THE ENDURING LEGACY 2004 . 4, OF BLOOD LINEAGE THEORY NO RIGHTS FORUM
BY YONGYI SONG CHINA
One of the most destructive debates of the Blood lineage theory and the class line couplet 13 Cultural Revolution period was over whether Blood lineage theory was actually a radicalized version of the Party’s “class line” (jieji luxian) that came into being at the found- China should be run by those who had ing of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, and that had sub- demonstrated their abilities, or by those who sequently gained wide acceptance in Chinese society.The had the appropriate revolutionary pedigree. emergence of blood lineage theory coincided with the rise of the Red Guard movement and its attendant violence during the This debate, which originated among China’s summer of 1966, and can be traced back to two primary docu- TE AND CHOICE A students, transformed a generation, and its ments. One was the “class line couplet” that first appeared as a F big-character poster produced by the Red Guards of the Attached influence can still be seen in the structure of High School of Beijing Aeronautic College on July 29, 1966: “If China’s power elite today. the father is a hero, the son is a good fellow; if the father is a reactionary,the son is a good-for-nothing—it is basically like During the Cultural Revolution, a critical and long-lasting debate this” (laozi yinxiong er houhan,laozi fandong er hundan,jiben yuci).5 arose between the blood lineage theory (xuetong lun), promoted The second was the essay “The Born-Reds Have Stood Up!” by a number of children of high-ranking officials, and the egali- (zilai hongmen zanqilai!), which circulated widely on the campuses tarian principles espoused in Yu Luoke’s essay,“On Family Back- of Beijing middle schools in early July 1966 as the organiza- ground” (chushen lun), and supported by ordinary students. tional principle of the Red Guards. Created by members of the Originating on high school and university campuses, the debate Red Flag Battle Group of the Attached High School of Peking quickly spread and ignited Chinese society at large. Supported by University,one of the founders of the Red Guard movement, the Mao and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), blood lineage term “Born-Reds” (zilai hong) provided justification for the spe- theory spurred the rise of the Red Guard movement and the cial political privileges enjoyed by some students. So-called nationwide red terror that characterized the early stages of the “Born-Reds,” broadly defined as “born under the red flag and Cultural Revolution.The subsequent appearance of “On Family raised in the red military family environment,” considered Background” evidenced people’s growing resistance and, ulti- themselves as having been “fully nurtured by red revolutionary mately,their demands for equality and human rights. education since our childhood.”6 The obvious question that Although this debate has received considerable coverage in comes to mind is, why were these children of high-ranking offi- publications on the history of the Cultural Revolution by Chi- cials demanding political privileges at the onset of the Cultural nese researchers and scholars,1 it has received only very lim- Revolution? Had they not already enjoyed many political, social ited attention in works by Western scholars.2 This contrast may and educational privileges before the Cultural Revolution? derive from the fact that Yu Luoke’s central point,“Every youth The answer is a resounding “Yes.” Since 1949, the leaders [regardless of background] is equal”3 has long been taken for of the CCP,like the feudal rulers they routinely decried, had granted in the West. It may also have resulted from the limited done their utmost to prepare their offspring as heirs to their extent to which the relevant original texts have been translated rule and successors to their power. Creation of the so-called into English.4 However, even with the passage of nearly forty “proletarian class line” helped them legitimize the classifica- years, and the wide acceptance, at least in theory,of Yu Luoke’s tion of their own offspring as first-class citizens while discrim-
central tenet in China, the debate reveals a fundamental con- inating against young people with so-called bad family ide Photos. flict between the masses and the privileged class, and between backgrounds.7 Another important essay of blood lineage the- citizens’ rights and dictatorship, that continues in China today. ory,“Long Live the Proletarian Class Line,”8 by another found- orld W For that reason, the blood lineage debate and its lasting rever- ing organization of the Red Guard movement, at the Attached berations deserve serious attention as an integral part of High School of Tsinghua University (Qi Xiangdong), states
China’s political heritage. that “class line did not fall from the sky; it was earned by the Photo: AP W
hard struggles and sacrifices of our fathers and elder brothers In his essay “What Does the Disturbance of the ‘United Action who shed their blood and laid down their lives. . . .The class Committee’ Reveal?” (liandong di saolun suomingle shenmo?),Yu line stems from the blood and sweat of the previous genera- Luoke aptly pointed out that these bogus victims had actually tions.We must carry it on and never lose it.”9 received favorable treatment from the school authorities and the old education system because of their politically and mate- Proletarian class line legitimized the rially privileged status.As a former student at the Attached High School of Tsinghua University recalled, “The Party lead- classification of officials’ offspring as first- ers in Beijing’s elite high schools all feared being viewed as not class citizens while discriminating against heavily favoring the children of high-ranking officials, since it young people with so-called bad family would be a serious reflection of their class stand in the political culture of the early 1960s.” Some school administrators even backgrounds “became accustomed to taking their cues from the children of high-ranking officials before they did anything on campus.”14 However, since CCP ideology had always claimed that its But it was Mao Zedong who provided the ideological sup- ultimate goals were to “work wholeheartedly for the benefit of port and justification for the removal of academic roadblocks the majority of the people in China and the whole world” and for the children of high-ranking officials and further encour- to “liberate all humanity,”10 its leaders could not publicly advo- aged their radicalism.A few years before the social upheavals cate and build a feudal hereditary system for their children. erupted in 1966, Mao reintroduced and intensified his class They tried to resolve this dilemma by disguising the discrimi- struggle theory,and placed high hopes on the children of natory class line as “laying stress on one’s behavior” (chong zai high-ranking officials for implementation of his so-called biaoxian). In 1965, the Chinese Communist Youth League, which “educational reforms.” From 1964 to 1965, Mao had seven often served as a vehicle through which the CCP leadership conversations with his nephew Mao Yuanxin and niece Wang conveyed their orders and political messages, tactfully summed Hairong, both college students at that time, in which he up class line in the following way: “First, we think class status affirmed the role of class line in college admissions and [family background] matters; second, we do not base every- encouraged children of high-ranking officials to oppose the thing on class status; and third, we lay stress on one’s traditional education system. In one of his conversations with behavior.”11 Not only did this definition deliberately confuse Wang Hairong, Mao commended a son of a high-ranking offi- people’s class status with their family backgrounds, but the CCP cial from Wang’s college who refused to apply himself to rig- had never fully implemented “laying stress on one’s behavior.” orous academic work and willfully rebelled against the existing In short, it was only a subtle version of class line created to gloss education system.15 Mao openly rallied students to his political over the discriminatory nature of an important Party policy that campaigns with the incendiary statement, “Class struggle is directly affected the fate of tens of millions of Chinese youth. the major course for all of you.”16 In any case, this tactfully-crafted definition of class line was Mao’s remarks swiftly circulated among the children of Bei- neither understood nor embraced by some radical children of jing’s Party elites.A former student recently recalled another high-ranking officials who were actually seeking Born-Red sta- “secret directive” in which Mao made the following remark: tus, i.e., an inherent right to power and privilege.The traditional “The political performance of the children of revolutionary education system, where meritocracy played a role, was not yet cadres in schools can only be rated as second-class, but stu- totally destroyed before 1966, and children of officials often dents with bad family backgrounds have performed very well. found themselves competing with, and all too often outper- However, no matter how well they have performed, revolu- formed by,children of other family backgrounds, particularly in tionary tasks cannot be put on their shoulders.”17 This directive the national college entrance examination.This not only not only bolstered the claims of inherent privilege on the part offended their sense of superiority,but also adversely affected of children of revolutionary cadres, but also deepened their their prospects for a privileged life. China’s higher education prejudice against schoolmates from other family backgrounds. system had developed very slowly between 1949 and the eve of Encouraged and emboldened by Mao’s call, a number of the Cultural Revolution; according to official statistics, only 9.7 secret and radical student groups comprised of children of (1964) and 9.3 (1965) out of every 10,000 Chinese had the high-ranking officials sprang up and spread throughout elite opportunity for higher education, and the average rate of high high schools and universities in Beijing shortly before the out- school graduates entering colleges was only around 0.3 break of the Cultural Revolution.An example was the “educa- percent.12 The severe shortfall in opportunities for higher educa- tional reform group” of the Attached High School of Tsinghua tion exacerbated the concerns of some radical children of high- University,18 which became the predecessor of the Red Guards. ranking officials regarding their chances of entering college. In 1964, a similar student group at Beijing No. 4 Middle These students retaliated by creating a political myth that School launched a students’ strike for “educational reform” in portrayed them as victims of the pre-Cultural Revolution edu- which they did away with examinations and “strictly imple- cational system.They complained, “We Born-Reds gasped for mented the class line in schools.”19 As the Cultural Revolution breath under the suppression of the cow ghosts and snake erupted, it was this same group of students who wrote a letter demons [teachers and school administrators], and bourgeois to the CCP Central Committee calling for the abolition of the bastards [children with bad family backgrounds] in schools.”13 national college entrance examination so as to “strictly imple-
cenn;admissionsgiven tothemshouldbelimited.” screening; dren from exploitingfamilies shouldundergopolitical strict thedocumentstressed that “chil- class people.”At thesametime, revolutionary and otherworking martyrs personnel, military revolutionary revolutionary cadres, lower-middle classpeasants, poorand ofworkers, tochildren “giving admissionpriority e.g., intheadmission process, tation of “the Party’s classline” documentcalledfor implemen- lege entranceexamination.This Council issuedanofficialdocumentabolishing thenational col- system. meritocracy h ocle bugoseratoayln”( the so-called “bourgeoisie reactionaryline” or whetheritwas Maoandhisultra-leftcolleagues, the CCP, andexploitedasapoliticalweaponsupported by allfactions in target dictatorship.” oftheproletarian withbadfamilyteachers became backgrounds “the secondary andstudents invaded andransacked, Seven-Categories” homesoftheso-called “Black- books andpaintingsburned, templesandmuseums were desecrated, paign ofred terror; developed systemofdiscrimination permanent intoacam- However, implementation ofthis generation togeneration.” iscalledpassingiton from generation.This by theirfathers’ “Sonswilljustifiably succeedtothepower seized Red Guards: desire for ahereditarysystemthrough theestablishment ofthe Br-lcs ( “Born-Blacks” toassaultthe todirect theBorn-Reds i.e., against theother, wasstationed toinciteonegroup at ofstudents schools various factions jointlyother. toattack insteadoffightingeach age provided theory anew enemy for theMaoandLiu-Deng r ars workers andpeasantstohold power.” cadres, ary directionUniversity, for ofrevolution- “Itistheright children aleaderofsecret radicalstudentgroup at Peking Pufang, Deng Dengtoldhisson, 1966, onJune22, the sametime, campusestokeepto various themovement undercontrol.At of 1966thanLiuandDengunleashedhordeswork groups sooner hadtheCulturalRevolution broken outinthesummer ment classline,” luxian ue l vrCia and itsenthusiasticembraceat alllevels of puses allover China, soonfound theirway tocam- groups andlocalParty officials, Millionsofcopies ments.” byTan’s printed work speech, policies andbecomethecontent offuture Party andstate docu- they suggestedthat theclasslinecoupletcouldbe “refined into “ADiscussion Stimulated by theCouplet,” entitled, poster putoutabig-character of anotherhigh-rankingofficial, betray your families andremold your ideology.” andsouthuntilyou north againststruggle you eastandwest, we will “Firstwe against willstruggle you; family backgrounds: line andcalledfor anew withbad war onstudentsandteachers University,Tanjing Industrial defended thework group for class a high-rankingofficialandblood lineage from Bei- theorist same year inhis at the “Speech August 20Debate.”As thesonof strategy was spearheadedby backgrounds.This Tan Lifuthat nJl 4 96 theCCPCentralCommitteeandState 1966, July On 24, It is important tonotethatIt isimportant blood lineage was theory soon subtly voicedThe essay the have“The Born-Reds StoodUp” One ofthemainstrategies employed by thework groups ihspotfo h okgopTnadLuJn,theson With from thework support group,Tan andLiuJing, sesbyhae yLuSaq n egXapn.No ) ostensibly headedby Liu ShaoqiandDengXiaoping. zilai hei 20 thereby dismantlingthelastremnants ofthe ), students and teachers withbadfamily studentsandteachers ), 22 zican jiejifandong 23 24 Blood line- in which 21 revolutionary cadres.” peasantsand ing that work groups rely ofworkers, onchildren is goodfor implementingtheParty’s classlineandfor demand- “Ithinkitsfundamentalgoal Feng saidoftheclasslinecouplet, core memberGuan Central CulturalRevolution Group (CCRG), ameetingofthe during 1966, On Party’sAugust 1, class line. they would always emphasizethat itbasically the matched Even whenallowing thatwas thetheory “untactful,”it incited. bloodsupported lineage oracquiescedtothered theory terror factions were engaged against inalife-and-death struggle each the Ontheonehand, presents aninteresting phenomenon. ership vis-à-vistheirattitudes towards blood lineage theory immediately aftertheCulturalRevolution. eage aliability hisname that becamesuch theory hechanged but subsequently hisassociation withthecoupletandblood lin- catapulted speech speech.The Tan intoinstantpoliticalstardom, of violenceinspired andendorsedby themessage in Tan’s the expenseofcountlessinnocentpeoplewhobecamevictims government at helpedParty thepoliticalstorm officialssurvive School. Photo courtesy ofYangSchool. Photocourtesy Kelin,MuseumoftheCultural Revolution. criticizeprincipalofTsinghuaRed Guards University AttachedHigh eogscasln, n de,“Iadmire you very much.” Zedong’s andadded, classline,” lauded theadvocates as ofthistheory “fighting for Mao KangShengsimply and “needed somerevision.” Dou Erdun, but that thecoupletstemmedfrom afeudal figure, principle, Jiang replied that sheagreed in withthetheory the couplet. Tianqiao astudentasked themabout theirpositionon Theater, Kang Shengattended amassdebate onthecoupletinBeijing’s Mao andthemembersofhisinnercirclealleitherexplicitly Closer scrutiny oftheantagonistic factions intheCCPlead- 26 nAgs ,whenJiangQingand On August 6, 25 27
FATE AND CHOICE 15 CHINA RIGHTS FORUM NO. 4, 2004 other, while on the other hand, they shared an almost identical in some middle schools: “As soon as the couplet was put out, it view on blood lineage theory.This can perhaps be explained by would ignite a major debate. One day I went to the Central the fact that both factions were comprised largely of pseudo- Music Conservatory to attend a debate where speakers argued communists and opportunists whose primary concern was passionately.However, most of them were advocates of the cou- serving or protecting their own interest instead of that of the plet.” In describing another debate that took place in his class- “majority of the people in China and the whole world.” In any room, Mou writes: “The Red Guards held a class meeting and case, Mao’s promotion and intensification of his class struggle shouted:‘Anyone with a bad family background who dares to theory in the early and middle 1960s, as well as the strong say he is not a cur, stand up!’ In fact, no classmates with bad desire of radical students to establish their institutionalized family backgrounds dared to stand up at that time.”28 Born-Red successor status, were instrumental in the violent In analyzing more extensive debates such as the one held at implementation of blood lineage theory during the early stage Beijing Tianqiao Theater on August 5, some Chinese scholars of the Cultural Revolution. note: “Since the Red Guards who enthusiastically supported the couplet had full control of the stage for the debate, they Resistance to blood lineage theory made good use of the occasion to propagate the blood lineage Although blood lineage theory was never accepted by the vast theory.The unfortunate consequence was that soon after this majority of students on the Beijing campuses where it debate, supporters of blood lineage theory stormed into Chi- emerged, resistance to it was initially very weak, and only built nese society and threw it into greater turmoil.”29 This conse- up to a strong and concerted nationwide effort a year later. quence was also evident in the August 20 debate at Beijing Broadly speaking, the blood lineage debate underwent three Industrial University,where Tan Lifu’s speech encountered no major stages of development. significant challenge from his opposition, and became an The first stage of debate occurred from June to August 1966, instrument for Party leaders to spread the theory across the which saw the rise of the Red Guards and the red terror in Bei- country.Worse still, Zheng Yi, one of the countless victims of jing.This first round of debate was provoked by some Born- this theory,relates how the red terror also caused “widespread Reds with a view to overwhelming the opposition and using degeneration of morals on the part of the victims.” He notes their political advantages to force their inherent privileged sta- that during the terror-filled days of Red August, some students tus on the Born-Blacks. Mou Zhijing, at that time a student at with bad family backgrounds not only belittled themselves as Beijing No. 4 Middle School who opposed the theory,gives the “curs” (gouzaizi) but also actively participated in beating other following description of public debates on blood lineage theory “curs,” sometimes even their own parents.30
A husband and wife involved in cultural work subjected to criticism in Inner Mongolia. Photo: Guo Benchu etme n coe,itbecameevident that Mao’sSeptember andOctober, purge power withintheCCPintensifiedandcontinued into struggle the intellectuals andbureaucrats at thegrassroots level.As the real targets ofMao’s CulturalRevolution went far beyond However, bytion systemthat hisrivals. Maodeemed toberun asalegitimate aneduca- meansof transforming and teachers lent actsoftheOldRedGuardsagainst principals theirschool viewed Maoandhisultra-leftcohorts thevio- tioned before, men- tookanunexpectedturn.As history December 1966, lent actsinthenameofimplementingblood lineage theory. passivity only toeven servedtoincitetheBorn-Reds more vio- their Unfortunately, debate andeven demeanedthemselves. became discouraged thefirststage andsubduedduring ofthe understand why mostyouths withbadfamily backgrounds setbyBlacks theCapital RedGuards West Pickets. CityDistrict the oldRedGuards shown noreal evidence ofpracticingingoodfaith. cling was “laying stress onone’s behavior,” theCCPhad which peoplewithbadfamilycal basistowhich could backgrounds only theoreti- politicalstatus.The their internalized “inferior” forand classlinediscrimination solongthat they hadlargely had already beensubjectedtotheCCP’s politicalindoctrination mostpeople BythetimeCulturalRevolution broke out, it. tocounter its opponentshadnoalternative withwhich theory First, achieved thefirststage great successduring ofthedebate. and theirchildren. ebr ftes-ald“lc-ee-aeois ( members oftheso-called “Black-Seven-Categories” ofthevictimswere vast majority remote countryside.The expelled membersofnearly 9,000Beijinghouseholdstothe and 1,772 innocentcivilianstodeath inBeijingalone, beat assistanceoracquiescenceofthepolice, authorization, withthe many fervent RedGuards, Red terrifying August, the During silenced any would-be oppositionandresistance. sacres committedinthenameofblood lineage effectively and thosewhorepresented it? would thejustification ofthenew dare challenge revolution who tually theonly causeheldsacred by that generation, was vir- sentatives ofthe Since “new“revolution” revolution.” signal that theOldRedGuardshadMao’s blessings asrepre- men Square on August 18sentanespecially strong andclear Mao’s review oftheOldRedGuardparadein cal ends. Tianan- lineage inordertoexploitradicalyouth theory for theirpoliti- tions withintheParty oracquiescedtotheblood supported ( death for inthethenvery takingpart popularGreat Networking student withabadfamily background,Wang was tortured to Beijing Reveal?”A bance ofthe ‘United Action Committee’ in asdescribed “What DoestheDistur- dent,Wang Guanghua, ture oreven death. the OldRedGuardswould have servedasaninvitation totor- government-sanctioned power of totheunbridled, challenge da chuanlian uigtescn tg ftedbt,from Septemberto thesecondstageDuring ofthedebate, itisnothardto force adeterrent ofterror, Under such JunetoOctober1966was ahoneymoon for period Second, It was toexplainwhy notdifficult blood lineage theory Last but not least, the extreme violence and ruthless mas- theextreme violenceandruthless Last but notleast, A caseinpointwas thetragic stu- death ofahigh-school ) 33 in violation by ofabanonparticipation Born- 32 31 ntefc fsc rtlarcte,any atrocities, In thefacebrutal ofsuch and the Party Central.Antagonistic fac- and theParty Central.Antagonistic hei qilei ) eso h BakGn”( bers ofthe Gang” “Black tually overnight astheirparents were suddenly labeled mem- vir- foundBorn-Reds themselves transformedtoBorn-Blacks Nearly allofthe takable sourceoftheirspecialprivileges. whom were theparents oftheOldRedGuardsandunmis- many of with ninety-five percentoftheParty’s topofficials, along toLiuShaoqiandDengXiaoping, had shiftedprimarily analysis.” Itisabsolutely against Marxistclass idealism. utter historical Itis completely against MarxismandMaoZedong Thought. how learn children tobreak into houses.’This is burglars’ and phoenixes begetphoenixes, ‘Dragons begetdragons, lord classusedtoadvocate ablood lineage such as theory feudalblood land- lineage oftheexploitingclass.The theory thisisthereactionary thesonisagoodfellow.’ Infact, hero, thefather isa encouraged themtopresent thecouplet,‘If they confusedthestudentsand naivety ofotherstudents, youth withworker andpeasantfamily andthe backgrounds Byexploitingtheclassfeelings of ers andpeasantsbefore. of work-ones whohadattacked andedgedoutthechildren lar recently.Those whoadvanced thisfallacy were actually the becamevery popu- of “Atheory ‘Born-Red’ remarked, CCRG, theheadof whenChenBoda, Central working meeting, the Party Centralfor thefirst timeonOctober16at theParty ofMaoandtheCCRG.and henchmen soonbecamethenew favorites ofCapitalquarters RedGuards, asthe such backgrounds Third Head- and “not-so-red” “red” studentsfrom whiletheRebel RedGuards, few monthsbefore, target oftherevolution they hadsofervently justa supported OldRedGuardssoonfound themselves the inner circle.The mately leadingtoaclashbetween thisgroup andMaohis ulti- into conservatives sidingwiththeLiuandDengcamp, theseradicalyouths turned quickly ents surviveMao’s purge, them were to blame for theradicalyouths thesupport DengXiaopingandseniorofficialsassociated with Liu Shaoqi, denounced “those whoadvanced thisfallacy,” heimpliedthat from blood arising lineagecrimination theory.While Chen societyoftheinjusticeanddis- than asasincere attempt torid came more Mao’s asaneffort toattack withintheParty rivals ( the Party” own parents. sometimeseven their beating other “curs,” activelybackgrounds in participated Some studentswithbadfamily “it neededsomesubtlerevisions.” that is true althoughhesuggested ‘it isbasically like that,’” “It saying, only two monthsbefore agreed withthe couplet, tonotethat Itis important thissameChenBodahad lost. tensofthousandsinnocentlives which hadbeen during came toolate oftheprevious toundothered terror months The blood lineage by cameunderdirect theory criticism o nyddCe’ odmaincm o ae but it Not only didChen’s condemnation cometoolate, In ordertoprotect theirvested interests andhelptheirpar- 34 dangnei zhouzipai But Chen’s condemnation ofblood lineage theory ). hei bang ) or “Capitalist-roaders within 35
FATE AND CHOICE 17 CHINA RIGHTS FORUM NO. 4, 2004
received. For the same reason, Chen also accused Tan Lifu, the student theorist of the blood lineage theory,of opposing the The Scars of Youth Cultural Revolution. However, Chen conveniently forgot two important historical facts: 1) It was Mao who gave vital sup- BY SONG XIAOYING port to those radical young militants during the earlier months A woman who grew up during the of the Cultural Revolution; and 2) It was the Party’s longstand- ing class line that gave rise to the Old Red Guards. On Mao’s Cultural Revolution recalls how the instructions, Chen’s speech was distributed to every campus, events of that period shaped the person giving opponents of the blood lineage theory a great opportu- she became. nity to strike back at the Born-Reds. Mass criticism of Tan Lifu on campuses across China was one of the main characteristics of the second stage of the The social and historical environment of a person’s early debate on blood lineage theory.Thousands of big-character years can leave an indelible impression that lasts a life- posters denounced Tan, but the main focus of the criticism was time. on his “reactionary political behavior,” such as defending work I was born in the 1960s, so from my earliest child- groups and the Liu-Deng faction.Articles attacking Tan’s pro- hood my spiritual growth was influenced by the Land motion of blood lineage theory were strikingly similar in their Reform Movement, the Cultural Revolution and other logic and approach to the campaign they purported to oppose. political movements of that time. For instance, some tried to prove that Tan’s family background At that time, my mother, who had been working in a was not “Red” but “Black,” which caused him to oppose the match factory in the city,was sent down to my father’s Cultural Revolution.36 Ironically,the theoretical basis for most village to work the fields.The village was engaged in a of these writings was the Party’s class line, which was in itself a heated struggle against landlords. My grandfather was more subtle version of the blood lineage theory. subjected to all-day struggle sessions at the village ele- During this stage, the criticism was limited to school cam- mentary school because his family once owned a few mu puses and led not by the victims of the theory but mainly by of land, and also because while he was a teacher he had the Rebel Red Guards, a great many of whom had supported supposedly signed some document related to the Young the blood lineage theory to varying degrees.This significantly Men’s Three Principles Association.1 For the same rea- limited the scope and extent of their criticism of Tan. son, an uncle who was working in Beijing at the time Reeling from their abandonment by Mao and the CCRG, the was also sent down to work in the village. children of former senior CCP officials began to respond and The revolutionary groups liked to stir up conflicts act. On December 15, they organized their own resistance between family members, and even some descendents organization, known as the United Action Committee (lianhe of landlords became caught up in the notion that “profit xingdong weiyuanhui), to openly defend blood lineage theory in is criminal, revolt is reasonable.”At the end of one defiance of Mao and CCRG. It was the United Action Commit- struggle session, my uncle climbed onto the stage and tee’s unflinching position that led to the next round of debate. hit his father, leading to my grandfather’s tragic suicide. I remember that my dad came back from the city,but it Calls for equality and human rights turned out that people classified as both landlords and It was Yu Luoke’s essay “On Family Background” that charac- counterrevolutionaries were not allowed a proper burial terized and dominated the final stage of the debate from Janu- ceremony.I remember that the shroud my grandfather ary to May 1967 with its demands for equality and human was wrapped in was a bit short, exposing his thin, white rights.This monumental essay inspired a new and larger toes.This was how he was buried, and those of us in his response from both sides of the debate, enjoyed the widest cir- family couldn’t cry,because he had been charged with a culation, and gained an enduring influence. In the course of new crime of “alienating himself from the people, the debate,Yu wrote about ten essays building up systematic deserving of 10,000 deaths.” theories on this significant subject. At that time, I was in the village elementary school, Yu was a young apprentice at the People’s Machine Factory and every day I would pass by a forest of big-character of Beijing when the Cultural Revolution erupted.Yu’s father, posters, some of which were about members of my own who had trained as an engineer in Japan and returned to China family.Everyone in my family had hated my grandfather, in the 1930s, was branded a “Rightist” in 1957. Because of his and no one would bring him food. Because my mother family background,Yu was denied college education despite was a city dweller, she didn’t understand the country- his outstanding academic performance. side, and she had twice let my younger brother bring During the Red Terror in August 1966,Yu witnessed mem- my grandfather food, for which she was labeled a bers of the Old Red Guards justifying their torture and murder “counterrevolutionary element sympathizer.” I also saw of innocent people on the basis of blood lineage theory.In the a cadre hang another big-character poster stating some- absence of any serious challenge to the theory,Yu employed his thing to the effect that “counterrevolutionary family profound knowledge of Western philosophy and Chinese his- member XXX (my mother’s name) always sings coun- tory to write “On Family Background” as a means of clarifying
theoretical truth.37Yu and his brother,Yu Luowen, mimeo- socialist system. It even attempts to create a reactionary caste graphed a hundred copies of the essay and posted them on elec- system and a new oppression among the people themselves.” tric-wire poles in Beijing around the end of 1966, which Moreover,Yu brought the Party to account: “Who are the vic- attracted Mou Zhijing and other high school students who had tims in this unfair system? If things continue on like this, what opposed the blood lineage theory from the outset.Together, they would be the difference between those with bad family back- revised this essay and finally published it on January 18, 1967 in grounds and those living in caste systems such as the blacks in the Journal of Middle School Cultural Revolution (zhongxue wenge bao), a America, Sudras in India and Burakumin in Japan?”44 Although widely circulated newspaper run by Yu and his supporters. Yu tactfully held the “revisionists” responsible for the blatant “On Family Background” immediately shook Chinese soci- discriminations and the creation of the myth, the real target of ety to its core, touching the hearts and souls of millions of his criticism was unmistakably the CCP and its class line. Not youths across the country.About 60,000 copies were sold surprisingly,his essay was widely viewed as a serious indict- within a week in Beijing alone and more than a million copies ment of the CCP-led government and as “the bravest writing were reprinted nationwide. Support letters poured in from since the 1957 Anti-Rightist Campaign.”45 Just as his oppo- every corner of the country.38 In Beijing alone, at least twenty nents in the debate such as the United Action Committee and Red Guard newspapers were involved in the debate, either sup- the Old Red Guards had discovered, the purpose of “On Family porting or opposing the essay.39Yu and his supporters took the Background” was actually to “revolt and overturn heaven.”46 initiative to organize or attend numerous public debates, some Denounced by millions of ordinary people, the young radi- of them involving thousands of people. In spite of vehement cals did not dare to openly defend blood lineage theory in this attacks from all sides, their arguments always prevailed, and round of debate. Instead, they retreated to the tactful version of during the first six months of 1967, the bestselling newspapers blood lineage theory,the Party’s class line, and emphasized that for grassroots organizations were all embroiled in this debate.40 the “family influence” of Born-Reds was superior to that of youths with bad family backgrounds.Yu refuted that view by “On Family Background” immediately demonstrating how “social influence exceeds family influence and can overcome family influence” through the brilliant and shook Chinese society to its core. detailed exposition in his essay “A New Counteroffensive of the Reactionary Blood Lineage Theory—Refuting ‘The Big Poi- Yu incisively and profoundly challenged his opponents on sonous Weed ‘On Family Backgrounds’ Must Be Torn Up by the the following issues: First, under the CCP’s 17-year rule,41 who Roots.”47 After laying bare the follies of his opponents’ argu- were the discriminators and who were discriminated against in ments,Yu made the most important observation in this debate the Chinese society,and why? Second, could class line and the concerning the connection, or lack thereof, between one’s dire consequences of blood lineage theory be justified? Third, family background and his behavior: “Since family back- were all people entitled to equal political and educational ground is only related to family influence, and family influence rights, regardless of family background? occupies a place of little importance in one’s behavior, it is not Unlike the Old Red Guards and Rebel Red Guards,Yu, as a difficult to reach the conclusion that there is minimal correla- grassroots theorist, was not interested in the internal strife tion between family background and behavior.”48 It is espe- among the Party’s top echelon.While criticizing the blood lin- cially worth noting that Yu also convincingly demonstrated the eage theory,he looked far beyond the school campuses and distinction between “class status” and “family background” on concentrated instead on its horrendous impact on the whole of the basis of Marxism and Mao’s own theories, which further Chinese society.The opening argument of “On Family Back- exposed the contradictory nature of the CCP’s class line.This ground” states: “The issue of family background has been a tactic proved to be not only necessary but also highly effective. longstanding serious social problem” because people belong- While Yu was filled with righteous indignation when he ing to the Non-Red Five Categories “represent the absolute examined and related the unspeakable tortures and murders majority” of Chinese society.42 committed in the name of the blood lineage theory,he did not In exploring theoretical truth,Yu first uncovered historical allow himself to be bogged down at that emotional and per- truth.While the proponents of the blood lineage theory repeated sonal level. Instead, he made a point of focusing on how and the myth of “the persecution of the children of revolutionary why blood lineage theory turned young radicals into cold- cadres, workers and peasants” during the 17-year rule,Yu pro- blooded perpetrators of inhumane acts.Throughout the debate, vided a large quantity of information that showed that during Yu and his friends were often insulted and even beaten by this period the Born-Reds were actually discriminators against members of the Old Red Guards and the United Action Com- people with bad family backgrounds. He further noted that mittee. However,Yu refused to lower himself to their level and under this government-sanctioned system of discrimination, “A firmly declined a friend’s plan to use personal attacks to rebuff new privileged class has formed, followed by a new class that is the arguments of the Red Guards of the Attached High School discriminated against”; and, “Those from backgrounds of the of Tsinghua University.Instead, he concluded his essay with this so-called Black Seven Categories, namely ‘curs,’have already entreaty: “We earnestly and sincerely urge those youngsters become the secondary target of the proletarian dictatorship.”43 who are deceived by the theory of basing everything on family Yu further observed that the creation of this myth was an background not to feel insulted after reading our article. In fact, attempt to “create a new privileged class in disguise under the we have more compassion for you than we resent and detest
( Inhis “On Chasm” offered remedies totheproblems itcaused. upandfightbrave rise battles!” revolutionary youth, “Alloppressed the authorpassionately appealed tothepublic: done inthenameof ‘Super MaoZedong Intheend, Thought.’” but they were all and deprivedthemoftheirpoliticalrights, orderofthelives thenormal oftheseyouth means todisrupt violations becamethe Such detentionandbeating. degradation, body searches, that are totally humiliating, so-called ‘debates’ asthecruel such ‘taking outtheroots,’ appeared, human rights ofviolations “Allsorts of Chinese government whenhewrote, efforts.”Yu alsolaidascathing indictment at thedoorof recognize any that isnotachieved right through one’s personal and “We inthesenseof equality, don’t“Every youth isequal” would have found itsessencetobejustoneword: ground” by MaoandtheParty.Anyone whoread “On Family Back- prohibition againstequality indefianceofthestrict thesewords probably theonly and onesthat underscored humanrights theCulturalRevolution,Yu’scisms produced during essays were “What stupid mistakes you have made that you will regret all your lives!” Photo courtesy of Long Bow Group, Inc.www.morningsun.org. ofLong BowGroup, allyourlives!”Photo courtesy “What stupidmistakes youhavemadethatwillregret you have madethat you willregret allyour lives!” ideasyou haveand ridiculous formed! What stupidmistakes worksand artistic you read! What hopelessly foolish thoughts comfortable lifestyle you lived at home! literary What rubbish What animpracticaleducation you received inschool! What a forcetionary gainedtheupperhandinsomedepartments. you.We hadcompassionfor you whenthebourgeois reac- tan honggou Apart from criticizing theblood from lineageApart criticizing theory,Yu also postersandmasscriti- Among themillionsofbig-character ,usgetd“ligu h hs”between ),Yu suggested “filling upthechasm” 49 50 others.” compromises whilebelieving that you standaheadtallerthan expect you and tograntequalityothersby makingsacrifices Nobody can Itshouldbeamatter ofcourse. consideration. comrades that we have talked about isnotbasedonatactical equalityamongrevolutionaryto equalpoliticaltreatment.The are entitled regardless oftheirfamily backgrounds, “all youth, youth withdifferent family by backgrounds emphasizingthat used hispower paper torestrict supply for the aboutwas soconcerned Yu’s andviewpoints writings that he awell-known leaderoftheBeijingRebel RedGuards, Dafu, Kuai but alsoMao’s theRebel RedGuards. favorite new force, they includednotonly theOldRedGuards were formidable; involved Hisopponentsinthedebate infactional infighting. heandhiscomradeswereing theblood lineage never theory, ing it “Family Study Background Group.”Aside from criticiz- simply call- for hisindependentstudy group, “combat team” as Herefused tousepopulartitlessuch pendent thought. aiyBcgon”as “not even worth refuting.”Family Background” “reactionary organization.” olution School Cultural Revolution which suggestedoutlawingwhich the Rebelmouthpiece oftheBeijingMiddleSchool RedGuards, et tobepublished in ment” icant impactof Yu’s essay alsoprompted a “public announce- During this four-monthDuring debate,Yu displayed fiercely inde- nArl1,Q ey,acr ebro h CG reviled acore member oftheCCRG, QiBenyu, On 13, April and denouncedtheFamily Study Background Group asa 51 Healsodismissedtheviewpoints of “On . Battlefield Dispatch 53 Journal ofMiddleSchoolCultural Rev- ( bingtuan zhanbao Journal ofMiddle 52 The signif- ,a ),
FATE AND CHOICE 21 CHINA RIGHTS FORUM NO. 4, 2004
“On Family Background” as “big poisonous weeds that misrep- players.As these radical children of high-ranking officials have resented the Party’s class line and instigated youth with bad fam- morphed into powerful modern-day high-ranking officials, ily backgrounds to attack the Party.”54 The Journal of Middle School ruthless capitalists or mercenary princelings, the Chinese peo- Cultural Revolution was banned in May 1967. On January 5, 1968, ple’s impression of them has also grown increasingly negative. Yu himself was arrested by the Beijing Public Security Bureau, The existence of this privileged class and the power it wields has and his Family Background Study Group was declared a “Coun- once again debunked the CCP’s claim that its ultimate goals were terrevolutionary Clique” by the government.Yu was executed on to “work wholeheartedly for the benefit of the majority of the March 5, 1970, at the age of 27.According to “internal informa- people in China and the whole world.” In addition, the rapid tion,” the decision to sentence him to death was made as a result changes in China’s social, economic and political scenes have of Mao’s instructions implemented by Zhou Enlai.55 Nearly 300 made it difficult or even counterproductive for the CCP to insist of Yu’s supporters nationwide were also detained or persecuted on class line in Chinese society.In 1979, the CCP issued a central to death.This significant debate about family background was document to officially abandon the practice of associating “bad silenced by shackles and bullets just as it reached its theoretical family backgrounds” with the children of landlords and rich peak: a plea for equality and human rights. peasants.58 Now,many of those who would have qualified as members of exploiting classes in the past are joining the CCP in The debate continues droves to become members of the new exploiting class of In 1968, Mao exiled millions of young students to the country- bureaucrat entrepreneurs. On November 21, 1979, the Beijing side, including Red Guards of all factions who had outlived Intermediate People’s Court ruled that Yu Luoke’s death was a their usefulness for Mao and CCRG. Before they parted for their “misjudged case” during the Cultural Revolution. Chinese are respective destinations, a leader of the Old Red Guards gave this no longer labeled on the basis of “family background,” and the unsolicited advice to a student leader with a bad family back- principles Yu espoused and promoted are now widely accepted ground who was a supporter of “On Family Background”: “You throughout Chinese society.From this perspective,Yu and the represent landlords, rich peasants, bad elements, counterrevo- supporters of “On Family Background” have won the debate. lutionaries and capitalists; but we represent workers, peasants Looking back on the history of the rise and fall of blood and revolutionary cadres. See you in twenty years!”56 In his lineage theory,and the fall and rise of “On Family Back- mind, the debate had not ended, and the Born-Reds were ulti- ground,” one might reach the conclusion that this heated mately bound to rule China just as blood lineage theory pre- debate manifested a fundamental conflict between the masses dicted.A comment by another former member of the Old Red of ordinary people and a privileged class, and between citi- Guards was more straightforward: “We have a natural relation- zens’ rights and dictatorship.As long as a privileged class and ship with authority and power-holders in China. China’s future dictatorial government continue to rule China, similar debates will certainly be like this:We will be the power-holders and you and clashes are bound to continue, and Yu Luoke’s ardent [youth with other family backgrounds] will do the basic work desire for a fair, equal and just society will remain unfulfilled. for us. . . . Don’t refuse to accept this fate. If you don’t believe it, 57 we will see what happens in twenty years!” 1. For instance, both Yan Jiaqi and Gao Gao’s Turbulent Decade:A History of the Cultural Revolution (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1996) and Liu Many Born-Reds have prospered under Guokai’s A Brief Analysis of the Cultural Revolution. Ed.Anita Chan. (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1987) have devoted almost an entire chapter to this topic. red-bureaucratic capitalism through 2. Some Western scholars have studied this theme in their works. See, for involvement in corruption, abuse of power example, Gordon White, The Politics of Class Origin:The Case of the Cultural Rev- olution (Canberra:Australian National University,1976);Anita Chan, and looting of state-owned property. Childern of Mao:Personality Development and Political Activism in the Red Guard Gener- ation (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1985); Stanley Rosen’s Red Guard Factionalism and the Cultural Revolution in Guangzhou (Canton) (Boul- What has happened in China since the Cultural Revolution der:Westview Press, 1982) and Joel Andreas’ “Battling over political officially ended in 1976? Unfortunately,the advice and predic- and cultural power during the Chinese Cultural Revolution (University tions quoted above have largely come true in today’s China. It of California, Los Angeles),” Theory and Society 31, 2002. is an open secret that in the 1980s and 1990s a sizable number 3. See Yu Luoke, “On Family Background,” in Contemporary Chinese Thought, of former Born-Reds became a significant part of the so-called (Summer 2001): 25. “third echelon” and “fourth echelon” by virtue of their con- 4. Translation of some original texts on this subject began to emerge in nections with the Party establishment. Under China’s ongoing 2001 with the publication of both Part I and Part II of Heterodox Thoughts economic reforms, many of them have also prospered under During the Cultural Revolution,Contemporary Chinese Thought (Summer & Fall red-bureaucratic capitalism through involvement in corrup- 2001) (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe). tion, abuse of power and de facto looting of state-owned prop- 5. The Mao Zedong Thought Study Group of Colleges and Middle Schools in the Capital (ed.), Tian fan di fu kai er kang:Wu chan jie ji wen hua da ge ming da erty.Since the 1980s, such individuals have acquired notoriety shi ji 1962.9–1967.10 (In Heroic Triumph Heaven and Earth Have Been in popular parlance as the “Princelings” (taizidang). From this Overturned: Chronicle of the Events in the Proletarian Cultural Revolu- perspective, the former Born-Reds have won the debate, as tion, 1962.9–1967.10), (Beijing, 1967), 43. they have fulfilled the prophecy that they would eventually 6. Song Yongyi and Sun Dajin. Wen hua da ge ming he ta de yi duan si chao (Het- return as power holders because of their blood lineage. erodox Thoughts during the Cultural Revolution) (Hong Kong:Tian However, history has demonstrated its impartiality to all yuan shu wu, 1997), 83–5. 1 There existedtwo theearly typesofRedGuardsduring years ofthe 31. 8 aY,“ogzisized in i h a fang MouZhijingboshi” Ya fa: “Congzhishizhedeliangxinchu Yi, 28. 20. SeeMaoZedong, 16. 5 See “ACon- “A few conversations with (1964–1965), Wang Hairong” 15. 4 SeeZhong Weiguang “Qing huafuzhonghongwei bingxiaozudan 14. 7 See “The RemarksofJiangQing,Wang RenzhongandKangShengto 27. 1 See 11. 0 hn i“igu uzog ogwibn uw”(TheRedGuards Zheng hongwei bingyuwo” Yi “Qinghua fuzhong, 30. 24. 8 Seetheinterview withLuoXiaohaiinthefilm 18. Sep- ZhuLaozhong ofthecouplet), “Dui lianshimo”(Thewholestory 17. 1 See “Circular oftheCCPCentralCommitteeandState Councilon 21. 9 ShiHuilaiandLiuXiao “Xue tonglunzaiwen gezhongdexinshui” 29. 0 MaoZedong, 10. 3 SeeHe (OnOldRedGuards) Wei “Lao hongwei bingxuping” 23. 19. See “On Family Background,” 22. 6 unFn,“Broadcast addresses tostudentsby GuanFeng and others, GuanFeng, 26. AftertheCulturalRevolution,Tan nameto hisoriginal Lifuchanged Tan 25. 2 See The State Bureau of Statistics. 12. 9 e e uadSiYn“un e unme,P a”(aaiim Dis- SeeLei (Fanaticism, Yu Pipan” andShi Yun Huanmie, “Kuang re, 19. 3 SongandSun, 13. 8. isacommonexpression inEng- Theterm “bad family background” 7. .X ioe l ed.Yu Luoke: XuXiaoetal. 9. Spring jing), MouZhi- Interview withDr. (From An Intellectual’s Consciousness: o hn tde,teCieeUiest fHn og 2002). theChineseUniversity ofHongKong, for ChinaStudies, a uni I) 16.)i ogYny,e l,ed. etal., Mao (1964.7)inSong,Yongyi, Yuanxin (II)” and “A Conversationversation with withMao (1964.2), Yuanxin” School of School Tsinghua University) oftheRedGuardgroup (Thebirth at the High Attached sheng jishi” ed. etal., (1966.8.6)inSong,Yongyi, students” Beijing MiddleSchool 2002). versity ofHongKong, theChineseUni- UniversitiesCentre for Service ChinaStudies, Kong: hn agwnxa h a h,19) o.1,85. 11, vol. 1996), Zhong yang wen banshe, xianchu (Beijing: since theEstablishment ofthePeople's Republic ofChina), rvne 19) 16. Province) 3(1994): ebr1 03
FATE AND CHOICE 23 CHINA RIGHTS FORUM NO. 4, 2004