Women in the House: The Impact of Elected Women on Parliamentary Debate and Policymaking in Canada by Erica Jane Rayment A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of Political Science University of Toronto © Copyright by Erica Jane Rayment 2020 Abstract Women in the House: The Impact of Elected Women on Parliamentary Debate and Policymaking in Canada Doctor of Philosophy, 2020 Erica Jane Rayment Graduate Department of Political Science University of Toronto This study examines the impact of elected women in Canada on patterns and processes of parliamentary debate and policymaking from 1968 to 2015. It argues that women’s presence in parliament matters for the substantive representation of women, particularly under conditions of threat to women’s equality. The study refines core concepts in the literature on women’s political representation to explain how the substantive representation of women occurs in Canadian parliamentary institutions. It disaggregates the concept of substantive representation and expands the scope of the critical actors framework to include actions that defend women’s equality against regressive policy initiatives. Building on these refinements, the study argues that gender is a key factor in determining whether an MP will represent women in parliamentary debate, but the institutional role MPs occupy and the political context in which they operate influence the mechanisms they use to advocate for women’s equality in policymaking and their chances of success. Through an automated analysis of the content of nearly 50 years of parliamentary debate, the study finds that women MPs, regardless of party affiliation, are consistently more likely than their male colleagues to make representative claims about women. Using supervised and unsupervised machine learning to analyse the content of these representative claims, the study finds that parliamentary speeches about women focus almost entirely on issues relating to women’s equality and autonomy. ii The analysis of parliamentary debate shows that the number of speeches about women spiked during parliaments when governments initiated policies that threatened women’s equality. Qualitative case studies examine these two instances of policymaking, focusing on the actors involved, the processes through which they advocated for women, and the impact of their actions. The study finds that women MPs led the charge against hostile government policy initiatives but their varying ability to influence policy outcomes was shaped by their institutional positions and the political conditions under which they operated. The study concludes by suggesting the presence of women in Canadian politics matters as a tool for guarding against policies that would roll back previous equality gains. Efforts to increase women’s presence in electoral politics in Canada therefore remain important. iii Acknowledgements While working on my dissertation proposal, I developed the rather unusual habit of reading the acknowledgements sections of other political science doctoral dissertations. In addition to providing a useful reminder that degree completion was indeed possible, these artefacts of other people’s lives helped remind me to adopt a posture of gratitude, even (especially) when everything was a bit overwhelming. I am thus keenly aware of the networks of support that have enabled me to get to this point. First and foremost, I owe an extraordinary debt of gratitude to my supervisor, Sylvia Bashevkin. Sylvia’s boundless optimism, encouragement and well-timed reminders that done is better than perfect are the reason this project is finished (and her keen eye, timely feedback, and willingness to talk through the details of the project are the reason it’s any good). While I made my way through the PhD program, Sylvia cranked out two major book projects, but always made time to chat about my research, review drafts, and offer sage advice. She modeled both excellence in scholarship and a generosity of spirit I hope to be able to emulate. I am immeasurably grateful to the other members of my dissertation committee. It would be no exaggeration to say that I wouldn’t have been able to undertake this project without the guidance of Ludovic Rheault. His methodological expertise and enthusiasm for sharing that expertise are the reason I even know what Python is. Ludovic patiently helped me work through seemingly endless technical questions with generosity and good humour. Erin Tolley consistently provided detailed feedback that never lost sight of the big picture, identifying gaps in the analysis that helped make the project stronger. Outside the dissertation, Erin connected me to opportunities for research collaboration and teaching that helped round out my experience in the PhD program. It has been a privilege and a pleasure to work with all three of these outstanding mentors. Chris Cochrane and Jonathan Malloy both provided immensely helpful feedback as internal and external readers. Despite the unusual circumstances under which the final oral exam was conducted (remotely through Zoom in the midst of a global pandemic!), they both asked insightful questions and made the experience feel like a great conversation and a chance to bounce around ideas. An additional massive thank you is due to Chris for first pointing me towards the LiPaD dataset and for making this invaluable resource available. Over the years, Carolynn Branton and Louis Tentsos in the Political Science Graduate Office were always ready with answers to administrative questions and words of encouragement or congratulations as the situation called for it. I’m especially grateful for all their work to keep everything on track to ensure the final oral exam went off without a hitch, despite the strange circumstances. I presented earlier versions of some of the chapters of this project at annual meetings of the Canadian Political Science Association in 2018 and 2019 and at the European Conference on Politics and Gender in 2019. I am grateful to paper discussants Melanee Thomas, Edana Beauvais, Jeanette Ashe and others who attended the sessions, including in particular Sarah Childs, for valuable feedback and advice that helped strengthen the project. John Scherpereel’s iv comments at ECPG were especially useful in helping me think through some of the conceptual refinements to the substantive representation of women that appear in this project. I would also like to acknowledge financial support from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. I am grateful for the friendship of fantastic colleagues in the PhD program. The women from my Canadian Politics cohort – Sophie Borwein, Eve Bourgeois, Minh Do, and Meghan Snider – were there for everything from surviving comprehensive exams to providing much needed respite through regular PhDinners. Jason VandenBeukel later infiltrated our ranks and has come to be an invaluable sounding board, an outstanding co-teacher, and a good friend. I’m grateful as well for the opportunities, support, and friendships outside the PhD program that helped me get here. Hank Jacek gave me a shot in the Ontario Legislature Internship Program and sparked my interest in parliamentary politics. Natalie Desimini brought me along to an Equal Voice Toronto meeting and Gloria Bishop, Lesley Byrne, Donna Dasko, Rebecca Scott, Heather Steel, and Phyllis Tanaka welcomed us in and put us to work. These two opportunities are the foundation for this project. Mark Rosenfeld’s unmatched kindness and willingness to let me work part-time at OCUFA made it possible for me to take the leap back into academia after four years on the outside. David Bartucci took a chance and worked HR magic to bring me on as a part-time member of the small but mighty HSW team and Kristen Munro moved mountains to keep me around. Lively discussions with friends who work in the real world of politics and policy helped me to think about how my research might matter beyond the walls of the ivory tower. And the friends who have known me since we were all barely adults talking about Plato, Descartes, and Foucault like we had a clue, kept me grounded and extraordinarily well loved. My family and in-laws provided me with quiet encouragement and lakeside retreats where I could toil away on drafts or unwind as needed. But the reality is I never could have made it through the past five and a half years without the love and support of my partner, Reynold Caskey. Marrying this man three days before starting PhD school was the craziest/best decision I’ve ever made. He has been my biggest cheerleader and most reliable provider of reminders to come up for air and live a little. And when things got especially hectic, he kept everything running smoothly in the background so that I could focus on finishing. Thank you is woefully inadequate. v Table of Contents List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ x List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. xi Chapter 1 – Introduction and Theoretical Framework ..................................................... 1 Conceptual foundations ....................................................................................................... 1 The substantive representation of women ................................................................. 1 The means