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4. the Democracy Wall WestminsterResearch http://www.westminster.ac.uk/research/westminsterresearch Minkan in China: 1949–89 SHAO Jiang School of Social Sciences, Humanities and Languages This is an electronic version of a PhD thesis awarded by the University of Westminster. © The Author, 2011. This is an exact reproduction of the paper copy held by the University of Westminster library. The WestminsterResearch online digital archive at the University of Westminster aims to make the research output of the University available to a wider audience. Copyright and Moral Rights remain with the authors and/or copyright owners. Users are permitted to download and/or print one copy for non-commercial private study or research. Further distribution and any use of material from within this archive for profit-making enterprises or for commercial gain is strictly forbidden. Whilst further distribution of specific materials from within this archive is forbidden, you may freely distribute the URL of WestminsterResearch: (http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/). In case of abuse or copyright appearing without permission e-mail [email protected] MINKAN IN CHINA: 1949–89 SHAO Jiang PhD 2011 MINKAN IN CHINA: 1949–89 SHAO Jiang A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Westmister for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy December 2011 Abstract This paper presents the first panoramic study of minkan (citizen publications) in China from the 1950s until the 1980s. The purpose of doing so is to recover the thoughts and practice obliterated by state power by examining unofficial magazines as having social, political and historical functions. Moreover, it attempts to examine this recent history against the backdrop of the much older history of Chinese print culture and its renaissance. The study of unofficial magazine in post-1949 China contributes to the recovery of a lost past resistance. It is an exercise in remembering in the context of marginalisation and exclusion by official history. Furthermore, it examines the reconstruction of the narrative of Chinese modern history, and the building up of a civil society that is independent of both the state elite and the new apolitical bourgeoisie in Mainland China. Minkan in this thesis has multiple connotations: as unofficial magazine, as civic expression, and as a way of resistance. The media of minkan take in various formats: public squares, posters, walls, book series and so on. By researching the lifespan of a minkan I attempt to make transparent both the idea and the concrete dynamics of its practice. Drawing on the theories of civil society and the public sphere, this study explores the creative practice of minkan as a revival of the concept of ‘moveable words’ in the Chinese print tradition. Preface iv Preface It was in the late 1970s as a primary pupil in Hohhot, the capital of Inner Mongolia, that I first had access to unofficial publications. We were tired of and bored with the limited selection of works of literature that were available, and the limited types of the entertainment in official media. This consisted of only eight geming yanbanxi (革命样 板戏, Revolutionary Beijing Operas) and a few films every year. The shouchaoben (手 抄本 , hand-copied volumes) attracted teenagers and youngsters in my city. Reflecting back on the stories I then read in those hand-copied materials, they seldom covered sensitive political issues. I would not have found the stories in the hand copies inspiring if I had had a fuller choice of reading materials. However the materials were less stereotypical and didactic than the short stories in the official media. After two years, in the summer of 1978, I saw mimeographed copies of publications such as the 1976 Tiananmen Square Selected Poems , Zhou Enlai in 1935 ZunYi Conference and Hongdu Nühuang (a gossipy story about Mrs Mao), most of which were published by the insider clique that opposed the Gang of Four and Mao’s hard line and who supported the CCP veterans who had been dismissed from their office. After all these years, many urban youngsters of that time still remember those materials. After reading big-character posters claiming that there were ‘miserable stories’ such as the persecution of the Mongols since 1979, while attending a secondary school in Hohhot I began to have serious doubts about the sources and arguments of the official media. Meanwhile I had also become aware of sharp narrative divisions between the unofficial media and official media. This promted me to ask who wrote these articles and why, and what versions might be closer to the truth. As a student in Beijing University from 1985 to 1989 I had more opportunities to read unofficial publications and Chinese overseas magazines published in Hong Kong and the US. I also became a regular reader of unofficial publications as well as a disseminator, sometimes writing articles for unofficial magazines about the student movements. After having reflected on my reading experience in 1979, the unofficial publications of the 1980s inspired me to think about sensitive social and political issues. Preface v Thanks to personal networks in the late 1980s, I often received publications from and circulated the magazines to my colleagues and friends. In addition, I got to know some participants in the production of unofficial magazines when I became a student activist and began to organise public seminars and directly to invite several of them. 1 Due to my involvement in the 1989 Pro-Democracy Movement, I met people active in unofficial magazines from different generations and different areas. I was imprisoned soon after the Beijing Massacre. After my release in 1991, I regularly contacted them, and got to know new underground publishers when I worked in Guangzhou. There I had more chances to meet publishers who worked in Hong Kong, so I regularly received their magazines and circulated them to human rights defenders and pro-democracy activists in other cities within China. Meanwhile I reported on human rights violation and sent some articles written by other participants in underground publications to overseas Chinese magazines. 2 During that period between 1991 and 1997, I was continually harassed, put under house arrest or detained, until I escaped from mainland China in March 1997. 3 When I moved to London in 2003, I began to collect materials pertaining to unofficial magazines from my networks and from online sources. My study benefited greatly from the encouragement of the participants of underground magazines from different generations both inside and outside China. During this research, I have accumulated numerous debts to people for their generous support in many ways. First, I thank the friends who provided contacts and made arrangement that have allowed me to conduct interviews with the people active in underground magazines. I did not know some of them until my friends introduced them to me. I deeply regret that I cannot name those who helped me to communicate, passed my questions to the participants of underground publications and sent valuable materials. Without help and communication, it is impossible to complete this kind of research. There are participants in the unofficial 1 In 1988, I knew Ren Wanding, editor-in-chief of Human rights in China (chapter 4) and Huang Xiang, editor-in- chief of Enlightenment (chapter 4) after the co-organized weekly senimar series“Grass Lawn Salon,” in Beijing University. Hu Ping, Dialogue of Liu Gang and Hu Ping, Beijing Spring , June 1996, 2 See case of ‘China Liberal Democratic Party’ and ‘China Liberal Trade Union: Hu Shigen, Kang Yuchunj, Liu Jingsheng and over thirty activists were arrested’, Prisoners of Conscience, Hong Kong Alliance in Support of Patriotic Democratic Movements of China. Shao Jiang, Open Letter to the National People’s Congress, Beijing Spring , May 1994. 3 Shao Jiang Escaped China. Radio Free Asia (RFA) 20 June 1997. xin dao ri bao ( singtao newspaper) 20 June 1997. Preface vi magazine to whom I am much obliged for contributing to the research. Please see the list of people who were interviewed in the appendices. I am very grateful to my supervision team including Prof. John Keane, Dr. Mark Harrison, Dr. Stefan Szczelkun, Prof. Debra Kelly and Dr. Gerda Wielander for their consistent and invaluable instructions. Many thanks also go to Prof. Fang Lizhi for recommending me to this PhD research. I would like to thank the organizers of the Chinese Democracy and Civil Society Conference for the Chinese Diaspora Communities for inviting me to many inspiring discussions and conferences which helped me better define my chosen topic and stimulated me to do further research. Deep thanks to my parents in China, for their steadfastness and perseverance in the face of illness. I am also grateful to my wife, Xiaohong, for being the first reader of every section, for her invaluable suggestions and for her love and support throughout the years. I remain indebted to the innumerable people who have contributed to the resistance in China and Tibet, whose passion, drive, dedication and persistence encourage my work and give me the energy to continue. Preface vii Contents 1. MINKAN AS A WAY OF RESISTANCE ............................................................... 11 1.1. General Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 11 1.2 Minkan Review and Meaning ..........................................................................................................
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