Make
to the Raven
A Koyukon View
of the Northern Forest
Richard K, Nelson
The University of Chicago Press Chicago and London
„ ''A** j J CENTRA1-
RICHABD K. NELSON has taught at Memorial University of Newfoundland, the University of Hawaii, the University of California at Santa Cruz, the University of California at Santa Barbara, and the Uni versity of Alaska at Fairbanks. He is a self-employed cultural anthropologist, consultant, and writer. His previous works include Hunters of the Northern he; Hunters of the Northern Fdrest: Designs for Survival among the Alaskan Kutchin; Shadow of the Hunter. Stories of Eskimo Life; and numerous field reports.
The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637 This book is dedicated The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London to the people of Huslia and Hughes, Alaska; ©1983 by The University of Chicago to my teachers, Steven and Catherine Attla; All rights reserved. Published 1983 and to those who will find wisdom Printed in the United States of America in a world Raven made. 90 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 5 4 3 2 1
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Nelson, Richard K. Make prayers to the raven. Bibliography p. Includes index. 1. Koyukon Indians. 2. Human ecology—Alaska. 3. Natural history—Alaska I. Title. E99.K79N44 1983 304.2'09798 82-8441 ISBN 0-226-57162-9 AACR2
'AUSTIN PIMJC imm -^JVT'E*?-•"',:""• "^resrv. r; mmy ••$&&>:
Contents
Acknowledgments ix Orthography xi Introduction xiii
1. The People 1
2. The Watchful World 14
3. Earth, Air, and Sky 33
4. The Plants 47
5. Earth Animals 58
6. The Fishes 66
7. The Birds 77
8. The Small Mammals 121
9. The Predatory Mammals 139
10. The Large Mammals 163
11. Ecological Patterns and Conservation "Practices 200
12. Principles of Koyukon World View 225
•13. Nature and the Koyukon Tradition 238 "Ml - WnrTiH
viii / Contents
Epilogue 248
Appendixes 249 Acknowledgments
1. The Study 249
2. The Boreal Environment 254
3. Koyukon Terms for Natural Entities 261
4. Uses for Selected Major Species 272
Bibliography 277
Index 283
Illustrations follow p. 164
This portrayal of the Koyukon people and their natural Surroundings is based on sixteen months of living in the villages of Huslia and Hughes, Alaska. Most of the formal ethnographic'work'was done from September 1976 to July 1977, but I have also drawn information and experiences from several extended "vacations" spent in these villages (1968, 1970, 1971, 1972). An ethnographer never works alone, and whatever merit his (or her) work may have derives largely from the interest and astuteness of his in structors. In Huslia and Hughes I have been fortunate enough to know people who not only were excellent teachers but also 'showed me a special kind of friendship and hospitality. My greatest wish is that every page of this book should reflect my admiration for them, should accurately record their teachings, and should have yalue and significance in their lives dur ing these difficult times of change. Members of virtually all families in Huslia and Hughes have contributed in some way to the work underlying this book, and I want to express my sincere' thanks to them. I am particularly indebted to a number'o'f people who have helped in special ways. Steven and Catherine Attla, my principal instructors, have become much more than teachers and friends to me. Their teaching is the basis for this study, and their words are quoted or para phrased throughout the following chapters. Steven and Catherine remain much a part 'of my life today, and I cannot fully express my feelings of warmth toward them.
IX kuim ii, xii / Contents kk' Pronounced like Koyukon kk, but with a slight popping sound; a globalized back velar stop. Voiced /, similar to English lid. Introduction Voiceless /, pronounced with air released off the sides of the tongue. m As in English^mi/fe. n As in English nice or bun. nh Voiceless n, pronounced like English n but with air released through the nose (voiceless apical nasal) o As in English cough or called. oo As in English boot. •s As in English side. t As in English tip. t' Pronounced as t but with a slight popping sound of releasing the vocal chords (a globalized apical stop). ( Similar to English butler, but with air released off the sides of the tongue. W Pronounced like tl, but with the slight popping sound of releasing the vocal chords. ts As in English shuts. ts' Pronounced like ts, but with the slight popping sound of releasing the vocal chords (glottalized sibilant affricate). I was traveling alone with my dog team one bitter cold morning, on the trail As in English put. that crossed Moosehorn Lake and led toward a distant bend 'of the Koyukiik y As in English yes. River. An hour earlier, I had set out from the'village ofHuslia, where I was yh Similar to the ch in German ich (voiceless palatal fricative). living with the Koyukon people, studying their ways of understanding and z As in English zebra ox jazz. interacting with the natural world. 'Halfway down the narrow lake, the Glottal stop, as the'r is often pronounced in Englislrmolmtam. perfect stillness was broken by a,rush of wings "overhead. Looking up„I saw A hyphen is used to separate two letters that would otherwise be read a raven flap heavily to the top of a nearby spruce. It scrutinized me as I drew as a single sound. near, then flew on and landed in a tall tree* farther along'the trail. (Source: Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska) I whistled softly to quicken the* dogs* pace, as I watched the silhouetted bird cock its Head one way and another. During the inany months,! had spent among the Koyukon, I had gradually begun to look quite differently at ravens, as I'b.egan not only to know about, but also to feel the further dimension,m' nature that was so preeminently important to my teachers. Ravens had'become: more than just beautiful and intelligent birds. I,found myself watching them and feeling watched in return ... watched fby some thing mofe than the ravens' gleaming black eyes. I found myself listening to their calls, not*just to enjoy their strange ventriloqiial gurglings but also^ to hear what 'they might be saying. ' ,j/ A third time the raven flew as I passed its high vantage; then it lit clumsily in another spruce at trie end of the lake, whereJth'e trail ran up the bank and entered a stretch of timber. !* I glanced back along the trail arid saw only a dense cloud of vapor from the dogs' breath, hanging there in "the stillness. Having' confirmed what' I already knew—that I was'entirely alone—I looked intently at the raven xiii
*mm xiv / Introduction Introduction / xv above me.* After a long, self-conscious hesitation, I shouted'"Tseek'aai example, the chapter_on birds is extensive, as it must be to encompass^the [Old Grandfather], bring me luck!" Then I looked behind me again, as hjgWy^e^^kjp^d^Coyukon ornithologyr^r^. ,i "*• j f i \>.%i< my words echoed into the surrounding forest. t A third purpose of this book, the most elusive perhapsj i§fo show how^real andfangible theM'oyukon belief in nature is. Because'tnis.belierhfr^ers1 vastly About the Book frmnour owrT7^we4nay'liave^dirriculty appreqiatingrits'power anebsubstan- tiality for those who are its inheritors^ It lies beyond our emotiorial grasp^so During my year of study among the Koyukon people, I learned a different we are inclined to pass it off as quaint folkloreor mere:fantasy. Lhopethe perception not only of the raven, but of every living and nonliving thing in chapters that follow will make this *.Koyukon> view of nature-more concrete the northern forest. Although I must emphasize that I did not relinquish my for persons^ who-have learned to see'a different one. •*' '• >' agnosticism, I nevertheless acquired an entirely new way of seeing an envi Many ethnologists andjnative North American? will find th&.Koyukon ronment I had experienced fairly intimately over the previous ten years and people's basic perspective on nature a familiar one, sharing much'in cdm- T thought I knew well. Through the Koyukon, I became aware of a rich and mon with othermative ideologies ori this confident. Although>thb»perspec- eloquent natural history that extends into realms unknown or ignored in my tive is not new in anthropological literature,'ffew (ifany)'studies* have^inte- own culture. grated it into a comprehensive natural history'. The book therefore presents This book is a detailed exploration of that natural history through the both a body of information and aniexpression ofiits emotional" force fonthe teachings of Koyukon tradition. Aside from my own fascination with the Koyukon people. This is significant from not only a cultural .but also an subject matter, I have several purposes in writing it and a number of differ environmental, standpoint, because'Koyukon. teachings can add a compel ent audiences in mind. Potential readers include anthropologists, of course, ling new diih'ension to bun understanding of the-boreah forest. >' 4 but also persons interested in natural history, environmental studies and The book's, final and most importarit'purpose is tot serve the -Koyukon* conservation, northern regions and peoples, native American religion and people themselves by educating others about the substance and value of their culture, Jiuman geology, and- hunting-gathering, peoples. The following lifeway and by providing'for them a newway to pass traditional knowledge summary of1 purposes mayfyelp to further orient readers to the material. along to their children.-It is an effort to preserve a part of Koyukon heritage The first and most basic purpose-of this book is to present a detailed for present and future generations, recognizing that written*words» have less account of Koyukon knowledge, belief, and behavior concerned with the power but more permanence than spoken ones, J i , I > ( natural^ world. This is an ethnographic study in the strict sense of the word—a The underlying thrust Iof this researclvwas to protect *the interests- of 1 descriptive portrayal of Koyu^onT culture"and custom. Anthropologists Koyukon jpeople by recording subsistence activities and traditions as oriented toward^theory will, I^Hope, find a usefulbody of data here, but.I sociated with- lands that eventually became the Gates of the Arctic Rational leave the ethnoscientific,, structural, and other theoretical analyses to them. Monuments Its primary ethical and practical goal'was to help'ensure that My personal goal, here as .elsewhere, is to create an accurate, .sensitive Koyukon villagers could continue their traditional lifeway ion ancestral lands. The-project has already served this purpose'in numerous ways, description 4of a human life way .r „A secon4,purpp§e is to cornpile a natural history, a systematic assemblage through direct'input testate and federal* agencies* as well-'as'to'the United k f of despriptive information about a particular environment. It js intended,as a States'Congress. ^ - •• '* »• <* "guideboolc"jto the boreal forest, derived from-traditional knowledge of the i Koyukon Inqians. As anatiye natural history, it stands outside the established Perspectives for Reading realm of Western science.i though it has b,een organized and filtered fhrongh a Western mind. Biologists, .naturalists, and- environmental scientists' wi]l Our expectations about forthcoming events or experiences strongly affect find here an alternative view on the nature of nature, together with a differ our understanding of what we encounter, and so I offer some further com ent concept of humanity's proper role in the environment. ments as a mental road map through the chapters ahead. Like many guide^opksand natural-histories, this, qne attempts tp, be This book, like anthropology itself, sits squarely on the fence between comprehensive, covering the full range of entities in the, borear forest, com humanism—we could call it "art"—and science. In writing Make Prayers to munity. Jhese-include elernents of the earth, sky, and atmosphere, all sig the Raven I have jomed a body of data about the Koyukon and their sur nificant plant species,, and,ever^ animal considered worthy of note by the roundings together with my own impressions of both. My purpose here is Koyukon. Certain, of these topics are covered very briefly, others in great to present "hard" information in the context of a living world, to convey detail, reflecting the degree to which Koyukon knowledge is elaborated. For not only facts but also feeling. I have never understood why anthropological
^B mm xvi / Introduction 1 discourse should have the humanity drained from it; every particle of human life, after all, is a blend of empiricism and emotion. I have therefore tried to' better represent the whole reality by including both. The People ii Throughout the following chapters I use my own recollections and quo tations from my journal to give an aesthetic sense of the world I am de scribing* I have tried to set these clearly apart from descriptions and quota tions representing the Koyukon view, so that readers- will not confuse the two perspectives. Every account of another culture necessarily projects something from the writer's mind; but in this case I have made myself visible and explicit to-expand the reader's total experience of my subject and my own reactions to it. I should make it clear that in taking this approach I do not wish to idealize the Koyukon people and their culture, any more than I would want to reduce them to lifelessnes's. Furthermore, I have,made a personal choice- against discussing the negative elements and the malefactors, which of course exist in every culture. I also advise cautious readers against using this account to represent the.relation- ship between all native Americans and their natural environments. My intention is to describe accurately the ways in which one specific group • of native American people—the Koyukon villagers among whom I lived—approach their surroundings. The Koyukon Athapaskans It would be unwise to presume without factual support that any other people, even if closely related, regard or behave toward nature in the same way. The Koyukon Indians inhabit a huge expanse of wild country in northwest Last, I need to emphasize that in a year's time I acquired only an introduc ern interior Alaska, extending well to the north and south of the Arctic tory and incomplete knowledge of the subjects discussed here. This weak Circle. Their name derives from the Yukon and Koyukuk rivers, along ness pertains not only to elements of the natural environment and proper which their villages and camps are situated. In their own language they are human behavior toward them, but (most important) to the complex ideoP called Ti'eeyagga Hut'aaninh, a general term that includes other Xthapaskan ogy that underlies the Koyukon perception of the world. I nonetheless offer peoples as well. But'with characteristic pdhteness they are willing to accept this beginner's account in the hope that its shortcomings do not outweigh a name that outsiders can pronounce. the value of preserving the knowledge it contains. The Koyukon language belongs to a widespread family called Atha This, I suppose, is the burden of all anthropologists, who are seldom able paskan, spoken by native people scattered throughout northwestern North to advance beyond the stage of apprentices. But as compensation for this America and in pockets as far south as California and Arizona. The northern inadequacy, they have the privilege of experiencing again a child's discovery Athapaskans include groups whose names seem appropriate to the forested of the world. subarctic wildlands in which they live—the Chipewyan, Dogrib, Slave, Yellowknife, Hare, and others in Canada; the Koyukon, Ingalik, Holi- kachuk, Tanacross, upper Kuskokwim, ,upper Tanana, 'Tanana, Kutchin, Tanaina, Ahtna, and Han in Alaska. To one who loves the north woods as I do, these names ring with mys tery and fascination. Mystery, because northern Athapaskans are among North America's least-known contemporary native peoples. Only in recent years have these cultures attracted the attention of anthropologists, who have resurrected the works of some early predecessors and begun ethno graphic studies of their own. But still today, much of the beauty and rich ness of the Athapaskan tradition remains known only within the confines of The Watchful World U5 2 fronvtheir experiences in nature. The surroundings5 are-different,' , but the sensations may be alike. The ultimate source of these'feel- >< The Watchful World ings is less important than the .fact that they .exist,, for ,what each of us learns to be real is completely real; regardless. [Huslia journal, February 1.977] V There's always things in the air that watch us. i Over a span of millennia, the Koyukon people and their ancestors have sustained themselves directly from their surroundingsr. The intimacy of their relationship to nature is far beyond our experience—rthe physical de pendence and the intense emotional interpla^ with ajvyorld that cannot^ be directly altered to serve the needs"of hnmanityj This close daily interaction and dependence upon an omnipotent natural universe has profound impor tance to the Koyukon people and~provides a theme upon'which their cul tural lives converge. . . Koyukon perceptiens pf nature are aligned on two interconnected levels. The first of these is empirical knowledge. The practical"challenges of survi val by hunting; fishing, and gathering require a deep objective understand ing of the environment and the methods'for utilizing its resources. In'short, the* Koyukon people are sophisticated natural .historians; especially well versed in animal behavior and ecolbgy. 4 A Way of Seeing But their perception of the natural environment extends beyond what This chapter describes the nature of nature, as it is understood by the Koyu Westerners' define as the empirical "level, into the realm of thcspiritual.'The kon people. It is a general account of principles underlying Koyukon belief, Koyukon inherit-an elaborate system of supernatural concepts'for explain a background for the more specific chapters to follow. As I said in the ing and manipula'ting'the environment. From this perspective'the natural Introduction, I cannot be certain I comprehend these principles as a Koyu and supernatural-worlds are inseparable; and enviror/mdntal events are often kon person would; arid so the discussion should be read as my interpretation caused or influenced by spiritual forces. Detailed.explanations-are provided of what I saw and was told. In spite of these shortcomings, I believe that the for the origin -of natural entities and for the causation of natural events perspective it offers on the Koyukon view of nature is basically correct. (which seldom, if ever,- take place purely by chance)"*. .Furtherrno're, behavior/- Native American ideologies sharing a similar view are widely described in toward nature is governed by an array of supernaturally based-rules that \" the literature and may be read for comparison. ensure "the1 well-bein'g of both humans and the environment. .J Traditional Koyukon people live in a world that watches, in a forest of It is important to understand, that Koyukon beliefs about nature are as eyes. A person moving through nature—however wild, remote, even des logicaHnd consistent as they are powerful, but that they,differ substantially olate the place may be—is never truly alone. The surroundings are aware, from those prevailing in modern Western societies. Our own tradition envi* sensate, personified. They feel. They can be offended. And they must, at sions the universe as a system whose functioning can be explained through "^>every moment, be treated with proper respect. All things in nature have a rationalistic and scientific means*.-The natural and supernatural worlds-are special kind of life, something unknown to contemporary Euro-Americans, clearly separated. Environmental events are caused'by-ongoing evolution something powerful. ary and ecological processes', or else they happen purely by chance. Finally, modern Western cultures regulate human^behavior toward-nature I remember, when I was a boy, walking alone into a huge, andits resources, primarily on the basis of practical rather man religious beautiful, darkened cathedral. My entire body was alive with a conjjderatiorTST 1 ~ ; " "" ' ~ ~7~ * sensation of being watched—by the walls and windows, the pews For the traditional Koyukon Athapaskans, ideology Js_a_fyiiidamental and pulpit, by the air itself. Now I have felt that again, but this time j when I was traveling alone in the forest. glement of subsistence, as important as the more tangible practicalities" of Perhaps many of us have felt what the Koyukon people describe harvesting and utilizing natural resources. Most interactions with natural entities are governed in some way by a moral code that maintains a proper 14 16 / Chapter Two The Watchful World / 17
spiritual balance between the human and nonhuman worlds. This is not an makers" (Yilkuh ti'aala'), because it was'formed* when *a giant man lost < his esoteric abstraction, but a matter of direct, daily concern to the Koyukon flints there. J"t' '• people. Failure to behave according to the dictates of this code can have an Acentral figure in this ancient world was the Raven (it is unclear, perhaps immediate impact on the violator's health or success. And so, when Koyu irrelevant, whether there was one Raven or many), who was its creator and kon people carry out their subsistence activities they make many decisions who engineered many of''its>metamorpho'ses. Raven, the contradiction— on the basis of supernatural concerns. The world is ever aware. omnipotent clown, benevolent mischief-maker, buffoon, and deity. It was he, transformed into a spruce needle* who was swallowed by a womatf'so From the Distant Time she would give birth to him as a boy. When the boy was old enough to-play, he took from beneath a blanket in her house the-missing sun and rolled it to As the Koyukon reckon it, all things human and natural go back to a time the door. Once'outsidej he became Raven again and flew up to return the called Kk'adonts'idnee, which is so remote that no one can explain or under sun to the sky, making the earth light again. J t stand how long ago it really was. But however ancient this time may be", its And it was he who manipulated the natural 'design to" suit his'whim or events are recounted-accurately and in great detail through a prodigious fancy. When he first created the earth, for example, the rivers ran? both number of stories. Kk'adonts'idnee (literally, "in Distant Time-it is said") is ways, upstream on one side and downstream on the other. But this made the Koyukon word for these stories, but following from its conversational life too easy for humans, he decided; because their boats could drift along.in use I will translate.it simply as Distant Time. * either direction without paddling. So ^Raven altere&'his creation and made The stories constitute an oral history of the Koyukon people and their the rivers flow only one way, which is "how they remain'today.> • environment, beginning in an age before the present order of existence was There are hundreds of stories explaining "the behaviorand appearance of established. During this age "the animals were human"—that is, they had living things. Most of these are about animals 'and a few'ate about plants. human form, they lived in a human society, and they spoke human (Koyu No species is' too insignificant' to be mentioned, but importance in the kon) language. At some point in the Distant Time certain humans died and Koyukon economy does not assure a prominent place in the stories. Many ' i were transformed into animal or plant beings, the species that inhabit of the stories'about animal origins are like this one: Mild Koyukon country today. These dreamlike metamorphoses left a residue of human qualities and personality traits in the north-Woods creatures. When the burbot [ling cod] was human, he decided ffileave the land Taken together, the-Distant Time stories describe a primordial world and and become a'water animal. So he started down thebank) taking a'piece its transfiguration into modern form. Some are so long that a single narra- of bear fat with him. But the'other animal people wanted him to stay and , tion may require many evenings, even several weeks of evenings, for a tried to l\old him'back, stretching him all out of shape in the process. This complete telling. Stories'of this kind-—widely known as legends, myths, or is why the burbot has,such a long, stretched-out body, and why its liver is folklore—are found throughout North America, and elsewhere. It is com rich and oily, like the- fyearfat its ancestor carried to the water long ago. mon practice, however, to vasdy underrate their significance in the lives of people like the Koyukon. They are.not regarded as simple entertainment At the end of Distant Time there was a great catastrophe. The entire earth Today's elders*can-recall, the long-evenings of .their youth, when Distant River" villages it is a"rare 'day when someone is" not heard saying, "Hu- Time stories made the hours of darkness pass easily. In those days houses tlanee!" ("It's taboo!'')1. * * ' i were lit by burning bear grease in a shallow rbowl with a wick, or by burning long wands of split wood, orle after, another. Bear grease .was r *j„ , ,1 t i scarce, and-the hand-held; .wands- were inconvenient, 'So in midwinter the Personalities m Nature dwellings were often dark after twilight, faded. Faced with long wakeful hours in. the blicknessy people crawled into their warm beds and listened to Stories of the Distant Time often portray the, animal-people as riaving dis the recounting of stories. ,. ?<• tinctive personalities, and tnis affects the way a species is regarded today. The narratives were .-reserved for late fall and.the first half of winter, Often these personalities can be known only through the stories, because because they were-tabooed after the days began lengthening. Not surpris the animals do not visibly express them, any longer. IJeojpJe sometimes have ingly, the teller finished each story byt commenting that he or she had strong positive or negative feelings about particular species because of the shortened the .winter:-"I thought that-winter had just begun, but now I have way they are, pprtrayedsin the stories. <^ ,,, chewed off part of-it." Or, more optimistically, "When I woke up in the The sucker fis^./or example, was a great thief in the Distant-Time and so morning,-my cabin-was just dripping with-water!" In this, case the narrator it is not weh\ thought of.». One man told me he could neven. bring himself to implies that the spring thaw has suddenly begun. eat this fish, knowing what it had been and fearing that it would make a Distant Time stories also provide the Koyukon with -a foundation for thief of him:, , } ,j f ^understanding the natural world,ahd humanity's proper relationship to it: >.,. . - i f - • When people discuss the plants, animals,, or.-physical environment they Even in springtime,, sometimes we run short offood.'But if we catch a sucker; in thp net, fjust can't ea^hjm^ often refer to the stories. Here-they find explanations for the full range of u n f natural phenomena, down-to .the smallest details. In one story a snowshoe i, '« ltu.jt j' f, ,f ,-u j > „ hare\was attacked by the hawk owl; which was so small, that- it only man People will sornetirnes characterize someone \>yreferring,to an animal's aged to make a little wound in its victim's shoulder. Koyukon?people point personality^;In fact„Jette (n.d.a), writes.tl?at Yujcon River Koyukon ,rnay out a tiny notch in the hare's scapula as evidence that the Distant Time inquire about.a person by^skjng, "What animal is, he?" Someone,known as a thiqf may be described'as "jus,t like a sucker fish." When a person talks^ig, events" really too^tplace. ti t f -~> The narratives also provide an^ extensive code of proper^ehavior toward promises adoj &ut accomplishes httle, or gets ahea,d bytrickery, he^or she is the environment and its resources. They .contain many episodes showing said to be "just like, a raven." Although Ravenis the^creator, he is portrayed that certain" kinds of actions toward naturecin have badcorisequericesj and in the stories as a lazy .trickster who usually finds a way to .get ahead by. the these are taken>as guidelines to follow today. Stories therefore serve" as a efforts, of others.J(T/he Kqyukon have a kind, of jocular respect for ravens, medium for instructing young* people in the' traditional1 code and-as an mocking their, personality but still? awed by their spirit power. ^ infallible standard of conduct for everyone. When I asked about relatedness among animals, people*usually answered with reference to -thejr social behavior anajpersonalitv. For example, a Nobody made it up, these things we\re supposedto do. Jt came from the Distant Time stp/y reveals til^bears and porcupines are cousins;, and people storiess'it's justlike our Bible.My grandfather said he told the stories cite as proof their occasional sharing of a den. When .relatedness is not 'because }hey would bring the people'good luck, 'keep them healthy, and ' mentioned ini(a stqry itj^may be rey'ealed by a tendency to "get.alpng." make a good life. 'Wltieyi hk. came to songs in the stories, he sang them like Muskrats an/1 beavers often, ljye close together.and they„eat the sari^kinds they were hymns. of plants^ so they^a re, considered relatives^ Wolves may.jkil^a-loose^dpg,; which shows that the.two^arenotrelated. t (J( ^ t .,> , TRe mbst'irrfportant pa"rts of the" code are "taboo's {hutiaanee)/prohibitions Animal Relationships ar^lso shown by ^harea1 charaqteristics, but usually against acting* certain Ways toward nature.- For- example; in 6ne-st6ry a not those chosen by Western taxonomists. One-story qf thetPjstant T^ime salmon-wornan was scraping skins at night With her upper jaw, and while says that al^'-the smaller,animals were related agisters, who live^l togetherin doing this she was killed. This is why it is tab6o for women to scrape hides an underground house. TheierincludedTed squirrel, mink^fqx, several owl during the night. Hundreds of such taboos e"xist, and a person who Violates species, shortTtailed weasel, -ptarrnjgan; and others. Another, related group them (or someone in the immediate family) may suffer-bad luck hi subsis includes the four w(a$ei mammals": ott.er? mink, beaver, an the larger is considered the older brother to the smaller—brown bear to the Most interesting of all is *animal behavior interpreted: to be religious. black bear, for example, and flicker to- the woodpecker. "Even animals have their taboos," a womantonce tolji me. From her grand The Koyukon people conceptualize a natural order, but its structure and father, she learned that -gestating female1 beavers will not eat bark from the foundation are quite different from our own. No one described to me a fork of a branch, because'it is apparently tabooed for them. The late Chief system of phylogeny or biological interrelatedness, but I did not probe this Henry had1 told her of seeing a brown bear "kill a? ground squirrel,-then tear matter exhaustively and may have failed to ask the right questions. Such a out its, hearty lungs, and* windpipe and leave them'ori ?a rock. Again, the system might'exist, or perhaps the world's makeup is sufficiently explained organs must have been taboo (hutiaanee). in the stories. Once*; on a fall hunt afoot in the Kk'oonootna (Kanuti on maps) head waters, thelate Chief Henry shot and wounded a.young caribou. It fell and The Place of Humans in a Natural Order the rest of .the herd ran away.- But a short while later its mother returned: When Raven created humans, he first used rockforthe raw materials, and i She came back to it. And she started-circling it the Way the sun goes people never died. But this was tob easy so he recreated them, using dust around.. . At the end* of that she put her muzzle where t\ie blood was instead. In this way humans became mortal, as they remain today. leaking down. She kept her muzzle down there jor:awtiile,.t I don't know what she was doing, maybe drinking it$ bloon*., And then she circled if the How does humanity fit into the world of nature and the scheme of living same direction again. And she put her muzzle on'the other side where the things? For the Koyukon, humans and animals are clearly and qualitatively blood was leaking down. And she kept her muzzle therefor awhile. ,At separated. Ohly'the human'possesses a soul*(nukk'ubidza-, "eye-flutterer"), the 'ehdshe took her Muzzle away. And all tha{ time the calf was'holding which people say is different from the animals"1spirits. I never understood up its head. And it pushed out its muzzle and shook itself, like this.. And then it took off and it looked like it was flying upriver.Andjhelate the differences, except that the human soul seems less vengeful and it alone Linus said, "Look at that-^he made medicine tojier child." -r-?enjoys' immortality in a special place after1 death'. The distinction'between t I guess that she made medicine to it and there was nothing wrong with animals 'and people is less sharply drawn than iri Western thought—the it. [Jones, n.d.:4-5] humeri' organism, after all, was created by ah-animal's power'. The Koyukon seem to conceptualize humans and animals'as very similar The distinction between humans and animals is 'further blurred by recog beings. This derives-nbtso much from the'animal nature of humans as from nition ofa human, creature that occupies- the wifdlands and remains almost the human nature- of animals-. I noted earlier, fo'r 'exam'pld; that today's totally'alien from society. This is nik'inla'eena, "the sneak'ef,"1'called animals once belonged fo an essentially human society-, and that transmuta "woodsman"'in English. Woodsmen 'are as real as an-y- otner 'inhabitant oi* tions between human and'animal form were common. One of rhy Koyukon the Koyukon environment, But they are extremely shy and'quick to vanisli teachers said, however', that after the' Distant Time people and animals whenpeople come near. They are said" to be'humans who* became wild became completely separate and unrelated. either after committing' murder or engaging in 'cannibalism. Occasionally Animals still possess qualities that Westerners consider" exclusively hu^ they harass people of-steal from them,1 but they'are not'a great danger. man, thought—they have a range of emotions, they have distinct per-* People tell countless stories about'encounters with woodsmeft (see chap. 10) sohalities, 'they communicate among themselves, and they Understand and regard them as regular inhabitants bf the environment. They are espe hum'an behavior, ana language. They are constantly aWare of What pedple cially interesting as a'bridge across the narrow gap between humans and say and do, and their presiding spirits are easily offended %y*disrespectful animals, or between thewbrlds of humanity1 andrnature. behavior. The interaction here is very intense,'and the two orders-df being coexist far more closely than in our own tradition. But animals do hot use Nature Spirits and Their'Treatiherit human language among themselves. They co'mmunicate with sourid^Hvhich are considered their own form of language. From the Distant1 Time stories,'-Koyukon people'leam rules for proper The'rloseness of animals to humans \s reinforced b*y the factHhat some conduct toward nature. But' punishment for offenses against these rules is animal's are given funeral rituals following the"basic form of those held'for given by powerful spirits that are'part'of the living, present-day world. All people,' only on a smaller scale. Wolverines have a fairly "elaborate rite, and anim'als*, some'plants, and some inanimate thingsTiave' spirits, vaguely con be'ars'are" giv'enVpotlatchlike feast. In-these'case's, at least, aniinal spirits are ceptualized essences that protect the welfare of their material counterparts. placated 'much' as'human souls are after death*. * They are especially watchful for'irreverent, insulting,1oiSwaste'ful behavior ~ 22 / Chapter Two The Watchful World / 23 toward-living thingsr-The, spirits are not offended when people kill animals (see Jette 1911 for a full accounting); but these seerii to have little importance and use them, but they-insist that these beings.j(or their remains) be treated I today.-Perhaps Christian ^teachings" displaced op'undermined these beliefs, with the deference.owed to the sources-of human life. I unlike those concerned AvitlV'spiritS of natural entities*: Devices used to catch Not all spirits are possessed of equal pqwer. iSome animal species have [| and kill ariimals-^-such' as nets', snares, and deadfalls—also'have pbwerful very potent spirits* called biyeega ho'olaanh? which are easily provoked arid spirits.(biyfega ,hootqanh)tysiih,many associated taboos. ^Likq the spiritSjof highly vindictive. These dangerous spirits can bringiserious harm to anyone natural entities, these are still considered important'today. For example, if a who offends them, taking away luck in hunting^on trapping and sometimes I person borrows someone else's snare^ he Wshe may take sick or die frpm its causing illness, disability, or even death.* Animals possessed ofisuch spirits I spirij power. Similarly^ stealing a snarecf aniinatexposes the thief to grave, include the brown bear, black bear,. Wolverine, lynx, wolf, and otter. The I dangqr^frpmrthe spirits of^pth',theTsnare and its catch. c beaver and marmot have similarly,powerful spirits but are,notiso vengeful. I Proper treatment of natural spirits involves,hundreds'pf rules, or taboos The remaining mammals, birds, fish, and some plants and inanimate I (/iM(/(jdnee),rsome applying, tojust, one species andpthers haying much more things have less pbwerful spirits. Although these are very real-and can inflict punishment-(usually bad luck in taking the species), all my instructors agreed that nd'Koyiikbn word'exi'sts for thi§ kind of spirit. In response to that .are no longer alive; and third, ^ treatment, of nonliving entities or objects, my perplexed questioning, one person explained:'1. I will briefly summarize these rules, leaving the specific details for later, |>. chapters. The animal and )ts spirit are one in the same thing. When you 'name i Tfeatmeht'oT Living Organisms ' 3 * '"' <{ Koyukon 'pedple'follpw'sbme-'geheral rules, in their betfaVibr toward liv- name after they die... it' would be calling their spirjt and cbuldbe ing^ariimals. Th'e'^ avoid pointing at them, Tor example1, because'it shoWs dangerous for whoever did it. disrespect,'"like pointing of staring at a stranger." They also speak carefully about animals, especially avoiding boastful talk about hunting or trapping While mpst Koyukon-adults seem,to concur'on the hzsic premises of^ their exploits,. ideplogy, they, yary widely^in their opinions about the specifics and appar- A mgn w^hb saicj \\t wouicl'trap fnany beavers, was suddenly? unable to entlyjdo not.feel inclined toward ar rigid, systematized theology. This, often catch any; and ^omeone who tpraggefi ahput^bear hunting waslater attacked left me confused, no^doubt because^f my Ju,de,o-Christian background>-and and seriously hurt. |n fac^^bea^s^re^oipowerfqliljatjeYery word spoken if my account pf.ceftainconceptSjis amorphous p,r inconsistent it,pr,0Derly about themes,carefully,chosenj. Trapped animals-,are also .treated respect reflects my, learning experience. Koyukon people, mpst find us painfully fully, and Ipawerful ones-like the wojf-or,;wolverine may be addressed in compulsive and conformist about, our systems pfjbejje/. , ,._, special ways before they are "killed. One man said;that he* always 'asks Per.haps.this helps,tq explain spme differences between my learning ^nj] trapped animals for luck: "My animal, I hope that more of You will come , that of Jette (1911:lplv604, 605)tand LpyensJia^O). They found, fpr my way." *• * *' example, that wherea^each human has a, spirit, of its own, animals have^a 'Keeping wild animals as pets is also-prohibited, except for species whose collective, spirit for each species. As.tiie^quQtatipn shows, my teachers envi personality trai^are valifed'irf'hufnahs. A 'child who"'keeps' a*red fox ivill 1 sioned no such "keeperIspirits",pve,rseeing-w^iole_species. Individual ani become mischievous; but if a Boy raises" a haWk' owl fie will acquire its mals, like individual humans, bave their own spirits. Again, perhaps only hunting'still and 'cleanliness.'People seldom keep pets,'because they are an outsider would be troubled by this ^apparent mcpnsistency-.*, " tJ .* 4 likely to suffer/ offending their ^spirits and causing'illness or bad luck for When an animal is mistreated, I was told, its individual spirit is affronted, those involved'in their 'captivity. A worhan told me of ldsin£ her small cliild 1 but .all numbers of its spqcies ,mayf become,(aloof from the /offender.,In about a year after the death of a baby- h'awk owl her family had kept. The fopner times, shamans could manipulate, spirits for rthe opposite- effect. tragic connection was clear. '" ' ' They:made dream vjsifs to "animal houses".that,jwere filleji.with^piritsp,f a Taking individual animals away to zoos, even catching and releasing particular animal, then Attracted them. tOj certain, gaits, of .the country to them alive as part oPstudies.'is a spiritual affront that1 ca£ <;ause a species to enrich the harvest there. . t 1 ,„ T ^ >. •, i-i* shun the area.'F6r ,this" reason Koyukon people are opposed to wifdlife Many otiier supernatural beings inhabit tl^e .traditional! Koyukon world research in their country if it involves live capture 01 animals. 24 / Chapter Two The Watchful World / 25 ^ We have respect for the animals. We don't keep them in cages or torture There are also rules for proper butchering of game—for example, certain them, because we know the background of animals from the Distant-Time. cuts that should be madeor avoided for a particular species. There are rules We know that the animal has a spirit—it used tqibejtuman—apd we for proper care of meat, such-as keeping all meat-covered when it is outside, know all the things it did. It's notjust,.an animal; it's lots more than that. protecting it from scavengers or from any insinuation that it is not re spected. And a multitude of rules govern who eats an animal or parts of it. Following from this, Koyukon people believe that animals must be Young adults and especially women of childbearing age are subject to a wide '? treated humanely.**The spirits are not offended because humans five by array of these. Rules for each species will be'detailed™ in the forthcoming hunting, but people must try to kill without causing suffering and to avoid chapters. K losing wounded animals. A**"starving moose; mired in deef> snow'near Hus Finally, there are regulations to ensure that unusable parts'of animals are lia, was fed daily until it regained strength and could'walk awayt Once a respectfully disposed of. For example, bones of water animals such as bea man'found a black Bear with cubs, driven from their den by groundwater, ver, muskrat, and mink should be cast into a lake or river. Bones of large hdpelessly starving'in the deep snow. He' end,ed" their suffering, then dis land animals should'be put in a dry place aw*ay frdm the village or com membered and covered their unusable carcasses, lest he offend their spirits pletely burned in a remote spot. And the remains bf small animals ought to by killing without'at least symbolic utilization. "We'll come back for this be hung in bushes br* burned (cf. Clark 1970:86). Adherence has declined later," he told his c'o'rnpanion, a placating remark that he knew he would today, but many people scrupulously avoid leaving aViimal remains to rot not abide by. on the ground (especially where someone might Walk over them) or mixing them with household trash. Treatment of Killed Game Punishment for' ignoring or violating .'these regulation's depends on the The rules for showing respect to killed animals and harvested, plants are power of the living thing and the gravity of the offense. Spirit vengeance can myriad. I will give spme general principles and a Tew illustrations here, be as severe as death or decades of bad luck in catching a species. Disregard leaving fuller details for the discussion, of each species. There must be hun ing the prohibitions against eating certain foods usually causes clumsiness or dreds of taboos I never heard about, however, so this book contains only a ! other physical problems. Only old people who no longer hunt can eat sampling. red-necked grebe, for instance; because this bird is'awkward on land. A young person who ate it would become slow and. clumsy or would have Today I was told about a man who had once jokingly stuffed children with these shortcornings. I never understood whether animal spirits debris into the" opened jaws of a dried pike head nailed on a 'cabin door to'ward off bad spirits. His cbmpanions were horrified that cause such "c6ntagious" reactions, but the innumerable food taboos are he would open himself to retaliation from the animal's spirit. generally respected as an important, way of protecting health and well-being. --^•"When you do-something like that—Svhen you'doh't show respect Many bf the rules apply to everyone, regardless of age or sex. But a large for animals-^-it's justJik'e making fun o'fthcBible." [Huslia jour number of special restrictions apply to wbmen between puberty and meno nal, March 1977] pause. Koyukon wbmeh'are skilled and"active providers—they hunt, fish, trap, and gather'on their own or along with men.. Although they are compe The remains of animals and plants are treated with the deference owed to tent and prbductive^they are somewhat limited by their possession of spe something sacred. For example, when fur animals ,(such as mink, beayer,.;or cial power that can Easily alienate 'or offend natural spirits. wolf) are brought inside the house for skinning.-tneir nairj^s should nojt he The menses (hutia'd) has its own spirit thit contains the essence of femi mentioned, nothing, should be burned lest jthe smell .pffend their spirits,' ninity, and it can bring bad'luck with aniirials1, feminize men and alienate metallic noises should be avoided, and even if it is unfrozen and skinned fjie animals from them, or even cause sickness or death. To avoid these dangers, carcass should be kept indoors overnight. One way,to prevent,$fficulties js Koyukon women were traditionally 'secluded during menstruation (some to plug the nostrils of smell-sensitive ^animals like mink by smearing, lard on pubescent girls are still briefly sequestered at the first menstruation), and them. Cloth may also be wrapped around^'an animal's head to protect it they continue^to.follow a multitude of special taboos regulating their use of from offensive noises. animals and their behavior toward them. I had bad luck with fox this year^ Come to think of it, I was using Spirits of the Physical World ^ , , noisy power tools while I had afox,in the house. Guess that's t Elements of the earth and sky are imbued "with spirits and consciousness, why. .. it's got really sensitive ears. Vyhen you get bad luck like this you just have to 'let it wear off! There's nothing else you can do". much in the way of living things, and there are codes of proper behavior 26 / Ghapter Two The Watchful World / 27 toward them. Certain landforms have special ^powers that must be placated years afterward his luck'was gone*—he never took a single^bear* Finally the or shown deference, for example..Even the weather is-aware: if a man brags effect? wflre off and sirfce regaining his IUCK he%as killed'^ least one- De'ar that storms or cold cannot'stop him from doing something, "the weather bach-season. ; >' < " ' «u ' vc « [ *o , A will take cafe ofhim'good!" It will humble him,with its power, "because it h Luck fan be passed^albhg to others, but'it is"a lbflike'nKmey. The'ohe knows." b 'who gives it up may b£ left with nothing. To illustrate, -when* btfaver srfarlfig *• y - was made legal years ag®, it'was vefy-hardfor young ^ecJple to learn howHo Infalltime yoil'jl hear the^ lakes make loud crocking noises after they do it. The older men knew but were reluctarttT^reveaf th'eir-waysf, be"ca*tise freeze. It means they're asking for snow to cover them up, to protect them ;l telling sbmeohe'how to make a trapping'set*also'giveV^him'-your luck.* frpm $he cold. ,tyhen myfather\told me this , he said pverythinghaslifeinit. t t Everitually peopled reach* an"age of Inactivity*" when-'their measure bf lu*ck He always use$ to tell us that. t becomes superfluous. THen they "can* confer their lilcKori'otnerVKysimply -~? ' The, earth itself is the source of a preeminent spiritual power called sink wisning'Ht so. This is "why* children ofteri present-their first-killed game'to" elders,'3nd why young"hunters 'give liberal shares'ofthelf'catcli'fo^ld^nefi taala' in.Koyukon. This is the foundation of medicine.power once.used by JI shamans, and because^of it the earth must be shown, utmost respect. One who'nd longer gb ouVonto the land. ' ' ht ' i . ?' rj person who was cure4 by medicine power .years jago.^or exarnple, still Possessions like-slecfe, fishnets,-rifles, or-sntfwshoes are also"itifused-With abides by the sharnan^s instructions to avoid digging^ in, the earth. Berry luck. A man lamented to me that one of his high-caliber nines had failed to plants have special power because they are nurtured^ire^tly.frorri the earth. kill a bear coming out of its den although it was at dose range. He had to use another gun to finish the animal. This gun-was "out of luck/.Vhe explained, "People are careful ab^out things that gro,w close to the grp(un^," I was told, "because the earthis so great." ^ and he suspected" that-a young woman had renderedit useless by stepping rv over it.' ** ' -! " "' ,J V •** 6*tf 1 The Manifestations pf Luck Putting on- an6ther "person's rnitte'hs can! 'eitherjake away] his luck tor give him yours. Once I was traveling with' i marrwhose harids became ^airjfully Luck is the, powerfulforce that binds humanity to the jiatur^ spirits and their cold, so I offeree! him my extra mittens. Fie'finally took theni, explaining moral, imperatives, for the, Koyukp^people, luc,k is, a riearly tangible that since I^was leaving Huslia I could get along without luck in things^like essence,, an aura pr .condition that is ''witjh/,; someone in "certain circum trapping. But a short while later he decided to take them off and endure the ( ,3 >u stances or for particular,purposes Luck canine held perrrjanently or.it can be cold instead:- ' '" "' '' • * "• '* ^ 'fleeting and,elusiye. Itjis^an essential ^qualification fo,r success—re|ardless of Luck i^a^fihite* entity, specific t6 e^ch natural thing* or'everi* to certain l a person's_ skill, in the absence of lii'clf tlj,ere is no destiny except, failure. activities. It can-be lost, transferred, and recovered. Luck bihd$-pe6ple~td thk The source, of luck j^ not clearly explained butlnost people-are appar code of proper behavior toward the rfatur'al world. And so'success in lu/iftg ently born with a certain measure^oT it], Tpe,diff]phv is noj: so much in on the land involves far more'thar? a mastery of technical skills". It -requires r getting it as in keeping itt. Luck is sustained by strictly folfowin^the rules of that a sensitive 'Balance be myiKtaineH between'each" persdn and the-con [ ! ! conduct toward natural things. People! who Jose theii; luck have clearly been scious forces of the environment. * : 1 r "i* ' I . i .-, re , , _ i • . l . ,'' ' r. „ i_.ii_ _ .L. i_'_ J'c. _:__: ">H 1 Gifts frflrrj th^ §&&% ?f ^Nafwre ,;>1 ^ ;/»'/• ^ saying bik'uhnaatltonh—Jiterallv, "he-had bee,n J The Koyul^onpeQple live in a world full/if sighs,- directed tow!ard,them,by ' ^c^ " If a person has good luck, catcfies gdme.it is because something created e the omiiiscientfspirits. ,Th extraordinary power qfjiature spirits ^aws^TjJ^ the world, and that'is helping him to*get what he'neea's. i >- in her life, and two weeks later her brother-in-law suddenly died. It is also a Living things, or parts of them,-can also be" used as religious objects;'a£ain bad sign to find an animal that has died in strange or bizarre circumstances. to tap the power of their abiding spirits. Hunters arid travelers camp beneath A woman found an owl dead in the entangling meshes of her fishnet, and large trees- as much for spiritual 'as physical protection. Skins of certain la£e,r. that ye,ar her daughter died. Another w^mair discovered a ptarmigan anirrials (salmon, least weasel, flicker) are used as amulets/'treasured posses hanging dead by ,a .single toe from a willow branch. Her grandfather, a 1 sions that bring good luck or avert the sudden ^malevolence of'a harmful shaman,, wa.rtiecj that, it was powerfully ominous; and death came to her poWer? <' .»* «- 9 new,bpj?\ child the following spring. Tne're are also a few ways of using'plant or'ahirrral'splrits to affect physical f Qccurrenc.es* like these" are,both fascinating and frightening, and some things. For example, a fishnet can become "full of bad luck," especially if'it times people talk as if they.not only foretell but also cau§e the events that is used by a woman who violates a taboo'a'gainsfreating'freshly caught* fish follow. Not all signs indicate.bad luck, and not all come in strange ways: (which are not considered corhpletely dead) while shels'fhenstruating.' This Sonje animals, like owls and ravens, give signs in their,calls and flight malevolence may'be counteracted with aft unidentified plant, possibly blue patterns. These might lead a hunter to game, forecast the weather, or tell of bell, which is catted-fobkk* a lodaaldldya ("something'that lies ih-the'fisH's good or bad hunting luck. And a few signs also come from the physical mouth")\ The* net is hung up and this, plant is burned under it'so the %fnoke world, such as heavy hoarfrost, a powerful evil,omen. These and others are drifts up through the meshes. » described in later, chapters. „ By.understanding the'manifestations* of spirit powers in nature, Kdyukon i people are able to forese'e*ahdsometinies change the course df events. They iVery rarely, a beluga [a small arctic whale] swims far up the can help to create good fortune, they can avoid hardship or shortage',^they Yukon, and it is a sign of death. Years ago one wasr'Seen-near a can prepare themselves for preordained happenings that lie 'ahead; and they Koyukon village, whose people chased and shot it. The animal can sornetirnes directly influence the environment to their own benefit.- was lost, and later some people saw its remains, downstream. i f .After that the vjllage be^an to decline and some of its peopkdied t Harnessing the Powers of Nature badly—from freezing and drowning. [Huslia journal, December 1977], Modern Koyukon vieWs of nature are strongly influenced by a cultural T tradition that is probably not practiced today or that exists only-as a refnnant Not all signs come directly from nature. Dreams are sometimes taken as at best. This"is the tradition of slianianism, trie^use of medicine 'power to forecasts p£ good or bad luck in hunting, although I was told,little about it. control nature spirits ditectly. Although sharnanism apparently is seldom, if In the Koyukon village pf .Nulato^ jSullivan- (\942:\22T?3) learned ,that ever, practiced today, most adult. Koyukon have seen and experienced it people can receive dream signs about hunting or trapping from the spirits of many times in their!lives. Medicine "power haS oeen Used to cure many animals. Bloody or murderous.dreams reveal that an animal .will be killed. people of illnesses* that they 'believe Would otherwise have killed' theni: Qther foreshadowing events are more mundane-r-for example, if loops in Today the old medicine'people seem to have vanished without passing then* the tie of a sled rope form the shape of ears,y it is a sign of hunting luck. If skills along', b'ut the concepts and' beliefs- slirrounding the'trr-remain intact.* such loops form when one lashes a pair of snowshoes, they will bring good Koyukon "shamans (difinyob; singular diyininh) did not have'power them luck to someone who uses them. selves, but*they knew* now to use'the'spirit forces that surrounde'd'them in Although Koyukon people are helpless-to "change signs giveri "theni nature: With this they could do good or evil, atcording to their personal through natural spirits, they can sometimes use these powers to influence inclinations. Each shaman—who might be either a man or a woman—had H i ' the cbiirsebf events. Spirits can be propitiated, 'asked to benefit p'eople or to special associations with a nufnber'of familiar spirits. 'For example, one man contravene ah evil sign. One way'of doing this is-td"make""prayers" to "called forv- Wood Frog, Birch Woman, Raveh; 'Northern Lights, and certain anirh'als, entreating them for good health or good luck. Such prayers othefs when he made medicine.- Some* spirit associations were begun in aire* given"especially to ravens, because their poWerfuTspirits often show dreams (Sullivan 1942:120)^ but this man irfh'erited his'animal "helpers from* benevolence toward people. Appeals may be specific or general. For exam- an uncle. Often he used the raven spirited "scare'"away the sickness in rile,'when people see 'certain birds migrating southward in the fall, they'may someone," mimicking a raven's'-melodious cawirig, Spreading ruYa'frhs like speak'to the'm:"'! hope you'*will return again and that we will be here to see wings, and bdu'ricing on both feet'a*s a r'averi would. 'One of rfiy Koyukon you." If is a request'that birds" arid people may survive the Uncertainties of instructors who was sickly in' his youth'said that this "man had cured him winter. many times. ! "* 30 / Chapter Two The Watchful World / 31 i Aside, from curing (or pausing) sickness^sjiamans^uspd spirit; power^to j-fThis is happening, she believes, because the shamans have gone and they no manipulate the envirpnfnent fqr their owr^ar someone else's benefit,.; Before 'longer use the ravens':power. So now.their spirits'are adrift—helpless waifs caribou hunting, for example, they made.'medicinei.tp bring animals to the without a purpose—somehow no longer able to watch-bver the well-being hunters^ tolforetelLtheir chances of success,"or to show them where to. find | of their "animal: representations. 1: game--Spirit helpers-.assisted .them by qommuniqating with a protective Peoplershould be using this power, she surmised, to Aware of these invisible forces and their manifestations, the Koyukon can protect and enhance their good fortune, can understand signs or warnings giveri them through natural events, and can sometimes influence the com Earth, Air, and Sky plexion of the environment to suit their desires. Everything in the Koyukon world lies partly in the realm beyond the senses, in the realm we would call i i supernatural. The "Physical Realm The subarctic world of the Koyukon is dominated by physical forces that may be incomprehensible^ to an inexperienced outsider. If'the spiritual powers of this environment seem ethereal, its physical powers are the oppo site. The land itself is massive, both in its extent and in the amplitude of its up- thrown mountains. Great rivers carve the terrain, running each spring with a chaos bf fractured ice, periodically spilling over their banks to submerge the flats and make islands of the hills. The summer day lasts for months yet is too short against .winter's darkness. And finally the weather—the omnipotent cold, the snow and storms, and the brief summer heat, when forests are set afire bypassing thunderstorms. Weather is..the hammer and the land is the anvil. ,, • \ >t. So it is>to the outsider's eye; arid, though less awed, even the Koyukon people see it'5 as a hard and forceful world. Their lives must be patterned to the landscape, the cycles of'Iight and darkness, and the inexorable turning of the seasons. Although at'times the environment can be nurturing and easy, it is often difficult and indomitable indeed. And for the Koyukon, it is also sensitive to huihan behavior, because the natural and human .communities ~) originated together in the Distant Time and have never become completely > separate. The following pages will describe the nature of the physical world, focusing not on what can be seent and measured, }but on what must be known through tradition. They will discussthe Koyukon. way of perceiving and interacting with entities of the earth, air, and sky, and the aesthetic k,-