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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-19367-2 - Mao Cult: Rhetoric and Ritual in China's Cultural Revolution Daniel Leese Index More information

Index

“acting as if,” 18, 199 Chongwen district, 136 activist congresses, 238 chuanlian to, 139–41 criticism of, 243–4 loyalty dance in, 228 language of, 183–5 and mass receptions, 88, 138, 256 organization of, 175–9, 187–8 May 1966 Politburo meeting, 122, activists, 18, 103, 219 124–6 within the PLA, 110, 112–13, 128, Municipal Secretariat, 137 152, 205, 227 Ninth Party Congress, 226 al-Assad, Hafez, 19, 260 October 1966 CCP leadership Albania, 75–8, 80 meeting, 143 Altar of Heaven, 139 Palace Museum, 7, 136 Anhui, 116, 239 revolution of cityscape, 134–5 Anti-Japanese Military and Political staging of The East Is Red, 3 University (Kangda), 96, 179 study classes, 172 Anti-Revisionist Writing Group, 79, Temple of Azure Clouds, 7 124, 255 Beijing Agricultural Institute Middle Anti-Rightist campaign, 63–6 School, 144 April 11th Combat Team (Guizhou), Beijing Aviation Institute, 161 165–9 Beijing Aviation Institute Red Flag, Austin, John, 182, 185 169, 198 Beijing Daily, 129 Babaoshan cemetery, 127 Beijing Exhibition Center, 145 badges, 149, 209, 213, 227 Beijing Forestry Institute, 144 prior to Cultural Revolution, 258 Beijing Garrison, 113, 131–2, production of, 214–16, 230 136, 169 as symbols of revolutionary activist congress, 176, 184 conviction, 190, 216, 223 arming the Left, 169 Baoding, 118 Beijing General Foodstuff Factory, 190 barefoot doctors, 192 Beijing General Knitting Mill, 196–201, Beijing, 165, 174, 193, 223, 245, 208, 219, 258 247, 251 Beijing General Reception Station, badge production in, 215 139–41 Central Military Commission Beijing Geological Institute, 137 meeting (1967), 155 Beijing Middle School No. 64, 209

291

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-19367-2 - Mao Cult: Rhetoric and Ritual in China's Cultural Revolution Daniel Leese Index More information

292 Index

Beijing Military Region, 100 and factions, 165 Beijing Mining Institute, 157, 159, 217 and Little Red Book, 118–19 Beijing New China Printing and Long Live Halls, 217 Factory, 220 official imagery, 41–2, 44 Beijing Normal University, 204 opposition to ritualistic worship, Beijing Normal University Girls’ 149, 197–8, 208, 229 Middle School, 132 and press liberalization, 57 Beijing Party Committee, 50, 119, and propagation of Men He, 187–8 124, 126 and renewed rectification, 55 Beijing Revolutionary Committee, represented by Mao, 106 172, 221 and restriction of gift offerings, Beijing Second Cotton Mill, 190 73, 223 Beijing Shijingshan Middle School, revisionism in, 85, 122 195–7, 258 and revolutionary committees, 154, Beijing University, 61, 201 164 Beijing University Middle School, 146 and Stalin’s death, 25 Benn, Philip, 29 steering of Cultural Revolution, 147, Bernstein, Eduard, 16 172–3, 176, 205, 208, 219, 223–4, Böhme, Hartmut, 261 255–6 Book of Great Equality, 1 CCP Central Secretariat, 30, 38, 114 Bourdieu, Pierre, 75, 164 CCP General Office, 30, 114, 116, 122, branding 159, 232 and Chen Boda, 161 CCP Liaison Department, 30 during the Three Loyalties CCP Politburo, 18, 74, 89, 123, 254 campaign, 213 after Mao’s death, 245 and Liu Shaoqi, 74 August 1966 meeting, 172 and Mao Zedong, 158 and Chengdu conference, 67 of nations, 17 and CPSU, 41 and Peng Zhen, 64 disbandment of, 154 and political symbols, 16–19, May 1966 meeting, 109, 122, 124–7, 22, 254 129, 256 Bulletin of Activities (PLA), 96 and patron–client relationships, 19, 256 Cantlie, James, 6 and personality cults, 44, 46, 71 capitalism, 60, 65, 67, 101, 123, 135, and polemics, 81 183, 242 and Polish upheavals, 48 CCP Center, See CCP Central pre-1949, 7, 12 Committee reevaluation of secret speech, 51–2 CCP Central Committee, 36, 49, 105 and secret speech, 30–4 and Anti-Rightist campaign, 64–5 and state chairman issue, 232–4 and Central Bureau of Guards, 196 CCP Political Research Office, 31 and chuanlian, 138, 141 CCP Propaganda Department, 116 control over cult symbols, 73, 159, and Cultural Revolution, 106, 122 162, 169–70, 230, 258 and directed public sphere, 20, 44, and criticism of Lin Biao, 237 57, 238 endorsement of ritualistic worship, and Little Red Book, 114, 118–20 197–8, 202 and Marxist classics, 110

Index 293

and monitoring of public opinion, Chen Yi, 154 47, 50 Chen Yun, 41, 51, 105 and parades, 41 Chen Zaidao, 169 and secret speech, 30–1, 36 Chengdu, 221 Central Bureau of Guards, 96, 196 Long Live Hall in, 217, 219 Central Caucus, 154, 159, 224, 227 Chengdu conference, 67–71, 82, 89, 92 Central Cultural Revolution Group Chiang Kai-shek, 101 (CCRG), 137, 147, 245 cult of, 7–12, 18, 38, 87, 254 conﬂicts with PLA, 231 China’s Destiny (Chiang), 11 criticism of, 144–5, 154, 224, 249 Chinese Communist Party (CCP), 25 criticism of cult manipulation, 208, and Anti-Rightist campaign, 65 223, 227–9 archive policy of, 16 dependence on Mao, 235, 255 central work conference (1965), 123 dissolution of, 231 criticism of, 50, 63 documents of, 187 and directed public sphere, 21 and Lin Biao, 160 and dogmatism, 53 and mass organizations, 161, 164–5 Eighth Party Congress, 44, 47, 55, politics of, 128, 240 233, 248 and Red Guards, 138, 143–7 Eighth Party Congress, Eleventh and Wuhan Incident, 169 Plenum, 116 Central Military Commission, 91, Eighth Party Congress, Second 112–13, 145 Plenum, 49, 71 documents of, 102, 187, 238 Eighth Party Congress, Third and Hua Guofeng, 246 Plenum, 65 meetings of, 92–3, 107, 112, Eleventh Party Congress, Fourth 155, 188 Plenum, 249 replacement of, 176 and explanation of personality Central Party School, 247 cults, 35 Central Propaganda Group, 237–8 and instigation of Mao cult, 11–12, Chairman Mao Memorial Hall, 245 15, 20 charismatic mobilization, 22–3, 59, 87, and Mao’s ascent, 7 138, 252 and Mao’s legacy, 248–50 failure of, 147, 257 National Propaganda Conference charismatic relationships, 19–20, 22, (1957), 59 54, 223, 234, 236, 247, 255, 260 Ninth Party Congress, 150, 174, 179, charismatic rule, 12, 14–15 193–4, 208, 226–9, 234, Chen Boda 238, 261 dependence on Mao, 123 Ninth Party Congress, Second and drafting of documents, 31–2, 52, Plenum, 230, 237 79 and parades, 38 during Cultural Revolution, 129–32, and party unity, 126 134 and patron–client relationships, and Little Red Book, 114–15 19, 161 at Lushan 1970, 233–5 and personality cults, 48, 262 and mass organizations, 161–2 and priviledged strata, 57 purge of, 235 and revisionism, 123, 125 Chen Mingshu, 63 and Second United Front, 8

294 Index

Chinese Communist Party (CCP) criticism of, 208, 227–30, 243–4, (cont.) 247 Seventh Party Congress, 12 daily reading, 2, 201, 243 Seventh Party Congress, Second development of, 174, 208, 229, 258 Plenum, 4, 45 disciplinary character of, 199, Tenth Party Congress, 237–8, 241 206–7, 224, 258 Chongqing, 221 eternal live taijiquan, 204 chuanlian, 128, 138–42, 166 jiangyonghui, 197, 243 class struggle, 115, 122, 190, 202 loyalty dance, 2, 23, 204–6, 208, concept of, 76–7, 79, 182–3 227–9, 243 in the superstructure, 124–6 loyalty-ﬁcation campaigns, 209 cleansing the class ranks campaign, quotation gymnastics, 23, 202–4, 174, 206 208–9 collective leadership, 69, 183, 248, 262 in the PLA, 87, 95, 171 breach of, 28, 34, 250 and religion, 95, 210–11, 259 illusion of, 90 traditional cults, 4 as safeguard against cults, 44–5, 54, Cultural Revolution, 2 75, 106 aims of, 22, 151, 170, 172, 257 Comintern, 48 character of mass movement, 149 Communist Manifesto, 33 future reenactment of, 246–7 Communist Party of the Soviet Union ofﬁcial evaluation of, 249 (CPSU), 43, 91 periodization of, 23 and death of Stalin, 25–6 and print items, 108 and purge of Khrushchev, 84 reevaluation of, 263 and Sino–Soviet polemics, 78–83 remembrances of, 16, 175, 207 Twentieth Party Congress, 27–9, 31, rhetoric during the, 181–3 35, 45, 49, 53, 55, 74 turning away from, 207, 231, 236 Twenty-Second Party Congress, 76–8 Dafang Incident, 164–9 Communist Youth League, 61 Daqing, 110 Confucius, 114, 150, 237, 241–3 Dazhai, 110 Criticize Lin Biao and Confucius Democracy Wall, 247 campaign, 150, 237, 241–3 Deng Tuo, 31, 42, 60 Cuban Missile Crisis, 78 Deng Xiaoping, 48, 105, 262 cult anarchy, 87, 147, 150, 169, 175, criticism of, 143, 146, 228 182, 257, 262 criticism of ritualistic study, cult commodities, 211–16, 219, 105–7, 247 223–4 and Little Red Book, 116–17 after Cultural Revolution, 251 and Mao’s legacy, 247, 250 and Lin Biao Incident, 239 and personality cults, 11, 44–6, 48, sending of gifts, 45, 223 74, 248 cult rituals, 21, 150, 195, 260–1 and polemics, 79, 81 ambiguous character of, 224, 258 return of, 245 asking for instructions, 2, 195–6, and secret speech, 27, 31, 33 198, 201, 243, 258–9 Deng Yingchao, 113 and Beijing General Knitting Mill, de-Stalinization, 22, 29, 76, 109 196–201 Diaoyutai, 116

Index 295

directed public sphere, 20–2, 183 Germany, 8 and language formalization, 181 national socialism, 129, 133, 182, liberalization of, 63 192, 213, 253, 255, 262 dogmatism, 43 Gerö, Ernö, 48 and Soviet Union, 53, 67, 92 Goebbels, Joseph, 133 within the CCP, 55, 61, 68, 73 Gomulka, Wladyslaw, 48 within the PLA, 92, 96 Gong Peng, 3 Dong Biwu, 233 Good Eighth Company on Nanjing Durkheim, Emile, 260 Road, 104 Great Britain, 66, 78, 80 East Is Red, The (drama), 3, 85 Great Leap Forward, 67, 75, Eastern Europe, 12, 30, 49–51, 109, 117, 122, 147, 223, 245 254, 257 consequences of, 74 Engels, Friedrich, 34, 37–41, 68, criticism of, 71, 73 71, 109 death toll, 74 exegetical bonding, 8, 18, 74, 99, 102, impact on PLA, 87–8, 96, 149, 171, 175, 257 97–9, 102 and Mao cult, 18, 73, 83, 103, 111, Fallaci, Oriana, 250 134, 254, 255 Fan Ruoyu, 79 Gruson, Sidney, 29 feudalism, 65, 81, 123, 244, Gu Yuanxin, 196 248, 250 Guan Feng, 144 relics of, 37, 69, 230, 241, Guangdong, 208 249, 253 Guangxi, 209, 219 four firsts, 96, 97, 152 Guangzhou, 136, 141, 243 four good–five good campaign, Guiyang, 166, 168–9, 221, 251 103–04, 175, 238 Guizhou, 154, 164–5, 169, 221–2, Fu Chongbi, 132 224 Guizhou Revolutionary Committee, Gang of Four, 245, 247, 249–50 164–6, 168, 221, 224 and Mao cult, 14 Guo Moruo, 184, 203 Gao Gang, 69 Guomindang, 5–12, 18, 51, 102, Gao–Rao affair, 69, 196 112, 241 Geertz, Clifford, 13, 260 General German Workers’ Hai Rui, 123–4 Association, 17 Handan, 217–18 General Political Department (PLA), 91 He Long, 114, 116 and army internal conflicts, 92–3, Hebei, 208 105, 109 badge production in, 215 criticism of, 176 book sales in, 117 and Little Red Book, 112, 114, 116 and local newspapers, 98 and Mao cult, 99, 159–60, 214 and Mao works, 121 military control, 155 and Men He’s birthday, 188 Gentile, Emilio, 13, 259–60 violent clashes in, 60 Georgia, 29 word crimes in, 207 geren chongbai, 32, 54, 82–3, 249 Hebei Provincial Committee, 31, 60–1, geren mixin, 32, 77, 83–4, 249 73, 110, 115

296 Index

Hebei Provincial Propaganda Kádár, János, 49 Department, 31, 36, 61 Kang Sheng, 54, 237 Hebei Revolutionary Committee, 217 career of, 71 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 185 dependence on Mao, 123 Heilongjiang, 154 on instrumentalization of cult, 208, Henan, 65 227–9, 261 Himmler, Heinrich, 253 and Little Red Book, 113, 116, 120 Hitler, Adolf, 133, 192, 213, 253, 259 at Lushan in 1970, 233–4 Ho Chi Minh, 158 and Mao cult, 14 Hong Xiuquan, 5 and mass organizations, 172 Hoxha, Enver, 76–7, 80, 83 and polemics, 81 Hu Jintao, 252 and United Action, 146 Hu Qiaomu, 30–1, 52, 250 Kang Wenjie, 206 Hu Sheng, 31 Kang Youwei, 1–2, 262 Hu Yaobang, 247, 250 Ke Qingshi, 62, 71 Hua Guofeng, 245–7 Khrushchev, Nikita, 126, 249, 263 Huairen Hall meeting (1967), 154–5 cult of, 66, 69, 77, 80–1 Huang Yongsheng, 208, 231 as example of revisionism, 124, 183, Hubei Revolutionary Committee, 154 189, 193, 234 Hunan, 72, 102, 156, 159, 180, 245 and impact of secret speech in Hundred Flowers campaign, 61, 72, China, 30–1, 34, 52–4, 57, 59, 82, 254 61–2, 247 Hungary, 48–52, 57–9, 125 and impact of secret speech in Hussain, Mian Arshad, 220 Eastern Europe, 47–50, 52 Hussein, Saddam, 19, 157 purge of, 84–5, 122–3 and secret speech, 22, 26–9, 33, 41, Indonesia, 75, 129 46, 64, 254 Inner Mongolia, 177, 212 and Sino–Soviet rift, 75–82 Internal Reference (Neibu cankao), 97 and steel production, 66 Italy, 253 Kidnapped in London (Sun), 6 Kim Il-sung, 40, 157 Japan, 8, 51, 89, 102 Kim Jong-il, 19, 157 Ji Dengkui, 233 Kong Xiangxiu, 113 Jiang Qing, 123, 201, 226, 237 Kuai Dafu, 137, 153, 220 and CCRG, 128, 144, 231 Kunming, 221 criticism of cult manipulation, 208, 227–8 Lanzhou Military Region, 99 letter from Mao, 158, 240 Lassalle, Ferdinand, 16 as part of Gang of Four, 245, 249 Learn from the PLA campaign, 86, 110, and United Action, 146 117, 121, 128 and Zhou Enlai, 241 Lei Feng, 102, 104, 112, 128, 187 Jiangxi, 218, 221 Lenin, Vladimir, 37, 249 Jinggangshan, 139, 141 commemoration of, 76 Jinggangshan April 14th (Qinghua), cult of, 32, 70 157, 220 on dictatorship, 69 Jinggangshan Regiment (Qinghua), and force of habit, 34 156–7, 220 icons of, 38–41

Index 297

mausoleum of, 82 Lin Liguo, 233, 236 On Dialectics, 58, 66, 257 Linebarger, Paul (father and son), 6 and socialism, 49 Little Red Book, 2, 23, 87, 90, 107 works of, 71, 109 compilation of, 109–10, 112–14 worship of, 68 distribution of, 116–22 Lewis, Flora, 29 and foreigners, 119–20 Li Hongshan, 144 importance of, 108–9 Li Wenzhong, 186 as revolutionary symbol, 132, Li Xiucheng, 127 156, 211 Li Yimin, 109 rivaling editions, 114–16 Li Zaihan, 164–6, 221, 224 Liu Bocheng, 114 purge of, 172 Liu Shaoqi, 48, 55, 237 Li Zhisui, 197, 201, 220–1, 241 during Cultural Revolution, 116, Li Zuopeng, 233 126, 143, 146, 153, 228 Liao Chujiang, 111–12 and early Mao cult, 11–12 Liaoning, 65 at Eighth Party Congress, 44 Liberation Army News, 43, 97, 104, and Hundred Flowers campaign, 63 109, 111–13, 116, 128–9 icons of, 38–41 Liberation Weekly, 8, 11, 85 and Mao, 12, 122 Lin Biao, 134, 147, 152, 155, 164, 191, and personality cults, 37, 74–5 201, 208 and polemics, 79, 81 army-internal conﬂicts, 92–3, and secret speech, 32 105, 107 as object of negative integration, and Confucius, See Criticize Lin Biao 195, 240 and Confucius campaign as state chairman, 73, 129, 231 death of, 23, 108, 150, 224, 236, Liu Xiao, 27 241, 262 Liu Yuntang, 131 in early PRC, 51, 74, 254 Liu Zhijian, 99, 114, 116 fallout with Mao, 236 lively study and application, 87–8, 91, and Little Red Book, 109, 112–14 94, 97, 152, 213, 224 at Lushan in 1970, 144 activist congresses, 176–7, 184 and Mao cult, 14, 74, 86–7, 130, criticism of, 243 132, 157–60, 172, 176, 181, Li-Yi-Zhe group, 243 246, 256 Long Live Halls, 216–18, 251 as Mao’s successor, 226–7, Long March, 7, 85, 139, 196, 246 237, 241 Lu Dingyi, 31, 44, 106, 116, 122, 124 and military spending, 95 Lü Hong, 139 and own cult, 160–1, 164, 179, 183, Luo Ronghuan, 91–3, 104–5, 238–40 107, 109 personal traits of, 89–91, 106, Luo Ruiqing, 101, 114–16, 122 132, 134 Politburo speech in May 1966, Malenkov, Georgi, 26, 40 124–7, 256 Malinovsky, Rodion, 84 public criticism of, 144, 225, 237–8, Mandate of Heaven, 4 243, 247, 249–50 mango worship, 219–23 ritualistic style of study, 94–7, 99, Mao statues, 4, 258 101, 104 in Chengdu, 219

298 Index

Mao statues (cont.) and Great Strategic Plan, 153, growing presence of, 149 171, 174 in Guiyang, 251 and Ho Chi Minh, 158 in Handan, 217 and Hua Guofeng, 246 and Lin Biao, 159–60, 239 and Huairen Hall meeting, 154 and ofﬁcial policy, 157–61, 228, and Hundred Flowers campaign, 55, 230, 258 60–4, 254 post-Mao policy, 251 icons of, 38–41, 120, 136, 149, prohibition of, 45 189, 198 and Qi Benyu, 161 and impact of secret speech, as symbolic capital, 156–61 30–3, 36 symbolism of, 156–7 and instrumental value of cult, 38, at Tiananmen, 135 59, 69–70, 72, 95, 106 in Tianjin, 219 and Khrushchev, 75–6 Mao Zedong, 96, 101, 114, 141 legacy of, 247–52, 263 and arming the Left, 169 and letter to Jiang Qing, 158 and Beijing General Knitting Mill, and Li Zaihan, 164, 224 197, 200–01, 258 and Lin Biao, 74, 91–3, 125–6, 152, as brand symbol, 18, 20–2, 54, 179, 231, 235–9, 241 64, 74, 85, 106, 128, 134, and Little Red Book, 107, 112, 151, 256 114, 116 and bureaucracy, 59, 72, 122, and Liu Shaoqi, 122, 129 254–5, 257 and Luo Ronghuan, 105, 107 and CCRG, 124, 224, 231 at Lushan in 1970, 231–3 and charismatic relationships, 48, and mangos, 220, 222–3 236, 247, 255–6, 258 and mass receptions, 128–34, 140, and Chen Boda, 162, 235 151, 172, 220 at Chengdu conference, 67–9, 89 at Ninth Party Congress, 226–7, 234 on contradictions, 57–60, 65 and personal entourage, 196–7 criticism of cult, 73, 158–62 and polemics, 79–81 and cult anarchy, 169, posthumous cult of, 262 and cult discourse, 179, 182, and pre–Cultural Revolution cult, 184–6, 194, 224 83–5, 89 and cult in PLA, 87–8, 90–1, and public health, 192 94–5, 97, 104 and question of truth, 70–2, 256 and Cultural Revolution, 22, and Red Guards, 128, 132–4, 172, 123–4, 129, 151, 154, 172, 174, 219–20, 256 241, 257 and reevaluation of secret speech, and curbing of cult, 229–31, 48–53 179–80, 194, 218 religious worship of, 210–11, 260 death of, 23, 150, 244–5, 254 and revisionism, 85–6, 122–3 early cult of, 7–12, 18, 253 and revolutionary legitimacy, and Edgar Snow, 2–4 126–7 and Eighth Party Congress, 44–6 and ritualistic worship, 174–5, 190, and Gang of Four, 245 195, 201, 209, 258, 261 and Great Leap Forward, 67, ruling techniques, 123, 170, 180, 72–4 254–6, 262

Index 299

sacralization of, 23, 230, 258, 260 Mao Zedong Thought Activist second trip to Moscow, 66 Congresses, 175–8 and secret speech, 254 Mao Zedong Thought Propaganda and Stalin’s death, 25–6 Teams, 197, 201, 219, 222 and study activist congresses, Mao Zedong Thought Study Classes, 176–7 23, 171, 175, 222 and United Action, 144–7 Marx, Karl, 34, 67, 70 writings of, 100–3, 108–9, 111, 113, Marxism-Leninism, 41, 59, 106, 109, 115, 120, 162 226, 228 and Zhou Enlai, 126–7, 131–2, and Mao, 70, 96, 113, 125, 130, 170 171, 224 as party ideology, 45, 70, 94, Mao Zedong Thought, 11, 86, 252, 262 129, 229 and personality cults, 27, 32, 37, 82 collections of, 159 and revolution, 167 as collective wisdom, 248, 250–2 shortcut to, 94, 105–6, 234 as criterion of truth, 67, 71–2, 88, Sinification of, 8, 92, 103, 248 126–7, 147, 160, 183, 254 and truth claim, 38, 44, 53, 55, 72, criticism of absolutization, 144, 243 79, 105–6, 126, 147, 183, 248 and cult commodities, 215 mass line, 35, 45, 66, 70, 229 Cultural Revolutionary praise of, mass receptions, 128, 132–4, 138 183–5 Men He, 187–9, 190–1 at Eighth Party Congress, 46, 233 Middle East, 17 and Hua Guofeng, 246 Mikoyan, Anastas, 31, 48 and Lin Biao, 93–6, 159, 237 Military Affairs Commission, 176, as means to end factionalism, 187, 193 197–8 military training, 23, 92, 103, 149, lively applications of, 90–1, 97, 99, 152–3, 155, 195, 258 101, 175, 187–94 Ministry of Culture, 20, 106, 108, 114, Mao Zedong Thought-ification, 116–19, 122 182, 209 Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 42 model heroes and, 104, 112–13, 128, Ministry of Health, 192 152, 227 Ministry of Public Security, 145 as party ideology, 230 model heroes, 97, 178, 187 in patron–client relationships, 223 model operas, 204–5 as peak of Marxism, 71, 113–15, Museum of the Chinese Revolution, 125 215 in political education work, 152 Mussolini, Benito, 253, 259 and Red Guards, 135, 137, 145, 156, 166 Nagi, Imre, 48 and rituals, 202, 213 Nanchang, 218, 221 as Sinification of Marxism, 8, 92, Nanjing, 7 103, 248 delegation to Shijiazhuang, 189 as source of legitimacy, 21, 87–8, Political Academy, 91 170, 229–30, 244, 256 National Defense Institute, 139 and state chairman issue, 233–6 national socialism, See Germany systematic study of, 93, 119 New York Times, 29–30, 43 vulgarization of, 105–7, 229, 247 Nie Rongzhen, 114

300 Index

Nine Comments (jiu ping), 81 ten-year celebration parade, 85 Ningxia, 162, 172 and tradition of model heroes, 103 Niyasov, Saparmurat (Turkmenbashi), rural character of, 35, 204, 259 253 People’s Liberation Army (PLA), 18 North Korea, 40, 75, 157 attacks against, 156, 169, 175, 257 nuclear test-ban treaty, 78, 80 and CCRG, 231 criticism of, 156, 169, 241 October Revolution, 52, 66, 81 criticism of political education style, Ouyang Hai, 128 104–7 and cult commodities, 211, Pakistan, 220, 223 214, 216 Pan Fusheng, 65 and cult rituals, 175, 202, 208, parades, 38–42, 129–31 224, 229 Pascal, Blaise, 200 and dismissal of Peng Dehuai, 73–4, peaceful coexistence, 75, 79 90, 96 Peng Dehuai, 71, 73–6, 89, 95 and healthcare, 193 Peng Zhen, 52, 63–4, 116, 122, 124 and impact of Great Leap Forward, People’s Daily, 31, 42, 179 96–8 and Beijing General Knitting and impact of secret speech, 92–3 Mill, 200 and inner-army conﬂicts, 180 control of, 64 and legal institutions, 207 criticism of cults, 43–4 and Lin cult, 179 and curbing the cult rhetoric, 224 and Little Red Book, 112–14 and language formalization, and Mao cult, 87, 89, 159, 254 129, 186 and mass receptions, 133 liberalization of, 56 and model campaigns, 102–4, 175 and Little Red Book, 114 period of domination, 23 and mangos, 220 and political education, 91–2 and mass receptions, 130 political education during Great Leap number of articles, 21 Forward, 96–102 and personality cults, 32–3, 53, 65, and Red Guards, 135, 137 82–3 and reestablishment of order, and polemics, 77–81 170, 258 self-criticism, 42–3, 55 study congresses, 186 and Wu Han affair, 124 theft in, 156 People’s Press, 113–14, 118, 120, 124 and three supports, two militaries, People’s Republic, 2, 55, 63, 74 152–5, 182, 189 and cancellation of National Day and Wuhan Incident, 169 celebrations (1972), 237 personality cults and class struggle, 65 as branding strategy, 15–18 and Cultural Revolution, 147, cynical cults, 19, 260, 262 155, 249 emancipation by proxy, 72, 89 and economic policy, 67 emperor cult, 3–5, 7, 14, 75, founding of, 12, 38, 87, 127 252, 261 and language formalization, 20, 183 explanations by Mao, 3–4 and Mao works, 117 modern cults, 5–7 and Soviet Union, 68 Politburo backing of, 11–12

Index 301

scholarly explanations of Mao cult, and unofficial sources, 21, 159 13–15 Red Ocean campaign, 197 traditional cults, 2, 5 Red Star over China (Snow), 2 Petöfi circle, 49 Reference Information (Cankao Phenomenology of the Spirit, 185 xiaoxi), 56–7, 78 Plekhanov, Georgi, 35, 240 Reference Materials (Cankao ziliao), 49 Poland, 29, 48–50, 59 Resolution on Party History (1981), political religion, 12–13, 259–61 23, 90, 249–50 Popper, Karl, 72, 181 revisionism, 22, 52–3, 61–2, 77, 111, popular opinion, 47, 159 115, 192, 245, 255 monitoring of, 47, 49 in the CPSU, 118, 125, 202 Pravda, 31–2, 36 symbols of, 168, 183 within the CCP, 85–6, 123, 147 Qi Benyu, 144, 161 revolutionary committees, 219, 229 Qiao Guanhua, 3 at Beijing General Knitting Mill, 197, Qin Shihuangdi, 241 199–201, 258 Qinghai, 187–8 bureaucracy of, 154 Qinghai Revolutionary and central study classes, 171 Committee, 188 and cleansing the class ranks, 206 Qinghua University, 137–8, 144, 201 establishment of, 154, 174, 181–2, hundred-day armed struggle at, 220 194, 224 mangos at, 220, 222 local establishment of, 176–8 statues at, 156–7 and Mao cult, 157, 187–8, 208, 216, Qu Qiubai, 127 219, 222, 261 Quotations from Chairman Mao and PLA, 231, 241 Tse-tung, See Little Red Book relations with CCP Center, 196 Rosenberg, Alfred, 253 Rectification campaign, 55 Ruijin, 139 and Cultural Revolution, 171 and Hundred Flowers, 59, 61, 65 Selected Readings from Mao Zedong’s in the PLA, 74, 97, 99 Works, 113, 117–18, 135 in Yan’an, 8, 15, 55 Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung Red August, 146 as revolutionary symbol, 135, 169 Red Flag (journal), 76, 79, 114, 146 criticism of absolutization, 105, 107 Red Guards, 4, 179, 186, 219–20 donations of, 227 and chuanlian, 128, 138–42 fourth volume, 75, 93 criticism of CCRG, 145–6 and Little Red Book, 109–11 criticism of Cultural Revolution, publication of, 117–18, 122 144, 243 unsystematic character of, 94 and elite manipulation, 136–8, volumes five and six, 115, 245 144, 147 Shaanxi, 2, 174, 191, 207, 211, 219 factionalism, 137, 143, 147 Shanghai, 136 and mass receptions, 128, 131–4, badge production in, 215 172, 176, 256 and CCRG members, 123–4, 245 and military training, 149, 152, 257 chuanlian, 140–3 and red terror, 134–6, 146 and cleansing the class ranks, 206 rustication of, 172, 220 cult commodities in, 239

302 Index

Shanghai (cont.) and Mao, 25, 59, 68–9, 123, cult rituals in, 202, 210 143, 245 illegal publishing, 162 removal from mausoleum, 76 Shanghai conference, 73 works of, 26, 71, 109, 144 Shanghai Party Committee, 62, 71, 116 Staszewski, Stefan, 29 Shanghai Propaganda Department, 47 State Council, 119, 137, 139, 141, Shanghai Revolutionary 160, 238 Committee, 245 study classes, 149, 171, Shanxi, 154 181–2, 224 Shaoshan, 139, 180 in Beijing, 195 Shenyang, 104, 137 central, 171–2 Shi Ximin, 116 and personnel, 178, 200 Shi Zhe, 29, 33 in Shijiazhuang, 189–90 Shijiazhuang, 118, 189, 209 in Tianjin, 153 Shils, Edward, 13 Suez crisis, 49 Short Course on the History of the Sun Yat-sen, 251 CPSU (Bolsheviks), 28, 37 icons of, 38–9, 41 Sichuan, 67, 165, 170 mausoleum, 7 six factories and two universities, 201 personality cult, 5–11, 18 Snow, Edgar, 2–4, 8, 12, 69, 236 and Taiping cult, 5 Socialist Education Movement, Sun Yi, 196 117, 121 Support Red faction (Guizhou), Song Binbin, 132 165–8 Soviet Union, 53, 262 symbolic capital, 164, 208, 222, 229, archival policy of, 12 256, 258, 260 and dogmatism, 44, 66, 68 and Eastern Europe, 49 Taiping Rebellion, 5, 127 and Khrushchev cult, 77 Tan Zheng, 92–3, 105 reactions to secret speech, 29 Tan Zhenlin, 27, 154 reasons for cult emergence, 35 Tang Pingzhu, 110, 112–13 and revisionism, 124–5, 257 Tangshan, 118 and Sino–Soviet rift, 26, 75–6, Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union 78–81, 85, 92, 102 (TASS), 43, 50, 77 and world communism, 26, 30, 33 Third Front, 85 Special Case Examination Groups, 237 Third Headquarters, 137–8, 143, Stalin, Joseph 145–6 Chinese evaluation of, 33–7, 48–54, three constantly read articles (lao san 58–9, 64–6, 81–2 pian), 72, 202, 213 cult of, 14, 28, 34–5, 53, 64, 68, 70, Three Loyalties campaign, 175, 185–7, 80, 83, 254, 255 189–92, 208–13 death of, 22–3, 25–7, 85, deﬁnition of, 175 87, 245 three supports, two militaries (sanzhi and Gao Gang, 69 liangjun), 155, 175, 183, 229 hometown of, 29 three-eight working style icons of, 38–41 (san ba zuofeng), 96 and Khrushchev, 27–8, 77, 80 Tian Jiaying, 52, 113, 116 legacy of, 29–30, 66, 247 Tianjin, 105–6, 121

Index 303

cult manifestations in, 205–6, Wu Lengxi, 29–31, 49, 51–2, 64 212–13, 219 and polemics, 81 mass organizations, 161–2 Wuhan, 136 Tianjin Daily, 110 Wuhan Incident, 169, 171, 232 Tianjin Revolutionary Committee, 205, 212 Xie Fuzhi, 172 Tianjin Nankai University, 119 Xinhua News Agency, 29, 31, 33, 49, Tianjin Propaganda Department, 47 52, 56, 224 Tianjin Yan’an Middle School, 153 Xinjiang, 174, 216 Tibet, 174, 212 Xu Liqun, 116 Tito, Josip, 49, 53 Xu Rongxin, 94 totalitarianism, 12, 16, 62, 134, Xu Yefu, 233 157, 259 Trends in Propaganda and Education Yan’an, 139, 171 (Xuanjiao dongtai), 47–8, 50–1 Kang Sheng in, 71 Trotsky, Leon, 82 Mao cult in, 67, 87, 134, 145 Tumote, 177–8 and mass line, 66, 93 two remembrances campaign, 99–102, political education in, 96, 179 104, 175 rectiﬁcation campaign in, 54–5, 74, 171 unit 8341, 196, 200–2, 235, and yangge, 204 245, 258 Yang Chengwu, 114, 176, 179–80 United Action (liandong), 23, 88, 128, Yang Shangkun, 30, 116, 122 144–7 yangge (dance), 204 United States, 3, 17, 30, 66, 78, 80, Yao Wenyuan, 231, 237, 245 241, 259 criticism of cult manipulation, 228 and Huairen Hall meeting, 154 Vietnam, 85, 119, 158 and Wu Han affair, 123–4 Yao Zhen, 116 Wang Dongxing, 196, 220, 232–3, Ye Jianying, 114, 154, 245 235, 245 Ye Qun, 201 Wang Guangmei, 31, 129 Yilin Dixi, 144 Wang Guoxiang, 190 Yong Wentao, 137 Wang Hongwen, 241, 245 Yudin, Pavel, 48 Wang Jiaxiang, 27, 30, 52 Yugoslavia, 78 Wang Jie, 128 Wang Jing, 65 Zhang Chunqiao, 231, 237, 245 Wang Li, 79, 105, 169–70 criticism of cult manipulation, 228 Wang Ming, 8 and Criticize Lin Baio and Confucius Wang Renzhong, 137 campaign, 241 Weber, Max, 13–15, 19, 255, 261 and Huairen Hall meeting, 154 Wei Jingsheng, 248 at Lushan in 1970, 233–5 Western District Picket Corps, 136–8, and Ninth Congress draft, 226 143–5 Zhang Qiuju, 193–4 work teams, 153 Zhang Wentian, 11, 30, 52 Wu Faxian, 233–5 Zhangjiakou, 37, 98, 118 Wu Han, 123 Zhongnanhai, 30, 51, 140, 197

304 Index

Zhou Enlai, 237 and polemics, 79, 81 and cadre rehabilitations, 237 and Red Guards, 136, 139–40 criticism of, 241 wife of, 113 criticism of cult symbols, 208, 216, and Wu Han affair, 124 227–8 and Wuhan Incident, 232 death of, 244–5 Zhou Rongxin, 137 and East Is Red, 85 Zhu Chengzhao, 137 icons of, 38–41 Zhu De, 11, 27, 29, 51, 112 and Lin cult, 160 icons of, 8, 38–41 and Little Red Book, 112 Zhu Yuanzhang, 7 loyalty to Mao, 11, 126, 171, 224 Zhukov, Georgi, 73 and mass receptions, 131–4 Zunyi, 139 and PLA, 176 Zunyi conference, 7