Typology of Dress in Contemporary Fashion

[ Research Paper] EISSN 2234-0793 PISSN 1225-1151 Journal of the Korean Society of Clothing and Textiles Vol. 41, No. 1 (2017) p.98~115 https://doi.org/10.5850/JKSCT.2017.41.1.98

Eunhyuk Yim† · Cynthia Istook* Dept. of Fashion Design, Sungkyunkwan University *Dept. of Textile and Apparel, Technology and Management, North Carolina State University Received October 19, 2016; Revised December 8, 2016; Accepted January 18, 2017

Abstract

This study categorizes the formative aspects of dress and their implications according to the extent of revealing or concealing corporeality based on body perceptions. By considering the notion of dress as bodily practice to be a theoretical and methodological framework, this study combines a literature survey and case analysis to analyze and classify the forms of women's dress since the 1920s when contemporary fashion took hold. As examined in this study, the typology of dress was categorized as body-consciousness, deformation, transformation, and formlessness. Body-consciousness that is achieved through tailoring, bias cutting, and stretchy fabric displays corporeality focusing on the structure and function of the body as an internalized corset. Deformations in dress are categorized into two different subcategories. One is the expansion or reduction of bodily features based on the vertical or horizontal grids of the body, which visualizes the anachronistic restraint of the body through an innerwear as outerwear strategy. The other is exaggerations of the bodily features irrelevant to the grid, which break from the limitations and constraints of the body as well as traditional notions of the body. Transformations of the body refer to as follows. First, the deconstruction and restructuring of the body that deconstruct the stereotypes in garment construction. Second, the abstraction of the body that emphasizes the geometrical and architectural shapes. Third, transformable designs which pursue the expansion and multiplicity of function. Formlessness in dress denies the perception of three-dimensionality of the body through the plan- arization of the body. Key words: Body, Body-consciousness, Deformation, Transformation, Formlessness

I. Introduction silhouette of the body is enlarged by foundational garments such as petticoats in the 1950s or power shoul- A form is one of the essential visual elements that ders in the 1980s. Moreover, humans have modified occupy space. The form of dress is completed when the body with grooming, diet, exercise, surgical oper- two-dimensional cloth covers or wraps a three-dimen- ations, skin-marking, and so on. Dress transfigures the sional human body and its aesthetic effect begins to natural body into a fashionable one, into a structure exhibit. In dress, the body is regarded as a three-dim- which fashion assumes, by enlarging, extending, or ensional form or a spatial figure that is designed by a reducing the body silhouette. One of the most dis- dress. tinctive features of fashion is its ability to convert an Humans have often distorted the natural body deli- object into a symbol. Dress is transformed into fash- berately. Hips are pushed forward, height is elongated ion, and the body into a fashioned body (Thesander, by wearing stiletto heels, the torso is bound and sup- 1997). pressed by body supplements such as corsets, and the Interest in the body has increased since the 1990s † Corresponding author in fashion and dress studies. Fashion scholars such as E-mail: [email protected] Craik (1994) and Entwistle (2000) stated that resear-

ⓒ 2017, The Korean Society of Clothing and Textiles. All rights reserved. – 98 – Typology of Dress in Contemporary Fashion chers in dress should incorporate the body in analyz- and more commonly since the 1990s, the need to cat- ing dress. The growing interest in the body was also egorize and analyze those contemporary fashion des- acknowledged in exhibitions such as (Feb. 2008 - Jan. 2009, McCord Museum of fashion designs disconform to or challenge the domi- Canadian History, Montreal) which won the Richard nant aesthetics of Western fashion via the manipula- Martin Exhibition Award at the Costume Society of tion of the body-dress relationship. America in 2009 and (Nov. 2006 - Mar. 2007, formative aspects of dress otherwise ambiguous para- Museum of Contemporary Art (MOCA), Los Ange- meters related to body-dress in fashion design, by struc- les / Jun. 2007 - Aug. 2007, The National Art Center, turing as follows: the first section presents the theo- Tokyo / Apr. 2008 - Aug. 2008, Somerset House, Lon- retical reviews of dress as corporal space in contem- don) which paid attention to the interchanges between porary fashion, while the second section discusses how fashion and architecture. a typology of dress can be developed giving special at- In this study, we intend to examine the formative tention to the interplay between the body and dress. aspects of dress drawing on the perception of the body; Finally, the implications of each category of the typo- we attempt to categorize forms of dress according to logy are discussed in terms of the relationship between the extent of revealing or concealing corporeality. This the body and dress. study classifies and analyzes formative characteristics This study combines literature survey and case ana- of dress, in other words, suggests a typology of dress, lysis in order to analyze and classify the forms of wo- of contemporary fashion design. Furthermore, this men's dress since the 1990s by examining the litera- study examines implications in each category of the ture of fashion studies and dress history as well as pho- formative aspect by focusing on the relationship bet- tographs from Haute Couture and Prêt-à-Porter col- ween the body and dress, which establishes a frame- lections. This study deals principally with the end of work for analyzing forms and images of existing as the twentieth century and the new millennium to make well as emerging forms of dress. the content engaging through relevance and currency. As a seminal example of previous studies, DeLong (1998) developed models that consider the role of the II. Literature Reviews body in the presentation of appearance to assess ob- on the Body and Dress server's aesthetic responses. Analyzing dress forms from a cognitive point of view, her Apparel-Body-Con- The body and dress are in a dialectical relationship. struct (ABC) model acknowledged the processes thr- While dress manipulates the phenomenological bo- ough which observers perceive, understand, and org- dy, body as a dynamic site animates dress (Entwistle, anize the clothed appearance of humans. This model's 2002). Dress is not formed irrelevant to body shape five categories – closed/open, part/whole, planar sep- but follows the design laws that are intimately asso- aration/integration, flat/rounded, and determinate/in- ciated with the body. determinate – are based on Heinrich Wölfflin's five In the human body as a spatial form, the skin rep- sets of polarities in his art theory. resents the border between interior and exterior space. Instead of categorizing with sets of polarities, this As such, a dress is regarded as an extension of the study attempts to build a framework that categorizes boundary of ‘corporal space’ (Loschek, 2009), not to the formative aspects of dress according to the degree mention space where the corporal space and environ- of conformity/disconformity to the conventional Wes- ment interact. As dress always refers or indicates the tern sartorial representations. Moreover, as a signifi- body, it is considered to symbolize a body form. Ac- cant number of fashion designers have been chal- cording to Loschek (2009), both a dress form and a lenging Western tailoring practices as well as decons- display mannequin function as a representative of the tructing Western sartorial conventions since the 1980s human body form. She describes a mannequin as an

– 99 – Journal of the Korean Society of Clothing and Textiles Vol. 41 No. 1, 2017 ideal living body at the interface between the inani- mate dress form and the imperfect body of a wearer. Perception of the body as a spatial form has been apparent throughout the history of dress. Dress not only deals with a spatial figure of the body but limits or expands a body form. In this regard, Loscheck (2009) states that dress points to a basic model that is ‘both plastic and sculptural’; fabric drapes around the body (plastic) and the fabric is cut out and sewn together (sculptural). Furthermore, dress is the interface between creation and social communication, as well as betw- Fig. 1. Plaster figures by Rudofsky for . een form and media. From Rudofsky. (1984). pp. 122−123. Throughout history, with its intimate relationship to dress, the body has appeared as a malleable form, often surrendering to the extreme vision of beauty − As Arnheim (1969/1981) explains, there is a rela- pulled in, padded out, tightened, or extended in an tionship between a visual image and the content it almost unimaginable way. Exaggerating body forms attempts to hold. Images of a human body can be int- − such as padding or tightening the torso, filling up egrated into a few elements and in a similar vein the skirts with devices such as hoops and cages, and modi- conventional forms of dress can be represented in sev- fying the body contour with wires, wood, and whale eral elements. The organic unity of the body is recon- bones − have been used in Western dress in order to structed according to the knowledge regarding the reduce or expand the visual field of the body. Fash- object; the permissible range depends on the styles of ionable dress has manipulated the physical structure the time. As such, the elongated female figures in fas- of the body by methods that are sometimes mortally hion magazines appear to be normal to observers since harmful. Fashion has continuously attempted to cre- such figures are perceived as the idealized look. ate/re-create its shifting image of beauty on the can- On the other hand, many postmodern fashion desi- vas of the human body (de Perthuis, 2008). gners deconstruct a dressed body or playfully manip- For , an exhibition held at ulate Western tailoring practices by draping in a way The Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1944, that does not conform to Western sartorial conven- Rudofsky (1984) designed four different plaster fig- tions. For example, Rei Kawakubo often presents am- ures, representing a bustle of the 1870s, a monobos- biguous body contours while Vivien Westwood uncon- om of 1904, a hobble skirt of 1913, and a flapper dress ventionally exaggerates body curves with tailoring. in the 1920s. Each figure corresponds to the form of As a result, strong tension is displayed since there is dress from different periods (Fig. 1). As such, interfe- barely any relationship between the pattern that is rence to human anatomy has been made with devices being seen and the one that is supposed to be seen such as bustles, pads, heels, codpieces, and brassieres, (Arnheim, 1969/1981). for mere deception or bodily deformation. To look fashionable, humans have conformed to constantly chan- III. Typology of Dress ging corporeal ideals. Although the parts of the body which each period or culture focuses on might differ, Form, one of the essential features that are detected fashionable dress continuously has been manipulating by the eyes, refers to the spatial aspect of an object to proportions of the body by applying elements that are the exclusion of position and direction. A form is the often even contrary to an actual body proportion. Mo- contour of a mass and visualized by the two-dimen- reover, people now modify the body with various acti- sional face of a three-dimensional object (Arnheim, vities such as diet, exercise, and plastic surgery. 1969/1981). This study assumes the formative aspect

– 100 – Typology of Dress in Contemporary Fashion of dress as a referential frame and examines dress ents embodies the ultimate proximity between repre- drawing on the body that is perceived as the object of sentation and visual concept of the body and is best garment construction. exemplified by minimally tailored designs, body-hug- Representation of the body in dress accompanies ging bias-cut dresses, and form-fitting garments in the comparison between an object and its represented stretch fabrics. image. Since the image cannot be an exact copy of the Christopher Breward explained that the new tailor- object, discrepancy always occurs. Thus, there exist ing techniques which have appeared since the 1820s distinctive features of dress that deviate from the exact − such as the development of measuring and cutting representation of the body. devices, as well as the invention of the tape measure − As people tend to pay attention to the parts that are are closely related to the appearance of women's bo- different from the whole (Arnheim, 1969/1981), fas- dies in public space (Entwistle, 2002). The tailoring hion designs that deviate from body-conscious form technique, a practice that is performed most intimately through deforming, transforming, or totally eliminat- and closely to the body, visualizes cultural attitudes. ing/ignoring body forms, add tension. Some fashion In Western dress, interfacing and padding were used designers idealize a female body as with tightly fitting to idealize a body image, with the perception of an dresses as Azzedine Alaïa or Hervé Léger do, while ideal anatomy being modified continuously. While an other designers expand the corporal field with geo- ideal silhouette changes constantly, the notion of a tai- metric structures as in the stair shaped Zig Zag or lored suit as a hollow casting has not been challenged concentric-circled Minaret dress by Issey Miyake. (Rudofsky, 1984). When a wearer takes off a tailored In this study, we categorize the formative aspects garment, it is supposed to be best kept on a dress form of dress according to the ways that a space between in order to maintain its shape. the body and dress is formed in conjunction with the Gilbert Adrian and Lachasse Ltd. – designers well extent of revealing or concealing corporeality. The known for their classic and angled shoulders based body in this study is referred to or defined as the ide- on controlled lines of menswear – redefined the notion alized body in Western convention that is sartorially of decoration with measured cutting, matching, miter- embodied as the typical body-conscious dress. The ing, and exquisite sewing (Spilker & Takeda, 2007). body-conscious dress conforms to the conventional Each panel of a jacket is discreetly cut, matched, and body image which often reveals or articulates the sewn, so as to represents the ideal female body curves ideal body; whereas to disconform the conventions of the time. Hervé Léger and Azzedine Alaïa, on the both corporeally and sartorially, designers frequently other hand, romantically visualized a female body by conceal or deconstruct the idealized body or sartorial horizontally wrapping the body with stretch strips of conventions. In this study, the formative aspects of knitted fabric, not with restrictive corset fabrics (Fig. dress will be classified into the following four cate- 2). gories: body-consciousness, deformation, transfor- At the core of these minimally tailored designs, mation, and formlessness. there is a connection to the principles of modern architecture. In other words, these designers embody 1. Body-consciousness lines and structural seams of garments through an architectural approach and, with those seams and The most generally and naturally accepted dress sil- construction lines, show how pattern pieces are to be houette is the body-conscious form which enables us combined. The architectural or structural approach wh- to perceive a body shape. Among the forms of the con- ich aims for a body-conscious form of dress reflects temporary dress after WW I, the most common form the adage ‘form follows function’ by Ludwig Mies van of dress, except for some Haute Couture pieces and der Rhoe, a Bauhaus architect (Hodge et al., 2006). As experimental designs, is in silhouettes without signif- a result, garments are constructed without decoration icant adjustments to body contour. This type of garm- which is unrelated to the structure; the seams and darts

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wrapping rather than cutting fabric. As examined so far, for the body-conscious dress, tailored pattern pieces are cut from a length of fabric and stitched together into a three-dimensional form that encloses the body, or fabric is draped around the body and then trimmed in such a way. In both techniques, the result is a garment people usually wear as a casing for the body (Brand et al., 2010). Aside from tailoring and draping, the body-conscious form of dress can be constructed through the physical proper- ties of a fabric itself. When a garment is worn on the body, continuous circulations of interchange between void and mass are made. Elastic fabrics, such as Lycra, Tactel, and Latex, cling to the body and reduce the

Fig. 2. Azzedine Alaïa, Fig. 3. Calvin Klein, void between the body and a garment. The elastic 1990. 2008. fabrics encase the body as ‘the second skin’. The key From Eastoe From Phelps. feature of the second skin is to embody a vision in and Gristwood. (2007). (2009). p. 47. http://www.vogue.com which a synthetic fabric similar to human skin is integrated into the skin. Today new types of fabrics already react to heat, light, touch, and mechanical strain. Skin- themselves function as decoration. These body-con- thetic by KnoWear is a hybrid material with flexible scious forms of dress are presented close to the body membranes that are capable of being digitally net- by minimizing the space between the body and a gar- worked, folded, stretched, or inflated with air to cre- ment, as opposed to being independent to silhouettes ate a second skin in place of clothes made of fabrics of the body. (Seltmann & Lippert, 2006). Besides the architectural constructions stated above, In regard to implications, even in the body-consci- body-conscious silhouettes are effectively realized th- ous dress which reveals the body at it is, the body rep- rough bias cutting. Bias cutting reveals the body in a resented is a culturally idealized one. That is, in cont- similar manner to tailoring, but bias cutting spirals emporary society, where a corset is not worn anymore around the body freed from the vertical or horizontal to modify the body shape, the body itself performs as grids of the body. While cutting on a lengthwise grain ‘invisible corset’ (The Kyoto Costume Institute, 1999) is more stable in general, bias cutting gives more ela- or ‘muscular corset’ (Steele, 2001). In other words, fa- sticity, which keeps a dress close to the contour of the shion after the twentieth century has changed ‘from body (Fig. 3). clothing-fashion to body-fashion’ (Brattig, 2003). Wo- Madeleine Vionnet, a master of bias cutting, freed men are freed from corset made of wires and whale- dress from limits of vertical and horizontal axes. Mol- bones but controlled by a new form of corset called a dable silhouettes of Vionnet's dress react to move- muscular body. Power in contemporary society cov- ments of the body while spiraling around the body. It ertly stimulates desire rather than oppressively domi- could be said that whereas Cristobal Balenciaga cen- nates, so that women voluntarily conform to the po- tralized presence of fabric in tailoring, Vionnet mas- wer and are controlled by the consciousness that they tered handling gravity in dressmaking. In a similar should cultivate their body without a corset. vein, Madame Grès preferred simplicity that was rea- Since the premise of wearing a body-revealing dress lized through draping the body smoothly, not by rest- is having an idealized body, in order to wear a body- ricting the body with artificial devices such as a cor- conscious dress one should be wearing an invisible set or padding. Grès shaped dress through draping or corset of a muscular body. In this regard, the corset has

– 102 – Typology of Dress in Contemporary Fashion not disappeared but has been internalized in a sculpted nine body parts. body. In a body-conscious garment that reveals the In Western fashion, the body has been idealized and body at it is, the actual object of representation is not sublimated through elaborate tailoring techniques. an individual body but a corporeal ideal that a society One of the basic forms of this idealization is symme- of the time culturally idealizes. try, which has been regarded as a standard of beauty; symmetrical lacing and padding as devices of this 2. Deformation idealization standardize and eroticize the body. An hourglass body shape as an erotic ideal has been real- Deformation, one of the incentives for three-dimen- ized by artificial apparatuses such as push-up brassi- sional perception, is a type of deviation that breaks eres, corsets, and bodices to flatten the thorax or ele- away from an expected position (Arnheim, 1969/1981). vate the breasts and hips. Whichever part of the body The silhouette of dress that assumes deformation dev- is exaggerated, whether such exaggeration looks arti- iates from physical margins of a body structure, which ficial or natural, the body has been strictly shaped builds up tension. In Western fashion, one of the fun- symmetrically (Fukai et al., 2010). damental elements of the idealized beauty has been However, in contemporary fashion, the deformation symmetry. For this category, we classified deforma- in dress is often interpreted in a different context from tion of dress into two sub-categories according to the the traditional one, as such bodily manipulation has compliance of the vertical/horizontal axes of the body been internalized in the twentieth century. The defor- which is regarded as a basic condition of the symme- mation in contemporary fashion intentionally digre- try; 1) symmetrical deformation which suggests enlar- sses from the conventional sartorial association bet- gement or reduction based on the vertical/horizontal ween signifier and signified by visualizing the defor- axes of the body and 2) asymmetrical deformation mation in an anachronistic way. Alexander McQueen which explains enlargement or reduction irrelevant and Hussein Chalayan, for example, introduced the to bodily axes. corset in a grotesque and parodic way to represent physical damage or deformity caused by the restric- 1) Symmetrical Deformation: Enlargement or tion of a female body (Fig. 4)−(Fig. 5). Naoki Takiz- Reduction based on Vertical/Horizontal Axes awa for Issey Miyake manipulated interior space of a of the Body garment by constructing a tailored suit with muscle- Deformation through enlargement or reduction in a shaped inflatable panels; a natural female body is traditional Western dress appears predominantly sym- completely concealed behind the inflated bodice of metrical paralleling to the vertical/horizontal axes of the body; this type of deformation in dress enlarges or reduces certain body parts symmetrically. The deformation is interpreted as a representation of meanings and symbols of the body through dress-as-signifier. In other words, the deformation in dress signifies femininity, fertility, inaccessibility, or wealth and status (Koda, 2001; Laver, 2002), to meet the aesthetic demands of the times. The body has been deformed through dress in order to be fitted to cultural frames which the body could hardly assimilate to. In an effort to make the neck longer, the shoulders wider, the breasts Fig. 4. Hussein Fig. 5. Alexander larger or smaller, and the hips larger, dress has been Chalyan, Surgical McQueen, corset, 1998. 1999. used to deform the body, which is in close associa- From Steele. From Gleason. tion with cultural perception of corresponding femi- (2001). p. 174. (2012). p. 58.

– 103 – Journal of the Korean Society of Clothing and Textiles Vol. 41 No. 1, 2017 the exaggeratedly idealized muscular body shape. deformation, Noa Raviv worked on 3D software and On the other hand, Jean Paul Gaultier and Vivienne then translated the patterns into fabrics by printing and Westwood, designers who are known for collections stitching the lines and grids onto fabrics. The grid- drawing on historical costumes, employed the corset like patterns in ribbed layers of polymer were warped as a decorative item in an underwear-as-outerwear and stretched across the garments, which creates opt- manner. These designers incorporated the erotic aura ical illusions across the body. Raviv has deliberately of a corset as a device to satire conformity to the aes- manipulated digital images with computer modeling thetic standard of society. software to deform the traditional versions of bodices. In an interview (Howarth, 2014), Raviv said that 2) Asymmetrical Deformation: Enlargement or she used the shapes of broken Greek and Roman mar- Reduction Irrelevant to Bodily Axes ble sculptures to inform the asymmetric silhouettes. In contemporary fashion, deformation in dress some- She mentioned that patterns of the collection were times appears irrelevant to historical reference of tra- mostly nonsymmetrical to enhance distorted or frac- ditional dress. These deformations in dress exagger- tured looks. ate a body shape irregularly and asymmetrically by In a similar vein, Finnish designer Minna Palmqvist, deliberately breaking from vertical or horizontal axes through her series, has depicted of the body. Designs of Rei Kawakubo are representa- the coerciveness of the ideals of feminine beauty and tive cases of asymmetrical deformation in dress. In her its distantness from reality. Palmqvist explores the collection, , Kawakubo presented asymme- and the real bodies, in other words, a conflict among trical dresses which deviated from vertical/horizontal what is forced upon us, what we wish for, and what grids of the body far exceeding the limits of what is we strive to hide (Palmqvist, 2009) which often res- considered to be a good taste of the time (Fig. 6). On ults in asymmetric forms and shapes (Fig. 8). the so-called ‘lumps and bumps’ dress from the col- These asymmetrical deformations do not intend to lection, the emphasis of feminine curves is shifted to emphasize femininity in an attempt to supplement unusual places such as the back or abdomen, away body defect or exaggerate feminine beauty as in tradi- from traditionally emphasized body parts, which could be regarded as an attack on the symmetry of Western fashion. Kawakubo propounds a question of the physical ideal by showing that lines of demarcation between ideal and deformity are a matter of a few inches in a garment. Through the collection, she suggested that the interesting sculptural effect created by unexpected volumes may be seen as repellent since they are associated with ‘deformity’ (Teunissen et al., 2014). By departing radically from the socially accepted ana- tomical form, Rei Kawakubo undermines the West- ern femininity and ideals of beauty. Her designs have been depicting her criticism on the feminine beauty in established fashion. In this regard, Teunissen et al. Fig. 6. Rei Fig. 7. Noa Raviv, Kawakubo, 2014. (2014) argues that questions whe- , 1997. uses 3D printed polymers Fashion designer Noa Raviv integrated 3D-printed From In pictures: for virtual reality 30 years of Japanese fashion collection. design elements into ruffled dresses done by distorted fashion. (2010). (2014). digital drawings (Fig. 7). In order to evoke images of http://www.bbc.co.uk http://www.designboom.com

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structures, 2) abstraction that radically digresses from body structures and silhouettes, and 3) transformables which aims for multifunction in dress. As we postulate a basic body-conscious dress as the ideal body in that its dress parts correspond to the respective body parts, deconstruction disintegrates and reconstructs the conventional body-garment correspondence, abstraction exceeds the conventional body-garment space, and transformables expand beyond the conventional body-garment functions.

1) Deconstruction Fig. 8. Minna Palmqvist, Intimately Social, 2011. From Batsis. (2011). http://stretchgenerics-ab.blogspot.com The term ‘deconstruction’ (Hodge et al., 2006) has been applied to areas such as art, architecture, design, and music for more than thirty years. Deconstruction tional Western dress, on the contrary, they seek to de- in fashion challenges the foundations of the sartorial part from the traditional notion of an ideal body by convention; its implications radically deviate from the deforming bodily proportion and shape. That is to sophisticated and elaborately finished dress that dom- say, the exaggeration, which is irrelevant to the ideal- inated the 1970s and 1980s. ized bodily features, delivers the message to break Deconstructed garments often appear unfinished from the restrictions on the body which are imposed with details such as frayed or worn out hems; some- in the form of the invisible corset. times look fragmented, recycled, or recombined. De- Dress functions as a mediating interface between the constructed fashion design is dominantly in dark tones body and social environment. There have been ways which frequently suggest poverty, deconstruction, and of concealing or revealing the body in social spaces degradation. The deconstructed garments lack clear in order to conform to internalized social norms. Asym- frontality, and the silhouettes do not reveal body con- metrically deformed dress represents the deformation tours. of the generally accepted notion of bodily practice When introduced in the early 1980s in fashion, aes- (Welters & Lillethun, 2007). thetics of deconstruction were rejected in the initial stage; however, it went through turnabout in the 1990s 3. Transformation whilst being rapidly appropriated by mainstream and high fashion. While deconstruction in dress was orig- Transformation in art is entailed when an artist int- inated from the countercultural movements of Punks ends to visualize an invariable existence of an object in the 1970s, its appearance in the early 1980s runway (Arnheim, 1969/1981). Similarly, transformation in shows of Comme des Garçons and Yohji Yamamoto dress is often employed when designers deconstruct are regarded as the official introduction to high fash- traditional forms of dress in order to deviate from ion (Hodge et al., 2006). Subsequently, Belgian desi- conventions in dress and the body. Transformation gners such as Ann Demeulemeester, Dries Van Noten, refers to changing from one figure, form, or structure and Martin Margiela presented new types of decon- into another without losing its substance (Loschek, struction fashion in the late 1980s. 2009). The intention of transformation in dress is to Margiela, notably, challenged the fastidious stand- vitalize a design goal and its process. ards of Haute Couture and overturned traditional ele- In this category, transformation in dress will be exa- ments of techniques of tailors and dressmakers. Altho- mined in three subcategories: 1) deconstruction which ugh, in general, linings, shoulder pads, interfacings, fragments and rearranges garment construction or and facings are concealed carefully, Margiela utilized

– 105 – Journal of the Korean Society of Clothing and Textiles Vol. 41 No. 1, 2017 those internal elements as external structure and dec- line, by reversing the left to the right; the sleeves bec- oration. Margiela articulated nihilistic reactions to sar- ome the pants, and even by reversing the beginning torial conventions; he amplified interest by designing into the end; the show began with the designer's bow contrary to expectations in the sartorial representation (Fig. 10). The garments from the show are still wear- of the body. Not considering the body as an organic able even though they did not follow tailoring con- entity (Vinken, 2005), Margiela frequently isolated or ventions. In the collection, Viktor & Rolf freed the disconnected particular parts of dress; designing one body from dress through transformation. sleeve fitted and the other loose, for example. He em- In deconstructing of the body in dress, repetition phasized the fragmental aspect of garments by diss- and overlapping – repeating a certain part of a garm- embling a garment and then reassembling the pieces, ent and overlaying them – also suggests a transforma- or created new silhouettes by transferring interior ele- tion of the body in dress. Reassembled designs with ments to the surface. overlapped patterns are unconstrained from existing In Margiela's designs, often the body is not accen- garment forms and separated from conventional app- tuated as a consistent whole but fragmented into res- earances. , Bernhard Willhelm's F/W 2006 pective body parts. Margiela's trench coat , collection, was about multiplication and addition (Lo- for example, can be regarded as a design in the tran- schek, 2009). In a primary example of the collection sitional process from one style into another; the half , the head takes center place in reversal, legs of the coat is traditionally tailored as in a standard grow out of the head, more than two arms are attached trench coat while the other half is draped on the shoul- to the shoulders, and moreover the second set of limbs der to be knotted or twisted at will. stands up from the head; Willhelm put transformity Deconstruction in dress can be effectively created before anatomy of the body. Similarly, Klavers Van in reverse. In their S/S 2006 collec- Engelen questioned the corporeal body with a tailored tion, Viktor & Rolf staged aesthetic deviation. They jacket with five sleeves, while also portraying maca- attempted every possible ‘upside-down’ by reversing bre implications (Fig. 12). the top into the bottom; the hemline becomes the neck- Deconstruction is now frequently being applied in ready-to-wear lines, continuing to be one of the most significant elements in contemporary fashion design. Deconstruction in dress rejects sartorial conventions, questions the aesthetic standard of garment proportion corresponding to body proportion, and often visualizes tailoring processes in garment construction. Deconstructivist designers refuse to take human ana-

Fig. 9. Martin Margiela, Fig. 10. Viktor & Rolf, Fig. 11. Bernhard Will- Fig. 12. Klavers Van S/S 2006. S/S 2006. helm, F/W 2005 Molux. Engelen, 2000. From Spilker and Takeda. From Mower. (2005). From Willhelm. (2005). From Brand et al. (2007). p. 181. http://www.vogue.com http://www.gneborg.org (2010). p. 16.

– 106 – Typology of Dress in Contemporary Fashion tomy for granted but reassemble body parts in their light sculptural forms. Balenciaga's dresses and outer own imagination, or separate some sections from the wear often employed shapes such as a wedding cake, body and combine them with other body parts. Decon- lamp shade, or balloon, which made his designs look struction in dress is conducted through fragmenta- distanced from conventional garment shapes. In cons- tion-division, displacement, multiplication, or addi- tructing his wedding gown in 1967, a primary exam- tion- and reassembly. These deconstructed designs dis- ple, only three seams − two on the shoulders and one regard practicality and functionality as they deny and on the center back − were used. This cone-shaped dress deconstruct conventional forms of Western dress. conceals all the body parts except for the face. Deconstruction in dress challenges traditional sig- Contrary to the symmetrical deformation, silhouet- nifiers in dress and identifies finished garments as a tes of abstraction are usually embodied through inno- starting point of the process rather than end goal of vative tailoring techniques rather than structural foun- design. The aim of deconstruction in dress is not to dations such as corsets or petticoats. In abstraction of deconstruct garments literally but to reconsider for- the body in dress, the waist is often not accentuated. mal logics by breaking from stereotypes in conventio- Usually an abstract silhouette does not refer to body nal garment construction, based upon the philosophi- curves, which usually result in a geometrical shape cal scheme of deconstruction. Since the corporeal body by approaching the body with silhouettes of cocoon- is embodied into sartorial convention that corresponds ing, bordering, or floating around the body. to the culturally idealized body, the deconstruction is As such, transforming the body in dress through regarded to signify the transformation of the body in abstraction prioritizes not an individual body but dress. space around the body. Designs that have abstract structures and forms appear independent from the 2) Abstraction body, which exhibits similarity with architecture or Abstraction, a subcategory of the transformation of sculpture rather than with conventional garments. the body in dress, attempts to transcend the body form These abstract garments do not necessarily reflect an even beyond deforming. Abstraction of the body in actual body; presented in geometric forms such as dress transforms the body into radically different shape spirals, rectangular, or circular shapes. from the natural body by exploring transformations of Abstraction of the body in dress transforms the body garment structures. into a geometric form by inserting pads or expanding In abstract art, which does not assume similar fig- volumes, which results in structures irrelevant to the ures to humans or landscape, it is hard to recognize body. Martin Margiela rejected three-dimensional per- the objects. Likewise, it is hard to perceive or picture ception of the body by encasing the body in two-dim- the body in abstract forms of dress that do not focus ensional rectangular dress , and on the other on bodily features but on sculptural or architectural hand, Giles Deacon's coat implies contour beauty of a garment itself (Steele, 2007). Abstraction of medieval monk's robe or medieval architectures in dress creates a fictional body and emphasizes sculp- such as Cloisters. In his coat, the body is completely tural or architectural aspects of dress. concealed in architectural proportion and distinct fea- Pioneering examples in creating unconventional tures of body parts as well as conventional garments forms of the body through abstraction are found in are all ignored; if seen not worn on the body, the coat Cristobal Balenciaga's architectural designs. Most of would inevitably be perceived as a geometric sculp- his designs conceal body contours, structured with ture rather than a garment. empty space between a garment and the body, and As examined so far, abstraction of the body in dress often were made of stiff fabric such as gazar or org- entirely departs from distinct features of the body and anza. Balenciaga, ‘architect of cloth’ (Polan & Tred- garment structures, thus indicating a tendency toward re, 2009), frequently eliminated all the unrelated det- de-corporeal and dysfunctional. If one of the func- ails using only the lines that cocoon the body and high- tionalities of dress is, in a sense, not to confine bodily

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vide a shelter to the body (Quinn, 2003). In this regard, transformable designs by C. P. Com- pany reflect human needs for space. A primary example is the S/S 2001 collection, . The collection included a garment that can be transformed into an inflatable air bed, a cushion, and an armchair. Also included was a hooded cape transformable into a trench coat, a boiler suit, and a kite, which was manipulated with zippers and equipped with an air com- pressor. The most innovative item of the collection

Fig. 13. Martin Fig. 14. Giles Deacon, was , an overcoat that, if inflated, is trans- Margiela, S/S 2011. F/W 2009. formable into an aerodynamic air mattress and a one- From Phelps. (2010). From Mower. (2009). man tent (Fig. 15). A similar design in the collection, http://www.vogue.com http://www.vogue.com a ‘foldaway hammock’ jacket (Quinn, 2003), can be expanded into a comfortable hammock that can be movements, abstraction of the body in dress intends slept on, serving the dual function of garment and dysfunctionality or ignores functionality by separating hammock. the body parts from the corresponding dress parts. If a garment could be transformed into a piece of furniture or a tent, it has the potential to become a lar- 3) Transformables ger structure to inhabit. Artist Lucy Orta, a pioneer in Transformables, a subtype of the transformation of this field, devised wearable dwellings. Orta's designs the body in dress, expand functions, contrary to the seek to break down the boundary between clothing dysfunctional tendencies in deconstruction or abstrac- and architecture by overcoming restrictions of each tion stated above. This category of the transformation field for ultimate transformation. Her of the body breaks from the notion that dress is based multifunctional series of clothing, is transformable at and worn only on the body, by expanding function be- an individual's instant needs, and was designed to pre- yond conventional garments; the vestimentary trans- pare for urban emergencies and natural disaster (Bol- formables postulate the multiplicity of the body in dress and even other forms of product than the clothes. Transformables assume garment forms on the body, however, when taken off the body they can be transformed into different forms for multi-functions. Multi-functional garment designs have been expanding with increased human mobility in contemporary society. Modern nomadism and its unprecedented mobility have influenced our needs in a dress. From this point of view, C. P. Company's designer Moreno Fer- rari's transformable designs are considered to fit the needs of modern nomads (Quinn, 2003). C. P. Com- pany has designed transformable garments that can be converted into a piece of furniture or a tent. These vestimentary transformables invest the body with multi-potentiality and embody fantasy for the expan- Fig. 15. C. P. Company, Caba, S/S 2001. ded-self; present the possibility that dress can pro- From Quinn. (2003). pp. 105−106.

– 108 – Typology of Dress in Contemporary Fashion ton, 2002). Orta's , a poncho type raincoat designers since the late twentieth century consider in polyamide fabric coated with aluminum, is a series that their designs are not complete until worn by a of clothing that can be transformed into a tent with its wearer. According to Spilker and Takeda (2007), tran- telescopic structure (Fig. 16). sience and transformation characterize contemporary Besides the functional transformation examined abo- fashion. Transformable garments are conceived to be ve, conceptual transformation continues in dress. by Hiroaki Ohya is a collection com- the wearer's interpretation, making fashion a vehicle posed of books transforming into a ruffled neckpiece, for creative collaboration (Spilker & Takeda, 2007). a pair of denim pants, an elegant evening dress, etc. Ohya's series of 4. Formlessness twenty-one cloth ‘books’ were mapped out in the spirit of origami. The volumes of the series transform into Making a garment is about how to associate two- more elaborate garments sequentially; the first volume dimensional fabric with the three-dimensional human transforms into a shift dress, the second one into a figure. Formless or indeterminate form in dress is freed top, the third one into a pair of pants, the fourth one from European couture methods of perceiving a three- into a skirt, and the final volume into an accordion- dimensional body as a patterned object of garment pleated neckpiece. This series is regarded as a reac- construction; couture involves shaping fabric into a tion to the incessant cycles and ephemeral nature of fa- three-dimensional form by using darts and curved shion. By transforming books into garments, Ohya lines to fit it to the body. Formlessness in dress pres- disapproves of the notion that fashion demands beau- ents alternative forms of dress that are independent of tification of the human figure (Fukai & English, 2005). the body and appears to be an unfinished or incom- As investigated so far, vestimentary transformables plete design that deviates from solid structural per- in transformation of the body in dress are designed to fection. As such, formlessness puts emphasis on the be utilized for other purposes than the garment itself, space between a garment and the body; the design and moreover, suggest that clothing can be expanded changes with a wearer's body and movements thus beyond the space of the body. In this vein, vestimen- creating a new relationship between dress and the tary transformables challenge sartorial convention body. This category, with its obscured curves of fem- and transcend boundaries in fashion design. Whereas ale form, introduces the physical aspect of a garment couturiers gave directions in every detail and acces- itself while denying the comparatively explicit sexu- sory to complete a style, following the principle that ality of Western dress. As will be further explained, a designer's intention is an ultimate objective, some

Fig. 16. Lucy Orta, Habitent, 1992-1993. Fig. 17. Hiroaki Ohya, S/S 2000. From Sans. (1992-1993). http://www.studioorta.com From Fukai and English. (2005). pp. 78, 80.

– 109 – Journal of the Korean Society of Clothing and Textiles Vol. 41 No. 1, 2017 formlessness of the body in dress starts from a flat Western fashion and finally came up with a basic rect- piece of fabric ignoring the three-dimensionality of angle with or without sleeves, a refined garment struc- the body; the indication/inclusion of the body is rarely ture of the simplest shapes (Fig. 18). His signature found. concept, ‘A Piece of Cloth’, was developed into a dif- Japanese designers maximize a piece of rectangle fusion line, A-POC, in 1997, which puts emphasis on fabric on the basis of Kimono patterns, departing from the planarity that frequently appears in Japanese des- the European couture way of sculpting the body. A ign. The logic in his design is to give a wearer free- kimono is constructed by piecing together rectangu- dom or unrestraint by planning a space, referred to as lar pieces of fabric, thus when not worn, a kimono is ma (ま), between a garment and the body. As space laid out flat. The designs of Issey Miyake, Yohji Yam- changes according to a wearer's body shape and pos- amoto, and Rei Kawakubo have all invoked the kim- ture, each individual garment forms a different inter- ono as an essential form, a prototype that can define action, thus an overall shape. Superfluous space bet- sartorial proportion, segmentation, and space (Dimant, ween a garment and the body is regarded as a space 2010). Miyake's APOC (A Piece of Cloth) designs are that ‘possesses incalculable energy’ (Fukai et al., 2010), about simply draping a piece of fabric over the body not just void, in formlessness in dress. Worn on the and earlier works of Kawakubo or Yamamoto comp- body, these designs display unexpected shapes thro- rised of complex two-dimensional sections. ugh interactions with a wearer's body while continu- Since Western traditional dress is articulated thro- ously crossing over between a two-dimensional and ugh tailoring, its three-dimensional feature is main- three-dimensional phase with bodily movements. In tained to a certain degree even when taken off the this vein, Yamamoto often mentioned that his designs body. Conversely, the formless dress has indefinite are made half by him and half by a wearer (Fukai et three-dimensional structure or silhouette, insomuch al., 2010). as distinctions among body parts appear to be ambig- The concept of planarity also often appears in Kaw- uous and traditional relationships among the corres- akubo's collections. Her formless dress , ponding garment parts are eradicated. In addition, in articulated by wrapping a piece of fabric around the Western traditional dress symmetry in dress has rarely body, creates space between a fabric and the body. been challenged, these Japanese avant-garde design- The individual body creates its own unique form, ers – Rei Kawakubo, Yohji Yamamoto, and Issey which presents a radical difference from the Western Miyake – propose asymmetry as a core design con- concept of dress. cept. Formlessness of non-structural and asymmetri- In formlessness of the body in dress, being oversi- cal designs appears indeterminate and ambiguous in presenting body contour, which shares common gro- und with aesthetics of traditional Eastern Asian dress. Formlessness based on the non-Western perception of the body is often observed in Japanese avant-garde fashion designs. They presented alternative forms by putting together geometric pieces irrelevant to the body silhouette. Miyake, notably, started from a basic concept that clothing is literally wrapping around the body with a piece of fabric. Miyake often denies the system of manipulating contour and plane but pursues simplicity by articulating a whole garment with a single structure. Since the 1970s, he had been developing a con- Fig. 18. Issey Miyake, Futon jacket, F/W 1995. cept of rethinking visual articulation in traditional From Spilker and Takeda. (2007). p. 89.

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Fig. 20. Zhang Da, Boundless, 2008. Fig. 19. Rei Kawakubo, F/W 2003. From Brunello. (2012). http://www.luukmagazine.com From Koda and Lavin. (2008). p. 89.

wearer. This concept, leaving the final form of dress zed or ‘one-size-fits-all’ gives freedom to a wearer's to be completed with a wearer's idea, meets contem- movement. This anti-structural look comprises of lay- porary lifestyle with the extended sphere of activity. ers that form volume and form. A fluid dress of Yam- In formlessness in dress, the interaction between a amoto, for example, off the body, takes on formless- garment and the body is one of the significant ele- ness; on the body, it creates an interesting tension bet- ments of creation, which is related to awareness of ween a garment and the body. Similarly, Miyake opti- imperfection. Since the form refers to the conventio- mized planarity of the dress by creating a coat in mul- nal form of garment which corresponds to the body, berry fiber paper cut in rectangle-shaped patterns. formlessness in dress is concerned with incomplete- Formlessness in fashion design is further explored ness as opposed to a traditional role of fashion as a by Zhang Da. For his label Boundless (没边), Zhang purveyor of an eternal ideal. In this alternative per- Da draws inspiration from the Chinese way of cut- spective in perceiving the body, the boundaries bet- ting garments and uses a ‘flat cut’. Unlike the garm- ween the body, dress, and space appear obscurely, and ents made from European sartorial tradition, whose a wearer's gender is indicated ambiguously. In creat- shapes are still maintained even when taken off from ing formlessness in dress, the body is perceived as an the body, Zhang Da's designs become flat off the body indeterminate form, thus the garments are structured (Fig. 20). Rather than being fixed, his designs are deri- in simplified shapes irrelevant to a body form; the ved from the environment that a wearer creates, leav- practicality, as well as the functionality of dress, is ing more to the imagination (Teunissen et al., 2014). ignored accordingly. As such, formlessness in dress connotes a potential Below is the typology of dress drawing on the per- to take constantly indeterminate shapes; only when ception of the body so far examined (Table 1). worn on the body the garments take their final form, and movements of a wearer cause them to display IV. Conclusions unexpected shapes. The once sharply divided line between designers and wearers has been blurred at an As we classified forms of dress based on the per- accelerated pace entering the twenty-first century. A ception of the body, it has been examined that dress good number of designs have been presented that reflects, consults, reduces, extends, or expands the take form at a wearer's will. This tendency to include body. The typology of dress drawing on bodily per- a wearer in a design, or to incorporate interplay bet- ception has been categorized into four different types; ween a garment and the body, moves away from des- body-consciousness, deformation, transformation, and igner-oriented design and towards interactions with a formlessness. We have analyzed the cases that best

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Table 1. Typology of dress: Formative aspects and implications Category Formative aspects Implications

▪ Representation of physicality through tailoring, bias-cutting, and ela- Body- ▪ Body as corporeal ideal stic fabrics consciousness ▪ Body in internalized corset ▪ Ultimate proximity between dress and the body

▪ Satiric presentation on restriction of the body ▪ Symmetrical deformation: ▪ Digression from conventional asso- enlargement or reduction based on ciation between signifier and sig- vertical/horizontal axes of the body nified ▪ Underwear-as-outerwear

Deformation

▪ Satiric presentation on restriction ▪ Asymmetrical deformation: of the body enlargement or reduction irrelevant ▪ Deliberate departure from the cor- to bodily axes poreal ideal

▪ Deconstruction: ▪ Deconstructs Western sartorial con- fragmentation (division, displace- ventions ment, multiplication, and addition) ▪ Questions aesthetic standard of gar- and reassembly ment construction

Transformation

▪ Abstraction: ▪ Focus on sculptural or architectu- structures irrelevantly to the body; ral shapes prioritizes space around the body/ex- ▪ Dysfunctional pands beyond the space of the body

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Table 1. Continued Category Formative aspects Implications

▪ Transformables: ▪ Multi-functional expands functions beyond conven- ▪ Interactive; open to a wearer's in- Transformation tional dress; expands beyond space terpretation of the body; transcends boundaries ▪ Increased human mobility

▪ Indeterminate shape that is irrelev- ▪ Imperfection and incompleteness ant to the body Formlessness ▪ Interaction with a wearer ▪ Changing space between dress and ▪ Genderless the body

exemplifies each category in the study, and we would thetic standards of garment construction by way of assume that, in practice, there is a wide range of mixed fragmentation and reassembly. Abstraction prioritizes forms as well as there are fluid transitions among the sculptural or architectural shapes irrelevant to the body types. while expanding beyond the space of the body. Multi- First, body-consciousness in dress is articulated thr- functional and interactive transformables expand func- ough tailoring and bias cutting as well as elasticity of tions beyond the conventional garment. fabrics. Via representation of physicality, body-con- Finally, formlessness in dress focuses on indeter- scious dress displays the body with an internalized minate shapes irrelevant to the body, as well as space corset. This type of dress emphasizes eroticism and between the dress and the body. Imperfection and in- prioritizes structures and functions of the body. completeness are implied accordingly and a final dec- Second, deformation causes tension by digressing ision as to how the garment should be worn on the from the conventional sartorial associations between body depends on a wearer. dress and the body. Symmetrical deformations enlarge Body-consciousness in dress draws near represen- or reduce physicality based on vertical or horizontal tation of the body and its conventional implications by axes of the body. This satires the constraint on the portraying a culturally idealized body. On the other body by deviating from the conventional association hand, in deformation, transformation, and formless- between signifier and signified. Asymmetrical defor- ness, the representation of the body is distanced from mation enlarges or reduces physicality irrelevant to corporeal ideals and deliberately deviates from a tra- bodily axes, satirically presenting restriction of the ditional garment structure and its associations. In body by deliberately departing from the corporeal other words, while body-conscious dress highlights ideal. As such, deformation in dress challenges the intrinsic harmony, balance, and order in the body and traditional sartorial signification of femininity, fertil- a garment itself, dress that deforms, transforms, or ity, inaccessibility, or wealth and status. eschews conventional perception of the body causes Third, transformation of the body in dress can be tension and constructs a divergent visual field by de- subcategorized into three types. Deconstruction des- parting from the traditional relationship between the troys Western sartorial conventions and challenges aes- body and a garment. The non-homogeneity (Arnheim,

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