, preventing explosive hazards clearance along the specialized CIED operators from having to border between Somalia and Ethiopia in put their lives at risk.13 the federal states of Galmadug and Hirshabelle, to reduce the threat posed by Conclusion explosive hazards to communities living and working in the identified areas of In a nutshell the Explosive Remnants of intervention, while enabling financial War (ERW) pose as a challenge to the injection into the local economy through community and the need for awareness at employment of impacted and at-risk community members. The project has 12 The Standard - Kenya: Student in Murang'a finds explosive device (2013). 11 UNMAS. Mine action: UNMAS IN Somalia 13 Counter-IED Report Britain seeks to help Kenya (2017). counter explosive devices (2017). 22 the community level is needed. This is through education on improvised explosive device (IEDs) in Kenya. This preparedness mechanism will act as a safety net to the populace whom have been greatly affected looking at the lenses from a global, regional and local perspective. In Kenya for example there are cases of people being maimed due to the ERW on the ground. However, much is appreciated from the British government on the provision of state machinery to detonate IEDs.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge UNICEF, Kenya Defence Forces personnel, Kenya Red Cross Kenya chapter and Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology in terms of human resource support and secondary facilities facilities such as online journals, reports and key informant interviews hence enabling the write up of the article and also to my family for creating an enabling environment.

Developing and implementing effective (multi-hazard) early warning systems: the vital role of young professionals Lydia Cumiskey1,2, Raihanul Haque Khan3, Erika Meléndez1,4,5, Vittorio Nespeca1,4, Robert Sakic Trogrlic1,6, Patricia Trambauer5, Shristi Vaidya 1,5, Javed Ali1, 4, Gabriela Guimarães Nobre 7

Email Address: [email protected] 1Water Youth Network 2Flood Hazard Research Centre, Middlesex University London 3RIMES, Regional Integrated Multi-Hazard Early Warning System 4IHE-Delft Institute for Water Education 5Deltares 6Institute of Infrastructure and Environment, Heriot-Watt University Edinburgh 7Institute for Environmental Studies, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam

What is an effective Early Warning Abstract System (EWS)?

Collaboration between policy-makers, As defined by UNISDR (2016), an Early practitioners and researchers from Warning System (EWS) is “an integrated multiple disciplines and all geographical system of hazard monitoring, forecasting regions from local, national, regional and and prediction, disaster risk assessment, international levels is needed to ensure communication and preparedness effective (Multi-Hazard) Early Warning activities systems and processes that Systems (EWS). This article outlines why enables individuals, communities, young professionals play such a pivotal governments, businesses and others to take role in developing and implementing timely action to reduce disaster risks in (Multi-Hazard) EWSs globally, the advance of hazardous events”1. As shown support needed to maintain and improve in Figure 1, an effective “end-to-end” and this role, and actions that young people “people-centred” EWS may include four can take now to realise their important interrelated key elements: 1) disaster risk role. knowledge based on the systematic How can we inspire more innovative collection of data and disaster risk research and collaboration between assessments; 2) detection, monitoring, disciplines? How can we ensure this analysis and forecasting of the hazards skilled capacity at National Hydrological and possible consequences; 3) and Meteorological Services (NHMS) and dissemination and communication by an other agencies is sustained? official source, of authoritative, timely,

1UNISDR. Report of the Open-ended intergovernmental expert working group on indicators and terminology relating to disaster risk reduction. (2016)

24 accurate and actionable warnings and 2030 “Substantially increase the associated information on likelihood and availability of and access to multi-hazard impact; and 4) preparedness at all levels early warning systems and disaster risk to respond to the warnings received.1 information and assessments to people by Warnings are only effective if they are 2030”. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable received, understood, and acted upon by Development and the Paris Climate those at risk and this comes with its Agreement highlight the importance of challenges across all four components. investing in early warning systems. Impact-based forecasts and warning Collaboration between policy-makers, services have come forward as a practitioners and researchers from all mechanism to help users understand not geographical regions and from local, only what the weather will be, but most national, regional and international levels importantly, how the weather will impact is needed to reach these targets, along their daily lives. This paradigm change of with training and interdisciplinary translating hazard to relevant sector exchange, particularly for the younger (user-specific) impacts can provide more generation, as argued here. meaningful warnings that improve guidance to decision-makers in different Why young professionals play a vital sectors and hopefully result in more role? effective responses2. Furthermore, this discourse highlights the importance of Young practitioners, volunteers, scientists partnerships amongst local authorities, and researchers are playing a pivotal role non-governmental organisations (NGOs), in developing and implementing effective National Hydrological and Meteorological and people-centred (Multi-Hazard) EWS Services (NHMS), Civil Protection/ globally. This section outlines the Disaster Management agencies and others important role young people are taking to generate such a warning which spans across EWS development and the boundaries of the NHMS implementation. responsibilities. For example the UK Natural Hazards Partnerships3 Operational backbone collaborative environment enables the development of innovative products and First and foremost, young hydrologists services that will provide better and meteorologists at NHMS form the coordinated and more coherent operational backbone of EWS; not to assessments, research, and advice. forget the young professionals in local or The importance of EWS is reflected in the international consultancies, young ICT global target (g) of the Sendai Framework experts working in disaster management for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) 2015- authorities and local volunteers disseminating and responding to the warnings. For example, RIMES (Regional 2WMO. Guidelines on Multi-hazard Impact-based Integrated Multi-Hazard Early Warning Forecast and Warning Services. (2015) Available System for Africa and Asia) support at: capacity building in young staff based at http://library.wmo.int/pmb_ged/wmo_1150_en.p df national hydro-met agencies through 3Natural Hazards Partnership (2017) Available at: exchanges between regional hydromet http://www.naturalhazardspartnership.org.uk/

Figure 1. Effective Early Warning System (using the four components of people centred EWS, UNISDR 20061)

agencies making sure they gain the Innovative research and development experience to prepare themselves for future leadership and responsibilities4. Young scientists and researchers are When given the opportunities, young paving the way on innovative topics such people play a vital role in new as impact-based forecasting and warning development projects at NHMS and (e.g. Sai (2017)6), warning dissemination disaster management authorities, through mobile applications (e.g. Nespeca consultancies, and NGOs. They are (2017)7) and evaluating the effectiveness innovating as part of international project of warning response (e.g. Cumiskey et al. teams, making sure to avoid ‘business as (2015)8) at the community level. usual’. Such initiatives have also been Furthermore, young researchers recognised by international conducting their postgraduate research organizations, for instance, ICT for can take different approaches to tackling Mountain Development Award by such EWS challenges by combining both International Center for Integrated the technical and social aspects and Mountain Development (ICIMOD). A taking a multidisciplinary approach. A youth led project of RIMES was recipient recent workshop brought together young of this award during 2015 for ICT-enabled scientist to identify the research gaps and innovations, good practices, and the pivotal role for them to address these applications5. There is huge potential for young professionals to contribute to the development of impact-based forecasts 6Sai., Fabio. (2016) Mainstreaming impact based and warnings by, for example, identifying forecasting and warning in Bangladesh. MSc. and analyzing local vulnerabilities and Thesis. IHE Delft Institute for Water Education 7Nespeca V., Alfonso L.. 2017. E-Aid: Smartphone capacities. and Web Applications for Community-Based Disaster Management in Accra. MSc Thesis Report. IHE Delft Institute for Water Education. 8Cumiskey, L., M. Werner, K. Meijer, S.H.M.

4 Fakhruddin, and A.Hassan. 2015. “Improving the RIMES (2017) Available at: social performance of flash flood early warnings http://www.rimes.int/em/tag/capacity-building/ using mobile services.” International Journal of 5 ICIMOD (2017) Available at: Disaster Resilience in the Built Environment 6(1): http://www.icimod.org/?q=20601 57–72.

26 gaps was clearly recognised, see Deltares (2016)9. Although innovative research can be driven by academia, it is also being done as part of development projects, where young people work closely with NHMS are encouraged to tackle the challenges from all sides. Figure 2 presents a project conducted by RIMES on ‘Mobile Services for Flood Early Warning’ and ‘ICT Enabled Risk Information Gateway Development’ led by a young practitioner from RIMES who is driven to “connect the unconnected, learning from lessons learned and make use of ICT for the benefit of vulnerable, hard-to-reach communities at risk”

Bridging the communication and technology gap

Young people are seen as a powerful driving force in modern technology and Figure 2. Community meeting (top) and flood especially communication technology level gauge to validate flood warnings (bottom). such as mobile applications and social Pictures nicely highlight the curiosity and interest media. Their skills can be capitalized to of the younger generation in the community. enhance communication and response to (Source: RIMES Bangladesh) early warnings by creating the links and Ramina Huria (2017)11, providing between local people and modern crucial information to deliver impact technology. based warnings. Youth are also leading Young people are creating and the way developing ICT tools and mobile contributing to developing open source applications, for example the Messiah data and tools, such as Open Street Map application12, which sends emergency initiatives collecting exposure data, for alerts to pre-identified group developed 10 example Fernandez and Shaw (2016) within the Code for Resilience Programme (GFDRR, 2015)13, a disaster mapping service in Indonesia, Peta

9Deltares and UNESCO-IHE. Young Scientists 11 Event on Disaster Risk Reduction. (2016) Ramanihuria. Community-based mapping Available at: https:// project (2017) Available at: www.deltares.nl/app/uploads/2016/03/Outcom http://ramanihuria.org/ edocument_YoungScientistsEventonDRR_final.pdf 12Messiah. n.d. Messiah App. http://www.messiahapp.com/. 10Fernandez, G., and R. Shaw. “Participation of 13World Bank and GFDRR. Code for Resilience: Youth Councils in local-level HFA implementation bridging Communities for Disaster Response in Infanta and Makati, Philippines and its policy (Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and implications.” Risk, Hazards & Crisis in Public Recovery). (2015) Available at: Policy 5(3). (2014): 259–278 http://codeforresilience.org/apps/.

Bencana14 and the E-Aid app for disaster scientists and researchers today and in management in Ghana under the future. This includes bilateral and development by Nespeca (2017). When multilateral donors, local and regional working together young practitioners NHMS, the World Meteorological from different disciplines such as ICT, Organisation, Regional forecasting media, hydrology, community centres e.g. RIMES, NGOs, universities volunteering can co-develop socially (local and international), engineering relevant solutions alongside the users. consultancies, national governments and Risk communication has been highlighted others. Here we outline possible ways to as an area where the potential influence do this. of young people as ‘communication agents’ (resources and receivers) has Challenging roles in international projects been underestimated, particularly for and initiatives early warning information (Mitchell et al. 200815). The power of young people’s To prepare for the (Multi-Hazard) EWSS social networks should be capitalized on now and in the future young people need not only to disseminate warnings through to part of the conversation at global, schools, households, and communities, national and local levels to develop but also to build awareness before (Multi-Hazard) EWS of the future. For disasters on how to respond to warnings. instance, global initiatives, like the Climate Further research on the influence of Risk and Early Warning Systems (CREWS)16 youth at the local level receiving and should recognise the value of involving transmitting warnings using social media young professionals within development is needed to fully understand the social projects. Other ways could include involving dynamics and performance of this youth in national activities such WMO medium of warning communication. workshops on EWS development17. Young Young people can work towards practitioners and scientists, if formally developing complementary tools and involved, can offer new insights from a approaches that embrace the holistic and fresh perspective. It is heterogeneous nature of communities. important to include young professionals and researchers so that they can get access to invaluable knowledge and How can young people be supported? experience from these initiatives. This can then be further built upon to help the The global, national and local community global and/or local development of EWS engaged in (Multi-Hazard) EWS and of course to help other young developments need to take joint-action to researchers interested in these support our young practitioners, developments.

14Petabencana. (2017) Available at: https://petabencana.id/map/jakarta 16 15 Mitchell, Tom, Katharine Haynes, Nick Hall, Wei CREWS. (2017) Available at: Choong, and Katie Oven. "The roles of children and https://www.gfdrr.org/crews-climate-risk-early- youth in communicating disaster risk." Children warning-systems 17 Youth and Environments 18, no. 1 (2008): 254- WMO (2016) Available at: 279. http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/amp/pwsp/events workshops_en.htm

Networking and communities of practice Warning System Workshop20. Furthermore, some communities focus on The current development of (Multi- specific components of EWS e.g. HEPEX Hazard) EWSs demands a on hydrology21, Delft-FEWS on flood multidisciplinary approach. In order to forecasting22 or youth engagement e.g. achieve a "people centred" system, Water Youth Network23 and Young networks between young people involved Hydrological Society24. However, none of across different sectors (e.g. hydro-met, these communities incorporate all the disaster management, voluntary, media) end-to-end processes involved with early should be established. By investing warning nor do they focus on the resources (e.g. time and financing) to interdisciplinary nature. Hence, the develop these networks young people networking and communities of practice working or researching on all the amongst EWS professionals must strongly different components of an EWS including involve youth. data collection, forecasting and emergency response, can support each Support innovative research at other to understand the current situation postgraduate level from all points of view and plan new developments. Encouraging innovative research within UNISDR and WMO, along with other and across disciplines to click together international and national agencies, the pieces of the MH-EWS puzzle is announced the establishment of an critical to ensure the next generation of international network for multi-hazard EWS experts. The complexities of early warning systems (IN-MHEWS)18 to delivering “people-centred” EWS requires share expertise and good practice. It is much more interdisciplinary research critical that young people play an active than currently available (see Figure 3), and dynamic role in this network to especially if the effectiveness of current ensure national and local activities EWS is to be evaluated and monitored as amongst youth can occur. Furthermore, part of the Sendai Framework monitoring national and regional (hydromet) of Target g. Clearly the current evolution agencies should ensure meaningful of EWS demands that a multidisciplinary participation by young practitioners and researchers at their interdisciplinary regional and global networking and disaster-risk-reduction-in-a-changing-climate/ 20 knowledge sharing events. For example RIMES and SAWI. Proceedings of the the Expert Forum on DRR in a Changing Regional Flood Early Warning System Workshop (2015). Available at: 19 Climate and the Regional Flood Early http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/43 1281468000591916/pdf/103879-WP-PUBLIC- 18 Rimes-Workshop-Proceedings-13Jan2016.pdf WMO. A Multi-Stakeholder Partnership for 21 Promoting and Sharing Best Practice in Multi‐ HEPEX. (2017) Available at: https://hepex.irstea.fr/ Hazard Early Warning Systems and Services for 22 Disaster Risk Reduction and Resilience. (2015) Deltares. (2017) Available at: Available at: https://oss.deltares.nl/web/delft-fews/ 23 https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/drr/document Water Youth Network (2017) Available at: s/IN-MHEWSConceptPaper16415.pdf http://www.wateryouthnetwork.org/ 19El Nino Ready Nations. (2015) Available at: 24 Young Hydrological Society (2017) Available at: http://elninoreadynations.com/lessons-learned- https://younghs.com/

29 approach should be taken on future needed to share and generate knowledge research. Collaboration between across generations. Although often universities and consultancy specific sector capacity building organisations from all relevant sectors, programmes, e.g. disaster response, can can provide young researchers with new lack connection to other related topics insights into practical challenges and fuel such as long term risk management and innovative solutions, especially if local hydro-met components, so it is important fieldwork arrangements can be made that both specialised and cross cutting possible to collect data from affected training is provided. communities. This last aspect is essential Regional organizations like RIMES’ Asia- if the work of young researchers aspires Pacific Economic Cooperation Climate to evolve towards a more “people Center (APCC) arrange on site and off-site centred” perspective. training programs25 for the professionals of NHMS of their member countries. RIMES arranges secondment training programs for NHMS’s professionals where they get opportunity to learn and gain experience from on-the-job training over a span of 3-6 months. There should be explicit opportunities for young scientists to join such initiatives. Moreover, there are exclusive programs for young scientists such as that arranged by APCC26 which select scientists from developing countries and invites them to APCC to support their research while

benefiting from APCC’s data and Figure 3. Breakout session identifying Early expertise. There are also examples of joint Warning System gaps on each component 10 programs for young scientists arranged by RIMES, APCC and other research Education and capacity building organizations27 which can be further promoted and replicated, see Figure 4. Educational events in local universities and colleges to encourage new programmes, motivate interest and raise awareness are needed. Furthermore, opportunities for further education once working in a NHMS should be accessible and incentives provided to ensure their 25 RIMES (2017) Available at: return to these agencies. National http://www.rimes.int/training.php governments need to encourage higher 26 APCC. n.d.. Available at: educated hydromet professionals to http://www.apcc21.org/ic/yssplist.do?lang=en&b return to service the NHMS after bsId=BBSMSTR_000000000021 27 obtaining postgraduate degrees abroad. WCRP. CORDEX Science and Training Workshop Interdisciplinary training and (peer-to- in East Asia. (2015) Available at: http://english.iap.cas.cn/news/201512/t201512 peer) capacity building programmes are 14_157356.html

Conclusion

By supporting young professionals on the above identified areas, a bigger space opens for them to contribute innovative ideas towards implementing more “people-centred” and effective (Multi- Figure 4. Young Scientists from the 4th WCRP Hazard) EWS globally. The authors hope CORDEX Science and Training Workshop in East that by 2030 young professionals on EWS Asia (Source: Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences) developments are continuously connected, working closely together What can young professionals do implementing projects and have a strong themselves? and sustained voice at all levels including within the IN-MHEWS. This section aims to provide some general advice targeted at young EWS Acknowledgements professionals on their journey towards more effective (Multi-Hazard) EWS: The Water Youth Network Disaster Risk ● Engage in the IN-MHEWS and other Reduction teams. Deltares and UNESCO- WMO related activities. IHE for their support and encouragement ● Advocate at global, national and local to bring together young researchers and levels to create and enhance your practitioners on EWdS. voice as young professionals on EWS developments. ● Join and utilise existing networks (personal and organisational) to meet others ‘in the same boat’ and share your knowledge on EWS developments e.g. write a blog post. ● Build partnerships and relationships outside your organization's boundaries both horizontally (across sectors) and vertically (across levels). ● Step outside your specialised comfort zone and jointly innovate with other young and not-so-young EWS experts across sectors. ● Contribute to building the evidence base of EWS effectiveness globally evidence-base by conducting and publishing applied research.

Disaster risk during flood situations in the dry zone of Sri Lanka W.A.S.I. Wijesuriya1

Email Address: [email protected] 1General Secretary, EarthLanka

Abstract Introduction

In recent years excessive rain caused Sri Lanka’s radial network of rivers starts from significant destruction of human life and the center of the country. There are 103 major damage to infrastructure in the dry zone of Sri river basins. Our main attention goes to the Lanka. These events left a significant portion north and eastern regions of the island which of the community affected in the years 2011, is represented largely by the dry zone. This 2014, 2015 and 2016. These occurrences also region has several major river basins including indicate an increase of severity and danger. the longest river in Sri Lanka, Mahaweli River. Particularly these flood events have threatened the reservoir dams and the river basins of Sri Lanka. The rising concerns over the safety has led to human movements away from the disaster risk areas. The current policies have noted the possible risk of rainfall related disasters but however, the impact assessments, updated water runoff information and dam resilience policies are still inadequate. With the increased concerns after 2016 floods there is a need for research based policy developments addressing these risks. The policy requirements discussed here focuses on methods of disaster risk assessment, rainfall-runoff mapping, and creating awareness among the vulnerable communities, strengthen the structural analysis of small and medium scale irrigation works of the dry zone of Sri Lanka.

Figure 1.The climatic zones of Sri Lanka1

1 Ramasamy, R. and Surendran, S.N., 2012. Global climate change and its potential impact on disease transmission by salinity-tolerant mosquito vectors in 32

Since 2011, erratic rainfall during the northeast monsoon characterized by flood/drought cycles has led to increased number of affected people in Sri Lanka’s Dry Zone. These effects have been both immediate and far-off impacts on the communities. The Immediate impacts are life loss, injuries and property damage. There have been around 250 flood related deaths reported in the dry zone of Sri Lanka during the period of 2010- 2016. The affected areas are also known to have communities which are of middle and lower income levels in Sri Lanka. This means the infrastructure in these areas are under developed or in the development stage. Most Figure 2. Flood damage to the infrastructure in the dry low-income houses are constructed out of zone of Sri Lanka 2015 [source: Red Cross Sri Lanka] cheap material like clay and wood panels and Currently ongoing GCF funded “Climate are easily destroyed. Resilient Integrated Water Management It is noteworthy that during 2011 and 2014 Project” pays some attention to ensure the floods in the Dry Zone a large number of safety of medium and small scale water village irrigation works failed. These failures reservoirs. This project is funded by the Green drove the attention of the communities living Climate Fund (GCF) and spearheaded by the in close proximity to reservoirs to question the Ministry of Mahaweli Development and safety measures of dams and water Environment of Sri Lanka with the assistance distribution channels. Failure of small of the United Nations Development irrigation works also highlights the Programme (UNDP). requirement to assess the resilience of the small and medium scale dams. In the recent Results and Discussion times, there had been heavy investment in the safety of large dams, but little on the medium In the dry zone of Sri Lanka, human-made and small dams. During May 2016 floods this reservoirs have served for the collection, concern came to the attention of mainstream storage and distribution of rainfall and runoff media due to alarming water level rise in the and provide irrigation water for the Kelani River (wet zone)2. However, the policy cultivation of paddy for 2000 years. These frameworks have failed to capture the impact village irrigation systems also provide a on the dry zone. variety of services including drinking water, water for livestock, fisheries etc. So their destruction has a big impact on human life, though little is felt at the national level. Although there have been improvements in coastal zones. Frontiers in physiology, 3, p.198. knowledge regarding climatic parameters 2 Perera, K., Sumathipala, P.L.N.S. and Wikramanayake, such as rainfall intensity changes, enough P.N., 2015. Interdependence between the Water studies on rainfall-runoff parameters has not Levels of Kotte Canal and Kelani River using Copulas. been done to capture the vulnerability of the Sri Lankan Journal of Applied Statistics, 16(2). 33 irrigation works in the dry zone. divisions in Sri Lanka are provinces, districts, In most cases district level or provincial level divisional secretariat divisions (DSDs), and analysis has been done at the moment3. The Grama Niladhari (Village Officer) divisions assessments of 2011 floods and 2016 floods (GNDs)9. Considering more decentralized are available as the Disaster Management approach, out of the 323 DSDs, and 14,113 Center publications. However the mapping of GNDs the DSDS GNDs in the dry zone should the trends observed in the flood situations be considered in mapping and forecasting of since 2010 are not available. There is only flood impacts. limited rapid damage assessment for The assessment of the flood hazard involves agriculture4 in the impacted areas mentioned the identification of: above. 1. Flood behavior; Many resources are forwarded towards the 2. Topography wet zone of Sri Lanka following the heavy 3. Population at risk. floods that affected the Kelani River basin in 201656. Therefore, due attention towards the These parameters can be further evaluated to dry zone disaster impact has been diminished identify specific needs of the dry zone of Sri over the last few years. It is important to Lanka. identify that the 2016 floods also impacted 1. In identifying the flood behavior, main focus 37,001 people in Northern districts and 24, should be given to the damage to the small 874 people in Puttalam district which belong reservoirs during the floods and their to the dry zone of Sri Lanka. In 2015 9,916 contribution to failure of further dams in the people (6,310 families) were affected by downstream. flooding in the districts of Jaffna, Mullaitivu, Therefore, the risk cannot be evaluated in Kilinochchi, Trincomalee, Puttalam (dry zone) isolation for individual reservoirs. and Gampaha (wet zone)78. These bunts/dams are vulnerable mostly due Therefore, village or local council level to the weak compaction by the local farmers. assessment is required to understand the Therefore, policy recommendations include severity of the damage. The administrative the consistent structural assessment and studies on rainfall-runoff parameters of the 3http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/b waterways which link these reservoirs. ackground-papers/documents/Chap3/Asia- Furthermore, the development of policies overview/Sri-Lanka-DRAFT-march-09.pdf regarding the distribution/ diversion of excess 4Amarnath, G., Inada, Y., Inoue, R., Alahakoon, N. and water should be done giving emphasis to the Smakhtin, V., 2014, May. Blending satellite data and river bed conservation policies already in RADAR tool for rapid flood damage assessment in 10 Agriculture: A case study in Sri Lanka. In EGU General place . Assembly Conference Abstracts (Vol. 16, p. 11099). 2. The flood topography maps are provided to 5http://www.irinnews.org/news/2016/05/26/after- the Disaster Management Center of Sri Lanka devastating-floods-and-landslides-sri-lanka-plans-new- building-code. 9 6http://www.cnn.com/2016/05/22/asia/sri-lanka- Zubair, L., Ralapanawe, V., Tennakoon, U., Yahiya, Z. flooding-deaths/ and Perera, R., 2005. Natural disaster risks in Sri Lanka: Mapping hazards and risk hotspots. Natural 7 http://floodlist.com/asia/sri-lanka-floods-northern- disaster hotspots case studies, p.109. province-november-2015 10 8http://www.irinnews.org/news/2016/05/26/after- http://www.sundaytimes.lk/160612/sunday-times- devastating-floods-and-landslides-sri-lanka-plans-new- 2/reviving-the-kelani-river-basin-a-sustainable- building-code approach-196873.html 34 by IWMI11. These maps can be used to develop place. the extrapolated maps indicating the There is a need for more awareness creation vulnerability of the dry zone communities among the female gender, children and youth. during the future flood situations. This is mainly due to these parties are 3. The populations at risk mostly include the generally vulnerable to be affected mostly by families in the agricultural and fisheries these disasters and are also have become the sectors. The resilience of small-holder farmers victims of the differences in employment can be enhanced through strengthened local status (women), gendered social roles (women institutional mechanism, social mobilization, and youth), and social norms (women, participatory planning & monitoring, inclusive children, and youth)15. development and increased capacity. Moreover, there parties tend to engage more Participatory Vulnerability and Capacity with the natural environment and resources Assessment (PVCA)12 methods are also surrounding them. Equipping them with required in these regions to produce hazard knowledge on the disaster risk and response maps, flood extent, exposure and risks. These methods shall lead to better responses with assessments should also extend to measure regard to evacuation to safety, resilient the water quality of these regions. Sri Lanka’s housing planning and increased community dry zone has an enormous issue of depleted awareness. water quality due to possible reasons of Finally, the degradation of infrastructure due herbicides used in the agricultural practices13 to water leakage and moisture transfer is and the inherent hardness of the water14. another major concern for the safety of the More importantly timely feed of these communities living in these flood risk areas. information into an online platform possibly People tend to return to their homes after from many access points distributed around severe floods without proper inspection of the the affected areas could be a useful given the construction. Most of these constructions are time sensitive manner of the information. clay or brick based and therefore has the Since the end of the civil war in Sri Lanka in propensity to absorb and retain more water 2009 the northern and eastern provinces have within the construction envelope. This could become more physically accessible. However, lead to failure of structures during heavy rains the transfer of technology required for the and in subsequent flood situations. Therefore, purposes of data gathering has not taken short and long term risk assessment policies are a necessity in the dry zone housing in Sri

16 11 http://www.dmc.gov.lk/IndexInnundationMaps.htm Lanka .

12Zhang, L., 2016. Flood hazards impact on neighborhood house prices: A spatial quantile regression analysis. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 60, pp.12-19. 13Wanigasuriya, K., 2014. Update on uncertain etiology 15De Silva, K. and Jayathilaka, R., 2014. Gender in the of chronic kidney disease in Sri Lanka's north-central context of disaster risk reduction; a case study of a dry zone. MEDICC review, 16(2), pp.61-65. flood risk reduction project in the Gampaha District in 14Jayasumana, C., Paranagama, P., Agampodi, S., Sri Lanka. Procedia Economics and Finance, 18, Wijewardane, C., Gunatilake, S. and Siribaddana, S., pp.873-881. 2015. Drinking well water and occupational exposure 16Zhang, L., 2016. Flood hazards impact on to Herbicides is associated with chronic kidney neighborhood house prices: A spatial quantile disease, in Padavi-Sripura, Sri Lanka. Environmental regression analysis. Regional Science and Urban Health, 14(1), p.6. Economics, 60, pp.12-19. 35

Acknowledgements

Mr. Upali Senarath Imbulana, Former Additional Secretary (Technical), Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resource Management, Sri Lanka.

Redefining disaster (excerpts from a thesis at Kanagawa University in Japan) Peter Abraham Fukuda Loewi

Email Address: [email protected]

Abstract Introduction

In the modern world, so focused on Atmospheric changes are causing economic growth and the highest hurricanes to grow larger, and rising sea technologies, I propose that we must look levels are causing flooding; what we have at architecture as if it were in the always called “natural disasters” are humanities. An understanding of the becoming increasingly man-made. As new history and societal significance of water covers old land, or a lack of water Japanese carpentry leads to the conclusion renders old land unusable, we are seeing that what is important in architecture is an increase in refugees worldwide. asking not how something can be built, but Flooding and drought are causing food why it must be built. shortages, and the new refugees are facing animosity from those they seek shelter from. Having lost everything, even once middle-class and educated people are facing extreme poverty. By widening the common definition of disaster, the areas of knowledge and policy that we can use to combat it grows, as do the architectural possibilities. In order that the literal and metaphorical reconstruction of the home, the transition from temporary to permanent housing, goes smoothly, we must look more widely at the causes, in the search for new solutions.

Methodology

We must look closely at the cultures of the pre-disaster era, and recognize the importance of traditional architecture. Traditional architectures are those that take into account climate factors, such as elevation, humidity, precipitation, and use the plants and minerals available to the builders. The origin of traditional structures lies in their unique geographic location, and so it, too, is intimately related to the environment. Many traditional architectures around the world are made by trees that were felled nearby. But whether they had the rocks 37 and steel to make the axes to cut them agriculture or arboriculture, and resources down is also a major component. Naturally, were traditionally used without waste. different trees have different Japan also lies along four tectonic plates, characteristics, and their assembly also and so it is a country prone to earthquakes. differs from region to region. This applies “The reason that architecture in Japan to the physical structure and to the details. focused on wood was, obviously because it Some places might have very similar was rich in wood resources, but wood was structures: if the house is being built in the chosen as an architectural material for tropics, the details will require lattice-like more reasons than just that. One of those is walls to allow the air to flow through, but if the tremendous destructive power of the house was being built in a region with natural disasters like typhoons and large year-round temperature changes, the earthquakes which frequently hit Japan. locals commonly spread mud over this Wooden structures have a small mass, and lattice. Mud is very good at absorbing heat, are better in seismic situations than stone so it stays warm in the winter but cool in or brick architectures. Even if an the summer. It can be structural, and is the earthquake strikes, the wood frame, an main building material in desert regions indispensable component of wooden with few trees. architecture, acts as a buffer, and gives the Climate affects more than just structures architecture a flexibility not possible in and details; it changes the very shape of the hard stone or brick architectures.”1 architecture. The mud architecture of While ours is an era in which we fear desert regions has flat roofs, which are earthquakes, this wasn't always the case. often used as another space for daily life. Different periods feared different disasters, Regions with high levels of precipitation and this effected the development of have steep roofs to redirect the water away traditional architectures. Being made from the living space. mostly of wood and grass, Japanese houses Similarly, architecture that was built to be are thought to be susceptible to fire. most effective in its local climate, was also However, wood has a low heat-transfer built to be effective in the local disasters. coefficient, and allows for ample time to Many mountainous countries have steep- escape after catching fire. Just because the roofed housing to prevent collapse under architecture itself was weak against fire, the snow, and many buildings in the tropics doesn't mean that the people inside must have long been built on stilts, to mitigate be, too. Looking at the records of past the effects of flooding or constant water disasters, compared to the number of level change. buildings destroyed, the number of lives lost is astonishing low. Discussion “There are exceptionally few cases of fires in wooden buildings leading to casualties. Japan is a mountainous island nation, A few years ago, there were fires in hot blessed by the sea and the forests. A long spring resorts near Minakami in Gunma, and skinny country running north-south, it Arima near Kobe, and Bandai in has the Pacific Ocean to the east, and the Fukushima, and they all had over 30 continental mass of Asia to the west. Two casualties. These were all first-rate hotels, thirds of the nation's area is wooded, and which were reinforced concrete structures. Japanese architecture was developed Around the same time, there was a fire in traditionally as wooden. With lots of the Oyasukyo hot spring in Akita. 22 precipitation, the roofs are steeply sloped, buildings burned to the ground, but not a and while the roof material differs from single person died. So, it can be said that region to region, it is primarily thatched or covered using thin layers of tree bark. Both 1 Seike Kiyoshi, Nihon no Kigumi, Tankosha, 1979, of these materials are the byproducts of pg. 18 38 because the buildings were made with defined as “traditional.” While it is known reinforced concrete that none of them fell that Western engineers admired Edo's down, and that because they were built craftsman culture, and allowed it to with wood, that 22 burned down. However, continue after the Meiji Restoration, this all it can also be said that because the changed after the Mino-Owari (or Nobi) buildings were built with wood, nobody earthquake, near Nagoya in 1891. died.”2 Traditional forms of joinery were said to be Generationally passed down knowledge is weak compared to Western hardware. The much more than just the way to cut or use Mino-Owari earthquake remains the trees, but also how to grow them, and all of largest earthquake ever to hit Japan on the special characteristics for each species. land, and because proving that a traditional “Use trees properly (lit. give life to trees.) structure based around the material Don't waste anything. If you can use the memory of wood was earthquake resistant habits to your advantage, the building will was impossible with the technology at the last longer, and be stronger. That is why we time, this kind of knowledge was pass on our skills, and what was passed on completely ignored. to me,”3 says Nishioka Tsunekazu, The next major blow to the traditional considered the last great temple carpenter. building methods was World War Two. Both the largest and oldest wooden “Even several years after the war, smaller buildings in the world are in Japan, and the schools and municipal structures were repairs of Horyuji Temple, the oldest often built with wood, but during the 50's wooden building in the world, were left to Japan entered a period of huge economic Nishioka. growth and everything began to be built However, these traditions and their out of concrete.”5 wisdom are being lost. “Wisdom as a form Called “conventional” wooden structures, of culture is only meaningful when it is they were in fact something much actually used. Instead of learning to give different. “To think that this 'conventional another life to trees, we live in a time when axial framing method' is a logically we only care about speed, cost, and shape. improved version of 'traditional wooden We have forgotten how to live with trees.”4 structures' is fundamentally incorrect.”6 One reason for this is the development and The Japanese method of non-rigid “soft” implementation of new technology. joints allowed the force of earthquakes to We can divide the physical structures of be absorbed in the play of the joint, and Japanese wooden architecture into three directed the force along the wooden beam major groups: “traditional,” “conventional,” in a direction that trees are exceptionally and “modern.” strong in. As this was the first major First we have the ancient technology, earthquake since there were Westerners in including trade with the Asian Continent, Japan, and there are no earthquakes in which we shall call “traditional” Western Europe, the new engineers didn't construction. There are of course know that the traditional way was built to differences between periods and regions, withstand the local disasters. but any form of construction that was The relationship between the post-war developed in the face of the local climate, period of economic growth and before the opening to the West, shall be architecture is problematic. There are known connections between the start of

2 Seike Kiyoshi, Nihon no Kigumi, Tankosha, 1979, 5 pg. 37 Sakamoto Isao, Mokuzou Kenchiku to sono 3 Nishioka Tsunekazu, Ki no Inochi, Ki no Kokoro, Kouzou, Mokuzou no Shousai 1: Kouzouhen, 2nd Shinchosha, 2005, pg. 24 Edition, Shoukokusha, 2000, pg. 7 4 6 Shiono Yonematsu, Ki no Oshie, Chikuma Masuda Kazuma, Kouzou no Henkaku, Kenchiku Shobou, 2010, pg. 60 Shichou Kenkyusho Henshu, 1998, pg. 199 39 the economic growth and the Korean War, modern homes are easier to live in than beginning in 1950, which is the same year traditional homes. For this, we can point to the first Japanese building code was set the internationalization of the Japanese life into law. While a direct link is unclear, we style, not that traditional houses became can see that the foreign building methods more difficult to live in, but that in recently were preferred. It can be assumed that built houses they have air conditioning, trade agreements involving North and we can see the great advancements in American woods and the associated the kitchen, bath, toilets, and water building methods were deeply involved. management facilities, which makes them The third construction method, “modern,” much easier to live in.”8 This is exactly the refers to balloon framing, panel framing, kind of “employment of Western 2×4s, and those that rely on composite technology without any criticism or critical woods. Structural plywoods have been thinking” that Hirose talks about. These certified by the building code, and while advancements have to do with the the term “carpenter” once meant a master additional facilities, and have nothing to do of trees, it has come to mean “the one who with the actual building. Is there any screws in pre-cut pieces of wood.” reason that new facilities can't be The Japanese structural engineer Hirose implemented in traditional structures? It is Kouji goes a step further: “The root of all for this reason that the largest opponents evil trying to erase the mentality and to the proposed 2020 energy building code technology of Japanese traditional are the remaining traditional carpenters. architecture is the national building code, Truly vernacular buildings will no longer and it can be explained in the following be able to be built, due to what the manner: government is calling environmental ● The crime of the employment of sustainability measures. Any new building Western technology without any must use an insulation with numbers that criticism or critical thinking, and its traditional materials do not meet. The logic making into law. is that mud walls don't do enough to ● The crime, the result of the above, insulate, and that artificial materials would which led to the obliteration of save money and energy on heating and air Japanese traditional technology. conditioning. There is no mention of using ● The crime of disrespecting less artificial heating or air conditioning at traditional craftsmen and inviting all. the egregious decline in skill. The United Nations stresses the ● The crime of forcing the propensity importance of responsible policies and of labor-saving structures. learning from our ancestry and tradition. It ● The crime of attacking architectural is clear how much architecture is affected free thought.“7 by politics and economics, and I propose (The character used for “crime” in the that this connection can be used to think original text is actually closer to “sin” or about disaster risk management. Preparing “transgression.”) for natural disasters begins with thinking Despite a no-waste culture before, Japan about the environment. also faced the implementation of a “use- Japan is currently facing a labor shortage. It and-throw-away” culture, under the name is raising the cost of construction, and is of “economic growth.” “The overwhelming slowing the reconstruction of disaster hit number of Japanese inhabitants think that areas. However, it is causing one more large problem: traditional knowledge and technology aren't being passed on 7 Hirose Kouji, Zairai Kouhou wo Kangaeru: Sanjigen de aru koto wo Wasureta Kenchiku, 8 Kenchiku to Machizukuri 1984 April Edition, Uchida Yoshichika, Taiyaku: Gendai Kenchiku no Shinkenchikuka Gijyutsusha Shudan, pg. 3 Tsukurarekata, Ichigaya Shuppansha, 2002, pg. 10 40 anymore. Fearing that this would happen, Nishioka shared his secrets, something Conclusion traditional carpenters had never done before. We are seeing the digitization and To effectively close this rift, we must preservation of the shapes of traditional address the inadequacies in our education technology, and advancements in the systems and the political reasons behind natural sciences are giving birth to new them. New technologies are being ways of preserving the environment, but developed faster than people can test their the connection between those two is being true sustainability. The Japanese term for forgotten, and causing a rift in architecture. “vertical integration” comes from forestry “It is a sad truth that of the over 5400 and the history of sending timber down people killed in the Great Hanshin river. The market is intimately related to earthquake, over 90 percent of them were the environment. Only through crushed to death by collapsing buildings. understanding the whole system can we After the earthquake, I talked to many begin to address the parts. We need a more people, but none of their words struck me human-centered, holistic, adaptable, yet quite as the master of Sukiya carpentry, localized approach to architecture. Kinoshita Kouichi. I summarize: The tragedy of the collapsing of so many wooden buildings during the Great Hanshin earthquake is pretty close to a man-made disaster. Here is why: 1. They are being designed by those unfamiliar with trees, 2. They are being certified by cursory municipal employees, 3. They are being put together by irresponsible carpenters just trying to earn a living, 4. Finally, there isn't a single person out there who is racking their brains about the structural research.”9 The first point is clearly about the separation of architecture and the endemic. It should be the carpenters in point three (above) who know these kinds of things. However, as they are being disrespected, they can't even take pride in their own work, and this is directly causing disasters. But this can hardly be called the carpenters' fault. “I think it important that we reflect on the knowledge held by those who associated with trees, ways of interaction with nature. It should teach us something that we have forgotten.”10

9 Masuda Kazuma, Kouzou no Henkaku, Kenchiku Shichou Kenkyusho Henshu, 1998, pg. 185 10 Shiono Yonematsu, Ki no Oshie, Chikuma Shobou, 2010, pg. 13 41

Reducing disaster risks by better prediction of the impacts of El Niño and La Niña Gabriela Guimarães Nobre1, Sanne Muis1, Ted I. Veldkamp1 and Philip J. Ward1

Email Address: [email protected] 1Institute for Environmental Studies (IVM), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands

Abstract 1 Introduction

El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) The recent 2015-16 El Niño is one of the events have been linked to billions of strongest ever recorded. El Niño dollars of economic damages in large conditions began to emerge in mid-2014 parts of the world, through the and intensified throughout 2015. The triggering of extreme events like floods event was predicted months in and droughts. Climate forecasts can advance1. The event triggered severe predict ENSO conditions months in droughts and water shortages in Africa advance, and as such, governments and for two consecutive years, and other organizations have the contributed to food-insecurity and opportunity to take precautionary famine2. Donors, like the European measures to reduce disaster risks. Union, are increasing their funds to Taking adequate action requires a global more than €500 million to respond to understanding of which regions are at the crisis that is partially driven by the risk during El Niño/La Niña events. In impact of the El Niño on East Africa3. this policy brief, we summarize recent Simultaneously, the 2015-16 El Niño research on the global effects of ENSO caused severe flooding in the northwest on natural disasters, including droughts, of Latin America and forced 150,000 and river- and coastal flooding. Also, we people to leave their homes in Paraguay, provide some policy recommendations Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay4. In 2017, showcasing opportunities and forecasts give a 50% chance of El Niño challenges of responding to ENSO developing again1. forecasts. El Niño conditions occur when there are unusually warm oceanic and atmospheric conditions in the tropical Pacific. This can cause the trade winds,

1 Australian Government - Bureau of Meteorology. “ENSO Outlook 28 March 2017 - An Alert System for the El Niño–Southern Oscillation.” (2017) 2 Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS). "Key message update East Africa." (2017) 3 Francis, O. “Combat East Africa Famine, Drought.” Bloomberg (20 Mar. 2017). 4 “Flooding ‘Worst in 50 Years’, as 150,000 Flee in Paraguay, Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay.” BBC News (27 Dec. 2015). 42 that usually blow towards Indonesia and Many major climate centers such as the Australia, to slow down or even reverse NOAA Climate Prediction Center use direction, allowing the warmer water to operational forecasting to give advance spread eastward all the way to South warning to governments, decision- America5. However, El Niño is just one makers and end-users around the world. side of the story. Opposite conditions, Reliable forecasts enable the with unusually cold oceanic and prioritization of adaptation efforts in the atmospheric conditions in the eastern most affected regions ahead of those tropical Pacific, are called La Niña. These extreme events and allow for early oceanic and atmospheric variations are warning and disaster planning by local known as the El Niño-Southern governments and non-governmental Oscillation (ENSO), which is the organizations, like the Red Cross or dominant driver of the year to year United Nations10, especially when there variability in the global climate is a good understanding of the societal conditions6. While their frequency and impacts that may be caused by ENSO. intensity is irregular, El Niño and La In this policy brief, we summarize recent Niña events occur on average every two research on the global effects of ENSO to seven years. The conditions typically on natural disasters, including droughts last 9-12 months, but can persist much and river- and coastal flooding. longer. ENSO can affect weather patterns 2 Increased disaster risk due to El worldwide through so-called Niño and La Niña events “teleconnections”. In turn, these changes in weather patterns can influence the frequency and severity on natural 2.1 Drought and water scarcity hazards, including droughts and The connection between ENSO events flooding. The impacts of ENSO are well- and rainfall deficits, droughts, and water studied at local and regional scales, and scarcity is increasingly well are being studied more and more also at understood11. Connections between the global scale7. These studies are ENSO and low river flows exist in leading to an improved understanding of northern America12, Southeast Asia13, how ENSO impacts society. Southern Africa14, and Australia15. Over the past few decades, the prediction of ENSO conditions has 10 Coughlan De Perez, E. et al. "Science to prevent improved considerably. ENSO events disasters." Nature Geoscience 7.2 (2014): 78-79.. 11 can now be predicted with reasonable Dilley, M., and Heyman ,B. N. "ENSO and 8,9 disaster: droughts, floods and El Niño/Southern skill 6 months or more in advance . Oscillation warm events." Disasters 19.3 (1995): 181-193. 5 https://www.climate.gov/enso 12 Ryu, J. H. et al. "Potential extents for ENSO- 6 McPhaden, M.J., Zebiak, S.E., and Glantz. M.H. driven hydrologic drought forecasts in the “ENSO as an Integrating Concept in Earth United States." Climatic Change 101.3 (2010): Science.” Science 314.5806 (2006): 1740–1745. 575-597. 7 Ward, P.J. et al. “Usefulness and Limitations of 13 Lü, A. et al. "El Niño-Southern Oscillation and Global Flood Risk Models.” Nature Climate water resources in the headwaters region of the Change 5.8 (2015): 712–715. Yellow River: links and potential for 8 Jin, E.K. et al. “Current Status of ENSO forecasting." Hydrology and Earth System Prediction Skill in Coupled Ocean–atmosphere Sciences 15.4 (2011): 1273. Models.” Climate Dynamics 31.6 (2008): 647– 14 Richard, Y. et al. "20th century droughts in 664. southern Africa: spatial and temporal variability, 9 Zhang, R. H. et al. “A Successful Real-Time teleconnections with oceanic and atmospheric Forecast of the 2010-11 La Nina Event.” conditions." International Journal of Climatology Scientific Reports 3. (2013): 1108. 21.7 (2001): 873-885. 43

Worldwide, disasters triggered by maize, rice and wheat under both El droughts occur twice as often during the Niño and La Niña conditions are likely to second year of an El Niño event than be below normal (-4.0 to -0.2%), while during other years, especially in El Niño causes on average positive Southern Africa and Southeast Asia14. impacts on soybeans yields (+2.9 to Regional water scarcity conditions +3.5%), especially in the United States of become more extreme under El Niño America and Brazil, where most of the and La Niña phases for almost one-third global soybean is currently produced22. of the global land area16. Regions where Even today, drought-related crop rainfall and hydrological extremes are failures due to El Niño are a major influenced by ENSO17,18 also show a contributor to famine. The rapid shift connection between ENSO and annual between El Niño and La Niña conditions total water availability or water scarcity in 2016 intensified the shortage of conditions. In these areas, rainfall rainfall, driving major hydrological deficits during an ENSO event feed crises over Eastern and Southern Africa, droughts, which possibly result in water where 50 million people are food scarcity events if consumptive demands insecure due to the combination of outweigh the available water drought exacerbated conditions and resources11. conflict 21.

2.2 Agricultural effects 2.3 Extreme rainfall and river ENSO influences global agriculture in flooding several ways, including: changes in El Niño or La Niña intensifies extreme hydro-meteorological19 and climate rainfall mostly in boreal winter, and extremes20, which directly impacts crop least during summer seasons23. The production and export prices; and deviations from normal conditions are cascading effects on livelihoods and often asymmetric, which means that health21. The global-mean yields of most parts of the world experience higher/lower extremes only for either El Niño or La Niña. Extreme rainfall during 15 Chiew, F HS, et al. "El Nino/Southern ENSO condition can be up to 50% higher Oscillation and Australian rainfall, streamflow and drought: Links and potential for compared to neutral conditions. forecasting." Journal of Hydrology 204.1-4 Extremes are more severe in the boreal (1998): 138-149. winter during El Niño mainly in central 16 Veldkamp, T. I. E. et al. “Sensitivity of Water and southern North America, southeast Scarcity Events to ENSO-Driven Climate and northeast China, and southeast Variability at the Global Scale.” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 19.10 (2015): 4081–4098. South America, and during La Niña in 17 Dai, A. and Wigley, T. M. L.: Global patterns of western Pacific areas23. ENSO induced precipitation, Geophys. Res. Lett., During El Niño conditions, about one- 27, 1283–1986, doi:10.1029/1999GL011140, fifth of the global land surface is more 2000. likely to experience abnormally high 18 Dettinger, M. D. and Diaz, H. F.: Global Characteristics of Stream Flow Seasonality and Variability, J. Hydrometeorol., 1, 289–310,2000. overview of impact, projected humanitarian 19 Ward P.J. et al. Sensitivity of river discharge to needs and response”. June 2016. ENSO. Geophys Res Lett. 2010;37(12):1–6. 22 Iizumi, Toshichika, et al. "Impacts of El Niño 20 Trenberth KE, Fasullo JT. Climate extremes Southern Oscillation on the global yields of and climate change: The Russian heat wave and major crops." Nature communications 5 (2014). other climate extremes of 2010. J Geophys Res 23 Sun, X. et al. “A Global Analysis of the Atmos. 2012;117(17):1–12 Asymmetric Effect of ENSO on Extreme 21 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Precipitation.” Journal of Hydrology 530.2015 Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) (2016), “El Nino: (2015): 51–65. 44

Figure 1. Comparison between flooding and non-flooding conditions in Peru as captured by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite. Between 19 and 23 March 2017, multiple storms hit Peru’s north coast between, bringing heavy rains and extensive flooding to the country. Source: NASA. river flow, especially in the tropics24 level of ± 20-30 cm27. Along the North (Figure 1). In terms of economic American west coast, mean sea levels damage, El Niño years are associated were on average 0.11 m higher during with anomalies in annual expected the five largest El Niño events28. In most urban damage in 29% of the Earth’s land parts of the world, the generation of surface, while during La Niña years extreme sea-levels is dominated by tides anomalies are observed across 23% of and storm surges. However, in regions the Earth’s land surface25. with a large change in mean sea-level and a small tidal range is small, these 2.4 Coastal hazards effects can have a significant influence ENSO events have been linked with on the generation of extremes. Changes increased probabilities of beach erosion in storm activity result from changes in and coastal flooding around the world. tropical cyclone activity29, as well as Two mechanisms cause this: (1) warmer extra-tropical cyclone activity30. ocean temperatures and changes in ocean circulation can induce an increase in mean sea level; and (2), perturbations 3. Policy recommendations of the tropical and subtropical 3.1 Responding to ENSO atmospheric circulation influence storm The risk of drought and flooding can activity around the world. Increases in vary from year to year due to ENSO. As mean sea level particularly affect the

26 tropical Pacific . El Niño/La Niña 27 Becker, M., et al. “Sea level variations at conditions result in changes in mean sea tropical Pacific islands since 1950.” Global Planetary Change 80–81. (2012): 85–98. 28 Barnard, P.L. et al.”Coastal vulnerability across 24 Emerton, R. et al. “Complex Picture for the Pacific dominated by El Niño/Southern Likelihood of ENSO-Driven Flood Hazard.” Oscillication.” Nature Geoscience 8. (2015): 801– Nature Communications 5 (2017): 71–99. 808 25 Ward, P.J. et al. “Strong Influence of El Niño 29 Saunders, M.A. et al. “Atlantic hurricanes and Southern Oscillation on Flood Risk around the NW Pacific typhoons: ENSO spatial impacts on World.”Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.111.44 (2014): occurrence and landfall.” Geophysical Research 15659–15664. Letters 27-8. (2000): 1147–1150. 26 Merrifield, M., Kilonsky, B. and Nakahara, S. 30 Eichler, T. and W. Higgins. “Climatology and “Interannual sea level changes in the tropical ENSO-related variability of North American Pacific.” Geophysical Research Letters 26 (1999): extratropical cyclone activity.” Journal of Climate 3317–3320. 19. (1981): 2076–2093. 45

ENSO can be predicted with reasonable season34. At the same time, crop skill, individuals, organizations, and insurance systems based on ENSO governments can make use of ENSO forecasts are becoming more forecasts and take actions to reduce the established. An example is the African impacts of potential disasters. Here we Risk Capacity, an index-based insurance provide practical examples of how ENSO mechanism for infrequent, severe forecasts are being put to use. drought events35. Early warning More and more, governments respond forecasting systems, like FEWS-NET36, to ENSO forecasts and make an attempt are providing outlooks that help to reduce disaster risk. Peru provides a governments and non-governmental prime example. In the past, El Niño organizations to plan for humanitarian events have contributed to huge crises, for example via the pre-stocking economic losses with the 1982-83 El of foods, medicines and disaster relief Niño causing 2 billion USD31 and the goods, and the redeployment of health 1996-97 El Niño 3.5 billion USD32. This staff to the worst-affected areas10,37. is because the countries' main economic activities, like fishing, agriculture and 3.2 Challenges tourism, are heavily exposed to El Niño. Despite the increasing understanding In response to the forecast of a strong and skill of climate predictions, ENSO ENSO in 2015, the Peruvian government continues to surprise the world37. This is declared a 60-day state of emergency, depicted clearly by the false prediction and spent around $20 million for flood of a really strong El Niño in early 2014, and drought prevention. This included whereas an unforeseen strong El Niño building reservoirs in areas predicted to developed in 2015. Furthermore, the be affected by drought, dredging and changing climate may also have an deepening rivers in flood-prone areas, impact on the frequency and strength of and providing agricultural insurance for ENSO events. These potential changes farmers33. Also, based on seasonal can have profound socio-economic climate forecasts, the government has consequences. Hence, it is important to established guidelines on how to achieve improve our understanding of how agricultural production goals and ENSO may respond to climate change. advises farmers about the optimal Still, the uncertainties surrounding the combination of crops to sow31. likelihood of an ENSO-driven droughts or floods are high. Each ENSO event is Similar strategies are being unique and can have a different implemented in Africa, where ENSO signature. For instance, during the forecasts are used to assist agricultural strong 2015-16 El Niño, several producers to select crops most likely to countries took preparedness measures be successful in the coming growing for expected flooding. While, Peru experienced severe flooding no floods were registered in other likely locations 31 Lagos, P., and J. Buizer. “El Niño and Peru: A such as Japan. Furthermore, Indonesia Nation’s Response to Interannual Climate also suffered from floods when much Variability.” Natural and Technological Disasters: Causes, Effects and Preventive Measures. (1992). 32 United Nations Office for Disaster Risk 34 Tall, Arame, et al. "Scaling up climate services Reduction – Regional Office for the Americas for farmers: Mission Possible. Learning from (UNISDR AM). "Americas hit hard by El Niño." good practice in Africa and South Asia." (2014). News Archive. (2015). 35 http://www.africanriskcapacity.org/ 33 Hillier, D. and Magrath, J. (2016). “El Niño 36 https://www.fews.net/ 2015/6 Briefing: Urgent action now can prevent 37 McPhaden, M.J. “Playing hide and seek with El major suffering and loss”. Oxfam International. Niño. Nature Climate Change 5 (2015): 791–795 46 drier river conditions were expected24.

Therefore, communicating and mobilizing funds to mitigate ENSO seasonal risks remains a challenge, this includes translating uncertain early warning risks into multiple and flexible early actions. In addition to a fast response to critical food insecurity and health conditions, efforts must be focused on strengthening national climate resilience and “Build Back Better” strategies, especially in poorest communities which are hit hardest21. Since mid-2015, the Central Emergency Response Fund has allocated $117.5 million to 19 countries for early action in response to disasters associated with El Niño. Reflecting recent pledges and new funding requests of a total of $5 billion by twenty-three countries, the current funding gap is almost $3.1 billion38.

4. Conclusions

ENSO events have been linked to billions of dollars of economic damages in large parts of the world, by triggering extreme events like floods and droughts. Climate forecasts can predict these events months in advance, and as such, governments and other organizations have the opportunity to take precautionary measures to reduce disaster risks. To take adequate action requires a global understanding of which regions are at risk during El Niño/La Niña events. While various scientific and institutional challenges remain, there are more and more examples of good practices of actions taken to reduce natural hazard impacts based on ENSO forecasts.

38 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) (2016), “El Nino: overview of impact, projected humanitarian needs and response”. September 2016. 47

Role of Nepali nurses in disaster risk reduction: a need for capacity building Sushila Paudel1,2

Email Address: [email protected] 1Disaster Nursing Global Leader Program, University of Kochi, Japan 2Member of Nursing association of Nepal (NAN), Kathmandu, Nepal

Abstract Introduction

Nepal is one of the hotspots of disaster. Nepal is a landlocked, Himalayan This article reflects on 25 April, 2015 country located in South-Asia in Gorkha Earthquake, and one of projects between China and India. Nepal often undertaken in Nepal, targeting the local faces high magnitudes and intensities of Nepali nurses who originally belong to multiple hazards such as earthquakes, their community, and their significant floods, landslides, fires, lightning, contribution in monitoring living windstorms, hailstorms, droughts, environment and promoting health of epidemics and so on because of its community people after disaster. It rugged and fragile geophysical focuses on the monitoring process, structure, very high peaks, high slopes, challenges and recommendations that complex geology, variable climatic might be beneficial to nursing practice conditions, active tectonic processes, in terms of enhancing roles of nurses unplanned settlement, increasing and capacity building in disasters, and population, weak economic condition enabling national and global policy and low literacy rate1. World Bank makers to deal more effectively in order classifies Nepal as one of the global ‘hot- to promote Disaster Risk Reduction. spots’ for natural disaster2. The country stands at the top 20th list of the most multi-hazard prone countries in the world. It is ranked 4th, 11th and 30th in terms of climate change, earthquake and flood risk, respectively3. On 25 April 2015, a massive earthquake of magnitude 7.6 struck Nepal, having

1 The Government of Nepal, Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA) and Disaster Preparedness Network-Nepal . “Nepal Disaster Report 2015”.Nepal.2015. 2 The World Bank. “Natural Disaster Hotspots: A Global Risk Analysis”.the World Bank and Columbia University:Washington D.C.2005 3UNDP/BCPR.“Reducing Disaster Risk: A Challenge for Development.A Global Report”. United Nations Development Programme/Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery conference draft:New York.2004

48 the epicenter near Barpak village of as ‘EpiNurse’, from selected 10 affected Gorkha district, northwest of capital city districts for 4 months in 34 temporary Kathmandu. It was the worst quake to shelters. Monitoring was started from strike the country in more than 80 September 2016. Purpose of study was years. On 12 May 2015, another 6.8 explained before monitoring, and toolkit magnitude strong aftershock caused training was given. Toolkit included further damage and sufferings. These simple questionnaire regarding living earthquakes took the lives of 8,896 and environment assessment and item of injured seriously 22,303 people1. Surveillance in Post Extreme Disasters pose various threats to Emergencies and Disasters (SPEED), physical and psycho-social wellbeing. developed by WHO/WPRO, and a post- Critical attention should be given to disaster Early Warning Alert and address health needs of people to Response Network (EWARN), used by maintain minimum health safety level. Ministry of Health. The EpiNurse center So nurses, being the largest healthcare was launched at Nursing Association of professionals group, must be well Nepal (NAN) in Kathmandu to help prepared for disasters. The world improving the accuracy of data recorded Health organization report by nurses. acknowledges that nurses lack knowledge and skills in disaster and Results & Discussion recommends that nurses to be involved in planning, policy making for disaster The total population of the Registered preparedness and response. Nurses in Nepal in 2017 is Furthermore, WHO demonstrates that 43,1395. Basnet et al. has found that training nurses will have a great impact “The majority of the RNs worked in on risk reduction and response to a government hospitals (63.2%) and two disaster4. A developing country like thirds (78%) had never attended Nepal, which has been hit by the disaster training drills. Knowledge of earthquakes frequently, should have the RNs regarding earthquake disaster well prepared nurses in order to was at a moderate level (70.07 ± 10.01). respond to a disaster effectively. In regards to the knowledge, the knowledge in the response phase was at Methodology a low level whereas, that in the recovery phase was at a high level. The lowest This article reflects on 25 April, 2015 score of nurses’ knowledge was related Gorkha Earthquake and one of projects to assessment and triage in earthquake undertaken in Nepal called “EpiNurse disaster response. Nurses working in project”. Objective of the EpiNurse governmental hospitals have a higher project was to assess the communicable mean score of knowledge than those diseases, assessing local living working in non-governmental hospitals environment for surveillance, (P < .05)6. It reveals the necessity of interventions and priority activities, and passing information to government, donors and other concerned authorities. 5 “Registration status of Nurses upto 12 March, Monitoring was conducted by 24 2017”. Nepal Nursing Council. 2017.Available trained local Nepali nurses, given name from: http://www.nnc.org.np/. (Assessed on 25 March,2017) 6 Basnet, Songwathana P., and Sae-Sia W. 4 WHO. “The Contribution of Nursing and “Disaster Nursing Knowledge in Earthquake Midwifery in Emergencies.” Report of a WHO Response and Relief among Nepalese Nurses consultation:WHO, Geneva.2006. working in Government and Non-Government 49 disaster nursing training course in A two-day workshop was conducted community health nursing level and in with representative nurses of the non-governmental hospitals to improve disaster affected areas on collecting their knowledge in order to respond to information about shelters. future disasters. Nurses play key roles Specifications of the survey tool kit were in disaster preparedness. They can save done, and skills training on monitoring lives and reduce public fear and assist in and rapid assessment were given, so mitigation measures. They have that they pay more attention to the exceptional knowledge of the most hygiene control to maintain minimum vulnerable populations, and this health safety. Data collection was the information can be immediately used in critical challenge. Traditional paper and a disaster. telephone methods were used by nurses Another study by Loke and Fung for data collection which took more focused that with the complexity nature time. To solve this problem, new of disasters, special competencies are application was developed in required if nurses are to deal with collaboration with the local nonprofit adverse happenings in their serving organization. Mobile application community. Nurses’ perceived disaster collected data and information of nursing competencies reported by shelter such as location and timestamps, nurses were grossly inadequate, geo-tagged photos, and specific demonstrating the needs to develop a questionnaire with location information comprehensive curriculum for public by the geo-tagging function. This system health. The establishment of a set of development and action engagement tailor-made disaster nursing core process was designed to engage local competencies for the community they nurse in a quality improvement process. served is the first step in preparing Initially, a relatively low commitment nurses to deal with disastrous situations was seen to the continuous monitoring for the health of the public7. but the use of mobile application “EpiNurse “was given the name after increased the health professionals’ “the nurses who can perform sense of responsibility towards the care epidemiological approach” and they are they provided. All the living the main health professionals in touch environment data and health with the community. Every community information as per questionnaire sent has its own culture and social structure. by the local nurses were monitored for So, local Nurses can understand best, accuracy in the EpiNurse Center the local community needs, and assets, NAN(Nursing Association of Nepal) and thus assessing out the local living the information was shared with environment for surveillance and government, donors and concerned interventions and priority activities, authorities. Lack of geographic providing optimum care and also information, unavailability of IT communicating information with infrastructure and lack of knowledge of concerned authorizes at the local and nurses in information technology were national level. the issues faced during monitoring and data collection. However, mobile Sector”. Journal of Nursing Education and application was useful for EpiNurses in Practice 6.11.(2016): 111 reporting epidemiological health 7Loke, Fung O.W.M. “Nurses’ Competencies in security information regardless of Disaster Nursing: Implications for Curriculum timing and systems. It is urgent to apply Development and Public Health.” International geospatial technology for people’s Journal Environment Research Public Health 11.3.(2014): 3289 behavior modeling in disaster situation, 50 and suggest exploring the potential use information from evacuees in shelters of social networks to enhance the and transmit data in near real-time government’s understanding of people’s communication to other health health security level. Hence we can say, organizations, who would make if provided minimum training, local informed decisions for prevention of Nurses can play the vital role in health hazards through the action reducing disaster risks and supporting research which assess living- Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk environmental conditions and health Reduction. risks, to improve the quality of The concept of EpiNurse contributes to reporting system in shelters, to enhance development and ongoing enhancement organizational development through of sustainability in the communities. teamwork around data collection, and to The national nursing association should improve the quality of care by linking be supportive for such simple change community and government that enhances the working environment surveillance records. So, disaster for nurses in a way that can be nursing education and training to sustained. develop competencies for the capacity building of Nepali nurses is vital. Policy Recommendations Acknowledgements Resources are often limited and do not allow monitoring tool to incorporate all I would like to acknowledge Dr. Sakiko of the reporting sources. It is required Kanbara, Associate Professor, Graduate for government to coordinate the inter- School of Nursing, University of Kochi, operability of rapid assessment with Principal Investigator from Japan, for other data services for further carrying out EpiNurse project in Nepal, cooperation with other sectors. Routine and Prof. Tara Pokhrel, President of health security monitoring and Nursing Association of Nepal, Assistant communication is essential in ensuring Prof. Apsara Pandey Khanal, Vice to adapt over time to changing social president of Nursing Association of context, environments systems and Nepal, Prof. Chandrakala Sharma, technology. President of Nepal Nursing Council, Similarly, Capacity building including Principal Investigators from Nepal, for human and technology is necessary for their warm guidance and support, and sustainable community. opportunity given to me to coordinate Epinurses. In addition, I sincerely thank Conclusion all EpiNurses for their efforts in monitoring health of people during At the time of disaster, effective disaster. monitoring to reduce disaster risk has been a challenge. This project explores how the data collected by local nurses using the simple technology can become the basis of the daily community health information system, which could be the monitoring model and benchmark of Nepal towards Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction from the point of view of nursing science. The Nepali local nurses gather first-hand 51

Staying safe: disaster risk reduction Sharmishtha Agarwal

Email Address: [email protected]

Abstract Introduction

Developmental gains are directly related According to the World Bank, losses to the exposure of any community to brought about by disasters in developing disaster risk. In the same light, the level of countries are 20 times higher than those disaster risk prevalent in a community is in developed countries in terms of Gross linked to the developmental choices National Product. There is an increasing exerted by that community1. deposition that investing in Disaster Risk Natural hazards often lead to disasters Reduction leads to economic and when the society is not well equipped to development benefits. Few instances are face the natural hazard, hence calling it a stated below: natural disaster. Disaster Risk Reduction targets to minimize the damage caused by 1. Potential losses of $12 billion have natural hazards like earthquake, cyclones, been deterred by an investment of floods, droughts and others, using an $3 billion in flood control ethic of prevention. measures over 40 years. Education for Disaster Risk Reduction 2. It has been assessed that for every caters to the relationships between dollar invested in Disaster Risk society, environment, economy, and Reduction, two to four dollars are culture and their impacts. It helps to recovered in terms of risk averted create resilient societies through a or reduced disaster impacts.2 holistic and interdisciplinary approach to learning and problem solving. Children Human actions lead to natural hazards play an important role in saving and becoming disasters. However, we can protecting lives of a community at the minimize the disaster risk by making the time of a disaster. Including disaster risk wise choices of intelligent planning and reduction in primary and secondary taking right steps. school curricula is essential to fostering Climate change, by increasing the awareness and understanding of the intensity and frequency of the disasters is environment. This article aims to make increases a community's vulnerability to disaster risk reduction a part of education disasters. The term disaster risk therefore at all levels to move towards a resilient refers to the potential disaster losses in community. lives, health status, livelihoods, assets and services, which could occur in a particular

1 UNDP, 2004 2 www.dfid.gov.uk 52 community or society over some specified to raise awareness about natural hazards. future time period. The impact of a hazard The role of education in Disaster Risk is different on communities, depending Reduction can be simplified as below: on the coping mechanism of a particular community. The underprivileged and ● Engaging children, teachers, downtrodden communities suffer the parents, school management, local most from disasters, since they are the authorities. least equipped and most exposed. ● Investing in school infrastructure Disaster risk can be attributed to three to make buildings and surrounding factors: areas safer. a. hazards (natural or ● Using schools as centers for anthropogenic) community action, training and b. vulnerability to a hazard coordination on Disaster Risk c. coping capacity linked to the Reduction. reduction, mitigation and ● Raising the awareness of children resilience to the vulnerability of a and their communities on climate community associated with the change and disaster prevention hazard in question. and mitigation. ● Tracking how climate change is The primary intention of Disaster Risk affecting communities. Reduction should not only be reduction of ● Helping vulnerable children and loss by disaster but sustainable their communities to claim the development, human welfare and well- rights that will allow them to live being. Steps to mitigate negative effects of in safer conditions. natural hazards should be taken. Planting ● Campaigning for the of mangroves to minimize the threat implementation of the Hyogo posed by tidal surges is one of the Framework for Action by all examples. In Vietnam, mangrove signatory governments. plantation was done to provide protection ● Persuading and supporting to dykes and coastal communes. It had governments to integrate Disaster direct economic and ecological benefits, Risk Reduction into all areas of safeguarding assets outside the sea dykes. their work and to replicate This Vietnam Red Cross project has had successful Disaster Risk Reduction an exceptional achievement in improving models. the protection of dykes and coastal ● Supporting civil society networks communities and is the reason for more and experts at local, national and than a quarter of the existing mangroves international levels. in the eight northern provinces.3 Thus, ● Documenting and sharing mangrove afforestation can be deduced to experiences and learning with be one of the most effective ways of peers, governments, academics disaster and climate change mitigation. and donors. Education in schools can be used as a tool

3 www.ifrc.org 53

Discussion Safety Initiative to cultivate a practice of disaster safety in schools. The project Swelling susceptibilities emanating from through a series of activities sensitized population increase, rapid urbanization, teachers, school administration, students environmental degradation, socio- and parents on disaster management economic conditions including conflicts issues associated with school for climate change, diminishing resources, communities. It has directly impacted poverty and developmental pressure, are 105,000 students across 175 schools and the reasons for disaster risk being a has become a model for an initiative of its global concern. Therefore, building safe kind. and resilient communities should be at The Disaster Risk Reduction through the heart of the approach to Disaster Risk Schools (DRRS) project in Haiti has Reduction. helped the people change the way they Children are the most vulnerable at the approach disaster management and take time of a catastrophe and if taught about initiatives to reduce risks and protect natural risks, they can play a vital role in themselves. It has trained people to safeguarding the community at the time perform rescue operations and damage of a disaster. Building or investing in assessments incase a disaster strikes. In a strengthening school buildings to certain part of the country, parents have withstand the forces of nature, will built a wall around a local school to be protect generations of children, used as community shelter in times of considering the loss of each child emergency.6 represents 40-70 years of lost life and To attain a sustainable development to productivity. Each scar indicates 40-70 Disaster Risk Reduction, it is crucial to years of expensive medical care4. Disaster achieve a balance between human risk education and building resilient security and environment. Thus, at the school infrastructure are the primary level of policy making, education can goals outlined in the Hyogo Framework serve as the paramount tool to join issues for Action 2005-20015: Building of disaster, environment and sustainable Resilience of Nations and Communities to development to achieve human security. Disasters. The paradigm of Disaster Risk Reduction The calamitous earthquake of Gujarat, requires the governments to increase India in 2001, has etched harrowing their investments in corrective and memories of casualties among school compensatory risk management. children. Several school buildings Nalbari district of Assam, India, has been crashed, with the most excruciating affected by annual flooding for decades. tragedy in Anjar, where 400 school As a part of the Action Aids project, a children lost their lives.5 While executing number of students from local schools the extensive rehabilitation programs in have formed a disaster management the aftermath of the disaster, the committee, given the residents hope and government undertook the Gujarat School tackle disaster in a new way. It makes them feel safer.

4 www.seedsindia.org 5 www.unisdr.org 6 http://www.actionaid.org 54

Conclusion

Education, till now, has focused on disaster response and recovery instead of proposing actions to reduce risk. To build disaster resilience in societies around the world, education will assist in how disaster risk can be understood and reduced — not only reducing existing risks, but also preventing the creation of new risks. Disaster Risk Reduction is required to have an adequate part in planning and development projects. Education policies seeking to promote Disaster Risk Reduction within local contexts should include the knowledge and practices of the region’s indigenous people. Effective education calls for policymakers to promote gender equality and complete involvement of women and girls within any education policy or initiative. Thus, it is imperative for the stakeholders in development including government, professionals, legislators, inspectors, builders, councilors, and ultimately the beneficiaries to be a part of the policy making. The aim of Disaster Risk Reduction should be to reduce risks by building capacity and resilience of communities at risk, ensuring their welfare and security.

isk DISASTEReduction Science, Technology & Innovation

Digital government for better disaster risk governance? added value and challenges Serena Tagliacozzo1

Email Address: [email protected] 1Institute for Risk and Disaster Reduction, University College London

Disaster risk governance: drivers Abstract and desired outcomes

This policy brief outlines the The Sendai framework for Disaster potentialities and pitfalls of digital Risk Reduction (DRR) 2015-2030 government for Disaster Risk consolidated a shift of focus from the Governance (DRG). It is suggested to management of disaster maintain an optimistic but consequences to better questioning mindset in order to understanding and addressing overcome the social, cultural and disaster risks worldwide1. Disaster organisational barriers that prevent risk is hereby acknowledged as the full exploitation of digital resultant from the interactions technologies for social good. between a natural hazard and the conditions that make a societal system vulnerable and exposed to disaster losses2. It follows that disaster risk is not equally distributed across all the countries and population strata. Poor and middle-income countries and people are more vulnerable to the impacts of natural and non-natural hazards to the extent that some have regarded disasters as ultimately a development issue3. The concept of

1 United Nations. Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, Sendai, Japan: UN, 2015. 2 UNISDR. Making Development Sustainable: The Future of Disaster Risk Management. Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR), 2015. 3 UNISDR. Making Development Sustainable: The Future of Disaster Risk Management. Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR), 2015. 57 governance transcends the one of Mechanisms for monitoring and government and emphasises the reporting on policy compliance are concerted effort of multiple actors to set up. define mechanisms and institutions to regulate and negotiate their Inter-sector and intergovernmental interests and exercise their rights4. collaboration and coordination is put Disaster risk governance (DRG) is into practice. thus defined as the “the system of DRG has often been institutions, mechanisms, policy and compartmentalised and fragmented legal frameworks and other between various sectors and arrangements to guide, coordinate government levels6. Instead DRG and oversee disaster risk reduction should be conceived as a multi- and related areas of policy”5 . stakeholders process7. In the conception of the Sendai Framework, DRG drives effective A whole-of-government and whole-of- disaster risk management. DRG community approach is adopted. encompasses the understanding of DRG requires a broad participation disaster risks in all its dimensions, of diverse stakeholders including the enforcements of institutional non-governmental actors (e.g. civil policies and financial incentives at society organisations)8. local, regional and national level, the Responsibility for DRG has to be establishment of partnerships shared among all the societal between institutions and within stakeholders including citizens. government levels, the sharing and communication of information about Disaster risk is informed. disaster risk1. The ultimate desired Risk communication is a crucial outcome of this process is the component of DRG. On the one hand, implementation of instruments DRG policies have to be informed by relevant to DRR and sustainable comprehensive and accurate data. development1. The achievement of On the other, risk has to be this process requires that: communicated in a way that Disaster risk policies are well defined and their implementation is driven by 6 Gall, Melanie. Cutter, Susan L. and Nguyen, competence, flexibility and a clear Khai. Governance in Disaster Risk vision. Management. IRDR AIRDR Publication No. 3. Effective DRG implies that: a) Beijing: Integrated Research on Disaster Responsibilities and roles for Risk, 2014. 7 disaster risk governance are Florin, Marie-Valentine and Xu, Jianhua. Risk Governance: An Overview Of Drivers And established; b) Indicators to assess Success Factors. Input paper prepared for disaster risks are defined; and c) the Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2015. Lausanne: International Risk Governance Council, 4 UNDP. Disaster Risk Reduction, Governance 2014. and Mainstreaming, New York (NY): UNDP, 2010 8 Yao, Keping. E-Government for Disaster 5 UNISDR. “Disaster risk governance”. Risk Management. Presentation at the UNISDR website. Terminology, 3 February Regional Training Workshop in Asia and the 2017 Pacific: Sustainable Development and https://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/termin Disaster Risk Management Using E- ology#letter-d Accessed 27 March 2017 Government, 25-27 March 2015, Songdo, Republic of Korea 58 empowers people to make informed value choices about its management9. Risk communication has to be tailored, The rise of risks complexity and of inclusive, transparent and sensitive new interconnected threats has led to the needs of underserved governments to find innovative communities. solutions to govern disaster risks6. At the same time, citizens’ Accountability and sharing of lessons expectations of responsiveness have learned is improved. increased to the extent of boosting Governments must be held government’s adoption of new accountable for the enforcement of communication technologies, such as disaster risk regulations. Lessons social media10. By making reference learned should be shared across to the scope and components of DRG contexts, sectors, entities and as described in the previous section, countries. the added value for disaster risk The realisation of the DRG process governance brought about by and of its components as described technology developments in above is far from straightforward. government services delivery is Challenges have to be overcome that debated. include: Better definition of roles and policies ● Lack of resources, capacity, through enhanced intergovernmental political stability/legitimacy 5. and inter-sector coordination of ● Issues of authority (e.g., efforts and communications (whole- jurisdictional powers), of-government). representation (e.g., elected Digital technologies offer officials, stakeholder opportunities for cooperation across participation), and the boundaries of agencies, sectors administration (e.g., bureaucratic and departments. This can manifest, processes, collaborative for example, into the realisation of arrangements)5. one-stop shops, which provide ● Handling “systemic risks” with citizens with integrated online increased complexity, ambiguity services and knowledge and uncertainty 8. repositories11. However a whole-of- ● Communicating new and government approach requires a emerging threats and risks. shared vision, the establishment of a ● Achieving transformative chief information officer who learning, which mobilises a culture of risk and materialises 10 Mergel, Ines. “Designing Social Media DRR strategies. Strategies and Policies”. Handbook of Public Administration. Ed. James. L. Perry and Robert. K. Christensen. New York: Wiley & Sons, 2015. 456-468 Digital government for better disaster risk governance: added 11 Mimicopoulos, Michael and Kauzya, John M. “Taking a whole-of-government 9 International Risk Governance Council approach”. United Nations E-Government (IRGC). An introduction to the IRGC Risk Survey 2012. Ed. Department of Economic Governance Framework, Lausanne: IRGC and Social Affairs. New York (NY): United 2012. Nations, 2012. 55-73

59 oversees the management and has a web portal implementation of ad-hoc ICT (data.gov/disasters) that aggregates policies and ensuring systems datasets about disasters and interoperability and integration of potential risks. online services11. The same hold true for disaster risk-related online Improved accountability and lessons services. The provision of digital sharing through open data technologies can bolster a move Accountability is becoming a major away from a silos approach to better concern for governments partially cross-department and cross-sector due to the widespread distrust of collaboration and communication citizens and the increased for disaster risk governance but it is availability of alternative not sufficient per se. information sources. Open data platforms have been conceived as Facilitated dissemination of risk possible solutions for governments information to demonstrate their accountability Risk communication has greatly in terms of expenditures to prevent benefited from digital technologies disaster-related risks. In the wake of in respect to facilitated major disasters, government in dissemination of risk-related various parts of the world have information. Over the last years, published online information about various countries have implemented expenditures and projects online platforms to display disaster associated with recovery and trends with the scope to enhance reconstruction activities. For risk understanding among citizens example in the aftermath of the and other key stakeholders. For earthquakes of 2012 in Emilia- example in Latin America the Romagna (Northern Italy), a web Disaster Inventory System - platform named DesInventar12 is available for OpenRicostruzione15 allows people consultation and visualisation of tracking recovery projects by information about disasters. In the locality or type. The Philippines, Project NOAH Openreconstruction16 portal created (Nationwide Operational after Typhoon Haiyan/Yolanda in Assessment of Hazards)13 provides 2013 in the Philippines and the Aid high-resolution flood hazard maps. Management Platform17 created In USA, the Potential Storm Surge after Nepal earthquake in 2015 Flooding Map14 produced by the serve similar functions of ensuring National Hurricane Centre displays accountability and transparency in the risks associated with coastal recovery-related disbursements. flooding as result of storm surge. These platforms however, rarely The US National Government also provide information specifically about how DRR strategies have been

integrated into recovery activities 12 DesInventar http://www.desinventar.org/ 13 Project NOAH 15 OpenRicostruzione platform http://center.noah.up.edu.ph/ http://www.openricostruzione.it/ 14 National Hurricane Center, Potential 16 OpenReconstruction platform Storm Surge Maps http://openreconstruction.gov.ph/home http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/surge/inundatio 17 Aid Management Platform n/ http://amis.mof.gov.np/portal/about 60 and projects. The sharing of government-led DRG to a shared information about lessons learned responsibility for disaster risk from small, medium and major management. This shift guarantees disasters is facilitated by open that the interests and needs of all the knowledge online repositories such societal members are taken into as the Homeland Security Digital account within DRG policies and Library.18 frameworks. Social media technology can make easier for Stakeholder engagement and societal members to join together as participation. partners in disaster risk Stakeholder engagement in decision- communication, assessment and making about disaster-risk does not prevention20. only have to do with information dissemination. On the contrary, Digital government for better stakeholder voices should be disaster risk governance: listened to and their inputs challenges constantly harvested in order to build effective DRG. Digital Apart from the benefits described technologies can make this easier above, the use of digital technologies and faster. In particular applications for DRG conceals some pitfalls that that enable crowdsourcing need to be unveiled. When talking information open up space for co- about DRG one should always bear production of knowledge about in mind that disaster risks can be disaster risks detection and more or less purposively created prevention. LastQuake produced by (see the concept of “disaster risk the European Mediterranean creation”21) and influenced by Seismological Centre (EMSC) is one private and political interests. In example of these kinds of other words, we have to analyse the applications harnessing social media world as it is and not as it should be. and collective intelligence for Asking questions that challenge disaster risk governance. shared assumptions is one way to proceed. Whole of community approach. FEMA’s whole of community Does digital government help to framework19 fosters cooperation realise a really inclusive DRG? among all the societal stakeholders Research on digital divide suggests (i.e. governments, citizens, private that web technologies can and public sector, NGOs, community ameliorate social and demographic groups etc.) in understanding disaster risks and collaboratively 20 Culleton, Eileen. “The importance of a assessing community’s needs and whole of community approach to using capacities. The framework suggests social media for disaster resilience and how a definitive move from a the Emergency 2.0 Wiki can help”. Planet@Risk, 3(1), Special Issue on the 5th IDRC Davos (2014). 18Homeland Security Digital Library 21 Lewis, James and Kelman, Ilan. “The https://www.hsdl.org/c/ Good, The Bad and The Ugly: Disaster Risk 19 FEMA. A Whole Community Approach to Reduction (DRR) Versus Disaster Risk Emergency Management: Principles, Themes, Creation (DRC)”. Plos Current Disasters. Jun and Pathways for Action. Washington D.C.: 21 . Edition 1. (2012) doi: FEMA, 2011 10.1371/4f8d4eaec6af8 61 inequalities. In other words, digital mainly on open data23. However technologies can make vulnerable recent research24 suggests that e- people (who should be the primary governance dimensions related to target of DRG policies) even more openness are a necessary but not marginalised. For example, the sufficient condition for the Humanitarian Technologies realisation of open government. project22 found that interactive Organisational, legal and cultural technologies were neither beneficial aspects play a more prominent role. for poor people to receive One should question to what extent information from humanitarian the mere provision of data about agencies nor for humanitarian disaster risks through web platforms agencies to improve their action and could actually enhance DRG and accountability in the aftermath of management. Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines. These results suggest that the Do online interactions decrease advantages of using digital ambiguity, complexity and government for inclusive DRG uncertainty in risk communication? should be regularly questioned. The increase of risk complexity requires government Does digital government resolve communication to manage issues such as lack of resources and ambiguity and uncertainty. However capacity? theories on computer-mediated The takeup of digital interactive communication (i.e. SIDE model25 technologies requires capacity and Reduced Social Cues model26) building in terms of trained staff and suggest that online interactions may improved time-management skills12. add ambiguity about the message Governments that lack a strong due to the lack of social cues in leadership and internal structure or online interactions (i.e. facial that suffer from a chronic shortage expressions and tone of the voice). of resources represent an arid soil Governments should handle the where the potential benefits of digital technologies hardly 23 Linders, Dennis. “Towards open materialise. Moreover competition development: Leveraging open data to among government entities and improve the planning and coordination of between levels can strengthen the international aid”. Government Information silos structure and make it hard the Quarterly 30.4 (2013): 426-434 realisation of a digital whole-of- 24 Misuraca, Gianluca and Viscusi, Gianluigi. government strategy. “Is Open Data Enough? E-Governance Challenges for Open Government”. International Journal of Are open data and transparency Electronic Government Research (IJEGR) 10.1 sufficient to mobilise a culture of risk? (2014): 18-34 Open government initiatives carried 25 Lea, Martin and Spears, Russell. out in various parts of the world to “Computer-mediated communication, de- increase transparency and individuation and group decision-making”. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies accountability tended to focus 34 (1991): 283-301. 26 Sproull, Lee and Kiesler, Sara. “Reducing social context cues: Electronic mail in organizational communication”. Management 22 Humanitarian Technologies project Science 32 (1986): 1492–1512. (http://humanitariantechnologies.net/) 62 drawbacks of communication about disaster risk via online Existing social disparities and power environments in order to take structures are the ultimate drivers of advantage of the benefits it brings disaster risks. Digital government along. policies can facilitate the realisation and materialisation of good practices Conclusions Conclusions

Existing social disparities and power structures are the ultimate drivers of disaster risks. Digital government policies can facilitate the realisation and materialisation of good practices in DRG. However effective DRG requires a political and societal will to turn theory-based policies into real-world interventions. While some steps have been made toward this direction in the last decade, other old and new forms of exploitation have risen to prominence. Digital technologies can represent one of the possible allies in fighting these trends provided that an investigative and questioning mind-set is maintained.

Two-dimensional Mudflood Simulation in Arequipa, Peru Reyna Natalia Huancara Puma1, Flor Cutire Sivincha1

Email Address: [email protected] 1National University of Saint Augustine, Faculty of Civil Engineering. Arequipa, Peru.

Abstract Introduction The annex of Pescadores, district of Ocoña, province of Camaná, region of It is common to see that every year during Arequipa, in Perú is periodically affected rainy seasons there are mud floods or by mud floods in the summer period floods that affect the region of Arequipa, resulting in the obstruction of the traffic mainly to the Panamericana Sur highway of the Panamericana Sur Highway, at km 756+400 in the annex of causing economic losses to the region of Pescadores, Ocoña, Camaná, Arequipa. Arequipa and affecting the inhabitants of This is due to the fact that Pescadores the zone, as well the travelers. This study gully is formed by abrupt slopes, presents a two-dimensional mud flood landslides and erosion in the lower part model calibrated with the event of of the gully, together with the high February 12, 2012, using FLO-2D precipitations in the upper part of the software, in order to obtain a map of basin, causing mud floods. The annex of hazards for the aforementioned area with Pescadores, Arequipa, does not have a return periods of 100 years. In addition, hazard map, meaning the Pescadores this study simulates the model with the gully that crosses that annex lacks construction of four dams for sediment topographic and hydrological studies; this retention in the upper zone of the was a motivation to carry out this study floodplain of the gully of Pescadores to and obtaining the model. mitigate this natural disaster. Bringing, as The model was calibrated with the event a result, a decrease of economic losses to of February 12, 2012, which was Arequipa due to paralyzed traffic and documented by videos, that paralyzed the safeguarding the life and health of the traffic by three days. settlers and the travellers. The FLO-2D finite-difference model is a dynamic flood routing model that simulates channel flow, unconfined overland flow and street flow. It models water flows and hyperconcentrated flows (avenue of mud, mudflow and debris flow)1.

1 FLO-2D, “Reference Manual”, Arizona, 64

FLO-2D has been used in countries such as the United States, Venezuela, Italy, Geological-geodynamic characterization: Japan, etc., generating the acceptance of According to the geological map drawn up the researchers. In addition, the FLO-2D is by the “Instituto Geológico, Metalúrgico y a model accepted and recognized by Minero” (INGEMMET), the Pescadores FEMA (Federal Emergency Management gully is located in a V-shaped valley with Agency).2 landslides and erosion problems. The valley of Pescadores presents superficial alluvial and fluvial deposits3.

Simulation of the model: It was introduced the topographic, hydrological and geological-geodynamic data to the model and was calibrated for the event occurred on February 12, 2012. The objective of the calibration is to adjust the volume obtained from the FLO- 2D model with the volume observed in Figure 1. Mud flood blocks major Panamericana Sur Highway. Source: Pescadores, February 2012. the field, in addition it was verified the heights of the flow and the speed. Methods The plasticity index of the soil samples collected in the floodplain was 6%, being Topographic characterization: The classified as mud flood, type Aspen Pit1 Pescadores-Caraveli basin extends over (O'Brien & Julien, 1988). an area of 1932 km2, with a maximum The volumetric concentration of height of 4257 m.a.s.l. and a minimum of sediments "Cv" was estimated by making 39 m.a.s.l. The main length of the basin is a first initial approximation of 0.20 until 140 km, with an average slope of 3%. reaching a value of 0.45, which are values corresponding to "mud flood", which was Hydrological characterization: The liquid identified in the event of February 12, hydrograph was obtained from the 2012, obtaining valid values between 0.25 annual maximum precipitation of 24 and 0.40. hours. For the calculation was used HEC- Soil specific gravity obtained was 2.65, HMS hydrological model and Soil resistance parameter of laminar flow Conservation Soil (SCS) methodology. The assumed was 2285 and number of liquid hydrograph obtained has a peak Manning assumed was 0.15 along the flow of 200 m3 / s. channel of the gully. The urban attributes that were http://www.flo-2d.com. , 2000, 01 Dic. 2016. considered for the simulation were the

2Castillo Navarro, Leonardo F.," Aplicacion de un 3 INGEMMET. “BOLETIN N°23 ESTUDIOS modelo numerico de flujos de escombros y lodo de RIESGOS GEOLOGICOS FRANJA 1”, Lima, una quebrada en el Perú". Lima: UNI,2006. Print http://www.ingemmet.gob.pe/, 2000, 01 Dic. 2016.

Panamericana Sur Highway, housing, Hazard map: According to the Federal schools, health posts and recreational Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), centers, which influence the transit of the in the case of the occurrence of mud or flow. A church that due to its location debris flow at a flow height greater than would function like a dam to certain flow 1.00 m or for a velocity greater than 1.00 straps in addition to hydraulic structures m/s is considered a high hazard. In such as culverts. addition, for flow heights between 0.20 m and 1.00 m and for velocities between Mitigation Measure: It is proposed to 0.20 m/s and 1.00 m/s is considered a build dams for sediment retention to medium hazard5. make stablize the slopes, laminate the The valley of Pescadores, as well as the flow and protect the highway. Panamericana Sur highway, are located These dams for sediment retention have a on the floodplain of the gully of useful life of 25 years, for a period of Pescadores. In accordance with the return of 75 years, fulfilling the above-mentioned and taking into account recommendations made in the book of the event occurred on February 12, 2012, Ven Te Chow4. Being four dams located to has been established three danger levels, 500 m. before reaching the zone of whose limits of danger zone come from cultivation of the valley of Pescadores, the model FLO-2D. These zones are of with a separation between them of 500 m. high, medium and low danger (Fig. 2). These dams are of the gravity type, with a The most affected point would be the variable height between 2 meters and 5 Panamericana Sur Highway at the km 765 meters, they have a length between 100 + 400, which would cause the and 200 m. In total, the 4 dams have a interruption of the highway, and besides length of 600 m. that it would affect homes, basic services such as school, health post, church, etc., as Results & Discussion well as, more importantly, the loss of lives of the inhabitants and the travelers. For the hazard map with a return time of 100 years, it was obtained a peak flow of Dams for sediment retention: In order to 200 m3/s. From the results obtained from mitigate disasters, the implementation of the model, there are higher values of flow dams for sediment retention that was straps in the upper part of the valley of described above was chosen like the Pescadores; it was observed that it structural measure more economical, overflows along the Panamericana Sur viable and efficient. It is observed that Highway, while in the lower part, the flow with this construction, the delimitation of decreases in both height and speed. It was the danger zone would be diminished observed that the model provides us (Fig. 3). Reducing the height and speed of similar values to those obtained in the flow in the Panamericana Sur Highway, field. which will allow a free transit, in addition

5 FLO-2D, “Mapper Manual”, Arizona, 4 Chow, V.T. Hidraúlica de Canales Abiertos. http://www.flo-2d.com. , 2000, 01 Dic. 2016. Santafé de Bogotá: McGraw-Hill, 1994. 66 to safeguarding housing, basic services Conclusion and human lives mainly. The results obtained from the simulation in the FLO-2D model are similar to the results obtained in the field of the event occurred on February 12, 2012, which validates the model. The hazards maps will help to Annex of Pescadores to optimize the plan of urban development and zoning of the Valley of Pescadores. The mitigation measure proposed in the present study is the construction of dams for sediment retention, which represents the most efficient measure. This research is an effort to contribute to the study and mitigation of mud flood disasters according to the Sendai Framework with the objective of reducing

the risk of this disaster, the loss of human Figure 2. Hazard map of the Valley of Pescadores. lives and economic assets. Source: Authors, flo-2d v.2009, 2017. Acknowledgements

The authors thank to Dr. Andrés Vitaliano Pérez Pachari and to Civil Engineer Leonardo Franco Castillo Navarro. This survey is supported by UNSA through CIENCIACTIVA of CONCYTEC.

Figure 3. Hazard map of the Valley of Pescadores, with dams for sediment retention. Source: Authors, flo-2d v.2009, 2017.

Synthetic biology and its effects on environment and human health Bartlomiej Kolodziejczyk1,2, Kauthemy Manirajan1

Email Address: [email protected] 1 Scientists-in-Residence 2 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

Abstract Introduction

Synthetic biology is a young, ever- Recent technological developments are growing, and interdisciplinary branch of leading to solutions that can potentially biology and engineering. It is providing address many world challenges. One of numerous great opportunities for these developments is synthetic biology, virtually every branch of industry. This where naturally occurring biological includes the development of biofuels, systems can be altered to be more value-added chemicals, drug delivery, and efficient or to acquire new functionalities. protein therapeutics among others. Synthetic biology is already employed in However, just like any new development, several faculties, improving medicine and synthetic biology is not challenging or pharmacy, as well as animal sciences and problem free and is currently minimally food production among many other fields. regulated. The lack of standards and Synthetic biology is an interdisciplinary regulations regarding who can practice branch containing both biology and synthetic biology and how it can be engineering. It is (I) the design and applied are becoming issues. This, construction of new biological parts, coupled with defining safe use and devices, and systems, and (II) the re- disposal of synthetic biology, raises design of existing, natural biological numerous questions and worries among systems for useful purposes. 1,2 citizens, scientists, experts, policy makers In other words, synthetic biology can be and governments alike. There are many viewed as engineering and creating stakeholders at play here and to add to biological systems. Synthetic biology the mix there is also a growing movement includes the broad redefinition and of Do-It-Yourself (DIY) synthetic expansion of biotechnology, with the biologists, citizen scientists, and other ultimate goals of being able to design and home-grown practitioners. This build engineered biological systems with document discusses opportunities and a purpose. They may aim to process challenges in the rapidly growing synthetic biology field, urging 1 Bhattachary D., Calitz J.P. and Hunter A. policymakers to regulate the field before “Synthetic Biology Dialogue.” Biotechnology and its advancement. Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) (2010). 2 “Synthetic Biology: scope, applications and implications.” The Royal Academy of Engineering (2009).

68 information, fabricate chemicals, produce Despite this, scientists hope to use materials and structures, generate energy synthetic biology approaches to develop or fuel, provide food, and maintain and many useful types of products. This enhance human health and the includes, but is not limited to, the environment. 3 following technologies. (I) Synthetic life; Studies in synthetic biology can be artificial forms of life created in vitro from classified into subclasses depending on biomolecules and their component the approach they use to create. (I) materials.1,2 (II) It includes cell Biomolecular engineering includes transformation; where DNA or even an strategies which aim to create a toolkit of entire genome is integrated into a living functional units that can be introduced to cell to invoke desired new functions and present new technological functions in capabilities.2,4,5 (III) Another application living cells. (II) Biomolecular design is the is information storage; where a vast general idea of starting a design from amount of digital information is encoded scratch and building a product by an on a single strand of synthetic DNA.2 (IV) additive combination of smaller Additionally, custom-designed proteins biomolecular components to achieve are a goal; novel protein structures that some goal. (III) Lastly, genetic match or improve on existing proteins.2-4 engineering is based on approaches to (V) Biosensors can also be developed. constructing artificial chromosomes for These are mechanisms capable of sensing whole or individual sections of the and reporting some ambient organisms. phenomenon such as brain activity or the Each of the above approaches shares presence of toxins in its environment.2,3 similar strategy; to develop a more (VI) Lastly, synthetic biology can be used synthetic entity at a higher level of for materials production; where living complexity, or novel function, by cells function as microscopic molecular manipulating their simpler parts that at foundries to produce materials with the lower level of complexity.1,3 desired, genetically encoded, Another synthetic biology approach that properties.2,5 These technologies have shows promise is the re-writing of both benefits and dangers associated too deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). This numerous to completely cover in this method looks to edit the genetic code of document. Instead, discussion will focus extant biological systems, but this can be on current political and governing bodies difficult due to the complex nature of the that have become invested in this issue language of natural biological systems. and highlight policy being made. Many have proposed it may be simpler to While synthetic biology has a potential to re-build the natural systems of interest address some of the biggest challenges from scratch using simple building blocks that the world faces, it can be a challenge or molecules.1-3 itself. It is important to recognize that the Due to the relative immaturity of the field, topics explored in this field are not many synthetic biology products are still in the early stages of development. 4 Fu P. “Grand challenges in synthetic biology to be accomplished.” Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 1.2 (2013). 3 Collins J.J, Maxon M., Ellington A., Fussenegger 5 “Future brief: synthetic biology and M., Weiss R. “Synthetic biology: How best to build biodiversity.” Science for Environment Policy, a cell.” Nature 509 (2014): 155-157. European Commission 15 (2016).

69 completely understood, and the challenges of synthetic biology to a precautionary principle should be applied border public.6, 7 when inventing, manufacturing, using and In September 2016, the European disposing of products based on synthetic Commission followed up on the biology. SYNBIOSAFE project issuing a document called Future brief: Synthetic biology and Discussion biodiversity.8 This document describes the possible impact of synthetic biology on In addition to numerous scientific and biodiversity. The brief ends with a series technical challenges, synthetic biology of recommendations calling for raises numerous ethical and biosecurity application of the precautionary principle, issues. Some of these problems have been early warning systems, coordination already raised during the earlier DNA between the Member States, and open manipulation attempts and with the rise debate that in turn may enforce unified of genetically modified organism (GMO). policy development. The report claims There are already extensive policy and that “public acceptance of synthetic regulations addressing genetic biology will inform policy, funding, and engineering and biomolecular research. regulation."8 However, there is a growing need for The European Commission is not the sole uniformity and their enforcement international body worried about the application. further developments in synthetic biology The three most often mentioned threats projects and their outcomes. In March that synthetic biology poses are potential 2015, United Nations Environment the adverse health effects of these new Programme (UNEP) issued together with developments, potential environmental the Convention on Biological Diversity and biodiversity issues, and potential (CBD) a technical note.9 This note weaponization or bioterrorism. describes potential impacts of synthetic SYNBIOSAFE, a European Union funded biology on biological diversity, as well as research project published several points out gaps and overlaps with the reports describing risk managements provisions of the Convention and other related to synthetic biology.6The paper agreements. Other international identified key issues in safety, security, organizations, including but not limited ethics and the science-society interface, to, the Organization for Economic which the project defined as public Cooperation and Development (OECD), education and ongoing dialogue among the International Union for Conservation scientists, businesses, government, and of Nature (IUCN) are pursuing activities ethicists).6 Another European initiative, towards regulating this new and yet not COSY focused on public perception and completely understood field of science. communication of synthetic biology to The World Health Organization (WHO) better communicate opportunities and 7 "COSY: Communicating Synthetic Biology," http://www.synbio.at/ accessed July 5, 2016 6 Schmidt M., Torgersen H., Ganguli-Mitra A., Kelle 8" European Commission “Future brief: Synthetic A., Deplazes A., Biller-Andorno N. “SYNBIOSAFE e- biology and biodiversity." 15 (2016) conference: online community discussion on the 9 Secretariat of the Convention on Biological societal aspects of synthetic biology. Systems and Diversity “Technical Series No. 82, Synthetic Synthetic Biology”. 2 (2008):7-17 Biology”. (2015)

70 and the Food and Agriculture Ordering and utilizing a DIY kit outside of Organization (FAO) are looking at a designated facility will be liable to a fine potential threats of synthetic biology on of up to €50,000 in accordance with human health and well-being, while NATO Section 38 (1) (2) Genetic Engineering Act investigates potential threat in applying (GenTG).11 Furthermore, in the case these developments to next generation where Genetically Modified Organisms biological weapons and bioterrorism. (GMOs) are released within the The threat of inappropriate or dangerous framework of the use of the DIY kits, the use of synthetic biology is more pertinent offender can face imprisonment of up to with the advent of Do-It-Yourself (DIY) three years or a fine as stated under synthetic biology. This emphasizes the Section 39 (2) (1) of the GenTG. need for application of disaster risk The German government is not alone in reduction procedures, precautionary this fight. A few days before the German principle, and policy development to statement, the US Food and Drug minimize danger. Administration (FDA) quietly proposed DIY Synthetic Biology is a rapidly evolving regulations12 that would require any and emerging social biotechnology genetically engineered organism to go movement in which individuals, through a strict regulatory procedure. In community groups, and small essence, the FDA wants to define any organizations study biology and life organism that a scientist purposefully science using the same or similar genetically modifies as a "drug," and such methods as traditional research development would have to pass strict institutions. DIY synthetic biology is and lengthy clinical trials to be approved. primarily undertaken by individuals with There are still some questions that await extensive research training from a clear answer such as ‘who will have academia or biotech and pharmaceutical control and access to the products of corporations, who then mentor and synthetic biology?’. In addition to safety supervise novice DIY biologists with little issues, there is a significant and ongoing or no formal training. debate whether securing rights (IP) This rapidly growing movement of related to living organisms and human homegrown scientists is worrying embryos are ethical.5,6 governments to a point where policy is being made. Germany’s Federal Office for Conclusion Consumer Protection and Food Safety (Bundesamt für Verbraucherschutz und Synthetic biology has a great potential to Lebensmittel-sicherheit) issued a alter and improve existing biological statement10 prohibiting the use of DIY systems. Possible applications of synthetic biology and genetic engineering kits outside of the specialized facilities 11 Bundesministeriums der Justiz und für and research institutions. Verbraucherschutz “Gesetz zur Regelung der Gentechnik (Gentechnikgesetz - GenTG)." (1990) 10 Bundesamt für Verbraucherschutz und http://www.gesetze-im- Lebensmittelsicherheit “Gentechnik mit internet.de/bundesrecht/gentg/gesamt.pdf Biologiebaukästen: Einfach, aber möglicherweise 12 United States Food and Drug Administration strafbar”. (2017) “Guidance for Industry #187, Regulation of http://www.bvl.bund.de/DE/06_Gentechnik/04_F Intentionally Altered Genomic DNA in Animals”. achmeldungen/2017/2017_01_25_DIY-Kits.html (2017)

71 synthetic biology include developments in the fields of medicine, pharmacy, and food production, as well as energy and biodiversity among others. Synthetic biology and its effects on the environment and human health are still poorly understood and inappropriate use and disposal of products containing synthetic biology may lead to long-term, sometimes irreversible, consequences. We propose that additional environmental and toxicity studies must be performed before synthetic biology can be applied in various fields of industry. Environmental and health policy needs to adapt and address this emerging field before it becomes commonplace to facilitate further development and advancement, while still protecting ecosystems and human health.

Call to action

We urge world governments to do devote resources to better understand and regulate this new field of science. While we understand the possible opportunities and benefits, we are worried about unexpected and unforeseen challenges and problems that may arise. We call for policy and regulation development, as well as the adaptation, the application to, and enforcement of the precautionary principle to any new synthetic biology developments.

Acknowledgements

The authors are immensely grateful to Dr. Alexander Kagansky (University of Edinburgh), and Dr. Matthew Davis (OECD) for their comments and fruitful discussions which improved the manuscript, and aided in its development, significantly.

isk DISASTEReduction Disaster Resilience

Incremental Shelters for Refugees and Host Communities (Case Study: Turkana County – Kalobeyei New Settlement, East Africa) Jia Cong Ang1

Email Address: [email protected] 1UN-HABITAT/ United Nations Urban Planning and Design Branch, City Planning, Extension and Design Unit, Nairobi, Kenya

Abstract Introduction

Using the developing Kalobeyei New The worsening global refugee crisis has Settlement as a Case Study, this article been brought forth by new forms of seeks to discuss the demands of the conflict and re-emerging disturbances in growing refugee crisis – previously major world regions. Over the last decade, temporary shelters and settlements Sub-Saharan Africa has generated and require remodelling to cater to long-term hosted the world’s largest refugee situations of displacement. Incremental population – by 2015, Turkana County housing schemes addressing cultural was home to thousands of displaced differences between communities, shelter refugees from neighbouring countries material innovations, the utilization of such as the Republic of South Sudan, and participatory processes and urban Somalia1 (See Figure 1 in the planning schemes will aim to support the supplementary material). creation of livelihoods for refugees and Mainly hosted in Dadaab and Kakuma host communities and contribute to camps, Refugees have also settled within socio-economic goals of Turkana County Nairobi city. Over the years, excessive and Kenya. pressure from overcrowding populations in camps – such as Kakuma, which hosted 182,000 people by the end of 2016, 60% more than the initial planned capacity of 100,000 people2, have caused great pressure on land and available resources, resulting in demand for alternative hosting sites (See Figure 2 in the supplementary material for Kenya Refugee Distribution).

1 “Kakuma Camp Population 2016”, UNHCR, 2016 (http://data.unhcr.org/horn-of- africa/country.php?id=110)

2 “Kakuma Camp Population 2016”, UNHCR, 2016 (http://data.unhcr.org/horn-of- africa/country.php?id=110)

With support from Turkana County Incremental Housing and Livelihoods Government and UNHCR, UN-Habitat has Creation embarked on the Kalobeyei Integrated Socio-Economic Development Plan, as For the Kalobeyei Project, a sustainable part of Kenya Vision 2030.3 In June 2015, and “incremental” approach to housing is 1500 hectares of land was allocated to recommended to provide low-cost partial jointly mobilize resources for a new solutions that residents can expand and settlement project. With the average time complete. of displacement of a refugee ranging from In terms of settlement modifications, 7 to 20 years, the Kalobeyei site is refugees and host community of positioned to rapidly respond to the Kalobeyei site have intentions modifying emergency situation, but also provide a living quarters for a variety of reasons - durable solution in the long term constructing new structures for growing perspective. families, fencing plots for increased Shelters of the past encompassed security, internal space modifications temporary natures, and were provided such as partitioning rooms etc. Extensions rapidly as emergency responses. They are mostly done to incorporate trading often failed to respond effectively to the areas like hotels, shops, posho mills, or to needs of refugees – such as UNHCR’s “T- attain cooking space in the absence of Shelters” (See Image of T-Shelter in the provision for such facilities. Extensions supplementary material), tents of are likely to be order of the day in the tarpaulin measuring 3 metres by 6 camp, hence reinstating the importance of meters. Issues arose from the lack of allocating such spaces. changeability of shelters and resources to An interesting concern against building be converted into durable long-term vertically - due to cultural implications of shelter. Refugees often choose to remodel attachment to land, and fear of it being shelters or create more permanent too expensive, there is also a general non- extensions with attainable materials to willingness to live in multi-storied better reflect their cultural needs and buildings. Despite this, perhaps it is worth aspirations. Furthermore, planning mentioning the intention to promote decisions were often unable to adequately double-storeyed developments with the provide public amenities and aspirations of Kalobeyei serving a greater infrastructure for the community. and denser population in the future. Hence, “a paradigm shift” from traditionally temporal refugee camps Building sustainably with local towards sustainable urban centres materials demands a rethinking of planning design and construction approaches for Available materials for building in the emergency shelters, transforming Kalobeyei area are largely based on traditional shelters into long-term traditional and modern construction sustainable settlements. technologies - utilizing a combination of different materials such as mud (brick or smeared on wooden frame), wood, twigs or grass, for hugely constructed shades 3 Turkana County Government, “Turkana County using materials to protect from harsh Investment Plan” 2016-2020, 2016 weather. The use of corrugated iron

sheets is a recent walling material. Most Fibre (CAF) panels which are more households construct roofing using grass, expensive can also be utilised. They are makuti, sisal, and old canvas available constructed from locally sourced wheat within refugee camps. Within households, straw left over from the harvest, earthen floors are the most common compressed by a CAF machine into flooring, followed by a small percentage boards. The panel is secured in place by using cement.4 The implementation of attachment and bolted. Vertical holes in new technologies and construction the interior create a chase for electrical methods can provide safer environments utilities. These prefabricated, panelised for the residents and decrease systems of CAF also allow quick speed of environmental impact, helping to improve construction. thermal comfort and weather friendly materials. The production of such panels is With high thermal mass and high U values environmentally friendly, economical and on the site, options to explore include efficient. It has been independently Interlocking Stabilised Soil Block (ISSB). calculated that the growth of wheat and Unlike burnt bricks, which are strong and unattributed removal of construction water resistant from the burning with waste from disposal produces a negative firewood, this option of improving soil carbon footprint for a CAF board. See qualities to make suitable long-term Figure 4 in the supplementary material of housing generates greater stabilization traditional shelters for drawings on with cement as a binding agent. The typologies. resultant blocks are water resistant and their compressive strength is increased to Respecting Local Culture and make it strong enough to build buildings Aspirations up to 3 storeys high without using columns, when using normal blocks are In terms of adherence to cultural cemented together with mortar. preferences, the incremental nature of The ISSB (see image of ISSB in the housing construction also coincides with supplementary material) technology the culture within communities, which reduces construction costs as cement does not follow conventional housing unit mortar is not required to lay the blocks, standards. Instead, a household often has and construction time and labour is many separate rooms, each serving a significantly reduced. Furthermore, there particular role or hosting various ages. In is often no wastage in production. Turkana culture, children do not share Unskilled workers can also learn how to houses with their parents, always having build the blocks fast. The ISSB Machine is separate rooms or sleeping outside. also manufactured in Kenya. It currently Cooking activities are rarely undertaken costs USD $1200 to construct an ISSB in the main rooms, as most kitchens are Shelter, and USD $400 to construct a T- standalone units within the compound. Shelter. Both shelters can host up to a While some residents have demarcated a maximum of 5 members. bedroom and kitchen, most refugees Other than ISSB, Compressed Agricultural prefer having meals and communing inside the house, which is different from 4 “Socio-Economic Survey and Mapping of Kalobeyei Settlement”, UNHCR, 2016

the host community.5 ways of making a living. In the past, the Hence the design for incremental shelters pastoral nature of local Turkana demands a level of flexibility and communities required large lands for transformation. It is also worth livestock keeping. However, the result of mentioning that in recent years, the population growth, and the effects of participatory process of design climate change have caused access to implementation and adaption has also good pasture lands to decrease. Upon allowed for greater seamless integration redevelopment, an alternative means for into local cultures and communities. livelihood creation is commercial farming. Social mobilization is the first step of The desire for local residents to diversify community development to recover from their farming activities into crop conflict, and by providing people the husbandry also present a great opportunity to think and understand their opportunity for the promotion of urban situation; they can take action collectively agricultural activities which will be in the by developing a strategy rather than one vicinity to shelters. imposed from the outside. Additionally, on a larger scale, the Kalobeyei site hopes to be an urban Private Sector Business Creation and centre contributing to the development of as part of Kenya Vision 2030 KKISEDP and the Kenya vision 2030. With private businesses contributing to The design for shelter, ease of capacity building within the local construction and maintenance processes communities, and the growth of a healthy will have to consider the likelihood for internal economy, the center can then expansions of businesses, the nature of contribute as part of the Lamu Port-South work, and the proximal relationship Sudan-Ethiopia-Transport (LAPSSET) between private and public space. In the Project, which aims to strengthen the case for Kalobeyei, there is a great country’s position as a gateway and opportunity for the development of a logistics hub to the East African sub- jointly run market to contribute to region and inter-country growth. The integration. Furthermore, there is also proximity of the Kalobeyei site to the expressed in the ownership of kiosks LAPSSET project provides for it a selling clothing, alcohol, and readily platform for growth and improved affordable goods and businesses such as accessibility, which will encourage bodabodas (motorcycles), welding, greater sustainable economy. A mix of charcoal selling, poultry keeping and renewable resources and developed currency trade6. These factors can sustainable energy mix can also be contribute to private sector business harnessed as a potential market for the creation which will encourage greater region and future projects. integration in the long run. Furthermore, traditional modes of Conclusion livelihoods are to be replaced with new The research that has supported this urban planning project as a response to 5 “Socio-Economic Survey and Mapping of the dire need for more appropriately Kalobeyei Settlement”, UNHCR, 2016 6 “Socio-Economic Survey and Mapping of designed living settlements for refugees Kalobeyei Settlement”, UNHCR, 2016 has highlighted the growing need for

greater sensitivity towards holistic shelter designs. This reinstates the importance of equipping future designs with the tools for improvement within the household, street, and neighbourhood levels, and allowing the empowerment of the community to participate in these various innovative implementations. It is the aspirations of the UN-Habitat to develop realistic proposals of durable, incremental designs which respond to humanitarian functions and support the occupation for displaced members from the emergency phase into the long term.

Acknowledgements

Thank you to Yuka Terada for giving me the opportunity to learn more and participate in the Kalobeyei Spatial Planning Project.

References

All Photographs were produced by the UN-Habitat City Planning, Extension and Design Unit. All Illustrations were produced by the Author.

Supplementary Material

Figure S1. Refugee Migration into Kenya

Figure S2. Population within Kenya Refugee Camps

Figure S3. T Shelter and ISSB in Kakuma

Figure S4. Traditional Shelters in Kalobeyei

Children in disaster risk reduction: building resilience among migrant families Szymon Parzniewski1

Email Address: [email protected] 1PhD doctoral researcher, University of Birmingham, UK

Abstract Introduction

This brief looks into the role migrant Children are among the most vulnerable children can play in building resilience groups during disasters and require among their families and communities. It protection from adults. However, they builds upon the existing literature on the have the right to actively participate in role of children in disaster risk reduction DRR. Research has highlighted the (DRR) and integrating migrants in DRR importance of integrating children in DRR efforts. Based on the Japanese case study, actions that reduce risk. They can play this brief argues that education amongst important roles in areas, such as in: children in disaster preparedness can communicating disaster risk and sharing generate a range of positive spillover knowledge around the drivers of risk at effects and increase disaster the local level1. preparedness among migrant families. Organizations working in the field of child protection and support, continue their efforts to put children at the heart of DRR activities; develop DRR training programs and materials for children and advocate for evidence-based child-centred disaster risk reduction and resilience (C-CDRR)2. Children are highly motivated to share their knowledge and experiences, which can lead to increased household and

1 Seballos, F., Tanner, T. “Enabling Child-Centred Agency in Disaster Risk Reduction: Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction.” UNISDR/Children in a Changing Climate (2011). 2 Save the Children International “Reducing Risks, Saving Lives: Save the Children’s approach to Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation” London (2011). 81

community resilience3. Recent research ● Paragraph 27(h) (p.18): shows that children should no longer be Empower local authorities, as seen as passive observers during appropriate, through regulatory hazardous events, but rather as agents of and financial means to work and change that can take action in order to coordinate with […] migrants in reduce their own risk and mobilize the disaster risk management at local response in their families and level. communities4. In line with the ● Paragraph 36(a)(vi) (p.23): participatory view this brief explores the Migrants contribute to the role of children in integrating migrants in resilience of communities and DRR efforts. societies and their knowledge, skills and capacities can be useful Migration and the Sendai Framework in the design and implementation 5 for Disaster Risk Reduction of disaster risk reduction . As part of the implementation phase of 6 The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk the SFDRR, guidelines as well as a range Reduction 2015-2030 (SFDRR) signed in of principles and practices at the national March 2015 by the United Nations (UN) and regional level were developed in Member States at the Third World order to integrate the above principles 7 Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in into DRR strategies . While the DRR- Sendai, Japan serves as a global blueprint mobility nexus has gained recognition in for reducing the impact of hazards global policy circles challenges still worldwide. The document recognises the remain in building resilience among role of migrants as crucial for effectively migrant families. This gap can be filled by building the resilience of communities developing mechanisms supporting and societies. This notion finds its direct migrant children’s role in DRR. reference in the following points: ● Paragraph 7 (p.10): Governments Children’s Role in Disaster Risk should engage with relevant Reduction stakeholders, including […] migrants […] in the design and In the last few years, child-centred DRR implementation of policies, plans and standards. 5 UN “Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 (SFDRR)” (2015). 6 MICIC, “Guidelines to Protect Migrants in 3 Tanner, T., Seballos, F. Action Research with Countries Experiencing Conflict or Natural Children: Lessons from Tackling Disasters and Disaster.” (2016). Climate Change” 43.3 (2012): 59-70. 7 Guadagno, L. “Reducing Migrants’ Vulnerability 4 Rashid, M., Ronan, K. R., Towers, B. “Children as to Natural Disasters through Disaster Risk Change Agents in Reducing Risks of Disasters”, In Reduction Measures: Including Migrants in Winograd, K. (ed.) Education in Times of Disaster Prevention, Preparedness, Response and Environmental Crisis Teaching Children to Be Recovery Efforts.” Migrants in Countries in Crisis Agents of Change. London: Routledge. (2016). Initiative (MICIC) Issue Brief (2015). 82

approaches gained high recognition in further discussed in the following policy circles. The ‘Children’s Charter for sections. Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)’8 and Children’s Action for DRR report were Children’s Role in Reducing published in 2011 as a result of Vulnerability and Enhancing consultations with more than 600 Preparedness among Migrant Families children in 21 countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America9. A range of factors (including social and In the growing body of literature on the structural barriers) can make the role of children and young people in community newcomers more vulnerable disaster preparedness three main focus in times of a crisis15. Areas in which areas can be identified: (i) preparedness children can contribute towards reducing of children and young people for vulnerability include among others: unexpected events and emergencies10; (ii) Transition process – newly coming the role of schools and disaster education families in the community often adjust at in helping children and young people to different pace. Children can adjust to the respond to an emergency11 12; (iii) the new situation faster than their parents or role of children and youth in enhancing grandparents and help the family develop preparedness among their families and new coping strategies. communities13 14. The third area will be Language barrier – language skills are key to overcome communication barriers and have a decisive impact on how people 8 UNICEF/Plan/Safe the Children/World Vision “Children’s Charter for Disaster Risk Reduction cope with hazards and emergency (DRR)” (2011). situations. Research shows that children 9 UNISDR/Plan “Children’s Action for Disaster Risk and youth not only play a unique role in Reduction: Views from Children in Asia” (2012). communicating disaster risk16, but often 10 Ronan, K. R., Alisic, E., Towers, B., Johnson, V. A., help in translation for victims during Johnston, D. A. “Disaster Preparedness for 17 Children and Families: a Critical Review.” Current disaster . Psychiatry Reports 17.58 (2015). Access to information and services – even 11 Mutch, C. “The role of schools in disaster preparedness, response and recovery: what can 15 Lutheran Immigration and Refugee Service we learn from the literature?” Pastoral Care in “Disaster Preparedness in Migrant Communities: Education 32.1 (2014): 5-22. A Manual for First Aid Responders” (2013). 12 Ronan, K. R. Child-centered disaster risk 16 Mitchell, T., Haynes, K., Hall, N., Choong, W., reduction: can disaster resilience programs Oven, K. “The Roles of Children and Youth in reduce risk and increase the resilience of children Communicating Disaster Risk.” Children, Youth and and households? Australian Journal of Emergency Environments 18.1 (2008): 254-279. Management 31.3 (2016): 49-58. 17 Mathew, A. B. “Disaster Preparedness in Urban 13 Plan International. Child-centered DRR toolkit. Immigrant Communities: Lessons Learned from London: Author. (2010). Recent Catastrophic Events and Their Relevance 14 Wisner, B. “Let our children teach us! A review to Latino and Asian Communities in Southern of the role of education and knowledge in disaster California.” A Tomás Rivera Policy Institute and risk reduction.” Bangalore: Books for Change Asian Pacific American Legal Centre Report (2006). (2008): 18. 83

if migrant families have access to game for small children18. information in their mother languages Second, children get to know better their they may still lack the means or local area. As part of group activities they knowledge needed to access that can design and draw their own disaster information. Children often play a key safety maps. Children learn what are the role in facilitating contact between potential areas of danger and where the migrant families. For some migrants local evacuation areas are located. internal and informal networks constitute Third, training exercises help children to a vital source of information. imagine what might happen in a real Therefore, planners, local governments emergency, what would be the best and agencies responsible for disaster response and what roles should other response need to be aware of and members of the family play. sensitive in response to the issues listed. Activities and experiences gained by migrant children lead to a range of Integrating Migrant Children in positive spillover effects on their parents Disaster Prevention Trainings: the and family members that among others Japan case study contribute towards: access to information; community engagement; In Japan, disaster prevention trainings disaster prevention and awareness. Most and drills take place several times a year importantly, strategies and practices in schools and local communities deriving from disaster prevention throughout the country. In addition, local trainings contribute towards building fire departments organise disaster stronger social ties and migrants’ preparedness activities for children and integration within the local community. their families. Events like these create opportunities for both Japanese and Recommendations foreign residents leaving in the area to interact and learn from each other. The Practices developed in line with the benefits of local preparedness activities principles derived from the SFDRR show are manifold and contribute towards that the role of migration in strengthening building resilience among migrant resilience of local communities has been families and communities. clearly recognised. This brief outlined the First, many training programs use an potential deriving from child migrant’s original approach, ensuring the children role in DRR and building resilience among can learn and have fun at the same time. their families and local communities. The This includes a range of activities recommendations provided below can including: ‘Fire Extinguisher Target contribute towards the success of future Game’; ‘Blanket Stretcher Time Trial’ or policy development. the ‘Disaster Prevention Duck’ gesture 18 MOFA, “Disaster Prevention Training”, Kids Web Japan. Available at: http://web- jpn.org/kidsweb/cool/10-07/index.html 84

Firstly, there is a clear gap in the research about strategies and practices in building resilience to hazards among migrant and refugee families. There needs to be further rigorous research in examining children’s role in DRR and disaster preparedness among migrant families. In addition, there is a clear need for indicators to account for appropriate and effective policies that empower and integrate migrants in the local DRR efforts. Secondly, there is a clear need for the development of DRR programs that promote child-parent interaction in migrant families. The program content can be structured around simple tasks contributing towards the development of home emergency and/or family communication plans in multiple languages. Lastly, the difficult task of building resilience to hazards among migrant families is often based on grassroot supported initiatives and locally developed practices. In order to recognise the increasing role and utilise the capacities that migrants bring, national and local actors should continue their efforts in sharing practices that are applicable in different settings and decision-making cultures.

Ecosystem-based adaptation as a means to strengthen the role of women in flood risk management and climate change adaptation Pham Thi Dieu My1, Hagedoorn Liselotte2, Dillenardt Lisa3, Lasage Ralph2, Bubeck Philip3

Email Address: [email protected] 1Centre for Social Research and Development (CSRD), Hue, Vietnam 2Institute for Environmental Studies, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands 3Institute of Earth and Environmental Science, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany

Abstract Women, flooding and disaster risk management The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction calls for the participation of The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk people disproportionately affected by Reduction calls for an all-off society disasters and highlights the need to engagement and partnership to reduce strengthen the link between disaster risk, with an inclusive and environmental and natural resource accessible participation of people management and disaster risk reduction. disproportionately affected by disasters. A major group in the society that is It also identifies the need to strengthen disproportionately affected by flood the link between environmental and impacts in developing countries are natural resource management and women. In this policy brief we argue that disaster risk reduction1. ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) can be Floods remain the most devastating a complementary risk reduction strategy natural hazard globally, particularly that is more accessible and inclusive to affecting Asia. According to the EM-DAT vulnerable groups such as women and database, more than 60 percent of the poor. This makes EbA a promising means human and economic losses between to strengthen the role of women in 1980 and 2015 occurred in Asia2. disaster risk management and climate A group of society that is change adaptation. However, little is disproportionately affected by flood currently known about how to integrate impacts in developing countries are EbA and strengthening the role of women women. Women commonly experience in disaster risk management (DRM) and disadvantages in social, cultural, climate change adaptation (CCA). economic and political domains, as well as

1UNISDR. “Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015 – 2030”. The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction.Geneva (2015). 2Bubeck, P., Otto, A., Weichselgartner, J. “Societal Impacts of Floods Hazards”. Oxford Research Encyclopedia on Natural Hazard Science.(Forthcoming).

86 in legal status and opportunities. These example, flood damage to small stores or disadvantages increase the vulnerability houses, where activities such as selling of women to climate related disasters, home-baked goods take place, can lead to such as flooding, in a number of ways. diminished or complete loss of income The study of Neumayer and Plümper generated by these activities5,7,8. (2007) presents results that link the Another aspect is the presence of gender lower socio-economic status of women to roles and cultural patterns, which affect the total number of women dying, as well the level of education obtained by as at a younger age, during and in the women, and also their mobility, or lack of aftermath of disasters.3 Similarly higher it7. Women are usually the caretakers of fatality rates of women compared with the children, elderly and sick as well as of men were observed during the Cyclone the house, belongings and nutrition. Nargis in Myanmar in 2008 (61 percent), Consequently, a woman’s mobility is the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami (70-80 reduced during disasters, as she must percent) and the 1991 cyclone in help her dependents and protect the Bangladesh (91 percent)4. home, and with that the ability to access Due to disadvantages related to the shelters or otherwise escape harm5,8. division in labor, income and assets, there It also means that during and after are more women living in poverty disasters, women are subject to the compared with men5. This results from increased burden of securing food, water higher unemployment rates among and safety for all, and to clean up and women, unpaid care work and lack of recover the house and land, causing basic rights, such as land rights6,7. psychological stress8. The results of Additionally, women are more likely to be Mason and Agan (2015) reveal that employed in the informal sector, a sector during and after floods, women are that is subject to income insecurity and concerned about the difficulty for their high vulnerability to disasters 5,8,9. For children to go to school, decreased ability to fulfil daily tasks, and health effects on 10 3Neumayer, E., Plümper, T. “The gendered nature the family . of natural disasters: The impact of catastrophic While the above mentioned factors make events on the gender gap in life expectancy, 1981– women especially vulnerable to flood 2002”. Annals of the Association of American impacts, they also demonstrate that Geographers, 97.3 (2007): 551-566. 4UNDP. “Gender and disaster risk reduction”. women in developing countries are Gender and Climate Change – Asia and the already at the frontline of disaster risk Pacific.Policy Brief No. 3. management and climate change 5GIZ. “Gender and urban climate policy: gender- adaptation. Women’s responsibilities in sensitive policies make a difference”. Bonn and households and communities position Eschborn (2015). 6Ibid. them especially well to understand and 7Jabeen, H. “Adapting the built environment: the role of gender in shaping vulnerability and 9Nelson, V., Meadows, K., Cannon, T., Morton, J., resilience to climate extremes in Dhaka”. Martin, A. “Uncertain predictions, invisible Environment and Urbanization, 26.1 (2014): 147- impacts, and the need to mainstream gender in 165. climate change adaptations”. Gender & 8Ajibade, I., McBean, G., Bezner-Kerr, R. “Urban Development, 10.2 (2002): 51-59. flooding in Lagos, Nigeria: patterns of vulnerability and resilience among 10Mason, L. R., Agan, T. C. “Weather variability in women”. Global Environmental Change, 23.6 urban Philippines: a gender analysis of household (2013): 1714-1725. impacts”. Climatic Change, 132.4 (2015): 589-599. 87 develop (additional) measures and people.Results were validated during a strategies for adapting to changing stakeholder workshop. environmental realities. In particular, as Currently, about 1.31 million people pivotal managers of natural and inhabit ThuaThien Hue province, of environmental resources, women have whom 330.000 reside in the city of Hue. the experience and knowledge to build Between 1975 and 2005, 40 ﬂood events the resilience of their communities. They occurred in the province that heavily thus represent an immense source of impacted the province and especially potential and power to combat the vulnerable groups of society such as increased disaster risks that climate women. change will bring in many places.11 Also in the Vietnamese context, women However, gender bias in decision making are traditionally responsible for the often means that women do not have the elderly and children, limiting their opportunity to express their needs to mobility. Their position in the family reduce the impact of disasters on their often means that they are the first to wellbeing5,7. Women are suffer shortages of basic resources such underrepresented in decision making at as food, water and electricity. Moreover, all levels, in both public entities and the they are occupied by their domestic private sphere5. duties, and have little room for further training or professional development. The role of women in building flood This hinders them from creating resilience in Hue city, central Vietnam independent financial reserves for the management of disasters. But, there is A recent study into the role of women in also potential in their position. As building climate resilience in ThuaThien caregivers, they appreciate not only their Hue province (Central Vietnam) confirms own needs, but also the needs of others the important role that women play in within their families and communities. securing the wellbeing of their families While women in Hue play a key role for and communities during and after livelihoods, the study also revealed that, disasters, and, at the same time, their women hold only minor roles at the level limited influence on disaster risk of policy formulation13. The reason for management decisions12. The study is this is that women face cultural and based on a literature review and educational barriers, and also limited participatory research methods. The time for community activities. This leads latter included focus group discussions at to a male bias in planning and decision- the local level with a total of 203 making, resulting in a failure to consider people,as well as85 in-depth interviews the different needs of women. Also the with representatives from local National Target Program to Respond to authorities, city planners and local Climate Change does not take gender issues particularly vulnerability of 11UNISDR. “Gender perspectives: Integrating women into account. Accordingly, no Disaster Risk Reduction into Climate Change funding is allocated specifically for Adaptation. Good practices and Lessons Learned”. Geneva (2008). women under the program to enhance 12 Pham, T.D.M., Lam, T.T.S. “Gender needs and their adaptation at local level. Moreover, roles in building climate resilience in Hue City, existing laws and policies that were Vietnam”. Asian Cities Climate Resilience Working developed in Vietnam to promote gender Paper Seriens No. 33 (2016). 88 equality are often not translated into One example for an EbA-measure which is gender equitable practice.12 highly relevant across South-East Asia is the maintenance and/or restoration of Ecosystem-based adaptation as a mangroves to reduce coastal flooding and means to strengthen the role of women erosion16.In addition to reducing wave in disaster risk management and tidal energy, mangroves improve water quality and provide important A complementary approach to the current breeding and nursery grounds to many focus on “top down” and “structural” terrestrial and aquatic species17, thus flood risk reduction measures such as supporting the livelihoods of those dikes, which can have negative side groups directly depending on natural effects on vulnerable communities resources. EbA thus addresses the crucial directly depending on natural resources, link between natural disasters, climate is eco-system based adaptation (EbA).13 change and ecosystem services, EbA “uses biodiversity and ecosystem considering natural resource services in an overall adaptation strategy. management through a lens of enhancing It includes the sustainable management, human resilience.18 conservation and restoration of However, little is currently known about ecosystems to provide services that help how to design and implement EbA in a people adapt to the adverse effects of way that it simultaneously supports the natural disasters and climate role of women in DRM and CCA.19 How to change.”14EbA can be a cost-effective integrate EbA and strengthen the role of alternative strategy, which is more women in flood risk management is accessible and inclusive to vulnerable currently explored and tested in two seed groups such as women and poor, making projects of the Global Resilience them a promising means to strengthen Partnership Water Window(GRP) in the role of women in DRM and CCA. Central Vietnam.20 The planned activities Moreover, EbAcan: include the implementation and ● support the integration and restoration of EbA jointly with women’s maintenance of traditional and groups and local authorities, capacity local knowledge as well as cultural values, and 16Bao, T.Q. (2011): Effect of mangrove forest ● generate multiple social, economic structures on wave attenuation in coastal and cultural co-benefits for local Vietnam. Oceanologia, Volume 53(3), 807-818. communities15. 17Mumby, P. J., Edwards, A. J., Ernesto Arias- Gonzalez, J., Lindeman, K. C., Blackwell, P. G., Gall, A., Llewellyn, G. “Mangroves enhance the biomass 13ISPONRE.“Operational Framework for of coral reef fish communities in the Caribbean”. ecosystem-based adaptation to climate change for Nature, 427.6974(2004): 533-536. Viet Nam.A Policy Supporting Document”.Institute 18ISPONRE.“Operational Framework for of Strategy and Policy on Natural Resources and ecosystem-based adaptation to climate change for Environment.Hanoi (2013). Viet Nam.A Policy Supporting Document”.Hanoi 14Secretariat of the Convention on Biological (2013). Diversity.“Connecting Biodiversity and Climate 19UNISDR, UNDP and IUCN.Making Disaster Risk change mitigation and adaptation: Report of the Reduction Gender-Sensitive.Policy and Practical Second Ad Hoc Technical Exprt group on Guidelines.Geneva (2009). Biodiveristy and Climate change”.CDB Technical 20www.globalresiliencepartnership.org/news/201 Series No. 41. (2009). 7/03/15/Water-Window-Challenge-Winners- 15Ibid. Announced. 89 building for women, a holistic valuation of link between environmental and natural the multiple benefits of EbA measures resource management and disaster risk and research on the impact of floods on reduction. the well-being of women, both in an urban and coastal environment. Acknowledgements

The authors greatly acknowledge the support of the Global Resilience Partnership Water Window.

Figure 1. Planting of mangroves in the Tam Giang Lagoon in ThuaThien Hue Province, Central Vietnam (Centre for Social Research and Development, Hue, Vietnam).

An important barrier for a system shift towards a more inclusive approach to disaster risk managementand climate change adaptation comprising EbA- measures is the lack of awareness andevidence in terms of their effectiveness, costs and benefits. The multi-faceted economic, social andcultural benefits of EbA-measures are difficult to account for in traditional cost- benefitsanalyses. This makes decision makers often reluctant to opt for such types of measures.18The two GRP seed projects aim at overcoming this barrier by providing evidenced-based support on the holistic value of EbA at the local level, amongst others. Insights into the integration of Eba and strengthening the role of women in DRM can help to meet the goal of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, that calls for the participation of people disproportionately affected by disasters and highlights the need to strengthen the 90

Empowering Local Actors to Build Disaster Resilience Amanda Lanigan1, Julia Rayberg1

Email Address: [email protected] 1Worthy Village

Abstract Index placed Guatemala at a 5.5, the highest rating in Central America.2 One of the greatest challenges in building disaster resilience is creating sustainable solutions that fit within the cultural norms of a local population. The Sendai Framework provides a method through Introduction which high-risk areas can be identified to cultivate preparedness for future The reactionary nature of disaster catastrophic events. In an effort to follow response often fails to involve and the “Build Back Better” model, this empower the local population. Left to proposal calls for the mobilization of local rebuild amidst the cultural confines of actors within cultural norms. In order to governmental and non-governmental develop increased coping capacity, this institutions, local populations become model focuses on specifically vulnerable trapped in an ineffective solution. A study segments of the population, namely of the wastewater treatment crisis in the impoverished women in indigenous Lago de Atitlan region of Guatemala communities. By improving the resiliency correlated the physical breakdown of of basic service infrastructures such as wastewater management in the food and water security, health, and community with the political breakdown education, this method seeks to improve of the indigenous peoples around the sustainability and decrease mortality. lake. When a new wastewater treatment This method was introduced in plant was built by an outside entity with Guatemala, a nation with limited coping little regard for the existing communal capacity due to the prevalence of risk maintenance structure, the project failed drivers such as climate change, due to a lack of adherence to cultural environmental degradation, poverty and norms, and the contamination crisis inequality, poorly planned urbanization, worsened.3 and weak governance.1 The 2017 Risk

2 Guatemala- Inform Country Risk Profile, Inform Index for Risk Management. Inter-Agency Standing Committee, 2017. Web. 07 Apr 2017 3 Blake D. Ratner and Alberto Rivera (2004) Reasserting Community: The Social Challenge of 1 Aitsi-Selmi, A., Egawa, S., Sasaki, H. et al. Int J Wastewater Management in Panajachel, Guatemala. Disaster Risk Sci (2015) 6: 164. doi:10.1007/s13753- Human Organization: Spring 2004, Vol. 63, No. 1, pp. 015-0050-9 47-56.

Past events and interactions with outside specifically for women and children. The actors also impact the sustainability of communities surrounding Lago de Atitlan disaster response methods. Experiences have one water source, the lake itself. such as the cholera epidemic at the end of Interviews with local leaders revealed the Guatemalan Civil War and the that if the current rate of contamination disruption to the water supply after continues, the lake could be rendered Hurricane Stan led to shifting views of completely toxic within five years. Even water security within the community. In now, lack of access to clean water is at response to these crises, chlorination crisis levels, which in turn has campaigns were launched to socioeconomic implications throughout decontaminate the lake. Due to lack of the community of over 200,000 residents. communication with local community A recent study published in the Brazilian leaders, this only enhanced the water Journal of Infectious Disease found that crisis as the indigenous people around the 32% of residents in the Lago De Atitlan lake became suspicious of the smell and region suffered from cryptosporidium refused to drink the treated water.4 infections, which further exacerbate Resiliency enhanced coping capacity and preexisting health issues prevalent within sustainable disaster response can only be impoverished communities. The rate of achieved when past experiences are taken cryptosporidium infections increase with into account and community leaders are the intense weather fluctuations of included in the development process. By particularly dry or wet seasons because of utilizing the Sendai Framework to disruptions to the water supply5. As identify high risk areas and empowering climate change continues to alter weather local leaders to develop preparedness, patterns, this health crisis will only governmental and nongovernmental worsen, calling for the immediate institutions can enhance the coping development of an effective response capacity of vulnerable populations prior system. to a major catastrophe. The same study found that water-borne Numerous political, cultural, and illnesses presented at a much higher rate economic factors render the indigenous of 44% in females.6 This marked and rural population of Guatemala difference is due to the different roles particularly vulnerable to catastrophes. occupied by each gender. While men and These communities cope with immense boys leave their homes to work during food and water security challenges, as the day, women and girls remain in their well as crippling health crises within the homes cooking and cleaning, thus causing confines of limited economic more exposure to contaminated water. development and limited access to Outgoing Under-Secretary-General for political capital. Humanitarian Affairs, Valerie Amos, These factors have a ripple effect through the community, decimating quality of life, 5 Laubach, H. E., Bentley, C. Z., Ginter, E. L., Spalter, J. S., & Jensen, L. A.. (2004). A study of risk 4 Nagata, Jason M., Valeggia, Claudia R., Smith, factors associated with the prevalence of Nathaniel W., Barg, Frances K., Guidera, Mamie, & Cryptosporidium in villages around Lake Atitlan, Bream, Kent D. W. (2011). Criticisms of chlorination: Guatemala. Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases, social determinants of drinking water beliefs and 8(4),319-323. 6 practices among the Tz'utujil Maya. Revista Laubach, H. E., Bentley, C. Z., Ginter, E. L., Panamericana de Salud Pública, 29(1), 09-16. Spalter, J. S., & Jensen, L. A.. (2004).

92 stated, “Humanitarian action should be unique place of leadership and important more than just delivering aid after a perspective on specific needs and disaster. It should empower people, potential solutions. These leaders helped especially women and girls, to live with to implement a series of peer-developed dignity.”7 A shift in disaster response is projects based on cultural traditions, needed, a shift that empowers local thereby promoting real empowerment actors, specifically women, to build and engagement of highly vulnerable resiliency. Because of the unique cultural peoples. norms of the indigenous community, the In addition, site visits and field research most effective method to develop were utilized to quantitatively resiliency involves mobilizing local actors corroborate information given by the within vulnerable communities to community leaders. Through an exchange develop coping capacity. program, medical staff were brought to the indigenous communities surrounding Methods Lago de Atitlan to conduct health assessments. These assessments found Various assessment and research high rates of water-borne illnesses, methods were utilized to identify areas of disease transmission, and malnutrition high risk and develop targeted solutions amongst the majority of the Mayan in collaboration with local leaders. Upon population. These findings as well as arriving in Panajachel in 2014, the NGO communication with local leaders were Worthy Village conducted extensive field used to enhance resiliency by addressing analysis. Worthy Village began by issues such as water quality, health, and initiating dialogue with local community hygiene. leaders to build relationships and gain Community leaders were called on to help firsthand knowledge of the needs in the develop educational and training community. Due to the unique social programs focused on health, hygiene, and structure of the indigenous community, community organization. Structuring the local indigenous women emerged as these programs within existing cultural the primary actors in the assessment and norms was an essential element to project implementation process. implementation. Worthy Village trains As with many economically members of the local Mayan population to disenfranchised communities, women act as social workers within the villages. represent a unique segment of the These individuals conduct site visits, economy through cottage industries of assess needs, and monitor ongoing traditional handcrafts produced within projects to assess outcomes. This method the community and home. As a result, addresses the key element of cultural women are the keepers of tradition and proficiency and local empowerment when cultural norms. Coupled with the fact developing solutions. Using these that they are the primary caretakers of methods, Worthy Village developed peer- the family unit, indigenous women have a initiated, targeted projects that strengthen vulnerable populations and enhance resiliency. 7 "Sendai Framework Is Key: Latin America, Caribbean." Sendai Framework Is Key: Latin America, Caribbean. UNISDR, 26 May 2015. Web. 07 Apr. 2017.

Discussion and implemented targeted project plans to develop resiliency. These plans were In a regional declaration, Latin American based around mobilizing local leaders. countries pledged to utilize the Sendai About 90% of Worthy Village employees Framework to develop a disaster are female community members. This preparedness program.8 The delegation cohort was able to develop a series of from Guatemala cited the small scale projects from the ground up. interrelatedness of sustainable For all communities, providing access to development and risk management to clean water is the first step in addressing address the vulnerabilities of at-risk the larger socio-economic issues in the populations.9 The population surrounding villages surrounding Lago de Atitlan. Lago de Atitlan is an example where The growing water crisis in Panajachel “poverty, inequality, hunger, calls for rapid response as the number of underdevelopment, exclusion, social households lacking access to clean water marginalization and discrimination are increases. Trained community members causes that exacerbate vulnerability.”10 identify families in dire need to determine Of the approximately 200,000 people placement of water filtration apparatuses, living on Lago de Atitlan, 90% are Mayan thus increasing the resiliency of people. Annual medical clinics individual households. These water consistently find that a third of the Mayan filtration apparatuses are portable, population suffer from waterborne durable, and easy to use. Families have illnesses. Worthy Village found that an access to clean water for up to ten years average of 8 out of 10 children in the with each filter. Field analysis conducted indigenous communities suffer from in 2016 shows that the filter program malnutrition. Worthy Village found that reduced the presence of water borne 100% of indigenous families within the illness in 9 out of 10 participants. As lower socio-economic sector lack access evidenced, this response method to the to clean water due to contamination and growing water crisis in Panajachel has the lack of capital. potential to address water crises around Given Guatemala’s high ranking on the the globe. Sendai Scale, establishing a foundation for Alongside the growing water crisis in the disaster response is crucial to reducing community, is the high rate of disease mortality rates and risk impact.11 Based transmission across geographic areas and on the specific needs and norms of each age groups. Researchers found that poor community, Worthy Village developed hygiene practices coupled with water contamination are the driving factors

8 behind this crisis. The presence of human "Sendai Framework Is Key: Latin America, and animal feces near dwellings is a Caribbean." Sendai Framework Is Key: Latin America, Caribbean. UNISDR, 26 May 2015. Web. 07 Apr. driving factor. Lacking awareness of 2017. hygiene practices, children are especially 9 "Sendai Framework Is Key: Latin America, vulnerable to infection in such Caribbean. conditions.12 Worthy Village developed a 10 "Sendai Framework Is Key: Latin America, Caribbean. 11 Aitsi-Selmi, A., Egawa, S., Sasaki, H. et al. Int J 12 Laubach, H. E., Bentley, C. Z., Ginter, E. L., Disaster Risk Sci (2015) 6: 164. doi:10.1007/s13753- Spalter, J. S., & Jensen, L. A.. (2004). A study of risk 015-0050-9 factors associated with the prevalence of

94 health and hygiene program designed to term, promoting sustainable development enhance the standard of living for this alongside disaster resiliency requires a vulnerable population. Hygiene education more locally based and culturally is taught in schools and households. The sensitive approach. Working with curriculum was developed by a physician communities to build on pre-existing alongside community social workers. It cultural norms leads to the development covers hygiene, infection prevention, and of projects with greater legitimacy, proper nutrition - life saving topics in the thereby enhancing effectiveness. This is communities of rural Guatemala. specifically important for vulnerable Toothbrushes, toothpaste, and soap are segments of the population whose limited provided to those participating in the political, social and economic capital is program to encourage incorporation of further reduced by disasters and large the new knowledge into daily routines. scale responses. The evaluation tools Community leaders and local educators provided by the Sendai Framework are are primary actors in the implementation conducive to the development of of this process. This model is an example resiliency building programs to reduce of a culturally sensitive and effective disaster risk in a more targeted fashion. process that holds legitimacy among local As evidenced, identifying such areas and actors. initiating localized resiliency Finally, supports such as monthly development should be top priority in the supplies of nutritional food, doctor visits, quest to reduce disaster mortality. vitamins, and scholarships is provided through a monthly sponsorship program. Acknowledgements This response system is coordinated and implemented by our social workers. This The authors thank the staff of Worthy creates a coordinated system of trained Village for their data collection. Thanks to and knowledgeable actors in the field the community leaders for their through which disaster response can be invaluable insight. Thank you to the quickly mobilized. In addition, by donors who make these programs providing these vulnerable populations possible. The authors are grateful to those with a strong base, resiliency is thereby who participated in the reviewing and increased. editing process: Chad Bigsby, Randal Grimmett, Patrick Finn of Rockland Public Conclusion Schools; Jessica Dagg, Bryan Way of Bridgewater State University; Yue Huang Adherence to cultural norms, developing of Tufts University; Lillian Wetherington targeted solutions, and mobilization of of the University of Maryland; Michelle local actors are key factors to consider Wilbur of Bryant University. when developing programs to enhance coping capacity or promote disaster response. Although large-scale rapid response may be effective in the short

Cryptosporidium in villages around Lake Atitlan, Guatemala. Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases, 8(4),319-323.

The influence of religion on disaster risk reduction and resilience: a case study of Typhoon Haiyan-affected areas in the Philippines Olivia Wilkinson1, Aaron Clark-Ginsberg2

Email Address: [email protected] 1 Trinity College Dublin 2 Stanford University

Abstract Introduction

Religion plays a critical role in many Aid organizations often undertake people’s lives, yet little is known about disaster risk reduction (DRR) and how religion affects resilience in an resilience building activities in highly international aid context. This policy brief religious societies, but they rarely presents primary evidence of the consider the impacts of religion on intersection between resilience and disaster resilience1. Additionally, research religion for people affected by Typhoon at the intersection of religion, risk, and Haiyan in the Philippines. Focus group resilience in international aid is relatively discussions were undertaken with 154 recent2345 and not explicitly recognized in people affected by the typhoon. the Sendai Framework, apart from the Respondents stated that religion provided need to protect religious sites because of many functions key to personal and their cultural importance. As a community resilience: it supported foundational component of people’s mental strength, encouraged community culture, worldview, and daily life, cooperation, and motivated sentiments of however, religion has the potential to stewardship towards the environment. both positively and negatively affect risk, Local religious institutions were described as key actors for supporting 1UNISDR’s definition of resilience. resilience. Results from this study suggest https://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/terminology that external actors - both secular and #letter-r, 2007. Consulted in 2017. 2 faith-based – can facilitate religious Krüger, Fred et al., eds. Cultures and Disasters: Understanding Cultural Framings in Disaster Risk institutions in supporting resilience by Reduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2015; providing disaster risk reduction and 3 Cannon, Terry et al. World Disasters Report: preparedness training. With the Focus on Culture and Risk. Geneva: International appropriate contextual analysis to Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent understand religious dynamics, this Societies, 2014; 4 Ager, Joey, Elena Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, and Alastair suggests aid organizations could focus Ager. “Local Faith Communities and the more often on the potential of local Promotion of Resilience in Contexts of religious partners when designing Humanitarian Crisis.” Journal of Refugee Studies disaster risk reduction and resilience 28.2 (2015): 202–221; 5 interventions in other contexts. McGeehan, Kathleen M., and Charlene K. Baker. “Religious Narratives and Their Implications for Disaster Risk Reduction.” Disasters (2016): 258- 281.

96 risk reduction, and resilience in a locations across the islands of Cebu, Leyte profound way. For instance in Hawai’i and Samar9 16 months after the typhoon. the beliefs held by different faith In total, 154 people took part in the focus communities directly lead to different groups. The locations represented a range levels of preparedness6; and in the U.S. as of typhoon experiences, from those in a whole religion has influenced ideas of Leyte and Samar that had been impacted climate change7. by storm surges to those in Cebu that To add to the growing understanding of were mainly affected by high winds. The the role of religion in risk management, groups were a mix of men and women of this brief describes how religion different ages. Local member influenced the resilience of communities organizations of Misean Cara, an Irish affected by Typhoon Haiyan in the non-governmental organization Philippines. Typhoon Haiyan devastated supporting missions, helped arrange the the Philippines, a country in which almost focus groups for the researcher to all the population are associated with a facilitate. Research participants were religion, and prompted a large mainly Catholic, with a few representing international response. The typhoon other Christian denominations. made landfall on 8 November 2013. It Religion might influence DRR and created deadly storm surges in coastal resilience in several ways. For instance, it regions and produced high winds that can provide a psychological framework to destroyed shelters and crops. The help individuals overcome disaster, as typhoon killed over 6000 people and well as a foundation for bringing affected 14 million8. Given the communities together. Thus, religion has devastation caused by the typhoon and recovery and transformative potential, the highly religious nature of the fundamental components of resilience. Philippines, examining the response to While it does not capture all the ways the typhoon can provide evidence about religion might influence risk, Lisa F. the impact of religion on disaster Schipper’s representation of the nine resilience. entry points for analyzing religion in disaster risk reduction (DRR) and climate Methods change adaptation (CCA) provides a structure for asking questions around This study used data from 13 focus religion: groups conducted in six different

6 McGeehan, Kathleen M., and Charlene K. Baker. “Religious Narratives and Their Implications for Disaster Risk Reduction.” Disasters (2016): 258- 281. 7 Jones, Robert P., Daniel Cox, and Juhem Navarro- Rivera. Believers, Sympathizers, & Skeptics: Why Americans Are Conflicted about Climate Change, Environmental Policy, and Science. Washington D.C.: Public Religions Research Institute; American Academy of Religion, 2014.

8 OCHA. Philippines: Typhoon Haiyan Situation 9 Minglanilla, Cebu City, Northern Cebu, Tanuan, Report No. 22 (as of 10 December 2013). N.p., 2013. Tacloban, Marabut.

Table 1. Religion in the context of DRR and CCA10

A: Focus on capacity B: Focus on reducing C: Focus on responding risk to disasters

A-1 Role of religion in B-1 Role of religion in C-1 Role of religion in supporting development influencing policy on helping people to environment and climate emotionally overcome change disaster (mental health)

A-2 Role of religion in B-2 Role of religion in C-2 Role of religious encouraging social capital raising vulnerability to institutions in supporting (organization) for coping hazards disaster relief and during difficult times recovery processes

A-3 Role of religion in B-3 Role of religion in C-3 Role of religion in influencing preventive and reducing vulnerability to influencing relief and reactive responses to hazards recovery processes disaster risk and climate (rebuilding, planning) change

Figure 1. The path of Typhoon Haiyan. Areas visited for the research are starred.11

10 Schipper, E. Lisa F. “Religion and Belief Systems: Drivers of Vulnerability, Entry Points for Resilience Building?” Cultures and Disasters: Understanding Cultural Framings in Disaster Risk Reduction. Ed. Greg Bankoff et al. Abingdon: Routledge, 2015. 11 Map Action, 19 November 2013. Consulted in 2017. https://maps.mapaction.org/dataset/224-3075

To draw out key themes data was the English spoken in the area, research analyzed using NVivo, a computer participants frequently used the term program for assisting in qualitative data “cope up,” which conveyed ideas of analysis. resilience in both coping with the disaster and making improvements “upwards” or Results & Discussion forwards for the future. As one female participant in Tacloban stated, Respondents described religion as “…without faith in God nothing is possible. contributing to resilience in many ways. God would not give us the trials if we could The most widely discussed theme was the not cope up. It’s a test of how deep is our personal strength that their faith gave faith in God. Because God is a loving God, them in relation to the disaster. The as we believe. He showed that we get back second was strength that religion to normal after a short time. You can see provides communities. From quantifying the remnants of the typhoon still, but little the coding in NVivo by analyzing the by little we come back to normalcy.” number of times a topic was mentioned, it They attributed both their own ability to was seen that women slightly prioritized bounce back, recover, and transform and community strength over personal the provisions from external strength and men marginally prioritized organizations, to God’s grace. This personal strength over community worldview provided a positive strength. Male participants spoke of psychological benefit as they felt the needing faith to help them feel internally support of a loving God, giving them the strong to face up to the multitude of resilience to recover and actively move problems that they, their families, and forward. their communities faced following the The role of religion in building typhoon. Women spoke more about faith community-level resilience linked to as part of the fundamental social glue Schipper’s categorizations that focus on holding their families and communities capacity (A-1, A-2, A-3), as well as together. religious institutions in response and The place of religion for personal recovery (C-2, C-3). It also relates to the resilience relates to Schipper’s critical role of social capital in disaster designation C-1 (emotionally overcoming reduction and recovery13. The ideas of disaster) and those that approach serving others and stewardship were resilience from a psychological central to this. Participants explained that perspective, a large part of the resilience religious beliefs encouraged their literature12. This personal strength that willingness to serve other people in their religion provided was of primary communities, which was then tied into importance for the resilience of people the cultural concept of ‘bayanihan,’ or the affected by Haiyan. People described this idea that villages will come together to as having trust in God’s plan for them, and help each other. This is the role of their resiliency as a sign of God’s grace. In 13 Aldrich, Daniel P. Building Resilience. Chicago, Ill.: The University of Chicago Press, 2012; 12 Alexander, D. E. “Resilience and Disaster Risk Nakagawa, Yuko, and Rajib K Shaw. “Social Reduction: An Etymological Journey.” Natural Capital: A Missing Link to Disaster Recovery.” Hazards & Earth System Sciences 13.11 (2013): International Journal of Mass Emergencies and 2707-2716. Disasters 22.1 (2004): 5–34.

99 religious belief in supporting social and remaining after they had left. They capital for disaster resilience, which was therefore held the trust and authority to also highlighted in relation to the place of disseminate such messages, while also religious institutions in response. continuing to provide material assistance Participants noted the importance of the to help develop their community where church building in acting as a place of possible. community cohesion, not just in religious festivals such as Christmas, but other Conclusion & recommendations social events such as fiestas and meetings. One notable element was the role of Religion related directly to people’s religion in encouraging community action personal and community resilience in the on disaster risk linked to climate change. aftermath of Typhoon Haiyan. It was Participants saw human agency as the critically both an emotional support that main cause of climate change, but provided meaning and mental strength included the role of God as creator and and a way to motivate community people as stewards of that creation. As organizations and cooperation. Religious one male participant explained, institutions also supported community “We try to ask why God did this to us. But cohesion and disseminated messages on we never think also that we the people are DRR and preparedness. Indeed, most of caretakers of this environment and this Schipper’s entry points were seen in the world. We are the stewards of God’s case study. blessings and God’s nature. But sometimes This case study can be drawn out to we never try to think about how beautiful provide insights for other contexts. For this world is. We threw things without external actors, particularly secular thinking what will happen to the future organizations, it may seem as though little generations. The garbage in the sea, in the can be done to support resilience open canal, and it comes back to us. We provided by religion. Indeed, in this case don’t question God; we question why we do it was one of the elements of pre-existing this. We have to follow and take good care social capital that allows individuals, of this world, by doing things properly.” families, and communities to cope and Participants related how they had learned organize following typhoons without about climate change in sermons from the external assistance. Nevertheless, there pulpit at Sunday Mass. The Christian are ways in which all organizations, message of stewardship of creation was secular and faith-based, can engage with resonant with secular messages of religion to improve disaster resilience. prevention and preparedness. Lessons on For example, respondents displayed a DRR and preparedness were also great appetite for messages on disaster included at a local seminary. Religious risk reduction and preparedness, and institutions thus played adaptive and trusted religious institutions to convey transformative roles in resilience, these messages. In contexts where bringing communities new knowledge religious institutions are trusted, fruitful and activities on DRR and CCA. partnerships for training local religious Furthermore, participants stated that leaders on these matters should therefore religious institutions were viewed as be considered. Furthermore, far from long-term community supporters, present being static, religion is in a constant state well before external organizations arrived of evolution and flux: aid organizations

100 can thus work with religious institutions to help move them toward a position that maximizes risk reduction. The Sendai Framework has been criticized for taking a top-down view of risk reduction that treats communities as inputs14. Furthermore, the aid world has been critiqued as operating from a secular worldview15 and certain aid organizations may be reticent to incorporate religion into programming; however, issues that communities view as critical – including religion – must be considered in programming for resilience work to be truly inclusive and supportive. This case study thus supports calls for greater bottom-up approaches to DRR that reflect community needs, rather than localized approaches that operationalize communities for their own goals. A more locally reflective approach is therefore imperative for reducing risk in a sustainable manner.

Acknowledgements

This policy brief is based on the findings of a research report commissioned by Misean Cara entitled Faith and Resilience After Disaster: The Case of Typhoon Haiyan. The full report can be found at: http://www.miseancara.ie/faith- resilience-disaster/. The authors thank all those who participated in the research.

14 Poterie, Arielle Tozier de la, and Marie-Ange Baudoin. “From Yokohama to Sendai: Approaches to Participation in International Disaster Risk Reduction Frameworks.” International Journal of Disaster Risk Science 6.2 (2015): 128–139. 15 Ager, Alastair, and Joey Ager. Faith, Secularism, and Humanitarian Engagement: Finding the Place of Religion in the Support of Displaced Communities. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015

101

Understanding and improving critical infrastructure resilience: essential to achieving global agreements Heather Murdock1,2,3, Supriya Krishnan4,5,6

Email Address: [email protected] 1 UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education and Research 2 Deltares, The Netherlands 3 The Water Youth Network 4 Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands 5 Delta Urbanism Research group 6 Urban Thinkers Campus Team TU Delft

Abstract Introduction

Urban resilience is understood as the Urban environments in the 21st century ability of a city to resist and respond to a survive under the veil of an impending shock. Critical infrastructure (CI) plays a disaster. Manifestations of climate change key role in the functioning of a city and are becoming pronounced with the can strongly enhance overall urban increasing frequency of acute disasters resilience. The functioning of CI increases (such as floods and earthquakes) and the coping capacity and rate of recovery chronically rising hazards (such as rises of urban environments following a in sea level and global temperature). In disaster. Understanding the links between addition, a growing proportion of the systems helps to protect overall network world’s population lives in urban functioning. While network operators environments and, according to the New typically understand their own systems Urban Agenda, the world urban well, the interdependencies are often not population is expected to nearly double well understood. Many of the global by 2050 1. agreements mention the need to protect The intensifying urbanisation will see a and increase the resilience of CI but there large percentage of urban 'poor' who will are many challenges to overcome in order be vulnerable to fluctuating supply of to achieve this especially given the services offered by critical infrastructure interdependencies. Understanding CI risk (CI) essential for survival2. exposure and increasing CI resilience CI networks refer to the electricity should be integrated into action plans for disaster risk reduction (DRR) and the 1 HABITAT III NEW, URBAN AGENDA. "Draft implementation of the Sendai Framework. outcome document for adoption in Quito, October Furthermore, CI system considerations 2016." (2016). are also not often integrated into long 2 UNISDR. “Poorly planned and managed urban term planning but could help to improve development” disaster response over the long term. http://www.preventionweb.net/risk/poorly- planned-managed-urban-development (2015). 102 provision, transportation networks, water supply, wastewater systems, hospital facilities and other systems which are essential to maintaining a satisfactory level of functioning in an urban environment. These man-made networks are often privately owned and “function collaboratively and synergistically to produce and distribute a continuous flow of essential goods and services”3. They are often affected during extreme weather events or other disasters and the restoration of their services is needed for recovery.

What is Urban Resilience? Figure 1. Resilient Cities Index6

Households depend on power for cooking, This framework specifies that resilient businesses need telecommunications to cities need: complete transactions and hospitals need ● Reflectiveness water and wastewater systems to ● Resourcefulness maintain a hygienic environment. All of ● Robustness these are examples of the dependence of a ● Redundancy city on CI. The resilience of these systems ● Flexibility services greatly affects the functioning of ● Inclusiveness the city. There are several definitions and ● Integration7 types of resilience, however, a commonly Properties such as robustness refer to a accepted definition refers to the ability of city’s ability to resist a shock and others a system to respond to and recover from a such as redundancy and flexibility mean shock4. Furthermore, the resilient city that aspects of the system can recover index outlines seven characteristics of more quickly because of alternative resilient cities which are aligned with this configurations. definition5 as shown in Fig. 1. CI and Urban Resilience

In Mocoa, Columbia the April 2017 flood and landslide resulted in severe damage and more than 300 casualties over only a few hours. As that area recovered it was 3 President’s Commission on Critical reported that it would take two weeks to Infrastructure Protection www.ciao.gov restore energy to the affected area and 4 Holling, Crawford Stanley. "Engineering survivors were also without gas, resilience versus ecological resilience." Engineering within ecological constraints 31.1996 (1996): 32. 5 ARUP, T. R. F. “City Resilience Framework” The 6 ibid (same as 4) Rockefeller Foundation and ARUP. (2014) 7 ibid (same as 4) 103 telephone service or much clean water8. event and higher order impacts due to The duration of the impacts are thus network dependencies are important closely tied to the recovery rate of CI considerations for understanding the role services. of CI for disaster risk reduction. They can Additionally in Canada during the affect the total damage and overall Southern Alberta Floods of 2013, the city recovery rate. of Calgary experienced power outages due to the flooding of a substation9 and Understanding CI the community of Black Diamond was without multiple CI services when a While system operators often have a good utility bridge was washed away10. These understanding of their own systems, indirect effects are important other stakeholders typically do not. CI contributing factors to the total systems are technically and logistically disruption caused by a disaster. complex entities which is a barrier to Failures can also propagate through CI mutual understanding. Furthermore, data networks due to interdependencies, regarding CI systems is often private due resulting in secondary effects and higher to competition and security concerns order cascades. A power outage in Italy11 Collaborative modelling tools, workshops, in 2003 illustrates this. A short circuit and event visualisation can support better caused by a tree falling on one understanding. With the collaborative transmission line led to a series of modelling approach, the modelling blackouts on the Swiss–Italian border process directly involves the stakeholders affecting 56 million as this failure where they are given the tools to shape cascaded through the nodes of contact in the modelling exercise13. Tools such as the power and communication system12. CIrcle14 support this and organize CI These factors such as impacts larger in dependency information in a workshop time and spatial scale that the original setting. A diagram like the one shown in Fig. 2 is developed and with it the

relations and importance can be seen and 8 Brodzinsky, Sibylla. “Colombia Landslide” The Guardian. experts can judge if this fits with their https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/apr/ experience15. 01/colombia-landslide-mocoa-putumayo-heavy- rains (2017) 9 Williams, Nia. “Power outages in Calgary could last for months after floods” http://www.reuters.com/article/canada-floods- calgary-idUSL2N0EZ06M20130623 (2013) 10 Glass, A. 2014. Black Diamond, Turner Valley forged union through flood. Calgary Herald. Published on June 16 2014 retrieved on April 07 13 Basco-Carrera, L., Warren, A., van Beek, E., 2017 Jonoski, A., & Giardino, A. (2017). Collaborative 11 Andersson, G., et al. "Causes of the 2003 major modelling or participatory modelling? A grid blackouts in North America and Europe, and framework for water resources management. recommended means to improve system dynamic Environmental Modelling & Software, 91, 95-110. performance." IEEE Transactions on Power 14 Deltares “Circle Software”. Systems 20.4 (2005): 1922-1928. www.deltares.nl/en/software/circle-critical- 12 Buldyrev, Sergey V., et al. "Catastrophic cascade infrastructures-relations-and-consequences-for- of failures in interdependent life-and-environment-2/ (2017) networks." Nature 464.7291 (2010): 1025-1028. 15 ibid (same as 13) 104

be modelled as interconnected layers as shown in Fig.3.

Figure 2. CIrcle tool visualization16 Figure 3. Interconnected infrastructure layers20

Then visualisations of event timing with It is often too costly to protect all parts of impacts help to feed these inputs back the system but targeting certain areas for into the storyline of an extreme event to increased robustness and perhaps adding help support decision making17. redundancies elsewhere for example can increase system resilience. The Age of Interconnectivity The Planning Approach We are entering a new era of a ‘globally networked society’18 representing In a recent paper that discusses increasing interdependency, ‘Mainstreaming risk reduction in urban interconnectivity and complexity. The planning’, some interviewees suggested interconnectedness has scaled positively that the easiest way to integrate risk across sectors for more accurate outputs, reduction and urban planning is ‘to wait however, this interconnectivity can also for the next earthquake, let the city fall increase the vulnerability of the system. down and start again’.21 One of the main The transition from a ‘component’ based culprits for this attitude can be attributed approach to a ‘system’ based approach to to the principles of conventional urban understanding CI will be essential for planning that are largely based on integrated practices19. These systems can quantifying the problem based on given parameters and then identifying a clear

16 ibid (same as 13) 17De Bruijn, K. M., et al. "The storyline approach: a 20 Wilbanks, Thomas J., and Steven new way to analyse and improve flood event Fernandez. Climate Change and Infrastructure, management." Natural Hazards 81.1 (2016): 99- Urban Systems, and Vulnerabilities: Technical 121. Report for the US Department of Energy in 18 Castells, Manuel. The rise of the network Support of the National Climate Assessment. society: The information age: Economy, society, Island Press, 2014. and culture. Vol. 1. John Wiley & Sons, 2011. 21 Wamsler, Christine. "Mainstreaming risk 19 European Union “Cascading Effects Conference” reduction in urban planning and housing: a (2017) challenge for international aid http://www.cascadingeffects.eu/ organisations." Disasters 30.2 (2006). 105 objective. The room for flexibility is often Relevance to global agreements limited. Ironically, the Global Risks Perception Survey by the World The major global development Economic forum also ranks ‘failure of frameworks highlight the ‘opportunity of urban planning’ as having the least impact urbanization’ for directing sustainable in the global risk landscape22. and inclusive development while In the debate to find a common ground acknowledging the role of CI resilience. between ‘risk reduction’ and ‘urban The Paris Agreement establishes the development’, the historical separation global goal on adaptation of enhancing results in different working priorities, adaptive capacity, strengthening concepts and terminologies that further resilience and reducing vulnerability to foster the gulf between different climate change.25 Additionally the UN professionals23. Sustainable Development Goals 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), 13 Relation to urban poor (Climate Action) and 17 (Partnerships for the Goals) all rely on resilient CI for cities. The problem of urban resilience has many Finally, CI is also specifically mentioned lenses an important consideration is the within the Sendai Framework’s seventh often disproportionate effect of acute global target which is to “Substantially shocks on the urban poor. Disruption of reduce disaster damage to critical CI services affects social and economic infrastructure and disruption of basic activity and the health and quality of life services, among them health and of the people themselves24. Studies have educational facilities, including through shown that in the case of a natural hazard, developing their resilience by 2030”26. The people of underprivileged socio-economic case can be made, therefore, that if action demographics are often the most is not taken to address the challenges to impacted during these events as they increasing CI resilience there will be a have limited capacity to fill in the gaps of missing piece in implementing the Sendai service continuity through alternate framework as well as also other global means. The basic critical services offered agreements. by the critical infrastructure networks assume a greater role in reducing Conclusion damages to the poor thus alleviating their overall suffering even under non-crisis “Cities are no longer regarded as being circumstances. disordered systems. Beneath the apparent chaos and diversity of physical form, there is strong order and a pattern that emerges from the myriad of decisions 22 WEF 2016. The Global Risks Report. 11 ed.: and processes required for a city to World Economic Forum 27 23 ibid (same as 18) develop and expand physically.” 24 Wilbanks, T., Fernandez, S., Backus, G., Garcia, P., Jonietz, K., Kirshen, P., Savonis, M., Solecki, W., 25 Agreement, Paris. "United nations framework Toole, L. and Allen, M. “Climate change and convention on climate change." Paris, infrastructure, urban systems and vulnerabilities”, France (2015). Technical Report for the US Department of Energy 26 Ibid (same as 2) in Support of the National Climate Assessment 27 Batty, Michael. "The size, scale, and shape of (2012). cities." science 319.5864 (2008): 769-771. 106

Analysing interdependencies between networks and their impacts on space could reveal underlying behavioural patterns to generate an inventory that can inform better optimised decisions for contingency plans. Furthermore, CI resilience is essential to city resilience but it is a challenging domain to comprehend in entirety. Tools and approaches have been developed to foster understanding. These should be better developed and applied in addition to partnerships and data sharing which will be paramount for resilient future landscapes. In addition, facilitating ‘trust’ will become a crucial barrier to be overcome and maintained.

Acknowledgments

Thank you to the organizers of the EU INTACT28 conference who connected the authors of this paper and created a forum for researchers and practitioners with an interest in the resilience of critical infrastructure to extreme weather to connect.

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isk DISASTEReduction Disaster Response, Relief & Recovery

Assessment of Coordination Mechanism in 2015 Nepal Earthquake, Kathmandu District Serena Amatya 1, Dr. Indrajit Pal 2, Ranit Chatterjee 3

Email Address: [email protected] 1Intern, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu, Nepal. 2Assistant Professor, Disaster Preparedness Mitigation and Management, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand. 3Research Student, Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Japan.

Abstract Introduction

2015 Gorkha earthquake of 7.8M caused Emergency response comprises of huge destruction in terms of lives and individuals working in formal property. Immediately after the establishments to meet various needs earthquake, emergency response was through their actions and interactions, carried out by local, national and which is self-motivated arrangements of international organizations. The primary cooperation to manage the complexity of focus of this research was to assess response1. Such interventions are coordination mechanism during response developed to meet the immediate and and relief operations in aftermath of short term needs of affected population catastrophic earthquake. Various plans, and seldom for longer-term strategic policies, acts and guidelines were actions2. Emergency relief is dependent reviewed to understand the disaster on the government structure and level of management system and develop specific preparedness and hence can go on for a recommendation to aid future relief very long time or can end fairly quickly as operations. In relief operation, have been experienced in case of 2011 coordination plays a vital role for smooth Japan Tsunami and 2010 Haiti earthquake operation and cooperation among respectively. Often faced with constraints stakeholders involved. There was of limited information and human coordination gap initially among different resources an effective coordination and humanitarian responders. Delay in management between emergency coordination leading to subsequent delay responders and the government is in the rescue and relief operation can be essential. attributed to limited policies, strategies and acts regarding disaster management 1 Cohen, Michael D., and Robert Axelrod. Harnessing in Nepal. The result of the research Complexity: Organizational Implications of a indicated unstable and weak governance, Scientific Frontier. Simon and Schuster, 2000. lack of local government staffs, ambiguity 2 Dovers, Stephen, and John Handmer. The in authority and revision of plans and Handbook of Disaster and Emergency Policies policies after the disaster causing delay in and Institutions. Routledge, 2012. proper coordination and relief efforts.

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high with monsoon season following soon 2015 Nepal Earthquake Impacts and provision of shelter for all the affected people became necessary (Fig. 1).

Emergency Response

Prioritization of information sharing and decision making is critical for disaster response 6. For effective and smooth coordination, emergency response plan is a must for any organization. In extreme events like earthquake, the first 72 hours 7 Figure 1. Nepal Earthquake and most affected are critical for search and rescue efforts . districts 3 Earthquake response and rescue (ERR) is still a global challenge specifically in The Gorkha or Nepal Earthquake of 7.8M developing countries. Various factors occurred on April 25, 2015 at 11:56 NST contribute to this namely absence of having epicenter 77 km northwest of professional relief agencies, inadequate Kathmandu and at a depth of 15 km. This aid materials and storage space, was followed by another earthquake on appropriate rescue equipment which 12th May 2015 of 7.2 magnitude affecting highlights the level of preparedness and the eastern part of Nepal. Aftershocks inadequacy present in the system 8,9. On were continuously felt for several months the other hand multiagency collaboration, after the disaster. 14 out of 75 districts optimal resource management, and local were severely affected by the earthquake knowledge are significant for effective in terms of rescue and relief priority 4. response 10. Various research has Secondary disasters like landslides, flash floods and avalanches in mountainous 6 Chen, A. Y., Peña-Mora, F., Plans, A., and Aziz, Z., areas were triggered by the earthquakes. (2012), “Supporting Urban Search and Rescue with In Kathmandu, soil liquefaction occurred Digital Assessments of Structures and Requests of in different parts of the district 5. Response Resources.” Advanced Engineering Informatics 26(4), 833–845. Furthermore, most of the connecting 7 roads to rural areas were damaged. Also, Ochoa, Sergio F., and Rodrigo Santos. “Human- the need for effective coordination was Centric Wireless Sensor Networks to Improve Information Availability during Urban Search and Rescue Activities.” Information Fusion 22 (2015):

71–84. 3 OCHA. "Situation Report no. 1-18". Nepal 8 Doyle, John C. “Improving Performance in Earthquake 2015 (2015): 7. Emergency Management.” Disaster Prevention 4 and Management: An International Journal 5.3 GON. “Disaster Report 2015”. Government of (1996): 32–46. Nepal. 9 http://drrportal.gov.np/uploads/document/329. Lu, Yi, and Jiuping Xu. “The Progress of Emergency pdf. Web. 2015. Response and Rescue in China: A Comparative Analysis of Wenchuan and Lushan Earthquakes.” 5 Goda, K., Kiyota, T., Pokhrel, R. M., and Wilkinson, Natural hazards 74.2 (2014): 421–444. S. (2015) “The 2015 Gorkha Nepal Earthquake: 10 Gopalakrishnan, C., and Norio, O. (2007), Insights from Earthquake Damage Survey.” “Designing New Institutions for Implementing Frontiers in Built Environment 1 (2015): 8. Integrated Disaster Risk Management: Key

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reported time, inter-organizational considered a key challenge for better coordination and relief mobilization as relief operation. For the success of three critical rescue and response coordination during a crisis situation, indicators11. However, the incompetence strategy should be formed to handle the of developing countries coupled with problems tactically 15. scale of the disaster leads to increased dependency on international agencies for Methods response. This research study consists of key Role of Coordination in Disasters observations immediately during emergency response and during research Coordination has been defined as a period. Qualitative data has been planned response to tasks within an collected from local authorities, organization or among actors where they government personnel and international are dependent on one another for best stakeholders using semi-structured results12. Two types of coordination interviews and focus group discussions. system have been derived based upon the Various disaster management strategies, actors involved: horizontal and vertical guidelines, policies and acts were coordination. Vertical coordination analysed vis-a-vis operational activities involves hierarchies of national and local during emergency response, government, suppliers, humanitarian organizational hierarchy and actors and customers whereas, horizontal coordination mechanism. coordination consists of external and internal organizations along with their Discussion competitors13. Through clusters, organizations have profited from cooperation as well as competition for better provision of information, relief resources and services 14. However, lack of coordination among different clusters when supplying relief from international to local level has also been noted and

Elements and Future Directions.” Disasters 31(4): 353–372. 11 ibid (9) 12 Tatham, P., Pettit, S., Jahre, M., & Jensen, L.-M. (2010). Coordination in humanitarian logistics through clusters. International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, 40(8/9), Figure 2. Central Organizational Char16 657-674. The Central Organizational System (COS) 13 Balcik, Burcu et al. “Coordination in Humanitarian during disasters has been divided into Relief Chains: Practices, Challenges and Opportunities.” International Journal of Production Economics 126.1 (2010): 22–34. 15 ibid (12). 14 ibid (12). 16 ibid same as (4).

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three tiers: incident commander, command and general staff under the Ministry of Home Affairs, Nepal (MOHA) (Fig.2). COS commands and controls the situation of disaster through Central Disaster Relief Committee (CNDRC) with the authority to command other ministries and departments to coordinate and cooperate by providing obligatory support from the departments. COS lies above National Emergency Operation Center (NEOC), which is the main body to formulate policy and strategy required for NEOC. It does not mention anything about the Incident commander whether it is the Prime Minister or the President of Nepal. Figure 3. Coordination Mechanism of Nepal 19 However, the document describes in detail on standard operating procedures Coordination mechanism of Nepal carried out immediately after a disaster. illustrated the coordination between Nepal Army (NA), Nepal Police (NP) and Government Organisations (GOs) and Armed Police Force (APF) coordinate INGOs. It clearly indicates horizontal immediately with CNDRC or the nearest coordination between CNDRC and UN District Disaster Relief (DDRC) for where they coordinate with each other to response during a disaster. Some of the respond better in a disaster. However, activities done were search and rescue, they follow their own working mandates relief distribution, camp coordination, to effectively provide relief operation. treatment of injured and so on. They Severe challenges observed in follow the Commander in Chief for coordination between DDRC and response and rescue in absence of local humanitarian agencies were due to weak authority 17. command system, where, the local offices Although, there is presence of different had less staff and ineffectiveness in standards for disaster management in guiding numerous relief organizations on Nepal, but serious implementation gap field. With recruitment of new staffs in was there mostly due to the incapability the second week of the earthquake, the of the government18. Most of the coordination started improving with documents related to disaster risk systematic commands from the central to management has been drafted without local level. must detailed roles and responsibility. For instance, the activities to be carried It was found that the first week of disaster out by cooperation staff does not discuss was dedicated to setting up of the detail task of each section (Fig.3). coordination system within GOs as well as with UN and international responders. In 17 ibid same as (4).

18 EMI. "M7.6 Gorkha Earthquake Response and 19 National Disaster Response Framework, Early Recovery Case Study". www.emi- Government of Nepal Ministry of Home Affairs megacities.org. Web. 2015. March 2013

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the second week, the officials start relief Conclusion distribution and announced one window policy. One window policy has both Following the earthquakes, humanitarian advantages and disadvantages. The responders were very quick to react to advantage of one window policy was that the news of disaster and deployed for people located in remote and inaccessible response. But, the influx of many areas also receive the relief through humanitarian actors could not be utilized government channel. The disadvantage of properly since the government was not the policy was the delay in relief sufficiently equipped to provide distribution in almost all the places in necessary information and guidance to order to streamline relief operation. the responders in the first week of The execution of present policy structures disaster. At the later stage, NEOC immediately after the earthquake could controlled relief distribution through one- have made the relief operation and window policy which requires large coordination efficient without delays. amount of manpower within the country Post disaster assessments carried out also to provide relief to multiple places had some delays in initial assessments simultaneously without delays. The relief with lack of authoritative power seen operation’s start was slow in the first few within the government 20. Individual weeks which gradually improved with the assessments without coordination caused improvement in coordination. Conversely, redundancy of information which affected population and providing relief eventually led the GON to cease such should have been the main priority. This assessments. However, the initial shortcoming existed due to lack of well- assessments from their side was very planned contingency plan, lack of detailed slow paced. The initial rapid assessments relief standards, not enough expertise at were carried out for more than 72 hours national level, lack of manpower in local which led to delay in other assessments21. government due to absence of local There was gradual improvement in election for last 20 years created coordination with time and leading role of disconnected between the local and NEOC after some days of delay. Lack of national government. For smooth inter-cluster mandate caused coordination, new temporary officials misunderstanding between GOs and replaced the local offices which resulted international responders which created in delay of implementation of existing delay in coordination and relief operation. standards and strategies. As weeks passed, the organizations kept Coordination is one of the most important aside their differences and focused on task to maintain during post-disasters but their goal of helping affected population at the same time, it is challenging process which ultimately led them to coordinate to achieve perfect coordination system. together. Improving the system for better coordination helps to avoid misunderstandings and focus on response smoothly. Some of the problem regarding 20 ibid (19). coordination are unavoidable however, 21 Ministry of Home Affairs. “Nepal Earthquake better coordination can be achieved 2072: Situation Update as of 11th following pre-formulated strategies and May”.www.drrportal.gov.np. Web. 2015. inter-agency cooperation.

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Recommendations

1. Policy improvement detailed on responsibility of each organization. 2. Government organizations should be clear on their roles and take leadership to instruct other organizations for smooth coordination. 3. Pre-planned assessment tools should be used to identify affected population and provide immediate assistance.

Acknowledgements

First author acknowledges the support of Disaster Preparedness, Mitigation and Management (DPMM), Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), THAILAND and third author thankfully acknowledges the MEXT scholarship and GSS research fund.

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Brazil legal framework for post-disasters displacements Giulia Manccini Pinheiro1

Email Address: [email protected] 1Paulistana Foundation of Education, Technology and Culture. City of São Paulo.

Abstract Introduction

The number of post-disaster people With global climate change, the displacement in Brazil is growing occurrence of extreme weather events exponentially due to climate-change and and disasters is becoming more common environment degradation. This paper and Brazil is one of the most affected aims to investigate the laws and policies countries in terms of disasters. to protect this population and identifies According with the Germanwatch the main advantages and point of report1, in a length of 20 years, 1610 improvements of the covered legal people died in natural disasters and framework. more than U$ 1,7 trillion has been spent with losses. Due to its continental territorial extension, issues like floods, windstorms, cyclones, landslides, soil erosion, fluvial erosion, woodland fires, droughts and deforestation have caused thousands of people to move, seeking for a safer place to live, according to the Brazilian Atlas of National Disasters2. Having this in mind, this paper aims to identify Brazil’s legal framework that protects post-disaster displaced people and to critically analyze its benefits and flaws towards this population. The main contribution will be the coordination from spread laws to be used as support for lawyers and the civil society in people’s protection and for inspiring worldwide legislations. For this purpose, this paper considers the national laws and international commitments that

1 Germanwatch: Global Climate risk Index 2016. (Briefing Paper) 23. 2 Centro Universitário de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre Desastres (CEPED). Atlas Brasileiro de Desastres Naturais 1991 a 2010 (volume Brasil. UFSC 2012) 13 115

bind Brazil in the matter of people’s widespread melting of snow and ice and movement protection. rising global average sea level”. The methodology is to examine each Furthermore, the Panel6 reached the law’s scope of protection and investigate conclusion that the anthropogenic whether it is sufficient or not for drivers of climate change performed an protecting post-disaster people important role in the past years displacement. The term “displacement” warming; highlighting that the global has been chose to emphasize that the greenhouse gasses emissions increased environment fact had a pushing role in by 70% between 1970 and 2004. the decision to move. According with the Amongst the big five reasons for concern Internal Displacement Monitoring about climate change listed by the Panel Centre, “displacement is a more reactive in the Third Assessment Report, and measure of last resort or a survival updated in the Assessment Report 4, we response to severe and immediate can find the risk of extreme weather threats”3. events. In consonance with the 2007 Report, it was determined by the most Discussion recent study a much higher confidence in the projected increase of floods, heat Although the majority of researches waves, droughts and their adverse insist, based on their consistent impacts, which may include adverse empirical works, that post-disaster health impacts and damage to displacement is likely to be internal, infrastructure that impulse people to rather than across international borders, move.7 most of their discussion is As stated by Carvalho8, despite the circumscribed to international existence of scientific doubts, it is even migration.4 Therefore, this paper will clearer that climate change has been consider the causes of internal affecting considerably the intensification displacement and Brazilian laws about of these climate extremes and its it. consequences in the last few decades. It is well known by the scientific More specifically in Brazil, as reported community that global climate change is by the University Centre for Studies and indeed occurring. The numbers are so Research on Disasters9 (CEPED, in alarming that the Intergovernmental Portuguese), the number of disasters Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)5 stated that the “warming of the climate system 6 is unequivocal as is now evident from Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change observations of increases in global IPCC. (2007 Synthesis Report: Summary for average air and ocean temperatures, Policy Makers. Cambridge University Press 2007) 36 7 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 3 Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre. IPCC. (2007 Synthesis Report: Summary for Global Estimates 2015 14 Policy Makers. Cambridge University Press 4 MAYER, Benoît. “Climate Change and 2007) 65 8 International Law in the Grim Days”. The Carvalho, D. W. “As mudanças climáticas e a European Journal Of International Law (July formação do direito dos desastres”. Novos 2013: 947-970) 953 Estudos Jurídicos (2013) 398 5 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 9 Centro Universitário de Estudos e Pesquisas IPCC. (2007 Synthesis Report: Summary for sobre Desastres (CEPED). Atlas Brasileiro de Policy Makers. Cambridge University Press Desastres Naturais 1991 a 2010 (volume Brasil. 2007) 30 UFSC 2012 28 116

occurred has risen from 8,671, in the subject: the Decree No. 7,257 (2010)13 decade of 1990, to 22,238, in the decade and the Federal Law No. 12,340 of 2,000. (2010)14. Considering the total amount of people The first one concerns the necessary affected by disasters within the period requirements to declare state of comprehended between 1991 and 2010, emergency and state of calamity, and its which is equivalent to 96,220,879 related matters, such as transference of people. We can observe that intense monetary resources to rebuild droughts and sudden floods are the devastated places. It also defines types of disasters that affect Brazilian disaster as the result of adverse events, population the most. The first is natural or caused by human activity, on responsible for 50.34% of the amount of a fragile ecosystem resulting in human, affected people, while the second physical or environmental damages and, corresponds to 29.56%10. consequently economic and social The Swiss insurance company – Swiss Re injuries. published a report stating that natural The second one originally regulated the disaster will likely become more transference of monetary resources to frequent in Brazil and also more costly the rescue activities; to provide in terms of human lives and government assistance for the injured; to the expenditures11. reestablishment of essential services; to After this brief overview, we can notice rebuild devastated areas; and to the that coherent policies and legislations in Special Fund for Public Calamities. Since the Country are essential to address the 2013, when a revision occurred in the problematic of these so-called ‘natural’ legal text, this law has also included in disasters in the global climate change its provisions measures towards the era, not only to deal with the execution of preventive actions in areas consequences of the disasters, but also with a high disaster risk. to prevent the occurrence of such We can therefore observe that our events. national legislation primordially focused Before 2012, when the National Policy its main attention on giving response to for Protection and Civil Defence (Federal disastrous events and on the reparation Law No 12,608)12 was released of injured sites, dealing directly with the establishing a new legal structure to concrete damages arising from disasters disasters in Brazil’s Law, two major legal rather than taking preventative instruments used to regulate the approaches to avoid their occurrence. However, this situation has changed when in 2012 the National Policy for 10 Centro Universitário de Estudos e Pesquisas Protection and Civil Defence was sobre Desastres (CEPED). Atlas Brasileiro de enacted. This policy was established by Desastres Naturais 1991 a 2010 (volume Brasil. the law No. 12,608, which also created UFSC 2012 29 the National System of Protection and 11 Brazil has traditionally had a very low Civil Defence, the National Council of exposure to natural disaster, but during the last Protection and Civil Defence15, and a five years the frequency of events such as heavy 13 rains, floods and avalanches has increased (…).” BRAZIL. Decree No. 7,257. 4th August 2010. RINDEBRO, U. Natural Disasters Likely to 14 BRAZIL. Federal Law No 12,340. 1st Become More Frequent, Costly – Swiss Re – December 2010. 15 Brazil. ( Business News Americas. 2011) The main Guidelines were established for the 12 BRAZIL. Federal Law No 12,608. 10th April National System of Protection and Civil Defense 2012. and the National Council of Protection and Civil 117

national system for monitoring calamite or emergency by the disasters. municipality or State affected. In its second article, this law sets as an However, it is important to notice that obligation, for all of Brazil’s Federal only in case of natural disasters Entities16, to adopt all the necessary displaced people have the right to use measures to reduce the disaster risk in the Social Fund money. What means that the Country, which may be adopted in a displaced people in case of human-made cooperation scheme involving the public disasters or that were expropriate and and the private sector. Besides that, the relocated have no access to this tool. second paragraph of this article goes In the international level, it is possible to further and adopts a precautionary state that the NPPC Law has most of the approach, when it states that “the Sendai Framework recommendations uncertainty related to the disaster risk and goes towards the same direction of shall not constitute an obstacle to the prevention and building resilience to adoption of preventative and mitigation communities. In addition, Brazil has measures for risk situations”. been a great supporter of the Sendai Moreover, it is important to highlight Framework implementation, having that the increase in the occurrence of done actions within the BRICS18 and disasters due to climate change is MERCOSUL19 meetings. However, there recognized in our legislation because the has not been much change in the article No 3 establishes that the post- national actions or increasing budget disaster policy must be integrated with towards disaster risk prevention. the National Policy on Climate Change Concerning the Guiding Principles of (Law No. 12.187)17. Thus, we can notice Internal Displacement, Brazilian that Disaster Law is deeply related to Constitution guarantees most of the Climate Change Law. provisions to internally displaced Besides the new focus in preventing people, with a strong exception of article disaster and building resilience in 920. However, the Guiding Principles are community, the Law No 12.187 only not binding and will not be object of a covered the help immediately post further analysis in this paper. disaster and it did not consider the situation of displaced people. The Conclusion answer for these people can be found in the Law No. 8036 about the Guarantee Brazil is a country highly affected by Fund of Length of Service – Brazilian environmental disasters and has a high pension funds (FGTS in Portuguese). level of internal displacement. Despite The article 20 of this law allows the Law for Disaster has been improved withdraw the FGTS in case of natural disasters, after a decree of major natural 18 McElroy, Andy. “BRICS boost for Sendai Framework.” 23 Aug. 2016. Web. 01 Apr. 2017. Defense in this Law. However, its execution is 19 Itamaraty. “Mercosul supports Sendai being done gradually, usually in a responsive form. Carvalho, D. W. “As mudanças climáticas e Framework”. 20 Aug. 2016. 01 Apr. 2017. a formação do direito dos desastres”. Novos 20 “Principle 9 – States are under a particular Estudos Jurídicos (2013) 345 16 obligation to protect against the displacement of Which are the Union, States, Federal District indigenous peoples, minorities, peasants, and Municipalities. pastoralists and other groups with a special 17 Carvalho, D. W. “As mudanças climáticas e a dependency on or attachment to their lands”. formação do direito dos desastres”. Novos United Nations. Guiding Principles on Internal Estudos Jurídicos (2013) 401 Displacement. 1997. 118

in 2012, there is still no coverture to post disaster movement. It is possible to conclude that only people displaced by natural disaster can have immediate help from the government, but not in case of slow- onset disasters or human-made disasters. Therefore, there is still a large amount of Brazilians that fill in a legal gap. Finally, the good will to participate in international agreements about disaster and integrate it Disaster Policies with Climate Change policies shows that there is an evolution towards further protection for post-disaster displaced people.

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Does creative destruction exist? Andrea Garcia Tapia1

Email Address: [email protected] 1PhD student/Stevens Institute of Technology

Abstract Introduction

Disasters do not foster growth per se; it’s As a story pulled out of Garcia Marquez the recovery process that foster growth. book, every year disaster’s news come out This policy brief presents the main as a Chronicle of a Disaster Foretold. findings of two theses1 2 that explore Disasters are the after-effect of economic what is the effect in the medium and long development faults, triggered by natural term of natural disasters in Mexico´s or human-induced phenomenon. Due to economic growth and the variables that climate change we can expect in increase trigger the Mexican disaster relief of extreme events3 and as a consequence allocation process. an increase in the economic losses. But could we turn around this undesirable situation? Could we foster economic growth after a disruption? In economic theory, when the reconstruction process generates more growth than previous scenario is known as Schumpeterian creative destruction or fertilization effect4. This concept was used in context of technological change in industrial production, but is worth it, extend it to the reconstruction process after a disaster. All countries must strengthen their existing mechanisms for generating economic development, including disaster risk management and adaptation to climate change as key components of its

1 García, A. & Muñoz Piña, “Desastres Naturales: 3 Field, Christopher B (2012). “Managing the risks destrucción creativa?”, Economics Bachelor Thesis of extreme events and disasters to advance ITAM, 2014 climate change adaptation: special report of the 2 García, A. “ Importancia de Factores intergovernmental panel on climate change” Socioeconómicos en la clasificación de desastres Cambridge University Press. hidrometeorológicos”. Data Science Master Thesis, 4 Schumpeter, Joseph A. Capitalism, socialism and ITAM, 2015 democracy. Routledge, 2013. 120 development process5. From the five steps of disaster risk The Mexican government has two management: Response, Recovery, mechanisms to financially cope with Review, Prevention & protection and disasters: the Catastrophe Bond preparedness, this research focus on (CATBOND) and the Natural Disaster recovery phase and the impact of risk Relief Fund (FONDEN). FONDEN is mainly transfer instruments such as national used to reconstruct government funds for disaster relief. infrastructure. When a disaster happens, the municipality and state ask the federal Disaster´s Dynamics government the instalment of the damage assessment committee followed by a When a disaster occurs, it disrupt all the request for a declaration of disaster by systems around our livelihood (political, the head of state government (Ministry of human, social, natural, financial, physical, Interior). A Disaster Declaration means among others)6. These systems are the state can access federal resources in complex and interlinked and the recovery the reconstruction process. If the event is of each one varies case specific. Given its not declared disaster, then the state and nature the after-effects can slowly emerge municipality will have to use their own long time after the disaster has occurred resources. or even unleash a chain reaction of other Mexican Civil Protection Law defines disruptions7, such as food shortages or disasters as: “The result of the occurrence pests. of one or more disturbing severe or After the emergency has passed, the extreme events, concatenated or not, of research focus on the effect on the long natural origin, of the human activity or run and how the disaster relief allocation those from the exterior space, which when processes affect this effect. they happen in certain time and space, resulting in damages and which for its magnitude exceed the capacity of response Resource Allocation Process8 of the affected community9; However there are not clear metrics on 5 Garcia, A. & Muñoz Piña “Impacts of Natural how to measure the level of disturbance. Disasters on Mexico`s Economic Growth and Figure 1 shows the damages in US Climate Change Implications”, LACEEP Working dollars10 versus the affected population Paper 201468. 6 by declared and non-declared events for Zapata-Marti, (2006) “Disaster's Impact: 2003-2013. Understanding and Attributing Trends and Projections of Damage and Losses. The ELAC Perspective”, in Workshop on Climate change and Disaster losses, Center for Science and Technology Policy Research, Boulder, CO, USA 7 CEPAL, PUBLICACION. "Manual para la Evaluación del Impacto Socioeconómico y Ambiental de los desastres." Santiago de Chile (2003).

8 World Bank, “FONDEN: Mexico's Natural 9 Disaster Fund-A Review, Washington D.C. World Mexican Civil Protection Law Article 2 fraction XVI Bank Publications. 10 Exchange rate (1 USD /dollar = 17 MXN)

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and medium enterprises(“Pequeña y Mediana Empresas”-PyMES) default rate.

Disaster´s Economic Growth Impact 4

The working paper “Impacts of Natural Disasters on Mexico`s Economic Growth and Climate Change Implications”5 focused on answering the following Figure 1. Damages and Affected population per disaster questions: “What are the effects of natural disasters on economic growth in the 12 13 Figure 1 shows the relationship between medium and long term?” and “Does damages and affected population. It can the country’s national disaster relief be appreciated that disasters with low system (FONDEN) make a difference in damages and low affected population are the final effects of a given event?” non-declared events, meanwhile events For solving these questions we used an with higher damages and higher affected endogenous growth model with panel population are declared. The problem is data for 32 Mexican states for the period in the cloud of points in the middle where 2002-2007. is not clear why some events with similar The results show a difference between characteristics (damages and affected disaster magnitude (declared and non- population) have different outcomes in declared). Declared disasters have a the declaration process. negative impact on economic growth in the short term, but this effect is lost in the Important Variables 5 medium term (2 years after the event). For the period of analysis, we cannot The thesis “Identification of the conclude if this effect sustains in the long Importance of Socioeconomic Factors in term period14 However, it was found a Hydro Meteorological Disaster positive effect on growth of small and Classification” focused on answering the frequent disasters (mainly floods) in the question: What were the underlying first year after its occurrence, this effect variables affecting the outcome of the persist till the second year; supporting Mexican resource allocation process? For the hypothesis of creative destruction” answering this question supervised effect. This effect decreases as the machine learning approach was used11 intensity of the disaster increases with political, socio-economic and (measured on population affected). meteorological data. The results show that the main Conclusion determinants for FONDEN resource allocation are: net damages, level of rain, This result ask the question if undeclared type of event (e.g. heavy rain, floods, disasters received more assistance hurricanes, etc.), affected crops, and small (government or private), will recovery

12 11 Tree based classifiers, such as: tree, random Two to three years. 13 forest, ada boosting ,and linear classifiers such as More than five years. logit regression. Lasso regularization was used. 14 A bigger dataset is need.

122 boost this effect of creative destruction? summer internship to develop my master Further research should be done to thesis. analyze FONDEN effectiveness, the work I am grateful with my bachelor advisor done on the disaster's economic impact Carlos Muñoz Piña, my master's advisor gives a glance that for catastrophic events Dante Gama and to my synods Juan Carlos the Mexican resource allocation process Belausteguigoitia, Ricardo Zapata Marti (FONDEN) works. And if the FONDEN and Manet Vargas for their comments. rules should include a trigger mechanism Myriam Urzua and Roberto Jovel for their such as the parametric insurance have to advices. help decision makers speed up the This research was possible thanks to all resource allocation process. the institutions that share data, a special A special mention of the work recently mention to Josue Serrano at FONDEN, done by the World Bank 15 on evaluating Oscar Zepeda and Norlang Garcia at the effectiveness of FONDEN. They CENAPRED and Jorge Luis Vazquez, conclude that access to disaster funding Adolfo Portocarreño and Carlos Garrido boosts local economic activity in the at SMN. following year of the disaster. There is a big challenge when analyzing big communities, since they are vulnerable to multiple kinds of events added to the amount of actors and resources. Further research should explore resilience metrics and visualization tools for helping decision makers. Data quality and alternative sources will be a critical point to develop this research area.

Acknowledgements

The author acknowledges the Latin American and Caribbean Environmental Economics Program (LACEEP) for the grant given for the research “Impacts of Natural Disasters on Mexico´s Economic Growth and Climate Change Implications” and the scholarship for their several training courses. To Jose E. Ramirez Marquez for the

15 de Janvry, Alain, Alejandro del Valle, and Elisabeth Sadoulet. "Insuring growth: the impact of disaster funds on economic reconstruction in Mexico." (2016).

123

Mapping (self-) recovery: reflections on people’s trajectories, perceptions and aspirations of recovery in the Philippines Luisa Miranda Morel1

Email Address: [email protected] 1CARE International UK

Abstract Introduction

This article discusses self-recovery The interest in ‘self-recovery’ comes drawing on existing literature and some from the understanding within the initial reflections resulting from primary humanitarian shelter sector that qualitative research carried out in the whether assistance reaches families or Philippines. It seeks to advocate for the not, they will be the first to prepare and fundamental role that disaster affected respond, and will always make an effort communities have in informing and to recover after a disaster1. Granted, leading recovery and DRR program they will have different levels of design and implementation. initiative based on their capacity, resources and knowledge, but they will take steps to recover nonetheless.

Self-recovery is a pathway that the majority of disaster-affected populations take, as has been observed in the shelter sector2. Yet in disaster relief, recovery and risk reduction those most immediately affected by disasters can often become invisible in informing decisions for policy design, implementation and practice. Most of what informs policy and practice can be sourced back to evaluations, reports and data collection focused on specific sector-based humanitarian interventions rather than people’s holistic processes and pathways of recovery and development3.

1 Parrack, C., Flinn, B. & Passey, M. “Getting the Message Across for Safer Self-Recovery in Post- Disaster Shelter”, Open House International, 39 (3), (2014) 2Ibid.

3 See for example Practical Action “Policy Position Paper on DRR” (n.d), ECHO “Thematic Policy Document No.5 on Disaster Risk 124

In light of this, the Overseas Development Institute (ODI), the British Geological Survey (BGS), the EPICentre at University College London and CARE International UK have initiated a multidisciplinary research pilot project on the Philippines and Nepal to understand how individuals and communities self-recover from disasters. The following discussion explores what one method of this research - timeline mapping - has shown about self- recovery in the Philippines. This work gives some initial reflections on understanding such process that may contribute to considerations under the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction4.

Mapping (self-) recovery

The Philippines research included visiting rural communities that had Figure 1. Mapping trajectories in Leyte. Source: been assisted by CARE Philippines and VS, 2017 other organisations after Super Typhoons Haiyan (locally known as Overall, the method involved three ‘Yolanda’) in 2013 and Haima (locally steps: known as ‘Lawin’) in 2016. In each community we met with leaders, carried (1) Hazard mapping: these out transect walks, facilitated focus discussions began with a group discussions, interviews and recollection of the typhoons, building surveys. A total of 14 rural followed by discussing any other communities were studied over a period forms of local natural hazards of two weeks in the islands of Leyte and and how the landscape, their Luzon. livelihoods, homes, transport Timeline mapping was used in each links and any other relevant community to build a picture of people’s aspects were affected. experiences explored through different disciplinary lenses (including the (2) Community response: residents physical and social sciences). were invited to describe what they did before, during and after the typhoon. This included discussing the strategies they used in preparedness, construction and repair of their

Reduction” (2013), “Shelter Projects” (2008 , homes and community. 2015-2016) 4SFDRR Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk (3) Hopes for the future: this Reduction 2015 – 2030, UNISDRR (2015) 125

discussion focused on hazards and had communal understanding their future plans organizational structures, collective and and how they hoped to achieve individual priorities existing prior to the them based on their existing disaster. The Philippines is, after all, a circumstances. country where all forms of natural hazards form the ‘fabric of everyday life’5. Furthermore, many rural Perceptions of risk communities living in northern Luzon are tenant farmers who discussed the Of the fourteen communities, eight had impact of the introduction of the reaper been affected by Yolanda and six by to farming systems (a mechanised Lawin. Although both were major harvester). Their labour was replaced typhoons, they were considerably with machinery pushing them into more different in their level and type of challenging working conditions and the impact. Yolanda seemed characterised accumulation of debt. Some residents by the rain, flooding and storm surge it went as far as identifying the reaper as a caused, whereas Lawin was hazard within the timeline, forming characterised by strong winds. their own interpretation of the term. Furthermore, while Leyte’s After Lawin, they explained, the communities were living on low-lying assistance they received was for shelter areas, the communities studied in but either way they could not recover northern Luzon lived on higher land or because they had already been were surrounded by mountains that ‘drowning in debt’ before the disaster. moderated the winds of Lawin. People Their perception of the impact of the demonstrated awareness about these hazard was significantly connected to environmental factors and related them conditions of debt prior to it. to their different choices in evacuating, These discussions also enabled the preparing and rebuilding. probing for information on how Timing also differed. While Yolanda residents had rebuilt their homes and struck during planting season, Lawin whether they had followed any of the struck before the harvest. We often ‘build back safer’ (BBS) messages heard comments from those affected by promoted by the Shelter Cluster6. Yolanda that they “did not expect it to Decisions about how strictly to follow be ‘that bad’ because the day was these messages appeared to come down beautiful and they were used to having to resources and materials available, typhoons”. The same communities priorities between aesthetics and safety, affected by Typhoon Ruby one year later and technical knowledge and expressed that they evacuated understanding. However, while immediately and were desperately residents were aware of the BBS scared that they risked the same impact messages and understood reasoning for as Yolanda. Some Lawin-affected them, the timelines demonstrated communities discussed what they had heard about Yolanda and how this made 5Field, J. “A Culture Clash? Exploring them wary, so they evacuated. ‘appropriateness’ and ‘relevance’ in the The timelines and the discussions that response to Typhoon Haiyan/Yolanda”, Save the Children and the Humanitarian and Conflict accompanied them also demonstrated Response Institute (2016): p.57 that, while these disasters did affect 6Shelter Cluster “Response to Typhoon Haiyan residents significantly, many are living (Yolanda)” 19th June 2014, in contexts of severe poverty, multiple https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/; (2014) 126 choices that did not follow such and evidence suggests this may still not rationale. For example, some residents be enough for practice. Increasing explained that they had changed the advocacy for affected communities to design of their houses from one to two have leadership, implementation and floors after the typhoon. Despite being decision-making power in these aware of this risk, they justified it by processes pushes for greater investment reasoning that during flooding they in actions of empowerment, knowledge could move their belongings to the top and ownership transfer over risk floor. Flooding is a much more common management and recovery processes. occurrence than a super typhoon, which an observer might think would be a much higher priority. Understanding people’s perceptions of risk requires deep engagement with the contexts, processes and systems in which they experience a disaster. Perceptions of risk are constantly shifting, responding to the circumstances in which communities find themselves at specific points in Figure 2. We know little about what happens prior to the arrival of assistance time. Furthermore, external points of Source: L. Miranda Morel, 2017 view on the conceptualisation of

‘hazard’ and ‘risk’ may differ From self-recovery to DRR considerably from that of an affected resident. As a result, external A clear message from community generalisations on such perceptions and residents was that self-recovery starts the ‘impact of disasters’ can be highly before a disaster, with preparedness. constraining in their effect on informing Communities often shared knowledge of policy, governance and disaster their neighbourhood, knowing who to management and reconstruction7. For seek aid from and which houses were example, generalisations about two stronger than others. They also typhoons of the same category, affecting provided examples of how they had islands, within the same country; this is strengthened their homes, how they had often the level of generalisation that cut down trees, carried out seed may inform the quick decisions banking and harvested what they could humanitarians are forced to make in before the typhoon. These were all contexts of emergency. actions taken prior or during the event. As first responders, disaster affected Although there has been a drive toward communities shared experiences on greater community participation in having to walk for miles in search of response mechanisms and design (to food and potable water; having to ring varying degrees8), literary discussions family members to send money and tools to them; having to salvage

7Twigg, J. “Disaster Risk Reduction” Good materials from the remains of the Practice Review 9, Humanitarian Policy Group, destruction and working together to Overseas Development Institute, (2015) rebuild temporary shelters and fix rooves within hours of the typhoon. 8Davidson, C.H., et al. “Truths and myths about community participation in post-disaster housing projects” Habitat International (2006) 127

Most explained that the first external explained she had invested in the room assistance appeared after a month, at the front of the house before her sometimes later. These discussions kitchen because it was the first thing highlighted the little we know about people saw as they came in, even if the what happens prior to the arrival of back of her house was not finished yet. assistance (see image 2). Gaining a better understanding of how Whilst many were thankful for the people act upon, and react to, disasters assistance received, they demonstrated on their own (hence, self-recover) may that at different moments, prior to, inform how shifting needs, existing during, immediately after, one to two knowledge, opportunities, availability of months later and today, their needs and resources and information are already priorities had changed and shifted at play by the time any external frequently. Whether the assistance they intervention takes place; and how these received was flexible enough to respond come into play during preparedness and to these needs at different moments and long-term risk reduction. Creating truly contribute to their effective mechanisms to bridge this knowledge recovery is more questionable. While gap, understanding existing dynamics some residents expressed that they and empowering communities to were still waiting for government communicate them in real time should assistance, others expressed that the be a priority in DRR and development. government assistance they had received was unnecessary or Conclusion inadequate. One man discussed having received shelter cash when in fact they People are not passive and are the first needed livelihood assistance to repair to respond. Their perceptions, needs their irrigation canals, which had been and priorities constantly vary damaged by landslides. depending on type and level of disaster Similarly, whilst the BBS messages had impact, timeliness and existing reached communities and were among circumstances. Yet, they have the the first thing we saw upon entering capacity to understand their them; many explained that they had environment and transfer resilience and already rebuilt their house by the time knowledge to future generations better this assistance and information had than any external intervention or actor. arrived. They had spent their resources This presents an unmissable on materials and were mainly making opportunity to work in closer alterations and prioritising their collaboration with them. Their children’s education, their livelihood or ownership of preparedness, response, repaying debts, over the strength of safer reconstruction and rehabilitation their home. Others demonstrated is therefore fundamentally necessary in prioritising aesthetics at the level of the DRR. home and beyond9 over building back safer. Residents were proud to show This article has sought to support this their homes. For instance, one lady argument by sharing some initial insights into understanding people’s experiences in recovery and risk 9Field, J. discusses the importance of ‘pampering’ for recovery as effective perception. It seeks to highlight a clear humanitarian assistance in “A Culture Clash? drive for disaster-affected communities Exploring ‘appropriateness’ and ‘relevance’ in to have more control over their process the response to Typhoon Haiyan/Yolanda” of recovery and for responders, policy (2016) 128 makers and other relevant stakeholders to invest further in opening up accessible communication and collaboration channels between those recovering from disasters and those seeking to assist them.

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Training disaster medicine trainers Andreia Oliveira1,2, Marian Sedlak1,3 , Isabel Jiménez 1,4

Email Address:[email protected] 1 International Federation of Medical Students' Associations (IFMSA) 2 Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto 3 Pavol Jozef Safarik University in Kosice, Faculty of medicine 4 Faculty of Medicine, University of Salamanca

Abstract Introduction

During the Third United Nations (UN) Over the last century, the number of World Conference on Disaster Risk disasters has increased at a remarkable Reduction (DRR) in 2015, the Sendai pace1, indicating a highly possible future Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction in which generations of physicians will be 2015-2030 was adopted, urgently calling called upon to provide mass-casualty the international community to take treatment to an even greater extent than action on DRR all around the world. before. A number of studies point to the Throughout the whole disaster cycle, lack of adequate training in the medical health has always been heavily present, management of disaster response – a being both sensitive and crucial to deficiency that has become dramatically disaster preparedness, response and apparent in the recent past. In every recovery. However, in the medical major emergency situations, there would curricula, Disaster Medicine is barely always be a significant amount of aid covered, giving rise to a generation of personnel who lack the essential skills young practitioners lacking the which positively lead to many knowledge and skills to act in these government agents and scientific situations. Training disaster medicine institutions to agree that disaster Trainers (TdmT) aims to fill this gap in medicine education should be included in the education of medical students, the standard medical curriculum.234 The creating a resilient generation of future health care practitioners, well equipped 1 to face and contribute to disaster risk World heading for catastrophe over natural disasters, risk expert warns reduction. , consulted at https://www.theguardian.com/global- development/2016/apr/24/world-heading-for-catastrophe- over-natural-disasters-risk-expert-warns on April 2017. 2 Jared Smith, Matthew J. Levy, Elbert B. Hsu, J. Lee levy. Disaster Curricula in Medical Education: Pilot SUrvey. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2012;27(5):492-494 3 Issam Barrimah, Ishag Adam & Abdulrahman Al-Mohaimeed. Disaster medicine education for medical students: It is a real need? Med Teach. 2016;38 4 Amy H. Kaji, Wendy Coates, Cha-Chi Fung. A Disaster medicine curriculum for medical students. Teach Learn Med. 2010 Apr;22(2):116-22

130 importance of enhancing education and As mentioned previously, unfortunately training in disaster medicine has been the topic remains poorly represented in widely agreed upon by medical students. various medical curricula, especially in Thus, they have decided to take a step countries that are often stricken by forward in taking the lead on the disasters, whether it be natural, response to public health emergencies biological, technological or man made and disasters. However, recent studies origin. We believe, as future health care have shown that only a small percentage professionals, that it is imperative that we of medical schools worldwide have take the lead and advocate for better included disaster medicine education into disaster preparedness within the health their study programs. Therefore, training systems. Hospital safety as well as health medical students to obtain competencies professionals endangerment while for becoming humanitarian health responding on the frontlines is an professionals is certainly needed. enormous problem where reports of such As the Sendai Framework for Disaster attacks have been received at an alarming Risk Reduction says, there is an urgent rate, especially after the events in need to ‘’enhance the resilience of national Afghanistan6, once again underlining the health systems, including by integrating fact that there is still much work to be disaster risk management into primary, done in the awareness and secondary and tertiary health care, implementation of the International especi5ally at the local level’’5. This means Humanitarian Law. that a greater emphasis needs to be A study involving Italian medical students placed on developing the capacity confirmed a certain level of awareness of building of health workers in Disaster Management (DM) but little to understanding disaster risk and no curriculum coverage7. In the European implementing disaster risk reduction Union DM training programs are mostly approaches in health care work. It has masters level, targeting emergency also been recognized that promoting and responders, and without external funding enhancing the training capacities in the available to students8. In the United States field of disaster medicine as well as DM training focuses primarily on supporting and training community pandemic influenza and hazards health groups in disaster risk reduction planning9. approaches is crucial for strengthening As a result, after realizing the lack of health systems and making them resilient knowledge in disaster medicine amongst in front of disasters. At the same time, medical students, a group of medical there is a need for stronger collaboration students from 4 different countries - among different sectors, as well as in the Sweden, Germany, Poland and USA - implementation of the International

Health Regulations (2005) of the World 6 Kuduz Hospital airstrike. 2015 (MSF) Available online at: 1 Health Organization’’. http://www.msf.org/topics/kunduz-hospital-airstrike 7 Ragazzoni L mfl. Italian medical students and disaster medicine: awareness and formative needs. Am J Disaster Med. 5 2013 Spring; 8(2):127-36. Doi: 10.5055/ajdm. 2013.0119 Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Resilience 2015 - 2030. 8 (UNISDR) Available online here: Ingrassia PL mfl. Education and training initiatives for crisis http://www.unisdr.org/files/43291_sendaiframeworkfordrre management in the European Union: a web-based analysis of available programs. Prehops Disaster Med. 2014;29(2):1-12 n.pdf 9 Smith J mfl. Disaster curricula in medical education: pilot survey. Prehops Disaster Med. 2012; 27(5):492-494.

131 started to deliver short peer-to-peer are engaged in a learning-conducive trainings after pursuing self-learning in environment with theory, simulations and disaster medicine. These activities took immediate feedback. TdmT consists of a place through the platform of the Massive Open Online Course, followed by International Federation of Medical a face to face residential course. Students' Associations (IFMSA)10. IFMSA The teaching methodologies vary through received support in delivering of these a wide range of approaches, including basic courses from expert groups, such as conventional lectures and innovative the Research Center in Emergency and teaching methods, such as case studies Disaster Medicine (CRIMEDIM7). Due to and discussions, problem based learning, increasing demands to deliver basic simulations (table top simulations, virtual courses to medical students around the reality simulations and computer based world, IFMSA and CRIMEDIM created the simulations), debates, trainings and the Training disasters medicine Trainers preparation of assignments throughout (TdmT) course. the course. Since 2008 the CRIMEDIM and the The summer course covers all the major Segretariato Italiano Studenti in Medicina topics in the Disaster Risk Management - SISM (a National Member Organization field, with daily classes and trainings. of IFMSA) have been consistent in their Through this residential course and the success to deliver a nationwide disaster online training, participants gain skills medicine program to provide theoretical and extensive knowledge on the following knowledge and basic skills in this field, topics: training twenty Italian disaster medicine ● Disaster governance and trainers and indirectly, more than 1500 operational structure; medical students every year. ● Prehospital disaster management; The TdmT is an innovative international ● Hospital disaster preparedness course which aims to create international and response; train-the-trainers class of medical ● Health response in conflict; students. Medical students from all over ● Risk assessment; the world are trained by disaster ● Communication in disasters; medicine experts to become trainers for ● Health consequences of disasters; their peers and deliver introductory ● Psychological first aid; courses/workshops in Disaster Medicine. ● Disaster bioethics; ● Disaster management and legal Methods framework; ● Disaster medicine research and Training disaster medicine Trainers data collection; (TdmT) takes the format of an informal ● Teaching methodology; education course, where medical students ● Presentation skills; ● Leadership;

10 ● Adult learning theory; [The IFMSA is the oldest (1951) and largest (132 NMOs & 124 countries) independent organization representing associations of medical students internationally . Available Lectures and simulations are mainly held online at: https://ifmsa.org/ 7 The Research Center in Emergency and Disaster Medicine, in SIMNOVA, the Simulation Center of the CRIMEDIM is a university-wide academic centre that conducts Università del Piemonte Orientale, with research, education and training in the field of disaster medicine. Available online at: http://www.crimedim.uniupo.it some on-ground experiences in the

132 dispatch center of Novara and in a care professionals, including medical training center of a canine rescue team. students, are very progressive and promising tools to improve resilience of Results communities towards disasters. The key objective of this initiative is to Since 2014, two international courses create a wide and sustainable capacity were conducted: the first course was building network for medical students delivered in 2015/2016 with 10 around the globe. Trainers graduated participants and the second course in from this course are able to deliver local, 2016/2017 with 17 participants. national and international disaster Residential phases of both courses were medicine trainings, which aim to widen held in Novara, Italy, followed by a 3 the spectrum of medical students with month period of online learning. The disaster risk reduction knowledge. By third edition of TdmT is starting in April these means they contribute to 2017. development of communities which are sensitized and prepared to engage in In 2016 and 2017, more than 15 follow up disaster management and disaster risk activities were hosted by graduate reduction initiatives. students, several International Trainings Above all, TdmT envisions the world in on Disaster Medicine (ITDM) workshops which communities are empowered and were conducted, as well as independently ready to engage in prevention and organized workshops and trainings in response to disasters. We believe that students' communities or during medical students can play a central role in international events (e.g. YoFest! 2017 in such activities, therefore, the further we Maastricht). After all activities and reach with our initiative, the greater lectures, proper feedback and evaluation impact TdmT will have, month after are taken in order to appraise and month, year after year. improve the quality of activities. Overall, more than 170 medical students Acknowledgements around the world are influenced by International Trainings on Disaster We would like to thank the CRIMEDIM Medicine (ITDM) delivered by TdmT (The Research Center in Emergency and graduates and at least 380 students have Disaster Medicine) for their constant been involved in other related support, assistance and encouragement educational activities done by TdmT for our DRR activities. We also want to graduates. thank the IFMSA and its national member organizations for their consistent and Discussion tireless attention and engagement in DRR activities. TdmT aims to fill the gap in disaster risk reduction education in the medical curricula, aspiring to have a substantial impact on communities due to the responsibilities of medical personnel in disaster risk reduction. Education and training for a wide spectrum of health

133

Youth in disaster response in Bangladesh: exploring the experience, opportunity and challenge Khalid Md. Bahauddin1, Swe Zin Linn Phyu2, Asif Iftakhar1

Email Address: [email protected] 1Youth Environmental and Social Service, Bangladesh 2 American Intercon Institute, Cambodia

Abstract

Bangladesh is one of the most climate- factors encumber them to participate vulnerable countries in the world. Over such as lack of training, lack of availability the last thirty years, Bangladesh has of safety instruments and insurance, lack experienced nearly 200 climate-related of coordination and information sharing, disasters accounting for damage of assets, lack of recognition and good internal property and, livelihoods and thousands work environment and, gender inequality. of deaths. Engaging youth is critical in Policy makers and relevant stakeholders order to make the disaster management of Bangladesh should consider the system operative in an effective and findings of this study so that more youth efficient manner. Bangladesh should of Bangladesh will be motivated to utilize its youth population as 30 percent participate in disaster response activities. of the total people are young (according to National Youth Policy of Bangladesh, 2017, population in the age group of 15- Introduction 30 years has been defined as youth1). . A better understanding of the roles and Bangladesh has experienced over 200 responsibilities of youth in disaster climate change-induced disasters since management system is long overdue. This 1980, leaving a total death toll of paper explores the role of Bangladeshi approximately 200,000 people and youth in disaster response, gaining causing economic loss worth nearly $17 experience, finding opportunities and face billion2. Every year, Bangladesh loses 1.8 challenges related to disaster response percent of GDP to natural disasters. It is activities. This study found that the youth estimated that 14 percent of our GDP is of Bangladesh has huge interest and vulnerable to disasters3. In order to make motivation in engaging themselves in disaster response activities but some 2 Rahman, A. and Alam, M. (2014). ‘Mainstreaming Adaptation to Climate Change in Least Developed 1 National Youth Policy, 2017, Bangladesh ( 2017). Countries (LDCs): Bangladesh Country Case Study’. https://www.google.com/url?q=http://goo.gl/Cpk6b IIED Working Paper, (2). k&sa=D&ust=1495140467210000&usg=AFQjCNGDl 3 World Bank. (2009). ‘Bangladesh: Economics of mWt8zHD9udfYAc-UCL_NI4JcA Adaptation to Climate Change Study’. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/84191

134 the disaster management system as Cyclone Sidr, 2007; Cyclone Aila, 2009 operative in an effective and efficient and Cyclone Roanu, 2016. They were manner, Bangladesh can utilize its youth selected by formal and non-formal population as 30 percent of the total organizations to participate in this people in Bangladesh are youth3. History emergency response activity. Data were says that when disaster strikes anywhere collected through focus group discussion in Bangladesh the local youth are the first (FGD) and in-depth individual interview ones to respond. They take on roles and (IDI). responsibilities and take action – including life-saving decisions. They Discussion respond spontaneously and take part in planned relief and recovery action. This Based on FGD and IDI, youth said that includes them protecting lives, providing they participated in disaster response health care, distributing relief, caring for activities on their own interest and children and adults, and offering a motivation. They believed that sharing hand in psychosocial support, health time and effort change lives: that’s the and hygiene education, reconstruction, one strongest and simplest reason for planning and evaluating emergency relief them participating in emergency work4. This paper looks at the role of the response work. Most of the studied youth of Bangladesh in disaster response participants thought that by giving time by exploring their experiences, and effort to do something practical for opportunities, and challenges they face affected people in the community they during disaster response activities. can enrich their lives so they can stay active, independent and continue to Methods contribute to society. One interviewed participant expressed “if you spend at This work is qualitative in nature and least a couple of hours with affected involves 30 youths (15 male and 15 people in the community it will make you female participants) aged 20-26 who feel great; it just takes one visit, one study at different Universities in Dhaka conversation, one laugh from someone city and have been purposively selected who’s spent a few days alone, or one in order to explore their experiences, heartfelt thank you. And it’s also a fact perceptions and challenges regarding that people who share their time and disaster response activities in efforts with others live longer!”. Bangladesh. It should be noted that these Most of the participants said “I 30 youths participated in different participated in disaster response natural disaster response activities such activities for affected people because I find something incredibly satisfying about 1468331803769/Main-report acting in a way that is consistent with my 4 IDMC » Bangladesh: Comprehensive response principles. Being able to say I changed required to complex displacement crisis. (2014). something in the world, in the lives of Retrieved March 13, 2017, from others, gives meaning to my being here http://www.internal-displacement.org/south- beyond simply looking after myself. For and-south-east- me, it changes my life from being purely asia/bangladesh/2015/bangladesh- comprehensive-response-required-to-complex- self-centered to being something with displacement-crisis meaning for others, too.”

135

According to participants it is an themselves. They should engage families exceptional feeling that cannot be of activists so that families allow them to expressed in words. By being a volunteer be involved in this type of work. for emergency response they are able to Some respondents cited that there is lack work directly with the affected people. All of coordination, nepotism, negative expressed that it is highly rewarding attitude, and inequality in the work when the support saves someone’s life or among higher managements which hinder change someone‘s life for the better. them to work freely and make them The studied participants highlighted the demoralized in response activities. Some significance of training and orientation respondents expressed that in many cases before sending them to the affected areas. tasks allocated to the youth are not suited They experienced that proper training is to their interests, skills and experience, decisive for this kind of activity. They felt these factors need to be carefully that it is important to get advanced considered by the organization. training and life saving techniques. Based In addition, respondents revealed that on participants’ interviews, there is lack poor information sharing and of adequate personal protection coordination cause difficulties for youth equipment (PPE) and insurance for personnel in emergency response emergency response personnel. They said activities. It is noted that most of the with concern that PPE should be provided female respondents revealed that there is for all personnel because it is important an evidence of gender inequality in to protect them as well as enable them to disaster response work, organizations be able to work properly. Most of the prefer males to females. One female studied participants said “We go for respondent expressed “like other social emergency response related work, not to and cultural problems, there is still become victims, however there are inequality between male and female always risks including life, injury and youth in the selection process conducted psychological harms. We were worried by the organizations. Organizations think that we do not have life insurance”. that males perform better than females All the interviewed respondents with heavy and risky disaster response expressed that it is always imperative to activities”. have recognition and respect but they did not actually get it. They thought if this Conclusion continues, youth will be unmotivated to engage with emergency response work. Bangladesh youth is now taking an active They said that by raising awareness role in climate change adaptation and people will understand the importance of local disaster programs strengthening their work. There should be more media their spirit of volunteerism and coverage to let people know about their unleashing their potential in helping build contribution to communities and the disaster-resilient communities5. This country. Almost all respondents urged that formal and non-formal organizations 5 Cumming, Ayden. “A research report on who assign personnel should inform their “Motivations for young People Volunteering in families about the nature of work, risks Urban Slums of Freetown, Sierra Leone” Y Care International, 2015, p10-12 and opportunities but they do not do this, they only inform the personnel

136 study found that the youth of Bangladesh has huge interest and motivation in engaging themselves in disaster response activities but some factors hinder them to participate in this kind of work such as lack of training, lack of availability of safety instruments and insurance, lack of coordination and information sharing, lack of recognition and good internal work environment and, gender inequality. Engaging youth is critical for the success of overall disaster management, the findings of this study should be considered by policy makers and relevant stakeholders in Bangladesh so that more youth of Bangladesh will be motivated to participate in disaster response activities as Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable countries in the world to climatic disasters.

137

isk DISASTEReduction Disaster Risk Reduction & Cross-Cutting Issues

Business recovery after Gorkha earthquake 2015 in Nepal Suraj Gautam1, Ranit Chatterjee2, Basanta Raj Adhikari1

Email Address: [email protected] 1Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus, Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University, Nepal 2Graduate school of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Japan

Abstract Introduction

The Gorkha earthquake of 2015 had The Sendai Framework for Disaster significant impact on the private Risk Reduction (SFDRR) has paved a sector in Nepal. The study takes a new direction for the post 2015 mixed approach to considers development agenda and recovery process of manufacturing acknowledged private sector as a sector in Kathmandu valley and how major stakeholder in disaster risk is the impact on the resilience based reduction. Further the science and on the Sendai framework of action technology group acknowledged that for disaster risk reduction. The easy access of scientific knowledge findings suggest three areas of and networking among various importance for resilience building stakeholders is necessary to reduce namely; insurance, reconstruction losses1. Chatterjee et al. suggests a and repair and awareness need for an all-inclusive approach to generation. integrate science and technology with DRR policies in the light of the high economic losses in the Asian region in the recent years2. Furthermore, Shaw et al. has stressed the need for evidence- based models for resilience building through recovery and resettlement

1 UNISDR (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction).” Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction” 2015–2030 United Nations; (2015). 2 Chatterjee, R., Shiwaku, K., Das Gupta, R. Nakano G. and Shaw R.. “Bangkok to Sendai and Beyond: Implications for Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia”; Int J Disaster Risk Sci (2015) 6: 177. doi:10.1007/s13753-015- 0055-4.

138 processes3. impact on the economy after a Post Sendai Conference, Gorkha disaster. The private sector roles Earthquake-2015, of Nepal was the became important for disaster risk first major disaster and as a result, reduction in Asia after 2012 the earthquake recovery and AMCDRR conference. These subsequent risk reduction activities priorities for private sector are is on the crosshair of international encompassed strengthening community to comprehend its collaboration, capacity building and implementation and implications. promote standards and reporting of Along with loss of life and property, resilience4. The SFDRR highlighted the private sector specifically the the need for the private sector, manufacturing sector suffered academia and civil society to work extensive damage. together and disseminate good This article is based on the fieldwork practices globally. Specifically done in Balaju Industrial District business houses need to mainstream (BID) and Patan Industrial Estate DRR in their daily activities. (PIE) of the Kathmandu valley Promoting disaster risk transfer and between 2016 and 2017 to insurance, risk-sharing and understand the recovery process of retention and financial protection the manufacturing sector and how and mainstream risk reduction in various factors stated in the SFDRR business continuity planning were influences the private sector deemed essential. recovery and future resilience. In The outcomes of SFDRR relied addition in-depth interview with the heavily on the mutual collaborative industrial management board and efforts between private sector and national reconstruction committee national government and members were conducted. underplayed the role of regional Qualitative analysis of field level organizations and regulatory bodies. data leads to identification of gaps Further in the SFDRR, the between global and national polices commitments came mainly from the and ground implementations. The large-scale private enterprises5. findings are consolidated to develop a set of recommendations for private Private Sector Recovery in Nepal sector recovery in disaster. Shortly after the earthquake the Role of Private Sector in Sendai Government of Nepal had conducted Framework the Post Disaster Need Assessment (PDNA), which highlighted that The private sector has significant commerce and Industry sector were

3 Shaw, R., Izumi, T. and Shi, P. 4 Statement of Private Sector on Disaster “Perspectives of Science and Technology in Risk Reduction at the Fifth Asian Ministerial Disaster Risk Reduction of Asia”; Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction International Journal of Disaster Risk Yogyakarta Declaration Annex 09- 24 Science (2016); 7: 329. October 2012. doi:10.1007/s13753-016-0104-7 5 ibid (same as 2)

139 second most affected sector after social housing. The PDNA identified physical damage, disruption of trade, infrastructure loss and labour problems as effects of the earthquake on the manufacturing industry. The overall damage and loss was highest in Kathmandu valley for the industry sector and majority of the need was for reconstruction and Figure 1. Location map of Balaju and Patan Industrial Area8 replacement of assets mainly in the 6 first 2 years from the earthquake . Methodology The Post Disaster Recovery Framework (PDRF) took a holistic The first two years are crucial for approach to address physical, socio- business recovery and economic and institutional manufacturing and service sector 7 recovery . But considering the long among other sectors is more likely to history of unstable government and prepare for disasters as was studied disconnect between community and for Northridge earthquake9. The national government and not present study focus on addressing the existing manufacturing units in BID and PIE. vulnerabilities made the The first phase of the questionnaire implementation a difficult task. As a survey and interviews with the part of this study two industrial owners was conducted in Balaju in clusters namely BID and PIE in February 2016 with 18 samples Kathmandu are selected (Fig-1). selected randomly. In the second There are 97 and 102 functional phase in November 2016 10 more units employing 3500 and 1800 samples were collected from Balaju people respectively in BID and PIE. area. The third phase of survey was done in Patan in March 2017 and 30 sample were collected. For this study, data relating to physical repair/ reconstruction, insurance and preparedness are used. In addition to this, in-depth interviews were done with Members of Balaju 6 Government of Nepal “Post Disaster Need Industrial District Management and Assessment” (PDNA), Nepal”. National Planning Commission, (2015) page (101- 114). 8“Souvenir” Industrial District Management 7 Post Disaster Recovery Framework 2016- Limited (2012). (Hard copy available with 2020 (2016). National Reconstruction author) Authority, accessed online at 9 Dahlhamer J M. and Reshaur L. (1996). http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/file Businesses and the 1994 Northridge s/resources/PDRF%20Report_FINAL10May earthquake: an analysis of pre-and post- .pdf disaster preparedness;(1996)

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National Reconstruction Authority. base is only within Nepal mostly in Comparative trend analysis is used the local markets in the valley for the collected data from region. A summary of data collected questionnaire survey while is given in table 1. narrative analysis is used for the in- depth interviews. Table 1. Summary of data collected from BID and PIE Findings from the Balaju and Factors BID PIE Patan Industrial Area Total 28 30 surveyed

units The highest damage and loss to the Recovery Time industry and commerce in financial <2 yrs 9 28 terms was in the Kathmandu valley. >2- <3 yrs 17 0 The impact of earthquake were of >3 yrs 2 2 varying magnitude in Balaju and Scale of business Patan industrial area. The buildings Large 2 2 in Balaju were majorly load bearing Medium 11 7 where as in Patan were majorly Small 15 21 framed structures. This can be Type of Major-7 Major-3 related to the local municipal physical Minor- 13 Minor-12 guidelines, or nature of ownership. damaged In Balaju, majority of units are on Repaired-17 Repaired-9 lease or rent while in Patan majority Status of Under repair- Under of them were owned which gives repair/recons 0 repair-1 truction Not repaired- Not them freedom to select the type of 3 repaired-5 structure. The nature of damage was Insurance 23 had 25 had more severe in BID in comparison to available insurance insurance PIE. In both areas the damages were Insurance 0 1 repaired within 2 years of the claimed earthquake. Fire Fire Insurance in Balaju were mainly extinguisher- extinguisher taken up property or machinery 17 - 24 while in Patan majority of the Preparedness Smoke Smoke insurance were accidental insurance detector- 0 detector- 1 and vehicular insurance. Only First aid kit- First aid kit- insurances related to business were 10 26 considered and individual insurance policies were not considered for the Further none of the units in Balaju study. Only one of the owner and Patan have prepared Business reported settlement of claims for Continuity Planning (BCP). damage to the company car. Further, the Manufacturing units in both Discussion Balaju and Patan depend both on local and international market for Economic recovery after a disaster raw materials but their customer aids the physical recovery and hence

141 should complement each other. But also is a factor for low budget repair in case of Nepal the economic works. The insurance sector in Nepal recovery has taken a backseat with has started in late 1940’s but till housing reconstruction taking the date has only one government center stage. The first two to three insurance agency rest others being years are crucial for the business private agencies. The BSIB report recovery as is seen in case of suggest lack of expert surveyors, manufacturing units in Balaju and limited insurance products and low Patan where majority of the market penetration in Nepal in business would recovery by 3 years normal situations12. As result, most hence the business recovery of the companies failed to deliver framework needs to optimize the effectively in the post-earthquake recovery process. scenario. Further the delay in The building codes have come into process of settling claims forced the act in Nepal in 1994 considering that companies to invest their own majority of the buildings were built money to for repair and before that, as a result there is low reconstruction work. As per the compliance to the codes. The Balaju industrial district buildings in BID and PIE were built management members, the mostly after 1960 and 1964 with effectiveness of property insurance further modification by the owners. in case of insurance companies The municipal building permit settling the claims is also negligible process does not account for the as only 10 to 20% of the cost of the compliance of NBC and there was damage could be claimed. Mere lack of necessary level of experience investing in insurance do not assure of implementing, supporting and/or speedy recovery but bettering enforcing design rules10. Further it is insurance infrastructure and seen that most business units repair available expertise is an important and reconstruct early in the factor for settling insurance claims. recovery period on their own. In this The preparedness and awareness on regard chatterjee et al.11 finds that disaster management is an such repair works do not follow the important factor for building minimum standards and hence leads resilience. The first phase of the to increase in physical vulnerability. survey showed most units in Balaju Non availability of insurance claims area had no provision for fire safety and first aid kits available. But in the 10 Parjuli Y.K., Bothara J.K., Dixit a. M., subsequent phase of data collection Pradhan J.P. and d Sharpe R.” Nepal building due to fire safety audits and code - need, development philosophy and awareness generation done by the means of implementation”. 12 World fire brigade, all units in Balaju and Conference in Earthquake Engineering, Auckland. (2000). more than 80% of the units in Patan 11 Chatterjee R, Okazaki K., and Shaw R. reported to have fire safety “Understanding Recovery Process of Small and Medium Scale Enterprises (SMEs)”; After 2015 Nepal Earthquake and Impact on 12 BSIB report. “Existing Scenario of Resilience Building, (In press) Nepalese Insurance Industry” (2012).

142 equipment and first aid kits. This highlights the needs for institutionalization of the safety audits and awareness to be accepted by the business houses.

Conclusion

Understanding recovery patterns and differences based on ground data and customizing recovery plans as per the local needs is the key to an effective recovery leading to resilience. The role of science and technology is to identify the implementation gaps in the SFDRR and help in preparing an implementation plan. Specific learning from this study are: 1. ‘Build Back Better’ needs take into the reconstruction and repairing of industrial buildings and support them through technical knowledge from the local government and NGOs. 2. Disaster risk insurance is only effective risk transfer needs to build on the insurance infrastructure and expertise for effective recovery. 3. The preparedness measures and awareness generation activities are effective when institutionalized.

Acknowledgment

Second author acknowledges the MEXT and GSS research fund.

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The role of microfinance sector in disaster risk reduction in India Shambhavi Srivastava1, Rupika Singh 1

Email Address: [email protected] 1 Project Manager /IFMR LEAD, India

Abstract Introduction

Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) largely The frequency and impact of disasters cater to poor and near-poor populations. across the globe has grown exponentially Not only are MFI clients excluded from over the past several decades. In the past the formal financial system, they are 20 years, 90 percent of major disasters highly vulnerable to external shocks such have been caused by 6,457 recorded as disasters, which puts them at greater floods, storms, heat waves, droughts and risk. At the same time, many MFIs in India other weather events. India is among the operate in communities and regions top five countries hit by the highest which are predictably hit by disasters number of disasters, along with the year after year, while others work in United States and China.1 Beyond the more stable yet disaster-prone areas. immediate physical devastation of Disasters hinder the ability of disasters, there are long-term negative microfinance clients to repay loans social and economic consequences, efficiently by impacting their livelihood particularly for vulnerable communities and productive assets. Given the that are the most severely affected. Along demographic section that MFIs cater to, with this India is also exposed to multiple MFIs have a responsibility to and a vested social and political disaster situations interest in addressing the issue of disaster because of its vulnerability to complex management within their “curricular” to communal and religious dynamics. In the ensure both their own institutional past there have been many large scale sustainability, as well as the resiliency of riots where thousands have lost their their clients. Through DRR-related lives2 but very little has been done to products, greater awareness of client manage such situations at the national needs and internal risk management level. While the initial humanitarian and procedures, MFIs can play a key role in emergency response to crisis is crucial, continuing to support populations most there is a growing recognition of the value affected by disasters. Promoting such of disaster risk reduction (DRR) activities would not only increase the strategies in preparing for, and thus ability of poor households to cope with different kinds of crises, but also in turn 1 United Nations International Strategy for Disaster protect the MFIs’ portfolios. Reduction (UNISDR), 2015, “The Human Cost of Weather Related Disasters 1995–2015,” https://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/publications/46796. 2 Rajeshwari B,IPSC Research Paper 2004, Communal Riots in IndiaA Chronology (1947-2003)

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reducing, socio-economic losses Methodology associated with disasters. This is especially true for developing countries The objective of the study4 conducted by where poverty is a fundamental cause of IFMR Lead was to understand the existing vulnerability. Microfinance institutions DRR practices of MFIs in the Indian (MFIs) largely cater to poor and near- market and to map out the disaster- poor populations. Not only are MFI clients related vulnerabilities of clients affected excluded from the formal financial by crisis in order to assess gaps for more system, but they are also highly effective disaster preparedness. The pan- vulnerable to external shocks such as India study was conducted using primary disasters, which puts them at greater and secondary data. Desk research was risk.3 undertaken to understand the global and Given the demographic section they Indian disaster risk management context serve, MFIs have both a responsibility and and the MFI sector’s role in disaster a vested interest in addressing the issue management practices. Secondary data of disaster management to ensure their was also used to select the geographical own institutional sustainability, as well as locations for the study, isolating areas the resiliency of their clients. Through where high and medium-impact disasters DRR-related products, greater awareness have taken place in India over the last five of client needs and internal risk years. To keep the study representative of management procedures, MFIs can play a India’s overall disaster management key role in continuing to support initiatives, in-depth interviews were populations most affected by disasters. conducted with MFIs and NGO–MFIs 5of Promoting such activities would not only varying size and range from different increase the ability of poor households to parts of the country. Based on the cope with different kinds of crises, but information about the microfinance also, in turn, protect the MFIs’ portfolios. market that was reported and collected in Greater preparedness will require MFIs to this study, the organizations interviewed participate in all phases of DRR, from pre- cover approximately 32 percent of the disaster to post-disaster management. customer base.6 Within the phases of disaster planning Interviews followed the disaster and response, a number of opportunities management cycle—which consists of for collaboration exist between MFIs and three phases: pre-disaster management, state-sponsored disaster management disaster occurrence management, and agencies. These include contributions to post-disaster management—to disaster management plans, risk mapping, understand the roles that MFIs, NGOMFIs communication of early warnings, mutual awareness-raising, disaster relief and 4 disaster assessments. This study was undertaken as part of the SEEP Disaster Risk Reduction Project, financed by the Citi Foundation. 5 By NGO MFIs we mean the philanthropic wing of the MFIs which were not directly involved in the lending business 6 According to the “Bharat Microfinance Report 2016” (Sa- Dhan, the Association of Community Development Finance Institutions), total microfinance clients in India equal 40 million. https://www.microfinancegateway.org/sites/default/files/p 3 ublication_files/the_bharat_microfinance_report_2016- Microfinance India: State of the Sector Report(2016) min.pdf

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and government play in the disaster handle disaster response. Interestingly, management process. In addition to there is widespread evidence of robust mapping MFI roles to DRR, the study also operational and financial risk mitigation mapped disaster-related vulnerabilities mandates and practices within MFIs. This through a client assessment (by indicates that these institutions would be conducting focus group discussions). capable of scaling this to the disaster context, provided there is capacity Key Findings: Current Practices building and orientation from the perspective of disaster preparedness. The study found that the Indian The microfinance sector has evolved over microfinance sector is in a very nascent the years and is taking bold steps towards stage of development with regards to financial inclusion. One of the reasons for disaster risk reduction. Though MFIs have the gaps in DRR is very weak stakeholder the potential to play a significant support engagement on the agenda of disaster. role, overall there is very little awareness Though the institutions abide by the and knowledge on the disaster regulatory body guidelines and are management and planning practices and committed to poverty reduction, there hence no organizational policy or remains a lack of a concrete vision in their protocol is in place for DRR. Currently role for disaster management. MFIs offer only limited support during response and recovery phases. There are Recommendations few innovative financial products and services in the MFI sector in general, and The research found that microfinance limited use of emergency loans (small institutions are as vulnerable to the value pre-approved loans), micro impact of disaster as their clients. This insurance, or agent networks. MFIs do, underscores the importance of risk however, capture client risk exposure at mitigation and the need to shift from the loan application stage and many use post-disaster support to pre-disaster technology platforms to collect real time preparedness. Based on the observations, data on cash collection and loan it is recommended that an overall disbursements. Since these processes are stakeholder engagement be launched to existing steps in the current lending develop a disaster mitigation and process, there is an opportunity for the management strategy for the information collected to be used to microfinance sector. This should entail a identify and categorize clients and facilitated dialogue and discussion geographies in vulnerable groups. between the various key players involved In general, MFIs have participated in very in the sector, including: aggregators, limited relief efforts. In the post-disaster sector experts, financial institutions, and situation, they have contributed to annual government bodies. Such an exercise can philanthropic work, such as setting up of lead towards the development of health camps, providing education, successful partnerships between different training support, loan rescheduling, organizations who can pool their disbursing house repair/reconstruction resources and skills to design resilient loans. However, these efforts are often ad models for disaster management. This hoc and MFIs lack standard also needs to be supported by more policy organizational practices or protocols to advocacy, research and evaluation of

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other global models that can be replicated that could encourage more MFIs to work in the Indian context. more in these areas. The specific recommendations are ● Disaster Finance Fund: Liquidity for the detailed as follows: MFIs during disaster is limited. An ● Proactive Role of Aggregators: Emergency Fund /Disaster Support Fund Aggregators, like MFIN and Sa-Dhan, could help to ensure financial support in should play a more proactive role in disaster situations. bringing together stakeholders and pooling resources to develop an industry Conclusion level strategy to mitigate disaster risks. ● Needs Assessment: The microfinance It is important that the MFIs are well industry should work together to assess informed about the consequences of the the disaster prone areas, the volume of disaster at the three levels – customer, business, and the need for microfinance enterprise and sector. We see that the support during pre and post disaster microfinance sector is relatively more phases. prone to disaster risks because of the high ● Awareness Generation: There should be vulnerability of poorer clients. MFIs a sustained dialogue between the MFI should also be made aware of the sector and the recognized bodies on importance of their role not only in disaster management planning to ensure activities related to disaster response and better coordination. recovery, but also in disaster ● Partnership Development: Partnerships management and preparedness. between MFIs and stakeholders (e.g. It is also important for the government, government, investors) are needed to regulators and aggregators to understand develop robust disaster management the important role that the microfinance strategies. industry can play in the area of disaster ● Moving towards preparedness: MFIs management. With increasing risk should set up, review and regularly test exposure to disaster, it also becomes the organizational level policies and disaster responsibility of the sector to both ensure management plans to better prepare for its operations are protected and to unforeseen disasters. support its vulnerable clients from ● Promotion of savings: MFIs should slipping further into poverty. This can create awareness about the role of only happen if all the ecosystem actors savings in increasing resilience and come together to develop a strategy consider serving as Business around a common vision for disaster risk Correspondents for the banks, as some reduction with clear roles and do, to promote this product with their responsibilities to ensure its clients. implementation. ● Incentivizing work in disaster areas: The majority of MFIs are not pro-actively operating in highly disaster prone or affected areas, which leads to exclusion of the most vulnerable people. Donors and government can create incentives for MFIs, like early warning intimations, communications, product invocations etc.

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Using ‘Swiss Cheese’ to understand slow DRR progress Dennis J. Sullivan1

Email Address: [email protected] 1Network on Humanitarian Action (NOHA) Ruhr University- Bochum, Germany

Abstract Introduction

This policy brief examines DRR as a Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) has been a complex system. It uses Dr. James benchmark of resilience building for Reason’s Swiss Cheese Model as a tool to decades, yet is still not a panacea for understand how problems develop and counteracting hazard risk. DRR has been aggregate, causing slow progress for frequently limited to the action of merely community resiliency and preparedness counteracting the effects of a repetitious initiatives. The two issues discussed roulette of root causes while under this lens are the complexity of the preparedness initiatives and resilience system and public outrage. These topics building take a supporting role1. The are examined, with the former looking at Sendai Framework is the latest example the entirety of the system and the latter signifying industry priorities trending using Japan and Nepal as examples. within the sector including: building Recommendations are given for DRR resilience in vulnerable communities, practitioners moving forward with the promoting the use of localized solutions, Sendai Framework. and fostering the inclusion of the most vulnerable members of a society2. It would be difficult to argue against the implementation of any of these priorities, which begs the question as to why DRR has been consistently slow towards reaching these goals. In order to understand the sector’s limitations, this brief borrows a concept from organizational studies: The Swiss Cheese Model, a tool for understanding accidents. Applying the Swiss Cheese

1 Blaikie, Piers, et al. At risk: natural hazards, people's vulnerability and disasters. Routledge, 2014. 2 Staal, Thomas H. “From Hyogo to Sendai: A New Action Plan for Resilience.” Written Blog. USAID Impact Blog. USAID. 20 March 2015. Web. 1 April 2017.

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Model to DRR helps understand how a line up and a problem will be diverted, complex set of factors inhibit, while also meaning that they will not cause failures. pointing to how an increase in localized However, holes can align in a way where a participation can create an uptick in the situation can fall through an unexpected amount DRR progress. series of holes and become a problem. This model is living and frequently The Swiss Cheese Model shifting as organizational measures and countermeasures are constantly changing Psychologist and human error researcher in shape and purpose (i.e.- the holes on Dr. James Reason published the ‘Swiss the slices are moving), thereby further Cheese Model’ to explain how accidents obstructing potential solutions5. These occur despite having safety protocol gaps can even develop on multiple levels systems in place3. The model, which has and remain undetected until a disaster. become a quintessential paradigm for When looking at DRR, the ‘Swiss analyzing errors in the medical field, can cheese slices’ would be the initiatives be seen in Figure 1. Reason described the completed in the name of preparedness. holes within a system as similar to those This includes education, safety measures, within a slice reinforcing buildings, etc. Holes can develop in these systems quite easily, such as an individual being sick and missing important training, or, as a more notable example, safety measures failing such as the New Orleans levees breaking during Hurricane Katrina in 2004. Even with safety measures in place to mitigate the hazard risk, the potential for increased hazard risk had formed unbeknownst to safety professionals and

Figure 1. Reason’s Swiss Cheese Model4. went unnoticed until an even greater hazard risk had already generated. of Swiss cheese. The different safety As an application of this model, measures would be the individual slices, consider two distinct holes that have while the pitfalls of a system are appeared within DRR: system complexity represented by the holes. The individual and a lack of public outrage. The former pieces are symbolized by different safety exemplifies a consistent hole across the measures, while the holes signify pitfalls sector, while the latter represents holes of that measure. If a system and its safety with a case-specific impact. measures are effective, the holes will not Complexity as a Hindrance

3 Reason, James. Managing the risks of Participating in DRR is both morally organizational accidents. Routledge, 2016. sound, and can yield up to a 700% return

4 Wikipedia contributors. "Swiss cheese model." 5 Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Reason, James. "Human error: models and Free Encyclopedia, 13 Apr. 2017. Web. 8 May. management." Western Journal of Medicine 172.6 2017. (2000): 393. 149

on every dollar spent6. These factors have end up becoming unmanageable due to culminated an ever-expanding DRR their vast size11. system, but this overabundance has A side-effect of a large system is the ironically caused slower progress rather normalization of deviance, which than the expected improvements7. increases the amount of hazard risk an Some of the crawl can be attributed to the entity was designed to control. Small increasingly globalized and forays into improper functioning within interconnected status of the international the system are common, yet become aid system. Events transpiring in one considered acceptable risks as they nation have far-reaching political, social, produce no immediate large-scale and economic ramifications throughout hazards. However, these deviances can the world, including in the field of spill over into a larger problem than international aid8. This has lead to the before, allowing holes in the model to common practice of providing moral and align. Hazard risk is oftentimes viewed as political partners with foreign aid during a standalone issue that can be cured with times of crisis9. These good intentions a direct remedy. This disincentivizes have resulted in large and complex using holistic approaches to fix systems in order to participate in the overarching circumstances, thereby giving or receiving of aid. Policy makers resulting in preparedness measures that and practitioners must navigate through address only a fraction of the problem. an intricate and oftentimes labyrinthine Although it defies logic, this method of network that is routinely undergoing designing preparedness initiatives may, in transformation as political tides shift. some cases, allow more opportunities for This complexity has even led to hazard risk instead of slowing systemic questioning whether the state alone is risk progression12. able to effectively carry out all necessary actions towards creating resiliency10. This Risk Assessment via Public Outrage aligns with research which claims that “systems” where complexity increases Understanding the derivation of hazard risk is critical when designing remedies. 6 UNDP, “Putting Resilience at This is a complicated process, as risks the Heart of Development: Investing in Prevention themselves can form an intricate network and Resilient Recovery”, UNDP Representative of causes and effects13. In contrast to the Office in Japan, June 2012. more stable holes created by system 7 Centeno, Miguel A., et al. "The Emergence of complexity, the holes created by public Global Systemic Risk." Annual Review of Sociology 41.1 (2015): 65-85. Print. 8 11 Dallaire, Roméo. The golden fleece: Manipulation Le Coze, Jean-Christophe. "1984-2014. Normal and independence in humanitarian action. Ed. Accidents. Was Charles Perrow Right for the Antonio Donini. Sterling, VA: Kumarian Press, Wrong Reasons?" Journal of Contingencies and 2012. Crisis Management 23.4 (2015): 275-286. Print. 9 12 Same as 7: Centeno, Miguel A., et al. "The Same as 7: Centeno, Miguel A., et al. "The Emergence of Global Systemic Risk." Annual Emergence of Global Systemic Risk." Annual Review of Sociology 41.1 (2015): 65-85. Print. Review of Sociology 41.1 (2015): 65-85. Print. 10 13 Bourcart, Léo. "‘The State Can't Do Everything Clark-Ginsberg A. "Participatory Risk Network Any More’: Understanding the Evolution of Civil Analysis: A Tool for Disaster Reduction Defence Policies in France." Resilience 3.1 (2015): Practitioners." International Journal of Disaster 40-54. Print. Risk Reduction 21 (2017): 430-437. Print. 150

outrage can vary in size and severity on a The impact of public outrage can be case-by-case basis. clearly seen in Japan, which has made In response, many scholars are huge strides in terms of DRR over the attempting to quantify hazard risk as an previous decades17. Their success can be evaluation tool in order to gauge impact attributed to a change in public attitude, and increase decision-making which caused policymakers to overlook effectiveness. A common method of is the the complexities of DRR and begin following equation: working within that system. This occurred after the Great Hanshin-Awaji Risk = threat x vulnerability x consequence Earthquake of 1995. The disaster saw over 6,000 lives lost, over 300,000 This method takes a threat (i.e.- buildings destroyed, and disrupted most earthquake), the vulnerability (i.e.- major transportation lanes in and out of preparedness levels), and the Kobe. However, this event instilled a consequence (i.e.- likely damage to sense of outrage amongst the Japanese human and economic capitals) to people and, as a result, the government of determine the level of risk in a given Japan began to increase their resiliency situation14. and preparedness efforts to counter There are some limitations to this model future hazard risks18. though, as it is difficult to assign numbers In other words, the outcry to a subpar to a system that does not have a response was far too risky for a standardized method for determining government looking to stay in the public’s variable assessment15. Each situation is good graces19. What this means is that a unique and requires the vast majority of change in DRR is actually a change in variables to be redefined. However, an cultural and political norms. important point that can be drawn from The significance of a public outrage hole this model is the purpose of consequence manifesting is largely contextually in the decision-making process. In dependent. While public outrage can be addition to physical consequences, beneficial in some aspects, as evidenced disasters can also result in political and in Japan, other situations conversely social repercussions. The threat of these reveal the negative repercussions. Nepal’s ramifications are more personal and can earthquake in 2015 serves as a lead to more holes within the system. It counterpoint. Over 8,000 individuals has even been found that the threat of were killed, and the delivery of aid was outrage can influence a decision more slow. A lack of resiliency education lead to than the threat of the hazard alone16. recovery expectations that were higher

14 Cox Jr, Louis Anthony Tony. "Some limitations of “Risk= Threat× Vulnerability× Consequence” for Perception of Risk: Three Simulation risk analysis of terrorist attacks." Risk Experiments." Risk Analysis 13.6 (1993): 585-598. Analysis 28.6 (2008): 1749-1761. Print. 15 17 Shreve C.M., and Kelman I. "Does Mitigation Ibid. Same as 16. 18 Save? Reviewing Cost-Benefit Analyses of Disaster Ranghieri, Federica, and Mikio Ishiwatari, Risk Reduction." International Journal of Disaster eds. Learning from mega disasters: lessons from the Risk Reduction 10.PA (2014): 213-235. Print. Great East Japan Earthquake. World Bank 16 Sandman, Peter M., et al. "Agency Publications, 2014. 19 Communication, Community Outrage, and Ibid. Same as 18.

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than the resources available20. For a promotion of outrage is itself a risky country that already struggles with action if improperly handled. Other holes, political stability and legitimacy21, the such as political instability and impact of outrage directed at DRR is corruption, may need to be filled prior to overshadowed by other issues impacting advocating for increasing public outrage. decision-makers. In an effort to mitigate the effects of both holes, DRR practitioners should continue Conclusion increasing the use of localized solutions and educating on the importance of There are an endless number of holes that community resiliency. It would be easier can be discovered or examined, but the for communities to navigate their own goal of DRR remains the same: to ensure resiliency plans than that of the large DRR that the holes in the slices do not align, system. Education on the topic will lead to thereby avoiding compounded better knowledge. With better knowledge, complications. By using just the two holes communities will understand how this from this brief as an example, it becomes process should function and appropriate clear how a situation can quickly levels of outrage can result. These actions deteriorate. Policy makers are de- will make it easier for policymakers to incentivized from participating due to the participate and it will incentivize action complicated nature of the system, while a prior to a disaster. Even better, these public’s lack of outrage towards non- actions will fill the holes without adding participation deems this inaction correct another slice of ‘Swiss cheese,’ thereby even if financial reasoning claims lessening the amount of hazard risk otherwise. This combination has the within the system. ability to impede progress exponentially. The Sendai Framework gives specific goals to encourage actors towards minimizing these risks, including placing an increased importance on localized practices. This specific goal may help increase global knowledge on the importance of DRR. International pressure derived from agreements such as the Sendai Framework are a step in the right direction, but the voluntary nature of the agreement creates a hole that needs to be filled. Public outrage could be that filler in some instances, but the

20 Hall M.L, et al. “The 2015 Nepal Earthquake Disaster: Lessons Learned One Year On.” Public Health, vol. 145, 2017, pp. 39–44. 21 Fisk, Kylie, and Adrian Cherney. “Pathways to Institutional Legitimacy in Post conflict Societies: Perceptions of Process and Performance in Nepal.” Governance, vol. 30, no. 2, 2017, pp. 263–281.

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